Pilots Reference Guide (Michael Grossrubatscher)

Pilots Referenee Guide
by
Michael Grossrubatscher
Pilot's Reference Guide ©
4 th revised print
Version 2.3
Released 1st January 2007
By:
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Michael Grossrubatscher
ISBN 3-00-016686-6
-Pilot's J?.eference Guide ©-
How to use
This page is part of the book. This book must not be copied totally or in part and is for
training purpose only I Whenever referring to this book or quoting from this book, the
first page must be included. Any official publication issued by any aviation authority or
organization supersedes this book. Any publication or manual of airplane, power plant or
equipment manufacturer supersedes this book.
Any system description shows an imaginary system principle but does not reflect real
systems. Even when a system is depicted within a graphic that looks like a real specific
type of airplane the descriptions in this book will never reflect the real system or the
location of any parts or systems.
Figures, properties, graphs and tables are of qualitative nature only.
This book does never replace or supplement your technical, regulatory or airlines
manuals.
Hereby I exclude any guarantee for the trueness and completeness of the contents of this
book 1
Incidental similarities in text and picture with other books, publications and scripts are
not desired.
If you have any doubts concerning the trueness of text or pictures or any contents of this
book do not hesitate to contact me:
Michael@PilotsReference.com
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D-81539 Miinchen
Germany
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2
Pilot's Reference Guide© Table of Contents
How to use .................................................................................................... 2
Order Information ......................................................................................... 2
Aerodynamic
Airspeed ........................................................................................................ 8
Boundary Layer .......................................................................................... 10
Airfoil Profile Geometry ............................................................................ 12
Wing Designs ............................................................................................. 14
Drag ............................................................................................................ 16
Lift .............................................................................................................. 18
Control Surfaces and Balancing ................................................................. 20
Wing Flaps ................................................................................................. 22
Polar Diagrams ........................................................................................... 24
Supercritical Profiles .................................................................................. 26
Ground Effect ............................................................................................. 28
Structural Icing ........................................................................................... 30
Stability ...................................................................................................... 32
Pitch Control and Stability ......................................................................... 34
Roll Control and Stability ........................................................................... 36
Yaw Control and Stability .......................................................................... 38
Yaw and Roll Coupling ............................................................................. .40
Normal Flight Conditions ........................................................................... 42 ,
Non-Normal Flight Conditions .................................................................. 44
Propeller ..................................................................................................... 46
Propeller Influence on Flight. ..................................................................... 48
Transition to Supersonic Speeds ................................................................ 50
Shock Waves .............................................................................................. 52
Supersonic Layouts .................................................................................... 54
Engines
Piston Engine Principles ............................................................................. 56
Piston Engine Designs ................................................................................ 5 8
Piston Engine Power Increase .................................................................... 60
3
Piston Engine Fuel Systems ....................................................................... 62

Piston Ignition, Lubrication and Cooling ................................................... 64
Piston Engine Power Definitions and Mixture ........................................... 66
Turbine Engine Principle ............................................................................ 68
Jet Engine Designs ..................................................................................... 70
Turbo Propeller Engine Designs ................................................................ 72
Air-Intake Casing ....................................................................................... 74
Compressor ................................................................................................. 76
Combustion Chamber ................................................................................. 78
Turbine ....................................................................................................... 80
Thrust Nozzle and Afterburner. .................................................................. 82
Thrust Reverser Systems ............................................................................ 84
Auxiliary Jet Systems ................................................................................. 86
General Jet Considerations ......................................................................... 88
Efficiency of Jet Propulsion ....................................................................... 90
Aviation Fuel .............................................................................................. 92
Aviation Oil ................................................................................................ 94
Performance
General Performance .................................................................................. 96
Performance Factors ................................................................................... 98
Take-Off Performance .............................................................................. 100
Take-off Field Considerations .................................................................. 102
Take-Off Field Condition Considerations ................................................ 104
Take-Off with Reduced Power ................................................................. 106
Climb Performance ................................................................................... I 08
Cruise Performance .................................................................................. 110
Engine-Out Performance .......................................................................... 112
Approach and Landing Performance ........................................................ 114
Crosswind Landings and Speeds .............................................................. 116
Aircraft Weight ......................................................................................... 118
Aircraft Balance ........................................................................................ 120
Flight Planning ......................................................................................... 122
Long Range Flight Planning ..................................................................... 124
4
Design
Material Properties ................................................................................... 126
Design Factors .......................................................................................... 128
Materials ................................................................................................... 13 0
Design Limits ........................................................................................... 132
Airframe Structures .................................................................................. 134
Transport Aircraft Layout. ........................................................................ 136
Hydraulic System Basics .......................................................................... 138
Hydraulic Devices .................................................................................... 140
Hydraulic Applications ............................................................................. 142
Gear System ............................................................................................. 144
Air Pressurization & Conditioning ........................................................... 146
Fuel System .............................................................................................. 148
Ice Protection System ............................................................................... 150
Fire Detection and Extinguishing ............................................................. 152
Weather Radar .......................................................................................... 154
Autopilot Modes ....................................................................................... 156
Autopilot Setups ....................................................................................... 158
~avigation
Navigation Basics ..................................................................................... 160
Course Schemes ........................................................................................ 162
Chart Projections ...................................................................................... 164
Grid Navigation ........................................................................................ 166 '
Bearings and Interceptions ....................................................................... 168
Ecliptic ...................................................................................................... 170
The Day .................................................................................................... 172
Depression and Dip .................................................................................. 174
Time Definitions ....................................................................................... 176
Magnetic Compass ................................................................................... 178
Electromagnetic Waves ............................................................................ 180
Approach Equipment ................................................................................ 182
Radio Navigation ...................................................................................... 184
Area Navigation ........................................................................................ 186
5
Pilot's Reference Guide © Table of Contents
Navigation Indications .............................................................................. 188

Barometric Instruments ............................................................................ 190
Gyros ........................................................................................................ 192
Inertial Reference Systems ....................................................................... 194
Basic Instrument Procedures .................................................................... 196
Instrument Approach Basics ..................................................................... 198
Weather
Atmospheric Properties ............................................................................ 200
Atmospheric Analysis .............................................................................. 202
Coriolis Force ........................................................................................... 204
Global Circulation .................................................................................... 206
Extra Tropical Cyclones ........................................................................... 208
Weather in the Cyclone ............................................................................ 210
Tropical Cyclone ...................................................................................... 212
Thunderstorm ........................................................................................... 214
Atmospheric Electricity ............................................................................ 216
Fog ............................................................................................................ 218
Local Winds ............................................................................................. 220
Altitudes ................................................................................................... 222
Human Performance
Hypoxia .................................................................................................... 224
Altitude Sickness, Rapid Decompression................................................. 226
Optical Illusions ........................................................................................ 228
Vertigo ...................................................................................................... 230
Crew Coordination ................................................................................... 232
Appendix
List of References ..................................................................................... 234
Keyword Index ......................................................................................... 23 5
6
Pilot's Reference Guide© - 7
Airspeed
Airspeed is the speed of an object relative to the ambient air stream. The indicated
airspeed (IAS) is the speed measured by a probe protruding in the undisturbed air stream.
The ram air pressure measured at the probe is proportional to the IAS as indicated on the
airspeed indicator. The calibrated airspeed (CAS) also takes the position or instrument
error into account. Correction values can be found in the aircraft's manual. The
instrument error depends on the configuration (flaps and gear) and on the airspeed.
The true airspeed (TAS) is the speed relative to the undisturbed air at standard sea level
density (CAS = TAS @ msl & QNH standard). With decreasing density the T AS
increases. Input values are altitude and temperature. As a rule of thumb TAS increases by
approximately 2% per 1000ft of altitude.
At speeds greater than half the speed of sound the air is compressed upon impact with the
airframe. The equivalent airspeed (EAS) is the CAS corrected for the compressibility
error or TAS multiplied by the square root of the relative density for a given altitude.
Glass cockpit outfits indicate the CAS on the airspeed indicator by correcting the position
error with an internal database in respect to the configuration and TAS by out-correcting
the compressibility and density errors. Glass cockpits also show the ground speed in
reference to inertial- and area navigation or GPS.
The speed of sound (a) is solely depending on the square root of the absolute temperature
(Kelvin: 0°C = 273°K) multiplied by 39 [kt]. The Mach number (M) equals the velocity
divided by the speed of sound. The definitions of the speed ranges are depicted in the
second illustration.
The pitot probe invented by the aerodynamicist Prantl is most common and measures the
ram air pressure by pneumatically subtracting the static air pressure from the total air
pressure according to the Bernoulli principle (total pressure is equal to static air pressure
plus dynamic or ram air pressure plus gravity pressure).
The continuity equation describes the mass flow, which equals the density (D) multiplied
by the velocity (V) and the area (A). The mass flow (m) and the density (incompressible
as long as M < 0.5) are equal at every cross-section along the probe.
The velocity is the only factor that changes and with increasing airspeed the static
pressure decreases.
The Venturi probe accelerates the airflow by narrowing the inner cross-section and
measures the difference between the inner and outer static pressures. With increasing
airflow the static air pressure at the inner cross-section decreases. The Venturi probe is
the most exact device to measure low airspeeds (<IO0kt) and gets more unreliable at
higher speeds especially when the air becomes compressible above M 0,5. It is also very
susceptible for ice accreditations and difficult to heat.
• Airspeeds
IAS •in•str•.•e•rr•
or•► CAS (RAS) •co•m•p•r.•e•
rrllll
or► EAS dens. error TAS
(see POH) (v 2: M 0.5) (:::: 2%/ 1000ft)
• Speed range
M= ~ a = 39· ff [kt]
mcomprcss1 blc compressible
I M0,5
I I I •
MO Men, Ml ,4 M5
subsonic j transsonic j supersonic j hypersonic
• Prantl probe P , talk
P ,01111
P,0
..,
simplified:
= P, .., +} Dv' + Dgh
P,otal = p static + pram
m/idwhen:
-I P,.m
(proportional to IAS)
- medium incompressible
- medium free offriction
- alottg a streamline
• Venturi probe
111 I = D• V· A
+----:-
I -C
~
j.
Q. .!:
D, = D2
m,=m 2
=
c. V, • A, = V2 • A 2
- - .e, e
Pilot' s Reference Guide © - 9

Boundary Layer
The boundary layer is a thin layer of fluid adjacent to the surface, in which the viscous
forces are dominant.
No tangential forces appear in the flow of ideal (friction-free) fluids. This theoretical
assumption can be applied for the calculation of lift because the lift vector always is
perpendicular to the air current.
A real fluid in which tangential forces exist between the fluid and the surface as well as
in the fluid must be assumed to calculate aerodynamic drag. These tangential or frictional
forces of real fluids are connected to the property known as dynamic viscosity. The
boundary is the layer where the air stream is decelerated from the velocity of the ambient
air stream to zero. It gets thicker with increasing length of the circum-flowed body in the
direction of the air stream.
The Reynolds number (RE) describes the ratio of the inertial and the frictional forces. RE
equals the velocity (v) multiplied with the length (1) and the thickness (T) of the boundary
layer divided by the dynamic viscosity.
Up to RE < 2000 the airflow in the boundary layer is laminar and no mixing between
adjacent layers exists (except on a molecular scale). At the critical Reynolds number
(RecriticaJ) the boundary layer transits to a turbulent flow where small irregular fluctuations
perpendicular to the airflow are superposed on the mean flow. At RE> 3000 the airflow
is fully turbulent with a small laminar sub layer.
With increasing length of the boundary layer the particles loose energy due to friction.
The velocity decreases but the static pressure does not increase (according to Bernoulli)
but remains constant. The static pressure increases at the end of the airfoil. This pressure
acts in all directions and can lead to a stagnation of the particles or to a reverse airflow.
Succeeding air is deflected away of the circum-flowed body at this so called separation
point (SP). With an increasing angle of attack (AOA) the separation point wanders
forward against the air stream. The tangential and return flows in the separated area of the
air stream act on the airfoil, which is known as buffeting. With a higher AOA the
separation point is in a more forward position, the separated area is larger and the
buffeting is stronger. Whenever the separation point falls together with the transition
point (Recriticai) the airflow abruptly separates on the whole airfoil and the lift breaks
down (stall).
Generally laminar flow has less drag but separates earlier and more abruptly. A model
airplane is circum flowed only laminar because of the small chord length and a resulting
critical Reynolds number far aft the trailing edge. The stall characteristics of a model are
sharper than at larger scale aircrafts. To compare characteristics of smaller scale models
in wind tunnels factors like the fluid viscosity or the velocity must be adjusted to match a
large-scale RE number.
10
• Boundary layer
.
.
• Reynolds number
RE= inertia
friction
~------➔
RE > 3000 I
• Separation

Airfoil Profile Geometry
An airfoil is a body so shaped as to produce aerodynamic reaction normal to the direction

of its motion through a fluid with minimum drag and maximum lift.
The skeleton line is the connection between the centers of all circles touching the upper
as well as the lower surface of the airfoil.
The nose radius is the circle with the largest radius fitting into the leading edge section.
The chord line is the longest possible line between the leading and the trailing edge of the
airfoil.
Camber is the relation of the maximum distance of the chord line and the skeleton line to
the chord line.
Thickness is the ratio of the maximum possible distance between the lower and the upper
surface, perpendicular to the chord line and the chord length.
The chord ratio describes the relation of the longitudinal position of the maximum
thickness to the chord length.
The drop formed profile offers the minimum drag to maximum lift relation in the sub-
and transonic speed regimes and is the main subject here. A flat plate generates
approximately the same amount of lift as a drop formed airfoil at the same angle of attack
(AOA). Nevertheless a thicker profile is required in reality to contain the infrastructure
and the supporting structure of the wing.
Any increase in lift is always accompanied by an increase in drag.
Profile factors affecting lift are:
• Increasing the thickness will increase the lift.
• Increasing the area will increase the lift.
• Increasing the altitude will decrease the lift.
• Increasing the camber will increase the lift.
• Increasing the chord ratio decreases drag (air stream remains longer laminar).
• A symmetric airfoil, or even a flat plate at angle of attack, will generate lift.
• Lift is a very strong function of the airfoil camber.
The angle between the chord line and the ambient airflow is the angle of attack (AOA).
The rigging angle of incidence is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft
and the chord line. The rigging angle is invariably manifested in the construction of the
airframe.
12
• Skeleton line
• Chord line
chord
• Geometry
.1
lf
chord lenght (cl)
camber= _f_
cl
thickness = ;;r chord ratio = ;i-
• Angles
Pilot's Reference Guide © - 13

Wing Designs
The shape of the wing is individually adjusted to the need of the specific type of
operation.
Span is the distance between both wingtips. The geometrical aspect ratio equals the span
divided by the chord length or the square of the span divided by the wing area.
Wing loading equals the mass of the aircraft divided by the area of the lifting surface.
Some prominent examples are:
• Airbus 320/B737: 6000 N/m2 (Pa)
• Cessna 172: I 100 Pa
• Model A/C: 50 Pa
Taper is the ratio of the outboard to the inboard chord length. By tapering a wing less lift
and less drag is produced outboard. This increases directional stability and roll speeds
and decreases the supporting structure inside the wing to qualify for the maximum load
tests.
The 25% line connects all points, which are one quarter of the current chord length
downwind of the leading edge. The angle of the 25% line to a line perpendicular to the
aircrafts longitudinal axis is the angle of sweep. Any angle pointing downstream is
defined positive and vice versa. The critical Mach number (Mc,iiicaI) is the Mach number
where the first local speed of sound is reached on the airframe and is always smaller than
one. By sweeping the wing back or forth this critical Mach number, which is a fixed
value for each type of aircraft, can be raised by the reverse cosine of the sweep angle
(A320/B737: swept 25°, B747: swept 37°). Unfortunately the sweep also produces an air
stream vector pointing outboard. The outboard vector builds up a lateral pressure gradient
on the wing leading to an early separation of the air stream (stall) on the outboard side of
the wing at high angles of attack (AOA). Stall characteristics with the outboard area of
the wing including the roll control surfaces (ailerons) stalling first are highly undesirable
and dangerous. Constructive countermeasures are:
• Boundary fences on the upper surface of the wing
• A notched nose or a shifted or offset outboard profile
• Vortex generators
• Geometric or aerodynamic twist of the outboard wing
The twist is a very common method even at non-swept aircrafts to improve the slow
flight and stall characteristics. Geometrically or aerodynamically (profile) twisted, the
outboard wing produces less lift and stalls later, which preserves the roll steer ability and
the good nature of the aircraft.
14
span
I
semispan
• General geometry 1
-=-I• ------------'
01) 25% liite_ _ _ _ _ _ L
] I
1: Area
-5--------------,
0
. . span 2
geometnca 1 aspect ratio = area
wing loading = weight

area
• Sweep and taper

l +---
J ..
taper ratio = ~
cl inboard
j-~
' J /
I
I/
L
I
I- shift boundary fence
& vortex generators
outboard ai rsueatn
M critical
M,ritical. swcrp = cos (angle of sweep)
• Twist
aerodynamic twist

Drag
Drag is the component of the total aerodynamic force in the direction of the undisturbed
relative airflow. This force consists of five factors.
Frictional drag is generated in the boundary layer by the tangential forces of a real fluid.
The friction of a laminar boundary is smaller than the friction of a turbulent boundary.
The longer the laminar boundary the less the frictional drag is.
Design factors to minimize frictional drag are surface roughness, profile form, chord
length, and boundary layer control (suck off air from the upper surface of the profile)
Pressure drag is the difference between the static pressure measured at the leading and the
trailing edge of the profile divided by the face area of the profile (approx.). Pressure drag
can be minimized by design attempts to delay the separation of the airflow, minimize
frontal (face) areas and prevent the separation of the airflow at sharp corners by air
baffles (towned ring and NACA).
Profile drag is the sum of frictional and pressure drag.
Induced drag is causally connected to the generation of lift and is created by the free
pressure equalization at the wing tips. The coefficient component of the induced drag is
proportional to the square of the actual coefficient of lift. Wingtips, higher geometric
aspect ratios and geometric or aerodynamic twisting of the wings minimize the induced
drag.
The term parasite drag characterizes the sum of interference and residual drag.
When two or more aerodynamic bodies are connected its drag is greater than the sum of
the individual drags. This difference is named Interference drag and is minimized by
smooth geometric transitions at the connections (e.g. wing -fuselage)
Residual drag is generated by pressure and frictional drag at non-lift generating parts of
the airframe. Residual drag can be diminished by aerodynamically clean designs of the
fuselage, elimination of protruding parts like antennas and a retractable gear.
The induced drag decreases with increasing airspeed. All other drags increase with
increasing air speed proportional to the square of the airspeed.
Total drag is the sum of profile, parasite and induced drag. The first two of which rise by
the square of the airspeed or proportional to the ram air pressure. They can be combined
in a single coefficient.
The coefficient of drag (c 0 ) is a constant summarizing all drags but induced drag.
Induced drag decreases with airspeed and must be calculated separately. The coefficient
(c0 . induced) used is a constant valid for the entire aircraft in a specific configuration only.
Total drag is minimal at the minimum drag airspeed.
16
• Drag
interference drag residual drag
• Drag versus Speed
Vmin, drag
dragparasite. profile = Co· A· 1 2

v • D
draginduced = Co. induced •C\. AOA

Lift
Lift can be explained roughly with the principle of continuity (see Venturi probe) but
some factors remain unsolved within this consideration, like the fact that the static
pressure within the boundary layer does not decrease but remains constant.
When a rotating cylinder is exposed to airflow the circum flowing air is accelerated on
one and decelerated on the other side of the cylinder. A force perpendicular to the
undisturbed airflow on the side where the direction of the airflow and the rotation of the
cylinder are equal is generated. This is called the Magnus effect.
The aerodynamicist Prantl described the generation of lift with a circulating airflow
superimposed on the parallel flow (Magnus effect). Like with the cylinder used for the
Magnus effect demonstration lift only can exist when a vertical change in Impulse
appears (Newton: action= reaction). Vortices only appear two by two. Every vortex has a
counter-rotating partner. The so called cast-off vortex is the partner of the vortex rotating
around the airfoil and appears only in the very first moment when the airflow builds up,
then ,,swims" downwind with the increasing airspeed.
The pressure distribution on the airfoil equals roughly the ratio of two thirds of total lift
generated by the low pressure on the upper side of the airfoil and one third by the high
pressure below the profile.
The lift vector is the vector sum of all forces acting perpendicular to the airflow of the
undisturbed air generated by the airfoil. The start point of the lift vector is the center of
pressure (CP). The center of pressure moves forward with increasing AOA. That makes a
wing itself instable. Flying wing aircraft need a S-shaped profile where the center of
pressure does not change.
Like most forms of drag, lift also increases with the square of the airspeed or proportional
to the ram air pressure. The coefficient of lift (cL) is a function of the angle of attack
(AOA). The increase of the CL is rather linear to the critical angle of attack AOAstall where
the amount of lift abruptly breaks down because the airflow separates above the airfoil.
This intense break down of lift is considered a stall and solely depends on the angle of
attack. The stall speed can be determined by setting the total weight for lift and resolving
the lift equation for the speed (v).
The aerodynamic center (AC) is the point on the chord line about which the rate of
change of pitching with angle of attack is zero. In other words the AC is the point where
all moments induced by different lift vectors (depending on the AOA) are equal.
18
• Magnus effect
cast-off vonex
• Pressure distribution
total drag
,t power thrust
Glide
Cruise lift
s-shapcd airfo il
(fi xcdc.p.)
• Lift
AOA,,, 11
LI Aerodynamic centre:
• Ll •Xl =L2·X2 = L3•X3
\
\ LI: low AOA
L2: medAOA
L3 : highAOA
AOA
Lift = c L• A· _l
2 v' • D

Control Surfaces and Balancing
Control surfaces are used to control the attitude of the aircraft. All of these devices alter
the camber of the airfoil at a specific portion of the wing.
The trim tab is a control surface integrated in the main control surface determining its
neutral position for each configuration, speed, AOA and power setting. Trimming can
also be accomplished by changing the rigging angle of incidence of the whole tail plane.
This stabilizer trim results in the same effect of a force-free elevator in its neutral
position. Some aircraft tilt the whole tail plane to control pitch. Such a tail plane is called
stabilator or flying tail (not depicted). Standard trim tabs are used to zero the neutral
position of the stabilator. A flying tail is essential for transonic and supersonic flights
because shock waves in the front parts of the horizontal stabilizer will shelter the elevator
control tab at the trailing edge. The Flettner tab determines the position of the whole
control surface. This keeps control forces low and even large aircraft can be steered
manually with minimum pilot effort but static balancing of the whole surface is difficult.
The balance tab or servo tab deflects in the opposite direction of the control surface. The
force generated by the tab amplifies the desired deflection and minimizes the control
force. The anti balance tab increases the total deflection of the control surface and the
control force. It is used for rudders in some multiengine aircraft to overcome the yaw in
the engine failure case. The required control forces usually can only be mustered by
hydraulic systems. 1n rare cases the anti balance tab is used for slow flying aircrafts
elevator and ailerons to convey the pilot control forces at extreme slow flights. Spoilers
extend out of the upper surface of the airfoil to increase drag and decrease lift. They are
used mainly to support steering around the roll axis, to produce drag and to dump lift
after touchdown to maximize braking performance. Rarely spoilers are used as primary
roll controls (MU-2).
Speed brakes extend out of the lower surface of the airfoil or out of the airframe to
produce drag but have little impact on lift compared to spoilers.
A statically unbalanced control surface has its center of gravity (CG) aft of its pivot. A
vertical gust lifting the wing will cause the rudder to deflect downwards due to its inertia.
This increases original gust and destabilizes the aircraft dramatically. Counterweights at
the leading edge of the control surface move the CG forward. A control surface is stable
when its CG is in front of its pivot. To further stabilize the rudder the center of
aerodynamic drag should be far aft.
The Friese tab generates drag with a nose protruding in the airflow only in one direction
of deflection. Friese type ailerons can counteract the adverse yaw effect in turns. Moving
the pivot far aft aerodynamically and statically balances the control surface and decreases
the required control forces.
The design of rudder horns simplifies the aerodynamic and static balance. The more the
horn is shielded or integrated the less the need is to reinforce the construction and reduce
fluttering.
20
• Control tabs
trim tab stabilizer trim
antibalance tab
balance tab Flettner tab
~
spoiler / speedbrake
\
• Static balance
t wtng moving up
statically unbalanced tab
~
____.
statically balanced tab
counterweight 1crnd,- niunK dr;n
• Aerodynamic balance
Friesetab6 aerodynamic balance

Wing Flaps
Fast flying aircraft should have thin profiles, swept wings and little wing area to enable
economic cruise performances. To minimize take-off and landing speeds three design
options are used:
1. Increasing the coefficient of lift (cL) by:
□ Increasing the wing camber
□ Increasing the thickness of the airfoil
2. Increasing the area
3. Increasing the cl. max by delaying the separation of the airflow by accelerating the air
in the boundary layer.
This is accomplished by mechanical changes of the shape of the leading and trailing
edges of the airfoil. Modem jet transport aircraft normally use double or even triple
slotted fowler flap configurations at the trailing edge. Some high performance military jet
aircraft even accelerate the boundary at the upper side of the trailing edge with bleed air.
Split and zap flaps as well as the Junkers double wings are not used any more for newer
designs.
The slot at the leading edge extends into the airflow. At normal angles of attack the air
circurn flows the gaps and minimum drag penalties appear at cruising speeds. At high
angles of attack a portion of the air flows through the gap accelerating the air on the
upper surface of the airfoil. This slot can be either fixed (DO-27, PA-28 R IV - on the tail
plane) or spring loaded to the extended position (Socata Rally, Bf-109). The ram air at
higher airspeeds presses the slot profile to its mechanical stop and closes the gap. At
lower airspeeds the spring charge opens the gap enabling higher angles of attack without
the drag penalties at higher airspeeds.
Leading edge slats work the same way than slots but also extend vertically downwards to
increase the camber of the wing. Modem jets measure the AOA and lower the slats to the
full extended (open gap) position when the aircraft approaches critical angles of attack to
delay the stall. This is initiated by an emergency logic but from the main principle works
the same way than the slot version with the spring charge already used in the 30ies.
The minimum effects of the Krueger flap are controversially discussed. They are also no
more used on newer designs.
22
• Stall speed decrease
coefficient of Lift ram air
pressure v = ,I 2 . weight '
Lift = • <;_ • A • iv 2
D s V D- CL, max Area
CL max, clean
V,, flaps = V, •
CL max, flaps
• Leading (LE) and trailing edge (TE) flaps
tra iling edge lift devices

K
a
:,
j
(flap chord koght - 30 % win!! chonl length: Fl.1p angle 45 ~1 u
1
reference profile 1,45 ---
plain flap 2,25 0,80

--
slotted flap - 2,60 1,15
double-
slotted flap
I
I
I
I
~
- ~
.......' 2,80 1,35
"'.,
split flap 2,40 0,95
zap flap 2,50 1,05
Fowler flap
Junkers
I
-
-=, 2,80
2,60
~
1,35
1,15
double wing ~
boundary-
2,80 1,35
layer blowing
(LE dcv1!~!?u~~! c:~~~ J~t!,h?r ~iii~l;~;c dcvkcs:

approximate c. increases gi,•cn arc based on the original increase of 1he TE device used in combination )
+
----,
Slot
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - < 0, 10 to 0. 30
Slat
Kruger-flap 0,05 to 0, 10

Polar Diagrams
The polar diagram indicates the ratio between the coefficient of lift (cL) and the
coefficient of drag (co) depending on the angle of attack (AOA). The AOA dependence is
unfortunately not depicted in the original diagram (2-dimensional). To get exact cd AOA
or co/AOA readings the function must be resolved. Nevertheless for qualitative
considerations and comparisons the cdc 0 version is best.
The angle between the tangential line from the origin to the polar function and the
vertical axis indicates the best angle of glide. The respective cL value is optimum because
the ratio of CL and c0 is maximum at this point. Modem transport airplanes can achieve
cdc0 max or LID max figures of 15 to 20. The respective AOA equals the best glide ratio
(of the airfoil) or the CL for maximum range cruise. The effective glide ratio highly
depends on the induced and parasite drag of the whole airframe. Effective glide ratios
range from 1/10 (1nm AGL= 10 nm of glide distance) for a single engine piston to 1/20
for a jet transport aircraft. High performance gliders can reach ratios of 1/50.
Best climb and max endurance cruise can be achieved at the cL 3 /c 0 2 max ratio.
To convert the desired cL numbers to speed the speed (v) equation should be used. The
suitable speed is the square root of 2 divided by the density (D) and the desired
coefficient oflift (cL. ,) multiplied with the wing loading.
The second illustration shows drag curves on a speed / sink rate scale. The glide angle at
cL. opt always stays the same for the same aircraft in the same configuration but a heavier
loaded aircraft with higher wing loading must be faster to lift its own weight with the
optimum AOA producing the cL. opt•
The diagrams at the bottom show qualitative polars in dependence to some important
factors:
□ The first three show the dependence on the most important airfoil factors: thickness,
camber and chord ratio
□ The Reynolds number graph depicts the curves for different airfoil sizes in the same
medium.
□ The Flaps graph illustrates the curves for different flap settings. The influence of
trailing edge flaps equals the camber graph. Additional leading edge flaps lengthen
the curves to higher CL. max numbers and higher AOAmax• (Slots must be opened)
□ Control surfaces change the camber of the airfoil in both directions but the drag
penalty is higher compared to a cambered airfoil to reach the same effect.
□ Spoilers decrease lift and increase drag
□ Speed brakes increase drag and have little effect on lift
24
• Lilienthal polar diagrams
spec
~stglidc
---...: angle
ITiillllJIIIILILJIJlllll...u!!\;L_ _ ----z...___
__:.,:,,,__j
A/C light-----------
\ ------
-----------
A/C heavy
.irpro:,;im:itc /1.0/1.s for a tan (glide angle}= glide ratio = fo max (= max range cruise)
A0,\ • -4 ~nmdartl cruise a1rfoil
c'
AOA,.crulin best dimb = c!~max (= max endurance cruise)
/\0,\• .7"' v- ~ • weight

- D · cL.)( Arca
;:
A
c,_ thickness c, , camber c, chord ratio
!'
~ -
('
\~
I
I
c. c.
·~ c..
l
-..___2
~ 2
\~
'---
/ 3 A A
rr·~
Reynolds number c, Flaps c, _ control surfaces
/
('
LEestt!n&!d / TE45°
/3
5
I
c.
TE0°
>c,.,
,( 4
c..
[i ~
\_ TE flaps
45°
O" ~
-----
t
I
•'
o
-
/
23
1
'--.....

Supercritical Profiles
On a standard airfoil like a NACA profile a normal shock wave will occur beyond the
crest of the profile, approximately halfway from the leading to the trailing edge of the
airfoil at the critical Mach number. These strong shock waves produce the most adverse
wave drag at that location. This extreme wave drag on a standard profile is not acceptable
of commercial cruise in the transonic speed regime.
The design enhancements were started in the sixties to make airliners fly either around
ten percent faster at the same fuel flow or waste less fuel at the original speed. The
designers attempted first to find the optimum sweep angle for the wing and to make
thinner wings. As thin wings are not acceptable for transport planes because of the
structural weight and few fuel storing capacity they focused on new airfoils. The new
design should offer a thick profile to incorporate the infrastructure of the wing, store fuel
and produce acceptable wave drag at transonic speeds.
Shocks near the leading edge of the airfoil produce much less wave drag than those
beyond the crest of the standard profile. These airfoils were used on many early jet
transports. They are called peaky profiles.
The supercritical wing (SCW) represents the second stage of this development. The
relatively flat upper side of the airfoil generates only a weak shock at the rear upper end,
beyond approximately two thirds of the profile depth.
The following fundamental design ideas are realized in the SCW setup to maximize lift
and profile thickness at a given Mach nwnber:
o Carry as much load, meaning to produce as much lift at the rear end of the
airfoil were the flow is subsonic. The trailing edge of the wing is curved
downwards to increase the aft loading. Therefore the supercritical airfoil is also
referred to as "aft loaded".
o Produce as much lift as possible in the forward, upper region of the airfoil where
the flow is supersonic.
o Reducing the thickness of the lower surface near the nose section increases lift
and positive pitching moment.
o Producing and utilizing local supersonic flow in the front. Designing the area for
the weak shock wave breaking the flow to subsonic. Making maximum use of
the subsonic flow area.
As a rule of thumb local speeds around 1,2 to 1,3 Mach are acceptable over the SCW
airfoil.
In the low speed regimes for take off and landing the SCW relies on leading and trailing
edge slats and flaps. These change the shape of the airfoil to resemble a standard high
cambered NACA profile. SCWs need higher pitch angles when flown clean at lower
speeds.
26
• Supercritical wing
• Pressure distribution on the supercritical airfoil at

transonic speeds
standard NACA airfoil supercritical airfoil
strong normal shockwave
weak normal shockwave

separated flow
a supersonic ~ -~-.:._@
b--
~;!J_!I.!'•
◄
upper surface
sonic ~pced ram air pressure
separated flow area lower surface

length
0 1-----'"------------~'r--..,_---➔
length ➔
/
lower surface

Ground Effect
The phenomenon of the ground effect is associated with a reduction in induced drag. The
ground alters the three dimensional flow patterns around the airplane.
The pressure difference between the upper and lower surface generated in the lift
production process must be equalized. Because of the speed of the airplane this difference
is equalized beyond the wing in the outflow. The outflow at the wingtips rotates
outbound of the lower and inbound the upper surface of the wing. This vector combined
with the airspeed of the plane generates the tip vortices. These vortices are drawn
downwards because their outbound side rubs against the surrounding air masses and their
inbound side is drawn downwards by the wings downwash.
The downwash is used to explain the induced drag and ground effect on the longitudinal
axis. The easiest way to explain the wings downwash is the conservation of momentum.
Whenever lift is generated there is a momentum pointed upwards. Hence there should be
the same momentum pointed downwards. This momentum plus the forward vector of the
plane generates the downwash angle. Another way to explain induced drag is to regard
the lift vector to be perpendicular to the downwash vector. The induced drag vector can
consecutively be drawn from the vertical on the incoming air stream to the new virtual
lift vector. This model explains the induced drag in a linear way but does not reflect the
real situation totally though it is good for low speed considerations.
In the ground effect this downwash vector is reflected by the surface. The closer the
wings get to the surface the more the downwash angle decreases thus the induced drag
vector also decreases.
The graphic at the bottom shows how the vortices expand on the lateral axis. At altitudes
higher than one wing span of the airplane these vortices are fully developed. The wing tip
is approximately the center of rotation of the entire vortex from one wing. The wings
downwash inboard of the tips flows down and also outbound helping in the vortex
generation process. At altitudes of about 20% the wingspan the induced drag is down to
70% of the normal figure. The vortices become compressed by the ground and the lateral
downwash outflow is hindered through surface friction. At 10% of the wingspan the
normal induced drag is down to about 50% because the vortex generation process is
almost entirely blocked by the ground.
Wing in ground effect (WIG) vehicles use this reduced drag to save fuel. While normal
subsonic transports have lift to drag (LID) ratios of 15 to 20, WIG vehicles could
theoretically achieve L/D ratios of around 25 to 30. Most WIG designs feature wings
which are curved downwards at approximately one half of the semi-wingspan. This is
necessary to further block the outbound flow below the wings without going to low for
cruise. Originally the ground effect was considered to be caused by ram air piling up
below the wing and increasing the positive pressure below the wing. The airplane was
thought to float on a cushion of air. This effect is not entirely untrue but contributes for a
small fraction of the drag decrease in the ground effect only.
28
• Downwash
_.--- - - - - - - - - - 1 pressure difference between
upper and lower surface
0 0
C® ® ®
downwash generation
• Ground effect versus altitude
vorticics fully developed at altitude
•
""
vorticies compressed near the ground

~ =- \
•
0 I 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
percentage of nonnal induced drag
vonicics blocked by the ground

Structural Icing
Ice accumulations on the airframe increase the weight of the aircraft and dramatically
decrease the performance of the airfoil. Higher angles of attack must be flown to lift the
additional weight of the ice. And more power must be available to account for the higher
drag caused by the higher AOA and the drag penalties of the ice accumulations.
Frost develops during long cold nights when the dew point is below freezing and extends
over the whole airfoil. Frost can also form at the leading edges after long flights at high
altitudes and a subsequent descent into a warm and moist air mass. Though frost appears
insignificant it produces rather high drag penalties and reduces the maximum AOA by
approximately one third. This will change a normal take-off into a stall if the
performance is sufficient to reach the take off speeds at all. Frost is most dangerous in the
first quarter of the chord length on the upper surface of the airfoil where the boundary
layer should be laminar.
Clear ice forms when flying through air masses containing large super cooled water
droplets (in convective clouds at 0 to -10°C). The ice accumulation is transparent, plain
and hard to remove. The smaller the nose radius the more the clear ice extends from the
leading edge rearward. The worst form of clear ice develops in freezing rain where the
whole airframe and airfoil can be covered with clear ice in minutes.
Rime ice forms when small water droplets (ns, freezing fog or freezing drizzle, most
likely from -15 to -20°C) or wet snow crystals freeze upon impact with the airframe.
Rime ice is porous, white and tends to break off. It grows from the leading edge against
the airflow in a double horn shape and is very disadvantageous for the performance of the
airfoil. Rime ice and frost is white in appearance because the drops are very small and air
is enclosed between the frozen drops.
Runback ice can form in all icing situations when the leading edges are thermally deiced
and the water refreezes behind the heated areas. The aerodynamic effects are comparable
to speed brakes (extending from the lower surface) and spoilers (extending out of the
upper surface of the airfoil). The aerodynamic effects of runback ice are most predictable
except that runback ice can shelter flight controls and render them useless.
The ice accumulation rate is not highly depending on the speed. Accumulation rates are
given per run rather than per time. At speeds greater than approximately 350 to 400 kts
ice is very unlikely to form or tends to brakes away.
The two graphics at the bottom compare maximum cL values of clear and contaminated
airfoils. The second picture clarifies that any deposition on the upper surface increasing
the surface roughness and changing the profile (especially in the first third) is most
disadvantageous.
30
• Forms of structural ice
frost
clear ice
nme ice
runback ice
• Angle of attack and polar diagram after ice

Accumulation
A ,,,,-----.....
\
clear airfoil \ clear airfoil
(
Ceo·; the lower surface
frost I ice on the upper surface
/ - - - - - - ice
/'
ice on both
1/
~~---------➔ AO A -+-~-+---+--+------➔ c w
surfaces

Stability
Stability is the ability of an object, such as an aircraft, to maintain equilibrium or resume

its original, upright position after displacement, as gusts or pilot input.
Airplanes have to prove in the certification phase that they are stable within the entire
flight envelope. Too much or too less stability affect the handling characteristics of the
plane. Manufacturers seeking IFR certifications for their planes have to design more
stability so that the airplane can be flown save with reference to instruments only.
The longitudinal stability refers to motions around the lateral axis while lateral stability
represents the longitudinal axis. Directional stability describes the behavior around the
vertical axis.
Static stability refers to the aircraft's initial response when disturbed from any given angle
of attack, slip or bank. It represents the immediate reaction from a disturbance. If a plane
is positive static stable it will tend to return directly to its original attitude. A negative
static stable plane will continue away form its original attitude in the direction of the
disturbance. Neutral static behavior means it will maintain the attitude it was forced to by
the disturbance.
Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft's response over time when disturbed from any
given angle of attack, slip or bank. Positive dynamic stability is the long term tendency to
return to its original attitude. Dynamic stability requires static stability. No airplane or
system can be dynamically stable without being statically stable. A negative dynamically
stable plane will increase the magnitude of its oscillations after a disturbance over time
until it exceeds its flight envelope without corrective action. Neutral dynamic behavior
means the airplane will maintain its oscillation frequency and magnitude.
Improving static or dynamic stability decreases performance. Increasing longitudinal or
stability in pitch will require the design of the aft CG limit to be more ahead of the
aerodynamic center and possibly a larger horizontal tail plane to produce a higher
elevator down force. The additional elevator down force must be balanced by another
amount of wing lift. These two contrary forces produce stability and extra profile drag at
the wings and the tail plane. Therefore more propulsive power is needed for the same
performance. The same applies to increasing directional and lateral stability.
32
• Stability and axes definitions
stable neutral unstable
• Static stability
y
negative static
~
..,._~ neutral static
~;;. - ~ - ~
~ ~ ..
/ " ~ ::..=' -
. ~ - :: ,-
, positive static
- ~-~
Disturbance j
bchavior immediately after the disturbance
• Dynamic stability
Disturbance

Pitch Control and Stability
The elevator controls the pitch angle of the aircraft or the position around the lateral axis.
The wing itself is not stable (except s-shaped profile for flying wings). A stable aircraft
has to have its center of gravity ahead of its aerodynamic center. Only some highly agile
military jets like the F-16 have their CG slightly behind its aerodynamic center. These
aircraft are steer able only with the aid of control computers and hydraulics and are lost
without.
The distance between the lift vector and the gravity vector induces a nose down pitching
momentum, which destabilizes. The distance between the center of total aerodynamic
drag of the aircraft and the power / thrust vector induces another momentum which can
be destabilizing like in our example or stabilizing like in jet transport configurations with
the engines below the wings.
The total momentum is the momentum sum of all pitching momentums. The tail plane
must be capable to counteract the highest possible total moment to ensure controllability
in all situations and configurations.
Any dynamically stable system must be statically stable. A statically instable system
cannot be dynamically stable. The illustration at the middle shows a theoretical wind
channel system model. The plane and tail plane are fixed on one axis pivoting around the
CG. Lets assume the system is stable in a wind tunnel and floats horizontally. A vertical
gust disturbs the system by lifting it at the front (nose). The whole system tilts up
increasing the AOA of both planes and generating an additional amount of lift
(11Ll +i1L2). The additional lift must be greater than the original disturbance for a
dynamically stable aircraft. The positive difference between the additional lift and the
disturbance will determine the rate at which the aircraft will return to its original attitude.
Both additional lifts are summarized with their respective anns. The total torque divided
by distance from the CG to the trailing edge results in a total additional lift vector
(exemplary for the entire aircraft). The moment coefficient (cM) emphasizes from the
formula at the bottom and is a value that quantifies dynamic stability.
The graphic at the right bottom shows the conditions for dynamic and static stability in
reference to the ratio of 11cM to 11cL.
The same principle is also valid for flying wing aircraft. Such constructions are capable
for stable subsonic flight only when S-shaped profiles are used. The lift is mostly
produced in the front while the trailing edge is bent up and generates stability by
generating lift pointing in the opposite direction.
34
• Pitch control and static stability
~_
ft
-~
__,__,totaub~►
·~ ~ statically stable:
T
• elevator lift • elevator arm > total moment
• Dynamic stability
tail-plane
longitudional axis
plane
dynamically stable:
6 LI +6 L2 > disturbance
it, LI
• M
_-o_m_e_n_t_c_o_e_r_n_c_ie_n_t- - ~11 ~~ > 0 = instab le
f-, '! lon2itudional axis
~~, < 0 = stable

Roll Control and Stability
Roll is tum of the aircraft around the longitudinal axis or the difference angle from the
true vertical the airplanes vertical axis. To roll an aircraft the lift on the down going wing
must be decreased and the lift on the up going wing increased. This is usually
accomplished by standard control tabs mounted at the outer portions of the trailing edge
on the wing to generate huge torques (long arm) with small deflections. The up going
wing produces more lift with it's aileron set to higher angles of attack thus more drag.
The higher drag on the up going wing produces the adverse yaw effect (see roll and yaw
coupling). The deflection on the up going wing should be smaller than on the down going
side. Roll controls with different deflections are called differential ailerons.
Complex and fast flying aircraft also deflect some of their spoilers on the down going
side. This reduces the adverse yaw effect and minimizes high torques on the wing
structure. Some aircraft like the MU-2 (high performance turboprop cruiser) use spoilers
only to control the roll. For flight in the transonic speed range vortex generators are
mounted upwind of the ailerons. Vortex generators are like little wings with an extremely
small aspect ratio. They are mounted perpendicular to the lift-producing surface at a high
angle of attack. Their only purpose is to induce vortices in the airflow through their
strong tip vortex. These vortices induce lateral flow directions in the airflow over the
ailerons and delay the critical Mach number (McniicaJ) when the aileron is lowered at
speeds just shy of Mcritical•
Positive dihedral angles increase roll stability. When a disturbance (gust) induces roll the
projection of the surface of the up going wing on horizontal surface thus the lift
component acting in the direction of the true vertical gets smaller through the dihedral
angle. The missing lift on the up going wing will recover the aircraft in a time frame
usually not sufficient to produce the yaw required to initialize a tum. High wing designs
have their center of gravity (CG) lower than the lift-producing surface (wing). This setup
originally contains high roll stability through the low CG. When a disturbance lifts one
wing up the CG is raised on the same side. The weight and the arm (vertical distance of
the CG and the aerodynamic center) induces an opposite torque in the longitudinal axis
and recovers the aircraft. Most larger high wing planes feature wings set at negative
dihedral angles to reduce their natural roll stability to practical figures with the same trick
the roll stability is increased in low wing designs.
36
• Roll controls Roll angle
• Roll stability
Lift
======----=-= '
horizontal lift com onent
roll stability
V.
~
increase decrease

Yaw Control and Stability
Yaw is a tum around the vertical axis of the airplane. The vertical stabilizer holds the
airplane with the nose into wind like a weather vane. Vortex generators on the wing are
there to optimize the high-speed characteristics. The purpose of vortex generators on the
tail surfaces is to increase the control performance of the tail at very low speeds. Many
fast moving aircraft are equipped with vortex generators on the vertical stabilizer to
ensure yaw control in the worst case. This worst case definitely will be an engine failure
at very low speeds with the rudder at its mechanical stop. In this event the rudder
becomes a high lift-generating surface. This lift acts along the lateral axis. When
multiplied with the arm from the vertical stabilizer to the CG the resulting torque must be
sufficient to counteract an engine failure in the most adverse conditions (low speed,
critical engine out and maximum power on the remaining engine). Running out of rudder
travel or a stall of the vertical stabilizer will lead to a loss of directional control in this
situation.
Any part of the airframe and wing ahead the center of gravity (CG) acts destabilizing
while all parts downwind of the CG stabilize the airplane.
For propulsive power output this is opposite. Any power output before the CG acts
stabilizing while power output downwind of the CG destabilizes. Additionally the
airplane should fly stable at maximum as well as at idle power.
Straight wing aircraft require less directional stability. Oscillations around the vertical
axis in gusty condition as known from straight wing planes are usually not fast enough
(will swing back early enough) to avoid the onset of roll. The roll and yaw coupling is
more intense when the wings of the aircraft are swept (see roll and yaw coupling). Thus
the directional stability has to be higher in swept wings to avoid combined roll and yaw
oscillations. This means the vertical stabilizer should be larger.
Dutch roll is an example of such a combined roll and yaw oscillation. It can be out-
controlled by a gyro stabilized (rate gyro) yaw damper, minimized or even zeroed by
increased directional stability.
Retrofitting dorsal and ventral fins are means of increasing the directional stability after
the design freeze. Designers try to keep the vertical stabilizer as small as possible. Any
excess size implies another amount of drag that increases the fuel flow for the entire life
of the aircraft. Flight testing or later power improvements on the engines prove quite
often that the directional stability should be increased.
38
• Yawco~:_b__ ~J
*
torque and counter torque
X:
K"
\,
,-, X
~
,·
ff'''
~
111
\ Lift I'
I
11111
Lift
• Yaw stability
~ ventral fin
increasing directional stability

Yaw and Roll Coupling
Let's finally bring it together. When the aircraft is rolled into a bank angle the lift
component tilts with the bank because the lift is always perpendicular to the wing as seen
from behind. The resulting horizontal lift component pulls the plane parallel in the
direction of the bank. This lateral movement induces a relative wind that hits the airplane
from the side and yaws it "into" the wind like a weather vane. The onset of the yaw is a
little time delayed because the plane must be accelerated laterally by the horizontal lift
component first before the relative wind can act on the tail plane.
When the airplane yaws fractions of the inner part of wing going downwind are sheltered
from the airflow by fuselage. The speed on the wing going upwind is momentarily
increased by the rotational speed of the yaw. These two effects act on any aircraft and
cause them to bank in the direction of the yaw. The onset of the roll in response to the
yaw is also a little time delayed because of the inertia of the plane.
Swept wing aircraft additionally yaw into a more favorable horizontal angle of incidence
on the wing yawing upwind thus the yaw-roll coupling is much more pronounced.
Therefore swept wings need higher directional stability to avoid combined yaw-roll
oscillations.
When rolling the plane into a bank the aileron on the up going wing deflects downwards
and produces extra lift and drag. This drag acts in the opposite direction than the direction
of the desired tum. The effect is known as adverse yaw. If this effect is not minimized by
design tricks like differential ailerons or additional spoiler deployment a little rudder in
the desired tum direction has to be applied additionally to tum coordinated. A tum is
coordinated when the false vertical points down perpendicular to the lateral axis of the
plane.
Crossed controls or a sideslip can be flown by deflecting the ailerons in the opposite
direction than the rudder. The aircraft flies lop-sided to the airflow or in a sideslip and
produces more drag the higher the sideslip angle is. The cross-over speed is the speed
where the direction cannot be maintained anymore with the rudder while the ailerons are
set to their opposite mechanical stop.
When flying with one or more engines inoperative the remaining engine power acts out
of the center (except centerline thrust designs). The remaining power multiplied with the
arm from the center of the power production to the longitudinal axis of the plane induces
a yaw, which the rudder must counteract. The resulting rudder force straightens the plane
but also produces a slip or sideward movement of the aircraft away from the operating
engine. To achieve fully coordinated flight the plane should be banked (usually with less
than 5°) towards the operating engine. The sideslip is zeroed when the horizontal
component of the lift equals the relative wind or the rudder force. The inclinometer ball
should always be slightly deflected towards the operating engine. Keeping the ball
centered is never correct when the propulsion is asymmetric - an uncorrected sideslip
produces reasonable performance penalties.
40
• Yaw and roll coupling
Tum yaw effect yaw effect on swept wings
',( X '( /
J(
X:
X
)( A
y X
/'
> )( '< X )(
>-. X > X X
adverse yaw crossed controls engine failure case

'
lejs I g .(.. JA
.
more drag
• Engine failure bank < 5° to zero the sideslip for coordinated flight
hc,ruornal hO compom'nt -
s1dc<1ihp componcnl
~
Normal Flight Conditions
In un-accelerated straight and level flight total lift equals the mass of the aircraft and the
power or thrust produced by the engines equals the total drag of the aircraft. Power must
be greater than drag to accelerate the vehicle longitudinally. A higher amount of power
must be available to equalize the drag at higher speeds. Total lift must be higher than the
weight to accelerate the plane vertically. Any increase in lift produces more drag, which
in turns requires more power. Another amount of extra energy must be applied in a
stabilized climb to account for the increase in potential energy (Ep 01 =m·g·h).
In a stabilized glide potential energy is transferred into kinetic energy (Ek;n=½·m·v 2).
The vector gravity component pointing in the direction of the flight path must be equal to
the total drag in a stabilized glide.
The level off radius is detennined by the square of the airspeed and the g-load (n). The
recover height depends on the original flight path angle. A sufficient extra amount of
altitude should be added to any recover height calculation to account for the time required
to accelerate to the desired g-load factor.
The tum radius is determined by the same factors than the level off radius. The load
factor in a coordinated tum is directly influenced by the angle of bank (AOB).
Anytime the load factor is higher than one the stall speed increases with the square root
of the actual load factor.
The false vertical is measured by the spirit level or inclinometer. A tum is coordinated
when the false vertical is perpendicular to the AOB (ball centered).
In a slipping tum the centripetal force is higher than the centrifugal force. The false
vertical and the inclinometer ball point outbound of the tum, the rate of rotation is higher
than the rate ofrotation for a coordinated tum and the airplane tends to descend.
A skidding tum is the opposite of a slipping tum. The rate of rotation is slower than the
rate for a coordinated tum at this AOB and the aircraft tends to climb when the same
amount of elevator backpressure than in a coordinated tum is applied.
The level off radius is limited by the increasing stall speed on one side and by the
structural limit of the airframe on the other side. Power should be minimum to achieve a
small level off radius.
The level tum radius is in most cases limited by the increasing stall speed and the
maximum available power. High performance aircraft only have sufficient power to
approach the structural limit in a level tum. Transport aircraft usually do not have enough
power to be flown to their structural limit in a tum - they will stall.
Excessive loads in a level off can disintegrate any aircraft.
42
• Un-accelerated cruise and descent
stabilized glide:
gravity component= total drag
• Level off and turn radius
~\~~,
~
/\ 1
ani;lcof
•P~
____....-~ rhdgt11!
tum radius
. v'
tum radius [m) = g. tan (AOB)
I
load factor [n) = cos (AOB)
v2 [ms-1]
leve l off radiu s [m] = g. (n- l) . tan (AOB)
rateofrotauon [0 s·'] = 2 .pj. v [ms·•J · 360· g
recover heigh t [m] =
= level off radius [m] • ( 1- cos (angle of flightpath)) stall speed increase = v, ,fn
stall speed increase: v,.n= v,, {n TAS (. .
standard turn [2°s· 1] : AOB =7o +7 Sltnphfied)
• Limits
E
.2
true airspeed

Non-Normal Flight Conditions
A stall can appear at any speed and any attitude. G-load factors higher than one increase
the stall speed and factors lower than one decrease the stall speed.
Buffeting occurs when the separation point moves forward against the airflow leaving a
turbulent area behind with no airflow predominantly directed in the direction of the
undisturbed airflow. The forward center of gravity (CG) causes a conventional design
airplane to pitch down when three thirds of the lift is abruptly lost after the critical angle
of attack (AOA) is exceeded and the wing stalls. That stable behavior causes the airplane
to gain speed and decrease the AOA to return to aerodynamic flight. A CG ahead of the
forward limit may cause the elevator to run to its mechanical stop or stall before the
wing. Approach and landing speeds should be increased in such a case to ensure
aerodynamic controllability until touch down. CG positions at the very aft of the limit or
beyond of which (in the safety zone between the limit and aerodynamic center) cause the
airplane to behave rather neutral around the pitch axis with lowest elevator forces.
Slowest stall speeds can be achieved in such a CG configuration and stall behavior will
be sharpest. The pitch down rate is fastest and more speed must be gained to restore the
airflow (highest altitude loss). The simplest way to end a stall situation in a tum is to zero
the angle of bank and remove the extra g-load. Some planes feature vortex generators on
the lower side of the vertical stabilizer or slots to delay the stall of the stabilizer thus
increasing slow flight characteristics.
The spin is a special roll and yaw condition developing out of a stall situation.
When roll is initiated with the ailerons in a stall condition or induced by yaw one wing
can stall earlier than the other.
The AOA of the down going wing increases far beyond the critical angle of attack while
the AOA of the up going wing is decreased at the same amount. The down going wing
will be either the outboard wing of the initiating aileron input or the inboard wing of the
inducing yaw direction
The drag of the down going wing highly increases and produces the tum around the yaw
axis. The nose is more than 30° pitched down in a steep spin and the rudder is the only
active control element. The ailerons and the elevator are sheltered from the airflow. A
steep spin can be ended by applying full rudder opposite to the tum direction. The nose is
pitched down less than approximately 30° in a flat spin. Neither the rudder nor the
ailerons or the elevator are effective in a flat spin. Once entered most transport aircraft
would not be able to be piloted out of a flat spin, which is a very stable flight condition.
A flat spin only can be ended by applying maximum nose down elevator (a little area of
the elevator might peak out of the sheltered zone at its mechanical stop). That action may
transfer the flat into a steep spin where the rudder can be used again to end the rotation.
44
• Stall
• Spin
~
◄ .,\01\ ► ◄ ,\ UA ►
( 111
i
-.- .s°
-•~j2
I
\
- "] ~~
~~
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\ rising wing (rw) 00="'"'

...__________
wmg (dw) )
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~
AOA
steep spin flat spin
. lmri7m11;1l planc
. pitch itutude
• µi\c\,a\\i\udc
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·;;
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E
.2

Propeller
The angular velocity of the propeller is constant but the linear velocity of the blade
elements increases with increasing distance from the propeller shaft. The blade angle and
the profile thickness must be radially decreased to adjust for the increasing linear
velocity. Near the propeller shaft the profile is optimized for minimum drag only and is
very thick to withstand the high mechanical loads.
The geometric propeller pitch (GPP) describes the pitch angle setting of the whole
propeller (helix). Three quarters distance from the shaft is defined as reference for the
t
blade angle setting. The highest thrust production also takes place in this area. Like a
normal wing the propeller also produces induced drag at the propeller tips.
With increasing airspeed the angle of attack at each blade element decreases (illustration
at the right top). Slip is the difference of the geometric and the aerodynamic pitch divided
by the geometric pitch. A fixed pitch propeller optimized for climb performance has
blade angles of 10 to 20° at the reference and a fixed cruise propeller 40 to 50°. The
climb prop will not be able to produce a sufficient AOA at higher airspeeds (slip) and
limits the level speed regardless of engine power (slip loss); the cruise propeller will stall
in the outer areas at low speeds and acceleration to higher speeds is slow. A constant
speed propeller will maintain the preselected RPM setting by adjusting the angle of the
whole blade. The constant speed or variable pitch propeller covers the envelope of all
fixed propellers and ensures a maximum efficiency of 85 to 88%.
A feathered propeller (graphic at the top middle; light gray blade) at zero lift AOA in the
direction of the propeller shaft produces minimum drag. A wind.milling propeller is set to
highest RPM or lowest blade angle and produces maximum drag (dark gray blade). The
drag penalty of a wind.milling propeller at the lowest blade angle is almost as huge as the
parasite drag of a disc with the diameter of the propeller would be. The advance ratio is a
dimensionless number, which characterizes the slip loss of the propeller. Propeller
efficiency is propulsive power divided by the shaft power.
As seen on a longitudinal cross-section the volume of the accelerated air decreases
linearly as the velocity increases also linearly. The static pressure drops asymptotically
short prior the propeller disc, at the disc momentarily rises to a higher positive value and
drops downwind of the propeller.
The propeller pitch technically is set through altering the pressure of the engine oil. When
the engine oil pressure is lost (engine failure or short before) the propeller is brought to
it's fail safe position by a spring or gas charge acting against the regulating oil pressure in
normal flight. The fail safe position for a single engine aircraft is at the minimum pitch or
maximum RPM setting of the propeller to get all the rest from the engine even after it
loses it's oil pressure. In multiengine aircraft the fail safe position is fully feathered.
46
• Geometry, wind milling prop, TAS influencf'.on AOA
• Definitions and radial thrust distribution
r _ GPP - aerod namic itch [%)

s tp- GPP
sli p loss= I - slip [%)
d . TAS ~
a vance ratto = blade tip speed -5 c-\
efficiency propulsive power _ [°/c J

=
_j
shaft horse power 100 0 µ
angular velocity = [I /sec] _::;__...Qs,_...J-/
linear velocity= 2 ·Pi · r · N
• Efficiency and pressure/velocity distribution
I00% • constant speed propeller

@ ~ ax 85 to 88%
~I
0%-==- - - - - - - - - - - - --
advance ratio

Propeller Influence on Flight
The propeller slipstream influences flight characteristics on a higher level than jet
propulsion. Multiengine propeller aircraft blow over the wing, increase the lift in this area
and reduce the angle of attack in the region behind the propeller disc. Positioning the
propellers to reverse in-flight can be crucial in some aircraft because the whole area
behind the propeller disk becomes sheltered from the airflow and up to 30 % of lift are
momentarily lost.
In single engine or centerline thrust configurations the slipstream has less effect on the
wings but is highly effective on the tail plane, increasing steer ability and pilot control
forces even at very low airspeeds. The area of the tail draggers ended with the
introduction of jet engines. The missing propeller jet stream on the tail plane sheltered the
horizontal stabilizer at take off speeds and rendered it ineffective.
At pitch attitudes higher than the vector of the undisturbed airflow (flight path) the down
going blade produces more and the up going blade less thrust. This effect is called p-
factor. A clockwise (as seen from behind) rotating propeller will cause the airplane to
yaw to the left at high AOA flight conditions. That yaw should be counteracted by
opposite rudder deflection. Attempts to straighten the flight path with the ailerons cause
the airplane to sideslip and produce more drag than necessary.
Stalls at high power settings in propeller driven aircraft can change into a spin when the
inclinometer ball is not properly centered because of the p-factor induced yaw.
Multiengine planes with counter-rotating propellers have the down going blade at the
inboard side to shift the center of thrust production as far inboard as possible. When the
propellers rotate in the same direction the engine with down going blade inboard is the
critical engine because if it fails the other produces more thrust outboard of its shaft and
yaw is strongest in the single engine case.
The slipstream turns around the airframe in the turning direction of the propeller. In
single engine aircraft with propellers turning clockwise (as seen from behind) this
slipstream will hit the rudder from the left and cause another amount of yaw to left,
which will be more dominant at low airspeeds.
The torque effect brings more weight on the wheels on the side of the up going blade and
increases the rolling resistance on this side causing another extra amount of yaw to the
left (clockwise turning propeller) in the take off run.
During pitch changes the propeller disc is preceding. This gyro effect is difficult to notice
in modem aircraft because the rotating masses are minimum. Ancient high performance
aircraft with rotary engines like the ,,GEE BEE" and heavy rotating masses had huge
problems with this effect, which might have caused the loss of both prototypes, built.
48
• Vector addition of TAS and slipstream
----- ---- ----
p-factor
• P-factor
(at high AOA)
seen from above
"--
• Slipstream and torque effect
slipstream effect
torque effect
)awtolh.: ldi
rnghtturnmi;rror•
, ~ -~

Transition to Supersonic Speeds
A sound source transmits concentrically in all directions. When this source moves a
pressure front develops in the direction of the airplanes movement. This pressure front is
perpendicular to the air vector of the aircraft at the speed of sound (M= l ).
At speeds higher than the speed of sound the pressure front tilts downwind and forms the
Mach cone. The Mach angle is half the angle of the Mach cone and equals the sine of the
speed of sound divided by the true airspeed; or the sine of one divided by the Mach
number. At speeds beyond the speed of sound the complete noise emitted by the airplane
concentrates in the mach cone and especially in the jacket area of the mach cone. The so
called sonic boom is heard at any place where this mach cone jacket is dragged over the
ground as a long as the flight remains supersonic.
The critical Mach number (Mcnticai) is the ratio of the airspeed and the speed of sound (at
current ambient conditions - see ,,Airspeed") where the first local speed of sound occurs
at the airplane. That happens preferably on the upper side of the airfoil where the air is
accelerated the most to generate lift.
A normal shockwave on the top of the surface is the first indication of a local exceedance
of the speed of sound. A normal shockwave aerodynamically acts like extended spoilers
or speed brakes. Aircraft operating at the upper edge of the subsonic speed regime or in
the transonic area are subject to the effect of wing dropping. When the Mcntical exceedance
occurs at one wing first a portion of lift is momentarily lost and drag increases. The
affected wing drops and yaws downwind accelerating the other wing, which
consecutively will exceed Mcritical· This oscillation (wing dropping) repeats cyclic and can
be stopped by a general speed decrease. A yaw damper is mandatory for such aircraft to
avoid wing dropping which can be initiated by large aileron deflections when operating
shy of Mcritical (control reversion). When the speed is increased beyond Mcritical another
normal shockwave develops at the bottom of the airfoil further increasing drag and
decreasing lift. Shockwaves can shelter control surfaces - especially on lift generating
planes - in aircraft, which are not explicit, designed for such speeds and make them
uncontrollable. A sheltered elevator in combination with the natural pilot reflex to retard
the throttles and produce another pitch down moment and the fact that the aerodynamic
center shifts far back (probably behind design limits in subsonic aircraft) will be fatal.
At speeds at or above the speed of sound the shockwaves move to the trailing edge of the
airfoil and oblique shockwaves form ahead of the leading edge. A normal shockwave will
develop ahead of the leading edge (ahead of the pressure front) leading the upper and
lower oblique shockwaves. The size of this nonnal shockwave depends on the nose
radius and the thickness of the airfoil.
Automated Mach trim units must be installed in aircraft operating slightly below or above
the speed of sound to compensate the high and abrupt fluctuations in coefficient of lift
and avoid excessive attitudes.
50
______
• __
....,_ ~ and speed distribution in the transition
I lift and drag
P--..._
v = O,Sa AOA = const.
I
I
'I
---
--- -
subsonic
o., 1.0 I.SM number :!.O
M= ~ a= 39· IT [kt]
I
MO
incompressib le
M 0,5
I
compressible
I
M 1.4 MS
I .
subsonic transsonic j supersonic j hypersonic
posilion oflhc shock wave speed distribution

M
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on the orofile
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Shock Waves
The true airspeed (TAS) equals the calibrated airspeed (CAS) at sea level and ISA
conditions. The air has to flow faster in thinner air to produce the same ram air pressure.
Hence the TAS will rise continuously in constant speed climb (CAS). Air becomes
compressible at higher speeds. The air starts to pile up when the true speed (TAS) of the
air molecules approaches the speed at which sound waves are carried forward (a). The
pile-up grows away from the mould which creates the redirection of the airflow and
against the airflow direction.
Shock waves are a narrow region, crossing the streamlines, through which there occurs
an abrupt increase in pressure, density and temperature, and an abrupt decrease in
velocity, accompanied by an increase in entropy. The normal component of velocity
relative to the shock wave is supersonic upstream and subsonic downstream. It is called
attached or detached according to weather it does or does not appear to be in contact with
the body originating it.
The gas particles of the supersonic airflow are decelerated to subsonic speed in a short
distance in a normal shockwave. Pressure, density and temperature rise abrupt while the
velocity momentarily decreases. The rising temperature represents a final energy loss of
the airflow. A normal shockwave is perpendicular to the airflow and does not change the
direction of the streamlines.
Oblique shockwaves develop where the direction of the supersonic flow is changed at
concave or convex corners. The direction of the airflow changes and the speed decreases
but not mandatory below supersonic. The Mach angle is the angle between the oblique
shock front and the direction of the airflow downstream of the shockwave. Pressure,
density and temperature also rise in the oblique shockwave. The energy loss due to the
rising temperature is smaller than the loss in normal shockwaves. When the Mach angle
becomes smaller than the angle of the body, changing the direction of the streamlines due
to an increase in airspeed, the oblique shockwave detaches from the original body and
bends downstream to the appropriate Mach angle.
Expansion waves are generated and behave in the same way than oblique shockwaves.
Expansion waves increase the velocity of the airflow from supersonic to higher
supersonic speeds. Pressure and density rise but the decrease in temperature is minimal.
52
• Normal and oblique shock waves and expansion waves
normal shockwave ,.,
>
! supersonic ~
~
~
►
►
fressure. den..\ity. temperature

I I
I . I
oblique shockwaves
compressive expansive
v 1 > v2 v1 < V2
P, < P, P1 > P,
T 1 < T, T, > T,
• Summary D, < D, D1 > D,
Properties - Normal shock O blique shock Expansion wave

wave wave
Change in No Concave Convex
direction
Speed change Vsuoersonic~ V subsonic v 1>v 1 v 1<v2
Energy loss High None (simplified) None (simplified)
Total air pressure Pr,,>Pr.2 Pr.1=Pr.2 Pr.1 =Pr,2
(simplified) (simplified)
Static air pressure Ps,1<Ps,2 Ps,1<Ps,2 Ps_,>Ps.2

Supersonic Layouts
A flat plate at no angle of attack (AOA) would be the perfect supersonic profile with no
shock waves and no wave drag at supersonic speeds. The supersonic lift is generated by
the combination of expansion waves and oblique shockwaves, which occur at positive
AOAs. The leading expansion wave accelerates the airflow on the upper surface of the
profile, generating a continuous low-pressure area while the leading oblique shockwave
does the opposite at the lower surface of the profile. Contrary waves equalize the
pressures at the trailing edge of the profile. Real profiles generate wave drag at any AOA
at speeds beyond Mcritical· Profiles thicker than a flat plate produce a high-pressure area
upstream and a bow wave, which detaches from the leading edge. A normal shockwave
produces high wave drag while a lot of energy is finally lost through the temperature
increase. Designing a small nose radius and sharp leading edges can reduce the size of the
normal shock wave and consequently the high wave drag. Unfortunately all measures to
increase supersonic performance are disadvantageous for subsonic flight. The lift
generating modes between sub- and supersonic flight are totally different - So is the
position of the aerodynamic center (center of all aerodynamic forces). The change in
aerodynamic center (AC) greatly depends on the wing design; it is highest in swept back
wing aircraft and lowest in delta wing outfits. This AC change determines the trim
requirements and the performance of the horizontal stabilizer, which must be higher than
compared to subsonic flight. The AC moves backwards in any design increasing the
distance from the AC to the CG. The horizontal stabilizer must be able to produce more
down force at the tail to prevent the airplane from nosing over (tuck under). Modem
airplanes flying in the transonic speed regime use automatic mach trim units to deal with
these rapid AC shifts. Supersonic airplanes - except delta wings must be equipped with a
flying tail which is a synonym for stabilator to avoid any chance that the elevator control
tab may become sheltered behind shockwaves near the front of the horizontal stabilizer.
All of those conditions are used for Laval style nozzles. By adding energy the airflow is
influenced in such a way that the speed of sound is reached at the tightest cross section. A
normal shockwave will limit the airspeed in the convergent area below the speed of
sound regardless of the pressure upstream. The airflow is accelerated to supersonic
speeds downstream of the tightest cross section in the convergent area. The nozzle
operates satisfactory when the pressure and velocity ratio matches the ambient
conditions. A sufficient length of the nozzle ensures that the outflow pressures are not too
high. The outflow velocity can also be influenced by the length of the nozzle with the
main objective to ensure a maximum outflow velocity and to transform a maximum
amount of pressure into velocity. Except in rockets this principle is used in afterburner
engines. Only afterburner engines have the ability to produce supersonic outflow speeds,
which are necessary to break the sound barrier. When the afterburner is engaged the
nozzle must open momentarily to enable the supersonic outflow velocities and to avoid
the nonnal shockwave back pressuring the engine.
54
• Sub- vs. supersonic flow
subsonic flow supersonic flow
supersonic pressure distribution on a normal airfoil
nonnal
shockv.-a,l! '
/:::_,> a"====
~~I
• AC shift and nozzles
l aerodynami c center (ac) shift

subsonic flow supersonic flow
r -
M number
]
act .
ac
F~r11 ,1 ► ►
i
M number
rn
_....,,
111 1 111
act ac
.,I
0

Piston Engine Principles
In a piston engine the working fluid is expanded in a cylinder against a reciprocating

piston.
The upwards-moving piston compresses the air in the cylinder. Around the upper dead
center the fuel/air mixture ignites. The combustion is initialized by a spark plug in normal
gasoline engine and by temperature caused by the compression itself in diesel engine
designs. The combusting gases increase the temperature and the pressure while the
volume does not change in an idealized engine. The high-pressure gases act on the down
going piston in the power stroke.
The piston displacement is the difference between the upper and the lower dead center of
the piston and equals the circular diameter of the crankshaft pin. When the diameter of
the piston is smaller than the piston's displacement the engine is defined as long-stroke
engine. Engines with piston displacements smaller than piston diameters are called short-
stroke.
The displacement volume is the piston displacement multiplied by the piston area. The
compression volume is the distance between the upper dead center and the inner side of
the cylinder head multiplied by the piston area. This is simplified because in most engine
designs the compression area is geometrically optimized for a better combustion.
Slots positioned so as to enable the intake and exhaust stroke take place according to the
position of the piston control two-stroke engines. All four strokes are summarized in two
and completed in a single revolution of the crankshaft (360°). The down going piston
usually pre-compresses the ingoing fuel/air mixture. The pressure of the ingoing air aids
in sweeping the exhaust gases out. The power/weight ratio is best but two stroke engines
work rather unclean. Implied in the principle itself it is unavoidable that a specific portion
of ingoing fuel/air mixture will go straight through the exhaust and that some exhaust
gases will remain in the volume until the next exhaust stroke.
Four-stroke engines are controlled by valves, which are operated by cams mechanically
connected to the crankshaft. The position of the valves depends on the position of the
piston. The intake valve opens for the intake stroke and the down going piston sucks the
ingoing fuel/air mixture in. All valves are closed during the compression and power
stroke. The exhaust valve opens for the exhaust stroke. All strokes are sequenced and
each strokes takes place in one half revolution. All strokes together require two
revolutions of the crankshaft (720°). The four-stroke principle engines have more
mechanical parts than the two stroke designs and a higher power/weight ratio but work
cleaner and more predictably.
56
• Thermodynamic and piston definition
Piston Thermodynamics
displacement = top - lower dead center

displacement vol ume = Pi• piston radi us 2• displaceme nt
comp ression volume - Pi •piston radiusZ, d istance (upper dead center/cylinder head)
compression ratio displacement volume+ compression volume
compression volume
• 2-stroke principle
2-stroke priciple
• 4-stroke principle
4-stroke priciple
intake stroke coml?ression stroke power stroke exhaust stroke

Piston Engine Designs
At the very beginning of aviation line-type engines where used to propel aircraft. The
small face area of the engine and the design enabled the construction of tight
aerodynamic cowlings. Most line-type engines have been liquid-cooled which made them
heavier than air-cooled motors. Some air-cooled line type engines were built but the
cooling of the rear cylinders was too difficult. The need for more power at smaller
power/weight ratios lead to new engine designs. The higher the power the more the need
to effectively cool the engine is. V-Type engines were built first to satisfy the need for
air-cooling by increasing the face area. Approximately at the same time the evolution of
the rotary and radial engines started.
Rotary engines are constructed basically like radial engines except that the whole engine
rotates with the propeller and the crankshaft is connected to the airframe. Rotary engines
had no cooling troubles at all but the entire engine had to be supplied through the
crankshaft and most sophisticated mechanical parts rotated at the engine speed, which
made them even more susceptible for failure. With the engine as heaviest part of the
aircraft, rotating at high speed these aircraft had huge problems with gyro precession
effects (Gee-Bee racer). Later radial engines were built with better technology and more
heat resistant materials. Radial engines have large face areas granting good and even
aerodynamic cooling, as well as high parasite drag. Advantages dominated and radial
motors have been a real success for aviation. Two, to maximum five radial engines have
been combined inline to increase the power. This design brought the well-known problem
of insufficient cooling of the rear cylinders back up. High performance radials as well as
line- V-type engines were produced liquid-cooled in WWII. After WWII the liquid
cooled designs were dumped again in favor for the air-cooled variants. The development
of civil piston engines which can be operated economically, having reasonable overhaul
periods culminated in the 2200HP, 18 piston engine Wright R-3350, also used for the
Lockheed Constellation (0.5kg/HP). These engines had more than 20000 moving
mechanical parts each. At the end of the piston engine airliner area companies like PAN
AM claimed up to one dozen engine failures in average in their fleet per day.
All engines with inverted cylinders always had and have problems with engine oil
seeping through the fitting between the piston and the cylinder. When the quantity of this
leaking oil becomes more than the compression volume the piston will hammer
hydraulically against the valves through the oil and mechanically destroy itself.
Most general aviation aircraft today use opposed piston engines, which are produced at
powers from 100 to 400 HP (0.7 kg/HP). Unfortunately the professional optimization of
air-cooled engines stopped decades ago.
Newest designs use automotive engines which reach previously unknown degrees in
reliability, economy, power/weight ratio, purchase costs, operating costs and maintenance
intervals.
58
• Piston engine design
opposed pistons V-Type, inverted V-Type, upright
I.
Radial / Rotary
l!t WI
Line type, upright Line type, inverted
Radial
triple radial, displaced pistons radial, inline pistons

air-cooled liquid-cooled

Piston Engine Power Increase
The shaft power output of a normally aspirated gasoline engine is approximately 23% of
the chemical energy content of the fuel. 27% are used up for all strokes except the power
stroke, accessories, cam drive and friction. Minimal optimization through intensive
research and development only is possible in this area.
The major part of about 50% is lost through the increased pressure and temperature of the
exhaust gases. The energy of the increased temperature of the exhaust gases is
irretrievably lost. A part of the energy of the exhaust gases manifested in the increased
pressure can be regained by exhaust gas turbines (about 7%). Two basic methods must be
distinguished for that principle:
Exhaust gas turbines acting directly on the crankshaft by a reduction gear are called
compound drives.
Exhaust gas turbines acting on a compressor to increase the charge of the intake air mass
of the engine are called superchargers. The higher the compression the higher the
efficiency of the engine is. With increasing altitude the ambient air pressure reduces as
well as the charging mass and consecutively the power output of the motor. High blower
superchargers can maintain well more than sea level pressure on the intake air up to the
critical altitude. Multi-stage chargers can be shifted to another gear at higher altitudes
furthermore increasing this critical altitude. As long as the intake pressure can be kept
constant the power output of the engine increases with increasing altitude because the
ambient air pressure back pressuring the bottom of the pistons and the exhaust gases
decreases. Power equals the revolutions per minute (RPM) multiplied by the torque. The
RPMs are easy to measure at the crankshaft while mechanical torque measurement is
more complicated. The manifold pressure (MAP) is the pressure measured downstream
of the throttle plate and upstream of the intake valve. Anticipating a correct combustion
the MAP multiplied by a constant equals the torque. Furthermore manifold pressure is
very important to determine the mechanical limits of the engine itself, especially in high-
blower supercharger and multi-stage supercharger constructions.
Trying to increase the air charge of the engine by compressing the intake fuel/air mixture
also increases the temperature of the air, consequently decreasing the density and the
mass of the air. Intercoolers are ram air cooled circuits downstream of the supercharger
decreasing the temperature of the compressed mixture. In ancient high performance
piston engines water/methanol (50%/50%) injection into the intake air duct was used
most often to cool the compressed mixture down. This injection increased the density of
the mixture and the charging, increasing the peak power output at critical flight phases
like take-off or go-around.
Diesel engines require a higher compression ratio than gasoline engines to reach the
pressure and temperature where the mixture self-ignites. Due to this mandatory high
compression and the higher energy content of the fuel, diesel engines are more efficient.
60
• Piston tuning
normally aspirated supercharger mu! ti - stage charger compound engine
engine
BMEP · RPM Torque-RPM

BHP [HP]
constant 63025
Torque = MAP· constant
Power = MAP• RPM• constant
normally aspirated supercharger multi - stage charger compound engine

engine high blower: dashed line
• Efficiency and power increasing potentials

Piston Engine Fuel Systems
The tank system is the beginning of each fuel system. Downstream of the tank there will
be in any case an engine driven fuel pump mechanically connected to the engine shaft.
An electric fuel pump is mounted in the circuit in the main tanks or in their proximity in
any case other than low performance high wing aircraft where gravity fuel feed ensures
sufficient supply in the case of an engine driven pump failure. A float keeps the fuel at
the operating level in a float-type carburetor. The fuel pressure downstream of the
reservoir is minimal. The throttle plate is mounted downstream of the air intake and
directly connected to the throttle lever. A Venturi narrowing further downstream
generates low pressure to suck the fuel in. A metering nozzle is mounted in the Venturi
with its exhaust at the tightest cross-section. A variable needle is mounted in the nozzle,
directly connected to the mixture lever to meter the fuel/air mixture ratio. The float-type
carburetor is applicable for normal transport category low power aircraft only. The fuel
level in the reservoir is held constant by a diaphragm in the pressure-type carburetor. A
part of the fuel pressure generated by the fuel pumps is hydro mechanically transmitted
downstream of the reservoir through the diaphragm. This construction enables the
carburetor to operate at any attitude while the float-type will only work in a quite upright
position. The Venturi narrowing also is less tight because of the higher fuel pressure. A
cam-driven injection pump in fuel injection systems pumps the fuel to the nozzle while
the fuel flow is valve-metered upstream of the pump. The injection valve is either
mounted in the intake air duct downstream of the throttle plate or upstream of each intake
valve, which enables direct metering for each cylinder. The fuel must be directly injected
in the cylinder head in diesel engines short prior the piston reaches its top dead center to
enable a controlled combustion. All carburetors have an idle nozzle directly at the throttle
plate to stabilize the engine with the throttle plate closed (idle). The pressure drop
downstream of the throttle plate is maximum at idle (up to two third of the ambient
pressure). So is the temperature decrease in this area (up to -25°C). Ice produced
downstream of the throttle plate can collect at the Venturi and clog the narrowing. That is
called carburetor icing and most likely in the approach when the throttle plate is nearly or
fully closed. Ambient factors like higher positive (up to +25°C) air temperatures and high
moisture (in cloud or rain) make carburetor icing most likely. Carburetor heat is used in
most carburetor-controlled engines to avoid icing. The intake air is heated by a heat
exchanger through the exhaust air. Carburetor heat should be on anytime ambient
conditions enable carburetor icing and the power setting is low. The maximum power
decreases up to 10% (approx.) with the carburetor heat set on because the density of the
heated air is less. Fuel injection engines are not susceptible for icing. Any ice built
downstream of the throttle plate is usually "eaten" by the engine because there is no
narrowing which can become clogged. These engines have "alternate air" which bypasses
the air filter in the rare case it might become clogged in severe icing conditions.
62
• Flow- and pressure type carburetors and injection system
r
• --t---1- --.- -~
"=
·- - - i1tali. • pump l pwnp
float-type carburator
r '1
~
i
'
Fuel injection
• Intake air systems

carburator heat
-
I I
alternate ai r
..........
L.. •
to carburato

Piston Ignition, Lubrication and Cooling
'~
Aerial gasoline piston engines are usually ignited by two fully independent magneto
ignition systems. The magnetos are mechanically connected to the crankshaft. One
magneto includes a snapper feather, which stores energy to release it abruptly for the
initial spark in the starting process of the engine, or an additional battery ignition for the
start cycle is installed in higher performance engines.
The ignition tension is induced directly in the magneto in the high-tension ignition
system. Consequently the current is distributed to the individual spark plugs by the
engine driven distributor. The parallel capacitator with the engine driven breaker forces
the system to oscillate synchronous to the engine revolution thus magnifying the ignition
tension at the right time. The parallel ignition switch shuts down the system by short-
circuiting it when closed.
Low-tension ignitions work the same way except that the induced tension is lower. The
transformation to the high ignition voltage is accomplished short prior each individual
spark plug by a transformer. This system is more complicated and heavier but
advantageous for high performance engines. It is capable for high altitude fight because it
is not susceptible for arcing at the distributor due to the fewer isolation in thinner air. The
high-tension leading cables are shorter. Therefore the system is less susceptible for
jamming and will interfere less with the on-board radio equipment.
The oil lubricates all moving parts, cools bearings, pistons, valves and some accessories.
The perceived heat is released in the oil cooler. Abrasion material and residues are
cleaned out by the oil and transported to the oil filter. Metal chips in the oil filter are in
most cases the first indication of excessive wear and an imminent failure. The oil film
also accomplishes the fine sealing of the mechanical components and engine oil is the
medium for some hydraulic components of the engine like the constant speed propeller,
supercharger gear and torque metering systems. The piston is guided through the cylinder
by three rings. The first ring from the top is responsible for the sealing (compression)
while the second distributes the oil and the third wipes the rest oil away (scraper ring).
The oil is collected in an oil well at the bottom of the engine by gravity in wet sump
lubrication systems. High capacity scavenge pumps suck the oil from collecting spots in
the engine to the external oil well in dry sump systems. Dry sump systems work
independently of the attitude while the wet sump system works like the float type
carburetor in a quite upright position only. Downstream of the oil well the oil is filtered
and cooled. The distribution is processed through cavities in the motor block and through
the crankshaft. The high-pressure oil is squirted to the lower inner side of the cylinder
through holes in the crankshaft pin, which are opened by the piston rod at specific piston
positions only.
Most of today's piston engines are air-cooled. WWII designs and some newer engines
use liquid cooling, which makes the engine heavier but has many advantages.
64
• Ignition systems
high tension ignition
±±£±
- sp~ kpiui!S -
low tension ignition

primary circuit I ~0-lOOV
• Lubrication
~park plug5
Wet sump lubrication Dry sump lubrication
• Cooling
air cooled liquid cooled
air now

Piston Engine Power Definitions and Mixture
'~
All power definitions are depicted in the table on the next page. The adequate power is
set through the engine or propeller RPM indication in constant pitch propeller
installations or via the torque or manifold pressure gauges and the RPM in constant speed
(variable pitch) propeller outfits.
Take off power is the highest permitted power setting, which usually is allowed for a
maximum of five minutes. The "Maximum except for take off' (METO) power setting is
slightly lower than take off power but allowed for a longer period of time of usually ten
minutes.
Maximum climb power enables the maximum climb rate but the airspeed must be
sufficient for adequate cooling.
The mass ratio of the fuel and the air is called mixture. Piston engines can run with
mixtures from approximately 1:7 to about 1: 17 (fuel/air).
1:15 is the chemical correct mixture (CCM) where each fuel molecule will be burned,
anticipating a perfect combustion. Exhaust gas (EGT)- and cylinder head temperatures
peak at mixtures close to CCM. Mixtures leaner in fuel content than CCM are called lean
of peak while rich of peak settings describe all mixtures richer than CCM.
Excess fuel is required to make use of all air molecules in the piston charge. Depending
on the optimization degree of the compression volume this mixture produces the highest
power at the best power point (BPP) at approximately I: 12,5. The peaking flame front
velocity makes this mixture most susceptible for detonation. Therefore it should be used
with extreme caution for a specified period of time only and, depending on engine in
conjunction with anti detonation fuel injection (ADI) and/or water/methanol injection
only. Auto rich (I: I 0) is the maximum power setting to be used in engines without
water/methanol injection. The excess fuel guarantees sufficient cooling and detonation
avoidance.
Excess air (I: 16,5) is charged to ensure the combustion of all fuel molecules at the best
economic point (BEP). The highest efficiency (fuel flow/power output ratio) also is
reached at the BEP. The heat coefficient of air is less than the heat capacity of fuel thus
enabling fewer cooling at mixtures lean of peak.
Detonation is an uncontrolled combustion with flame front velocities up to 10 times
greater than at the best power point. These pressure peaks will mechanically destroy the
cylinder. Detonation can also be caused by too low gasoline fuel grades at proper power
settings. Increasing fuel prizes make lean mixtures more appreciable. Many arguments
exist pro and contra lean mixtures. Without any doubt air-cooled aviation engines must
be modified and the exhaust valves are the bottlenecks in this game. Modem mobile
engines with their superior technology and fully automated systems have many
advantages compared to the old aviation engines.
66
• Power setting definitions
Power definition Descri tion

Take off power Max power setting allowed for a specified period of time
TO (usuall 5 min
Maximum except for take off Max power setting lower than Take off power. Permissible
TO for as ecific eriod of time (usuall 10 min
Maximum climb power Setting for max climb rate (speed must be sufficient to enable
MCP coolin
Cruise climb power Climb at higher airspeed than max climb power (good
CCP coolin )
Maximum cruise power Max continuous power at high airspeed. High fuel flow and
CP) hi hest cruise s eed
Cruise power High cruise speed and economic fuel flow
• Mixture
1:10 1:11 1:12 1: 13 1:14 1: 15 1:16 1: 17

fuel / air mixture mass ratio

Turbine Engine Principle
The German physicist von Ohain had the idea to transfer chemical to mechanical energy
through a continuous combustion of the fuel. The first flight of a jet-powered prototype
was accomplished in 1939. The continuous combustion of fuel requires all strokes of a
piston engine to run simultaneously. The compressor compresses the ram air. The
combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber increases the temperature of the air, which
in turns increases the volume. The cross-section of the combustion chamber increases
inasmuch that the pressure will not increase in any operating condition. The turbine
transfers the hugest part of the remaining pressure into mechanical energy, which is used
to drive the compressor and all accessories. A part of the energy is wasted in the
compressor section through the temperature increase and density decrease caused by the
compression. The expansion in the turbine section also causes a temperature drop. This
temperature drop regains a part of the energy originally used to compress the air. The
thrust nozzle is designed to transfer as much of the remaining pressure as possible into
velocity. The pressure at the end of the compressor must be the highest in the entire
system. Any consecutively higher pressures will backpressure the compressor and kill the
engine. Due to this fact jet engines must be accelerated to a minimum speed by the starter
to produce a minimum compressor output pressure before the fires can be lit. That
minimum pressure ensures that no further pressure rise will take place downstream of the
compressor. The RPM belonging to this minimum compressor output is called minimum
self-sustained speed. The exhausted air's static pressure is just little higher than the static
air pressure of the intake air while the velocity of the exhaust air is greatly increased.
This excess velocity contains the propulsive kinetic energy. Thrust is a continuous flow
of impulse ( I = m • v ) and equals the mass flow (kg per second) multiplied with the
velocity difference (exhaust minus intake air velocity). Basically a jet engine works in a
way comparable to a piston engine with a mounted propeller just that the jet incorporates
everything in one integral design. Like in piston engines any exhausted excess pressures
and temperatures higher than ambient conditions represent an irretrievable loss in energy.
The initial design of jet type engines is much more complicated and requires more
sophisticated technologies than building piston engines. The continuous combustion
theoretically decreases the power/weight ratio of jets to one fourth compared to pistons
(only every fourth stroke is a power stroke). In fact this ratio is much smaller than this
because the entire construction is lighter and the engine bearer has to withstand less
vibration. Materials used, especially those in the turbine section must withstand extreme
temperatures while under high mechanical tension (centrifugal). Once designed, jet
engines will run longer and be more reliable than their piston colleagues because they
need fewer mechanical parts. Except the accessories, mechanical contact points are
reduced to the shaft bearings, which greatly reduces wear and increases lifetime.
68
• Jet engine (Turbo jet)
j
1
l _ - -'- -...J
Thrust = 1n • (v""'"" - v,.~.,,,k,) = 111 • fkg1,1 (velocity increase 1m1,i)
• Thermodynamic circuit
Turbine thermodynamics
the compressor
thru,t nozzle
- + - - - - - - - - - , - - , - , - - - - - - c - - ~ - , - -- vo lWJlC
the higher volume is lrJnsfered
into velocity by lhc thrust nozzle

Jet Engine Designs
It is very complicated to design a multi-stage single-shaft axial flow compressor, which

runs stable in the entire operating range. The front compressor stages are especially
susceptible for surge. Surge bleed valves are pneumatic valves mounted at the
problematic compressor positions. They open automatically when the engine runs in a
suspicious RPM range. Multiple surge bleed valves are installed in older engines,
indicating a temporary solution to overcome problems in the engine design.
The Mach speed rises with the compression due to the increasing temperature along the
compressor. The tips of the rear compressor stages in a single-shaft engine run at a
smaller Mach number and the efficiency decreases.
Designing two-spool (double shaft) engines remedies those compressor troubles.
Propulsive efficiency describes the efficiency implied through the difference of the air
velocity at the intake and at the exhaust. In short words, the engine will be more efficient
if a larger amount of air is accelerated to a slower speed than accelerating a smaller mass
of air to high speeds like the pure jet engine does. The speed at the exhaust should be just
little higher than the desired cruise speed of the airplane.
Bypass axial-flow turbojets grew out of the double shaft designs. Triple-shaft engines
have been built for civil as well as military engines but that design proved to be too
complicated and expensive to maintain.
The third picture shows the cross-section of a modem turbofan engine. The turbofan
principle grew from the need to increase the propulsive efficiency and basically is similar
to a turbo propeller engine except that the fan is ducted. The ducted fan requires a design
different from a propeller though it also runs in the sub- and transonic speed regimes.
The fan's tips are differently designed because there is almost no induced drag produced
at the end. The tips are running with a minimum gap in the fan's duct rendering the
production of induced drag to almost none.
The inner shaft holds the high-pressure sections of the compressor and the turbine. The
outer shaft bears the low-pressure sections and the fan. The inner shaft drives the external
accessory gearbox. Both shafts are not mechanically connected. The coupling between
both is thermodynamic only. At the design point the RPMs of both shafts match. When
the engine is driven lower than the design point the low pressure section will tum slower
relative to the high pressure part. At engine speed higher than the design point this ratio
reverses.
Today's engines with bypass ratios of 8/l and more are built. This boosts the propulsive
efficiency to numbers near 90% whereas the original jets only had about 50%.
The bypassed cold low speed air shelters the hot high-speed core air. An immense
reduction in operating noise represents the pleasant side effect of the ongoing bypass
ratio increase.
70
• Different jet designs
single- shaft axial-flow turbojet engine
01r-mtake chffusor combustion chamber turbine ru l ,u11!'
exhaust gas velocity

II II II I I ~ (f±_ I
I 600m/s
11111111 cq- I total 600rn/s
bypass axial-flow turbojet engine

fll't',HIII'<. (t'cf/On pressun• tt•t.:fi,m
high h1g_h _
- - - _4_0_
0m_l_
s --l►
►---- --II►
600m/s
total 480m/s
double-shaft axial-flow turbofan engine
____.
280m/s
___,.
intake velocity
600m/s
240m/s
____.
total 31 0m/s
• Bypass ratio and propulsive efficiency

. cold air mass
b ypass ratio = .
warm arr mass
2
propulsive efficiency
exhaust gas velocity
1+ - -- -=-----'-
intake air velocity

Turbo Propeller Engine Designs
The propulsive efficiency determines the choice of the power plant for the individual
airplane type. While turbofan propulsion is most efficient for aircraft cruising at around
450 kt TAS, turbo propellers reach their peak propulsive efficiency around 300kts TAS.
Turbo prop propulsion is related to turbofan engines except that the propeller is
conventional and not ducted.
The turbine section of shaft power engines is constructed to produce more power than the
compressor uses. This excess power is transmitted to the reduction gear (reduction
around 1:10) and from there to the propeller. Any compressor bypasses do not make any
sense for turbo props. The equivalent power (ESHP) of the engine is the power produced
by the propeller plus the equivalent of the jet thrust produced by the turbine. Older
engines generate up to 10% of the thrust out of the hot core exhaust gases from the
engme.
The graphics on the next page show axial flow-type engines only. Small shaft power
engines especially are constructed very interlocked end integral. Radial compressors or a
combination of radial and axial compressors are often used for low power turbo props
and helicopter engines.
Direct drive single shaft engines are simplest in construction, which makes them cheap in
acquisition and maintenance. The starting process is a weak point of direct drives. The
starter has to tum the entire shaft including gear and propeller. This requires strong
starters, batteries and heavy cables to bear the high amperage. Direct drive engines can be
identified easily on the ramp because their propellers are in the highest RPM position on
the ground to reduce the air loads on the propeller in the starting process.
Most other shaft engines are constructed according to the two-spool or freewheeling
turbine principle. Like in jet engines with more than one shaft the shafts in these turbo
prop engine are thermodynamically connected only.
Just little more expensive than piston engines the turbo propeller drive is the ideal link in
the speed range between piston and turbofan engines. They contain the high reliability
and high frequency vibration only jets offer. The high frequency vibration has little
influence on the airframe.
Almost all turbo prop outfits offer reverse power. Operating in the Beta range means the
engine runs at its minimum ground idle and the taxi speed is controlled by propeller pitch
only. The Power lever controls the propeller pitch in the beta mode and the underspeed
governor prevents the engine from bog down. The beta mode reverts to the normal flight
mode when the power levers are advanced over a detent. In the normal flight mode the
power levers control the engine throttle while the speed levers set the normal flight
governor for the desired engine RPM. The over- and underspeed governors assure that
the engine runs within its envelope.
72
• Turbo prop engines
[%]
100
90
[ ~o
~ 70
~ 60
4 50
§-
"- 40
30
20
10
o., l.O air speed [Ml 1.5
single- shaft direct drive turbo propeller engine
n:dw.:11011 gi.:ar
two-spool turbo propeller engine
freewhccl-typc turbo propeller engine

Air-Intake Casing
Depending on the intended speed range of the aircraft different designs of the air-intake
are required. The inlet must be adjusted to the engine closely. The requirements are:
• Minimum flow loss
• Minimum aerodynamic drag
• Even flow and velocity at the compressor entry (around M 0,5)
• Transfer of the kinetic energy of the entering air into static pressure
• Enabling all of the above requirements also in extreme aircraft attitudes
These requirements lead to different designs because sub- and supersonic flows are
fundamentally different. While running below the design speed (approx Mach 0,5) the air
is sucked in from all directions. This increases the speed of the air in the intake, which
might lead to local stalls of the airflow reducing the mass flow. At and above the design
speed the air ram piles up which pre-compresses the intake air thus increasing the mass
flow.
The Pitot inlet is used for all aircraft flying below M 1,5. When reaching sonic speed a
normal shockwave develops at the leading edge of the inlet and detaches at higher
speeds. The kinetic energy of the ram air is momentarily transferred into heat and
pressure in the normal shock wave. The higher temperatures reduce the mass flow. The
temperature loss equals around 10% at M 1,5 (At M 2,4 it would be as high as 46%).
Air intake diffusers generating multiple oblique shock waves are required for speeds in
excess of M 1,5 to keep the temperature losses as low as possible. Two basic designs are
used for this. An adjustable hub in a round Pitot type intake casing generates oblique
shockwaves. The number of shock waves depends on the design of the hub. The position
of the hub depends on the airspeed. The higher the speed the more the hub is driven
forward into the airflow.
A rectangular inlet with adjustable guide plates inside is easier to construct and found on
most modem supersonic aircraft. The frontal guide plates drive to a close position at high
airspeeds while they will be fully open at subsonic speeds, enabling the airflow to be
undisturbed.
74
• Diffuser inlets
Pitot inlet
I
M-0.5 Hub
Round Diffuser inlet

,~ pressure. vclociLy . tcmpcalurc
multiple-shock-wave type
oblique shock\\a,cs
adjustable Hub
~ >
pressure. velocity. tcmpcaturc
Rectangular Diffuser inlet

multiple-shock-wave type
oblique ~hock~vavc,;;
~ I
11- --7---;..........!
I
Pilot's Reference Guide © - 7 5

Compressor
Two basic designs are employed and named after the main flow direction in the
compressor. The radial compressor originates from the beginning of the jet age and is
used in low shaft power engines for small turbo props, helicopters and auxiliary power
units.
The air flows in axially in the radial compressor and is accelerated radially by centrifugal
forces. The blades are bent in the turning direction at the entry cross section to accelerate
the air gradually and avoid the generation of vortices at the inlet.
The diffuser transfers excess velocity into static pressure at the exit of the compressor.
The pressure increase in a single stage radial compressor can be up to five times the inlet
pressure. Double stage compressors produce a compression factor of about seven. This is
due to high losses originating in the 270° change of airflow direction from the first to the
second stage. Double-flow type radials produce the same compression factor than the
single-flow type just the mass flow is doubled at the same diameter.
Axial compressors principally are built in multiple stages. One stage consists of a rotor
and a stator. The compression per stage is around 1.3, while the pressure rises
exponentially with the number of stages. The mass flow of the axial is by dimensions
greater than anything achievable with radial types. All individual blades are shaped like
an airfoil. The rotor works like a propeller while the stator straightens the airflow and
transfers the velocity, produced in the rotor into static pressure. Like a propeller all blades
are geometrically and aerodynamically twisted to account for the rotational speeds at
different diameters.
A compressor stall is a light disturbance containing some individual blades. A stall can
develop into a surge, which means the entire compressor runs instable.
Causes for stalls or surges are: The design, rapid engine acceleration out of low power
settings, idling in strong crosswinds and turbulence.
Multi shaft engines, surge bleed valves and adjustable stator vanes are constructive
measures to stabilize the compressor operation through a wide range.
Combined compressors are used for low shaft power engines. The first couple of stages
of the axial compressor are rather easy. The following radial compressor does the
problematic high-pressure compression. The total compression ratio can be more than
double the number a double stage radial can produce.
76
• Compressor designs
compression factor Axial
41 ~ II
II II I ! (p_ I
----
•
5
single-stage, single-flow type

II I I
(iz
single-shaft type
I ►---
■
f
7
compression number of stages _ 13n

per stage '
10 stage compressor: -1 ,3 JO - 14
single-stage, double-flow type
I I I
1,3 n + 5
axial-radial type

Combustion Chamber
The fuels chemical energy is transferred to heat in the combustion chamber. The axial
cross section of all combustion chambers is more or less the same and shown at the
bottom.
The diameter of the air from the compressor, which already is around 450°C hot from the
compression, is widened to further reduce the speed of the air and increase the remaining
time of the air in the chamber. About one third of the air (primary) is rooted through a
central diffuser, which induces an axial rotation in the flow, further reducing the speed.
The fuel nozzle injects the liquid right after the diffuser. The fuel/air mixture should be
I: 15 (CCM) to enable a complete combustion of the fuel. The design of the combustion
chamber, especially of the primary area only can produce appropriate mixture ratios. The
temperatures in the center of the primary area can be as high as 2400°C. That
temperature definitely is to high to get in contact with any material in the combustion
chamber. The secondary air or cooling air, which makes about two thirds of the total
amount entering the combustion chamber is rooted through the flame tube and from there
onto converging tracks to the center of the chamber containing the hot temperatures and
mixing with the primary air to produce an even output temperature of about 900 to
l 200°C which is cold enough to enter the turbine section. After all the ratio of the total
air and the fuel entering the combustion chamber is around 60 to 1.
A historical development can be seen in the lateral cross section of the chambers:
Single type combustion chambers are ancient designs. Tube like formed chambers are
arranged circular around the axis between the compressor and the turbine section and
connected through a small tube to enable the ignition of the chambers not equipped with
spark plugs. The design requirements for combustion chambers are easier to meet in
multiple small and restricted chambers.
Combination type chambers are an intermediate development step on the way to the up-
to-date ring type. With increasing experience in design and operation of jets the
individual units became more integrated. Combination chambers contain multiple tube
shaped flame tubes in one single casing making the extra tube for the ignition
unnecessary.
The ring type chamber represents the final step in the development process and is used in
all modem engines. This type grants an even supply of the heated air to the turbine and
higher efficiency because of the bigger combustion volume, an almost entire combustion
of the fuel as well as optimum circular reproduction of the flames. The design, production
and maintenance are complicated and expensive but the advantages predominate.
78
• Combustion chamber designs
' (Lateral · • section)
Single Combination Ring
• General (longitudinal) cross-section
~~ u
0
0
0
....... N
., 0
.....,. ]~
g
<.)
___,.. 2~
-o
l
f-
1==
pressure. ve loc ity

Turbine
The turbine is a thermal engine, which transfers a part of the temperature and pressure of
the gas into mechanical work to drive the compressor, fan and auxiliary systems. The
turbine section is the most stressed part of the engine. While the stator vanes are exposed
to high temperatures only the rotor blades are also stressed by high mechanical forces,
which only special and very expensive alloys can withstand. Even very temperature
resistant materials creep when exposed to combined thermal and mechanical stress. Creep
is an irreversible plastic deformation of the material in the direction of the mechanical
stress, which is the centrifugal force. When passing a certain threshold temperature (far
below the turbine inlet temperature TIT) the creep starts. The initially exponential creep
gets linear after a certain time and finally exponential again until the blade breaks. The
life cycle is determined to be within the linear part. Any temperatures, just little higher
than the certified limits accelerate the creep in the linear region as well as the initial onset
of the final exponential creep leading to the failure of the part.
Compressor blades of the high-pressure section are susceptible to the same problem but
the turbine blades definitely are the bottleneck of the engine.
Like the compressor designs turbine layouts can be divided into radial and axial outfits.
The radial turbine design is very ineffective and therefore not used anymore today except
for piston engine turbo chargers and model aircraft gas turbine engines. The exhaust
gases expand into the shovel-formed blades of the turbine against the centrifugal forces.
Because of its ineffectiveness radial turbines are found as single stage setups only.
The hot gases flow through a stator and a consecutive rotor ring in an axial turbine. The
effective cross-section of the turbine has to increase along the flow direction because the
air expands while the velocity does not increase. The thennal stress of the first stage
usually exceeds the strength of the material. Therefore the first stage is cooled with bleed
air in most engines. Each individual blade of the first stage is hollow and the bleed air
flows from the center to the tip or through multiple holes or gaps in the blade to the
surface to form a cooling laminar film on the blade and shelter the material.
Action and reaction axial turbines can be distinguished. The basic difference is the shape
of the rotor blades.
Pressure and temperature is transformed to velocity in the stator of the action turbine
only. The symmetric rotor blades act to the inflowing gas like paddles.
Unlike the action version the reaction turbine transfers the energy from the hot gas into
kinetic energy in the rotor and the stator. The output per stage is almost doubled.
80
• Turbine designs
Axial
~
Action
ShH!C
stawr rotor
I
sta tor rotor
I Reaction
'¾_._,__ ,,- ~ -~✓ V

a.,;olutc vcloc11y
osolutc,doclly
ctmivc veloci ty
rclati,c \rcloc1 ty tatmnal ..,clocit)
rotauonal , eloc1I)
pressure. "clocity
't~ g1~
A ,
pressure. velocity
I
! (p._ ---
41....!..!...!,.!'"'-'-"'--'-(===q-_____.._.__~
nozzle single-shaft type
pressure. velocity I
~
I <p.- · • ----
1 cg:: ~.
double-shaft type

Thrust Nozzle and Afterburner
The afterburner is a means of increasing the engines thrust for a short period of time.
Modem afterburners double the thrust of the engine at the cost of a four times higher fuel
flow. The afterburner's use should be limited short simply to prevent the aircraft from
running dry. Its is widely used in military combat jets and the Concorde jet transport to
shorten the take off distance or increase the take off weight, temporary increase of the
climb performance or temporary high speed flight. The Propulsive efficiency is far
beyond even mentioning it.
The exhaust gas of the jet engine contains a large part of un-combusted oxygen
(secondary and bypass air). Fuel is injected in the exhaust duct behind the engine. The
flames are held by ring shaped flame arrestors and a torch igniter assures the ignition of
the mixture. The basic layout is like a gigantic combustion chamber. A flame tube roots
colder air around the flame arrestors and from there into the fire to prevent the duct
casing from being exposed to the extremely high temperatures. The exhaust gas
temperature doesn't matter any more because the air is directly exhausted through the
thrust nozzle without any consecutive sensitive parts like the turbine.
The thrust nozzle of the afterburner engine must be adjustable. With the afterburner
switched off the nozzle is set convergent. When the burner ignites the nozzle must open
to divergent momentarily. If the nozzle opens and the burner does not ignite a major part
of the thrust is lost because of the ineffective nozzle setting. If the burner ignites and the
nozzle remains closed (convergent) the exhaust would virtually clog and backpressure the
engine, possibly extinguishing or even destroying it.
The thrust nozzle is the last part of the engine behind the turbine or the afterburner.
The pressure and a part of the temperature are transformed into velocity in the nozzle.
The velocity rises to a maximum of sonic speed (at the temperature of the exhaust gases)
in the divergent nozzle when the pressure ratio is critical. The sonic speed rises with the
temperature thus the hot gases exhaust with around two times the speed of sound of the
ambient air at full power at the typical jet cruise altitudes and the divergent nozzle can be
used for trans- and supersonic flight up to M 1,5.
The convergent-divergent (Laval) nozzle has to be used to enable exhaust gas velocities
above sonic speed of the hot gases. This type of nozzle is of no use as long as the exhaust
velocity is subsonic. It is always realized as an adjustable nozzle in combination with an
afterburner engine.
82
• Afterburner engine
-,;
if. 1orchignitcr
_""'==...= ◄~
~ fl=fuc◄~ I
·►
- n,.n~
- ••""
l;pe arrestors
-""'===~~
I --===== ◄~ I
◄::5:-
sonil' s ccd (a EGT
afterburner on and nozzle divergent anticipiatcd pressure, veloc ity. ll'mpcrawrc
• Thrust nozzles
J
Convergent
l
Convergent I Divergent
] !
·c Isonic speed (a EGT 1
'K pressure, velocity pressure, veloc ity

Thrust Reverser Systems
Due to the high landing speeds of jets thrust reversers are installed in turbine-powered
aircraft to offer the possibility to be easy on the brakes thus reducing brake wear. Without
reverse thrust the engines also would produce a mentionable amount of thrust, working
against the wheel brakes when set to idle. By deflecting a part of the engines flow
forward a negative thrust of about 50% can be produced at maximum reverse thrust
settings significantly reducing the landing roll.
The graphic on the top shows the effects of reverse thrust compared to wheel braking
only. Whenever the friction coefficient is less than maximum reversers are very efficient
especially in the high-speed portions of the landing roll.
The rear part of the engine casing or the thrust nozzle moves backwards and converges,
reversing the total outlet of the engine (hot and bypass air) in aircraft equipped with the
target type thrust reverser system.
In the cascade type reverser system the rear part of the engine frame (deflector doors)
moves backwards, driving a mechanism which blocks the forward pointed thrust beam
releasing cascade shaped deflector vanes directing the flow forward. In some of the
cascade type reversers only the bypass air is deflected forward (as shown in the picture).
This is sufficient to enable enough reverse thrust and eliminates problems of re-injecting
exhaust air at slower speeds but leaves the hot core air exhausted unsheltered thus
increasing the noise level significantly when revere thrust is selected.
Other types use cascade reversers to redirect the bypass air and target types to reverse the
core air as well (not depicted).
Turbo propeller engines can be reversed by setting the propeller blades to a negative
pitch. This also enables negative thrusts of 50% and more at higher power settings. Turbo
props even can taxi backwards and turn with a minimum radius when using reverse,
which is forbidden at most airports for jets because the exhaust is too concentrated and
intensive and would damage objects. Turboprops are especially susceptible to re-injection
of the exhaust gases, which can be prevented by designing the propeller to:
• Not reach negative pitch angles at diameters around the engines inlet
• Propeller pitch is set just outside the diameters of the inlet
• The propeller does not have an aerodynamic profile around the inlet
Usually minimum speeds are specified for reverse- thrust or power in jet- and
turbopropeller outfits to reduce the change of foreign object damage (FOD). FOD is the
damage caused by foreign objects being ingested in the engine inlets.
84
• Effect of thrust reversers
o . s - - - - - ~ - -~ - - ~ -- -- ~ - ~ Dry
5
~
~04 - - - - - - - + - - ---'r-- - - + - - - - - l - - + - - -----i
-~ .
;f
0,1- - -- ---~~---+-----<---+---< Ice
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

% Landing roll
• Thrust reverser systems
Cascade type thrust reverser
------
Auxiliary Jet Systems
Jet engines drive multiple accessory systems for their own infrastructure as well as in
support of other aircraft systems. The main shaft or the high-pressure shaft in multiple
shaft engines mechanically drives the accessory gearbox, which is located at one side of
the engine. Most of the infrastructure components are connected to this gearbox.
Like in most other setups the fuel is transferred to the engine and pre-pressurized by two
electric fuel pumps per tank. The engine driven fuel pump assures fuel flow in the case of
an electric failure and pumps the fuel into the Fuel Control Unit (FCU), which meters the
fuel for the need of the engine. The thrust lever is connected to the FCU and determines
the desired thrust setting. When accelerating the FCU slowly increases the fuel flow to
avoid a stalling engine due to insufficient air supply by the compressor. It also controls
other engine systems like surge bleed valves and accelerator valves and sets them for the
desired condition. When rapid acceleration is required some engines offer accelerator
valves which route a fraction of the bypass air into the high-pressure compressor thus
enabling a faster spool up. The fuel flow is gradually reduced to decelerate the engine
without a flameout when the throttles are closed rapidly. Modem FCUs also offer red line
protection (restricts the exceedance of any engine limits) and auto relight when a flame
out should occur. If important engine systems (FCU), which are necessary for engine
operation, require electric power the engine usually is equipped with a separate contained
generator satisfying the electrical needs of these vital engine systems only.
The engine driven oil pump pumps the engine oil from the reservoir into the bearings and
the gear. A continuous oil jet keeps the fast turning engine ball bearings lubricated. Most
bearings are sealed with labyrinth air-oil seals. The outer frame of the bearing is
pressurized with bleed air. The air presses the oil inside and in the drain rather than
outside of the bearing. The oil scavenge pump helps to drain the oil through the oil
cooler, filter and to the reservoir. The oil is either air-cooled or cooled in a heat
exchanger with the oil preheating the fuel.
Bleed air is extracted from the high and low-pressure sections of the engine. A pressure
regulator drives the valves to obtain a rather constant pressure at all operating and bleed
air demand conditions. The bleed air is used to cool the first turbine stage and the
bearings as well as to drive the air condition, the anti-ice system and to pressurize almost
all liquids to prevent foaming and evaporation at high altitudes. Other components like
the hydraulic pump and the electric generator are used to drive external aircraft systems
only.
Large engines are started with an air starter that spools the engine up to a minimum speed
where it can be lit and helps it to further accelerate to the minimum self sustained speed
(ground Idle). Smaller engines use electric starters or starter-generators.
The ignition is driven by the main and standby electric system of the aircraft and is
necessary for start-up and flying in rain, ice and turbulence only. During take-off and
landing it is switched on as backup to prevent a flame out in any case.
86
, -
• Important jet engine systems
Electric driven
fuel pumps
Bleed air extraction
-~"
---
►
·,:;
~
"
C:
·5n
~
C:
"
Hydraulic
Reservoir
">-
'">-
~
J B
::,
-5;
,:;
-=
• Labyrinth air-oil sealed main bearing

fnirnoil
pun1)
bkcd
lll r
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beanng

General Jet Considerations
Thrust equals the mass flow of the air multiplied by the difference of the intake and
exhaust air velocity plus the mass flow of the fuel plus the remaining static thrust (static
pressure higher than ambient at the exhaust). To simplify this the major first part of the
equation is considered only. When assuming a constant mass flow and altitude the thrust
decreases with increasing airspeed because the intake air velocity approaches the exhaust
air velocity. On the other hand the mass flow increases with increasing airspeed when the
power setting is kept constant because the ram air is dammed in the air-intake. The
increasing ram air pressure adds to the compression of the compressor and increases the
total compression. When both graphs are multiplied the maximum available thrust results
(third graph from the left, top). This available thrust is shown for the Jet, Turbofan and
Turboprop engine. Turboprops can be seen as Turbofan engines with an extremely high
bypass ratio (>40: 1). The qualitative difference between these three functions once again
clarifies the operating envelopes of the different engine setups.
Thrust decreases with decreasing air density, which takes place when the temperature
increases or the pressure decreases. Altitude is a function of decreasing pressure and
temperature thus the thrust decreases steadily with the increasing altitude. From the
Tropopause on where the temperature remains constant (temperature inversion) with
increasing altitude the maximum available thrust decreases with a higher gradient at
increasing altitudes. The thrust/airspeed (intake-exhaust velocity) curve shows a little
peak in the high airspeed regimes. This means a jet produces more thrust at higher than at
medium speeds and is the reason for the speeds for best rate and best angle of climb (Vx
& Vy) being little higher than those for the best lift/drag (L/Dma,) ratio of the airframe.
The maximum thrust of a full rated engine decreases with increasing air temperature
when the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) is kept constantly at its maximum. The EGT is
used as a more common indication instead of the limiting Turbine inlet temperature
(TIT). The EGT usually is more or less linear to the TIT.
The maximum EGT and thus the max. TIT is reduced when the engine is De-rated. These
constantly lower temperatures in the hot section increase the lifetime, especially of the
expensive hot section up to the factor five.
The max available thrust (preset maximum) is kept available on demand up to a certain
temperature when the engine is Flat rated (usually 29°C in modem jets engines). A
combination of De- and Flat rating can boost up the lifetime of the engine to factors of
ten and more compared to the full rated engine.
Common power setting definitions are shown at the table in the bottom. These are
referred to as power settings for Turboprop aircraft and as thrust settings for Jet and
turbofan aircraft. Depending on manufacturer and model TO and CLB may be prefixed
by R- for reduced or D- for De-rated.
88
• Thrust vs. Speed
Decreasing d!f[<.'1·ence ben•,:een Increasing mass flow due
intake and exhaust velociry to high ram air pressure Thrust= mussflow •(Exhaust • intake ,.:e/ociryJ
11s~umption: mass flow

&altitude •con$tanl
intake - exhaust velocity intake - exhaust velocity
• Thrust vs. Altitude
Ambient air temperature Ambient air pressure Altitude
• Engine rating
Full rated engine • De-rated engine Flat rated engine
5
u.J
-'1l Reduced TlT for longer life time
Air temperature
~~ - Air temperature Air temperature
FlatraLc temperature
• Power setting definitions
Power settin Definition

Idle, App Idle Levers @ rear mechanical stop, automatic change to app. Idle when
redetermined conditions a l
TO Thrust limit for Take off, limited for 5 or 10 min
MCT CP Max. Continuous thrust ower), no time limit
CLB Climb thrust settin
CRZ Cruise thrust settin
GA Go around thrust setting

Efficiency of Jet Propulsion
The outer efficiency equals the propulsive efficiency which is prescribed in detail in the
section "Jet engine designs". The term outer efficiency includes all considerations, which
take place outside of the engine. Nevertheless in reality the speed of the aircraft never can
be as high as the speed of the exhaust gases. A certain difference has to be kept to
overcome the drag. An optimum total exhaust velocity for the design cruise speed has to
be found for each aircraft type.
The term Inner efficiency includes all important factors in the engine. It is the product of
the thermal efficiency, the quality grade, the efficiency of the combustion and the
mechanical efficiency. Thermal efficiency is the ratio of the heat added and the heat,
profited from in the thermodynamic process. The thermal efficiency primarily depends on
the pressure ratio of the compressor. In-flight the total compression equals the ram air
pressure before the compressor intake plus the compression ratio of the compressor. Thus
thermal efficiency increases with increasing air speed. The quality grade describes the
temperature difference of the air exiting the compressor and entering the turbine. The
maximum turbine inlet temperature is limited (refer to engine ratings) while the
temperature increase in the compressor is determined by the compression itself.
Consequently low ambient air temperatures enable high quality grades. The quality grade
and the thermal efficiency behave contrary. An optimum of both has to be met in the
original engine design.
The mechanical efficiency describes the losses through friction and accessory aggregates
while the combustion efficiency indicates the completeness of the combustion in the right
place (combustion chamber; not downstream of which).
Earlier jet aircraft engines where equipped with water/methanol injection to trick out the
thermal efficiency and the quality grade. The materials used for the hot section and the
cooling of the first turbine stage were not yet sophisticated enough to enable proper TITs.
The liquid was injected before or after the compressor in maximum power situations like
Take-off and Go-around. The injection before the compressor enhanced the thermal
efficiency and the quality grade through cooling of the air. The injection after the
compressor increased the quality grade only. An increase of the maximum thrust of up to
30% is possible when injecting a cooling liquid. The liquid is exhausted with the other
hot gases thus increasing the mass flow and the thrust by another 4%. The complicated
system and the weight of the water/methanol are the odds. Modem engines usually have
enough thrust. The surplus thrust is rather traded for lifetime (De- & Flat rate) than
increased.
The specific fuel consumption (fuel weight/power output) of any jet propulsion usually is
double the number of a common piston engine. Nevertheless jet designs outbalance this
disadvantage by an about four to six times lower weight of the engine which does not
have to be carried around thus reaching higher altitudes and encountering thinner air, less
drag and lower temperatures.
90
• Outer efficiency equals propulsive efficiency
2
propulsive efficiency
+ exhaust gas velocity
1
intake air velocity
• Inner efficiency (11)

T1 inner = T1 thermal · T1 quality grade · T1 mechanical · T1 combustion
Heat used by the process

T] lhcnnal = Heat a dd e d to th e process
Work of the real gas turbine

T] qual ity -eradc = W ork o f the 1"d ea I gas turb"me
I] --- ---
Aviation Fuel
Crude oil consists of about 85-weight % carbon and about 10% hydrogen. Depending on
the quality up to five weight percent can be sulphur. The hydrocarbon units exist in
straight- and line shaped molecules in various lengths. In the crude oil processing the
individual fractions are sorted by their boiling points, which is the most characterizing
property of crude oil. The boiling point decreases with the size of the hydrocarbon units.
All fossil fuels are condensation products of crnde oil.
C + 20 = CO 2 and 2H + 0 = H2O are the main reactions fuelling any combustion of
fossil fuel. The exhausted water produces the contrails at certain ambient conditions and
high altitudes.
The requirements of fuel for piston engines are demanding. The sulphur content must be
diminished because it would harm the exhaust valves and clog the exhaust system.
Additives like lead-tetra ethyl or substitutes for which are added to increase the octane
number and protect the exhaust valves. The octane number quantifies the temperature and
pressure where flame front velocity of the fuel becomes uncontrolled, the fuel detonates
thus killing the engine. Higher effectivity requires higher compression ratios, which in
tum requires higher octane graded fuels. Most aviation fuels (Avgases) have octane
numbers greater than I 00. The power number indicates in percent how more the fuel can
be stressed compared to the ISO-octane reference fuel. The first number indicates this
ratio for a lean of peak mixture while the second number (behind the dash) shows the
ratio for rich of peak mixtures.
Jet engines are way less demanding regarding fuel quality. Theoretically jet engines
should be capable of eating any fuel. The permissible sulphur content is higher because
the residues do not harm the high quality materials of the jet (especially turbine section)
and also causes the characterizing odor of jet engine exhaust gases. The higher sulphur
content and fewer additives makes the fuel easier to produce and cheaper.
Other factors become more important for jet fuels:
The flash point indicates the dangerousness of the fuel. The flash point is the lowest
temperature where an ignitable fuel air mixture forms above the fuel at standard sea level
pressure through evaporation of the fuel. It should be as high as possible.
The freezing point should be lowest to enable prolonged high altitude flight without extra
expenses for fuel heating systems.
The heat value indicates the total energy content per weight and should be highest.
The density of all fuel varies with temperature. In modem aircraft fuel amounts are
operationally measured in weight rather than in volume units. The weight unit indicates
the energy content directly, regardless of the temperature and the volume while it also
directly represents the extra weight, which has to be lifted by the aircraft.
92
• Important A vgas and kerosene fuel types
Characteristics
lOOLL 115 Milita
Power number 100/130 115/145
Color blue een violet
-60°C -60°C -60°C
Densi 0,72k /I 0,72 k /I 0,73 k /1
Lead-tetra ethyl 2 ml/US-gallon 3 ml/US-gallon 4,6 ml/US-gallon
Characteristics" Kerosene fuel types I

JETA JET A-1 JETB (JP4) I
Freezine point -40°C -47°C -58°C
Flash point +38°C +38°C -20°C
Density (@20°C) 0,79 kg/1 0,79 kg/1 0,76 kg/I
Heat value 42,5 MJ/kg 42,5 MJ/kg 43 MJ/kg
Boiling region 160 ... 280°C 160 .. .280°C 60 ... 240°C
• Crude oil processing
c-~ ·-·
c..=:-j
..................~
,._
I""' ...........,..... , ,L_ kerosme
L,--. . - , . ~ -, . diesel oil
heating oil
lubrication oil

Aviation Oil
The lubricating effect of oil forms when the pressure between the two lubricated surfaces
is less than the margin, specific for the oil kind and temperature. The oil film prevents the
two metal surfaces from touching each other. The viscosity of the oil determines the
friction.
The flash point of all lubrication oils is beyond 250 to 300°C. Besides lubrication oil
fulfils multiple other important tasks like: fine sealing, transport of residues and
aberration products to the oil filter, cooling of bearings and hot spots as well as heat
transfer to the oil cooler, protection against corrosion and hydraulic medium for some
other systems or accessories. Strict adherence to the manufacture's recommendations is
important because the material of the seals as well as the oil leading hoses must match the
oil used.
The viscosity of lubricating oil is measured in the Saybolt-Seconds-Universal (SSU).
This unit indicates the time in seconds 60 cm3 of oil need to flow through a standardized
hole by gravity. The viscosity number (usually the second value in the headline) shows
the temperature range in which the oil's viscosity can be considered constant.
Mineral oils are direct condensates of crude oil minus sulphur and plus additives, like
fossil fuels. The properties of mineral oil are sufficient for aviation piston engines. Oil
corrosion (aging) is caused by a gradual oxidation of the hydrocarbon components, which
decomposes the molecule chains. Mineral oil ages fast regardless if the engine runs or not
and is little aggressive only. The synthetic additives cause the aggressively.
Synthetic oil is an artificial product. The properties can be individually selected and it
usually is very aggressive to materials and skin. Synthetic oils are less susceptible to
aging as well as almost viscous-elastic, which means their properties change minimal
only with temperature. Fully synthetic oils are used for jet engines and hydraulic systems.
The forces in the jet engine's anti-friction bearings are less than in piston engines. The oil
film does not have to be very strong. Jet engine oil is less viscous and the oil pressure
usually is less. Jet engines bearings are pressured by bleed air. This continuous supply
with fresh air requires the slow aging properties, synthetic oil can offer only. The heat
resistance before internal decomposition will take place also is higher.
Partial synthetic oil is a mixture of mineral and synthetic oil. The calculated addition of
synthetic oil renders away some disadvantages of the mineral oil. Partial synthetic oil is
used in the highly demanding mobile engine and also in some newer high technology
aviation piston engine designs which originally evoluted out of mobile engines.
Fully mineral oils can be mixed with other mineral oils. Partial synthetic oils can be
mixed with each other up to a certain degree. Synthetic oils cannot be mixed at all (Only
same kind and same manufacturer). Mineral and synthetic oils must not be mixed at all.
An uncalculated mixture leads to a clotted liquid, which looses its lubricative properties
and clogs the entire system in a short period of time.
94
• Oils
partly syntetic oil

♦
car engines
(some new aircraft engines)
aviation piston ~ jet

engines ~ engmes

General Performance
Whenever the aircrafts speed is constant the thrust or power must be equal to the total
drag of the aircraft regardless of the attitude or speed. When the aircraft should climb the
wing must be at a high angle of attack to produce extra lift. This high angle of attack in
tum produces higher drag that must be balanced by extra thrust or power. Extra power is
also required for turns and accelerations. In the descent the gravity vector acting in the
direction of the aircraft flight path adds or replaces the thrust vector. The total drag is a
function of the speed, attitude, mass, configuration and density. To be correct one should
refer to the term power rather than thrust whenever shaft power output is used for the
propulsion or even for a fraction of it. This is the fact whenever propellers are used for
the propulsion regardless weather a piston or a turbine engine drives the prop. It also
applies for turbofan engines where - depending on the bypass ratio- a fraction or even
the majority of the propulsion is done by the shaft driven fan, thus the text refers to the
term power only because any modem propulsion uses shaft power to drive the fan. The
characteristic comma shaped drag curve (power curve) results by adding the exponential
profile and parasite drag to the decreasing induced drag. The curve represents the power
required to maintain un-accelerated straight and level flight throughout the speed range.
Power curves for flight situations other than straight and level flight (tum & climb) are
qualitatively equal; just offset to higher numbers. The power curve is unique for each
aircraft, configuration and actual aircraft mass. The trough indicates the lowest drag and
the appropriate speed equals the minimum drag or maximum endurance speed. The
contact point of the tangent from the origin to the curve indicates the appropriate speed to
achieve the maximum range at the current conditions. The excess power curve results
after overlaying the graph of the maximum available power and subtracting the required
power of which. Any excess power can be converted into acceleration or altitude. Vy or
the speed for the maximum climb rate is the speed underneath the resulting peak.
Available power curves for jet engines show a little peak in the higher speed regimes.
Therefore the Vy for jets is a little higher compared to the same airframe with propeller
propulsion. The speed below the contact point of the tangent from the origin to the
excess power curve is Vx or the speed for the maximum angle of climb (AOC). Vx and
thus the AOC refer to the moving air mass and consequently to the true air speed (TAS).
The term angle of flight path (AOFP) describes the flight path of the aircraft in relation to
the ground (climb gradient), thus the groundspeed (GS) is used to calculate this figure.
The left connection point of the required- and the available power curves represents the
lower end of the power curve. Beyond (at slower speeds) this point the expression
"behind the power curve" is used. Even with maximum power it is impossible to
maintain the desired fight path "behind" (slower than) the power curve.
The graphic at the bottom shows the connection between the angle of climb and the angle
of flight path. At zero wind both are equal. Compared to the angle of climb the angle of
flight path increases with headwind and decreases with tailwind.
96
• Required & Available Power
total drag power
•
- Induced Drag Ava;/able vs. required Power '
TAS TAS
Parasite & Pro/1/e Drag
TAS
o! ai•ailable - req11ired Power
Total Drag= power required u
ci"' 0
~
TAS
TAS
L+ Vmnx range - v y (max ROC)
L.___. V, (mox AOC)

- - V min drag = V max endurance
Angle of climb (AOC) vs. Angle offlightpath

. _ ROC [ft mill"']
Angle of chmb (AOC)- arc tan (TAS [kt] • IO J}
. _ ROC [ft min-']

Angle offl,ghtpath (AOFP)- arc tan ( GS [kt] • IOl.3)
/'Excess PowerJ
ROC = GS [kt] •Climb Gradient [%] • 1,013
-------
TWC
---,.--'
HWC
Speed Climb Gradient [ft/nm]= Climb Gradient[%] • 60.75
speed for max angle of flightpath (u Ta ilwind
,__ Vx (ma.'< AOC)
► speed for max angle of nightpath (a Headwmd

Performance Factors
The actual mass and the configuration of the aircraft as well as the air density are the
most important performance factors. These three important factors are shown graphically
and in relation to basic performance figures.
The mass of the aircraft evidentially is the main factor. A heavier plane will need a higher
angle of attack (AOA) to produce sufficient lift in all flight situations at the same speed
than the same aircraft with lower mass. This higher AOA in tum produces more drag.
The power curve of the heavy craft (red) is farther left and upwards than the light plane's
curve (blue). The maximum available power remains the same (gray available power
curve). The shaded areas in the required power curve cut off by the available power curve
shows the available excess power that can be used for climbs, maneuvering or
accelerations.
The lower graphic shows the excess power (available minus required power) for the
respective condition. The slant gray line from the origin onto the power curve in the
lower illustrations indicates the maximum angle of climb (AOC) and the according Vx-
Lowering the retractable gear shifts the required power curve upwards to higher drag
numbers. Lowering the flaps thus changing the wing profile shifts the required power
curve further up and left towards lower speeds. The lower speeds are desired to reduce
approach and landing speeds, the higher drag is an unavoidable side effect. The graphic
pair in the middle shows qualitatively how configuring the plane for landing degrades the
performance. Retracting the gear immediately when conducting a go-around offers a lot
of extra performance in every aircraft. Retracting the flaps also is beneficial for the go-
around climb, but additionally requires acceleration to the climb speed of the lower flap
setting. The planes manual gives advice inasmuch a flap retraction is beneficial; most
aircraft require a flap retraction from the landing flap- to an intermediate flap setting.
The sale brochure of the aircraft usually gives all performance figures in relation to
standard sea level conditions. Lower density worsens all performance figures. Low
ambient pressure and high temperature or a combination of both decreases density.
Moisture also decreases density but is normally not used for performance calculations.
The power curve shifts to the right in an atmosphere less dense. All speeds have to be
higher to generate the same ram air pressures thus the same effect (lift). The available
power of the engine in tum shifts downwards to lower numbers because through the
smaller density the mass flow through the engine decreases.
Reducing the mass can solve many performance bottlenecks (especially take-off, landing
and go-around). Reducing the mass is the only factor suggestible by the operator.
The table in the bottom gives an overview over the main performance factors and the
behavior of some important performance figures.
98
• Important performance factors
Mass decrease Configuration change Density change
aircraft lg, high alt
TAS TAS
f.1 _
~ TAS
• Performance factors and performance figures
Mass decrease LDG confi2uration Density decrease

Vx. Down Down Up
Vv. Down Down Up
An2le of climb Up Down Down
V mu endurance Down Down Up
V mas ranee Down Down Up
Rate of climb Up Down Down
Fuel flow Down Up Down
Endurance Up Down Up
• Maximum Range Factors

Wind Weieht (chanees with fuel bum)
Headwind Faster than V max ran !@ no wind
C'
Tailwind Slower than Vmax rane:c (a\ no wind

Heavv ale low and fast to achieve max range
Light ale high and slow to achieve max range

Take-Off Performance
The mm1mum control speed on the ground (Y Moc) is the mm1mum speed where
directional control can be maintained with the critical engine inoperative and the other
engines running at take-off power setting. The engine failure speed (Y EF) is the speed
where a single engine failure is anticipated for the theoretical considerations. Y 1 is the
take-off decision speed; an engine failure at a subsequently higher speed will lead to a
continued take-off. If an engine fails before Y 1 the take-off has to be discontinued
(rejected). Y 1 has to be smaller than the maximum brake energy speed YMBE·
YMCA is the minimum control speed in the air with the critical engine out. The rotation is
initiated at the rotation speed YR, which must be greater than YMCA· YMu is the minimum
unstick speed or the slowest speed where the aircraft will lift off (possibly with a tail
strike in longer aircraft). Jet aircraft have high pitch angles at take-off thus the rotation
takes a while. The actual lift-off speed Y LOF has to be smaller than the maximum tire
speed (Ymax tire)- After lift-off the plane must be accelerated to the take-off climb speed
(Y 2 ) - the absolute minimum speed to be flown with one engine out. Y2 must be reached
at 35ft height to enable further climb requirements. Y2 is minimum 10% greater than YMu
and 20% greater than the stall speed in the take-off configuration (Y 5). Y2 is
approximately equal to the speed for the best rate of climb (vy.sE) with one engine out for
most propeller airplanes. Jet planes are optimized for high speeds. Their best climb speed
is usually beyond 200 KIAS. Technically Y2 can not even come close to the speed for the
best rate of climb with one engine out for jet planes. It is a consensus between the lowest
practicable speed on the power curve to pass certification minimum engine out climb
requirements and the maximum speed for the desired runway dimensions to be able to
reach Y2 at the 35ft point from a normal rotation. The distance from the beginning of the
take-off roll to 35ft height plus 15% safety margin is the take-off distance (TOD). The
distance from the actual lift-off to 35ft is called flare out distance. Take-off run (TOR) is
the distance from the beginning of the roll to the actual Lift-off plus half of the flare out
distance as safety margin. The take off distance engine failure is the stretch to 35ft in the
event the critical engine fails. Like in the all engine case the TOREF is the way to the
actual Lift off plus half the flare out distance for this condition. For multi engine aircraft
with more than two engines the all engine TOD can be longer than the TOD in the engine
failure case through the 15% safety margin in the all engine consideration. Accelerate
stop distance (ASD) is the distance required to accelerate the plane to Y1, further
accelerate it for two seconds (reaction time safety margin) and brake it to a complete stop
with the serviceable equipment at the current runway conditions. The longest distance of
TOD, TODEF and ASD is the FAR field length required for take-off. Usually this is
determined virtually the other way around by adjusting the take-off mass to fit into the
current conditions. The lowest of the appropriate masses (TOD, TODEF &ASD) and the
maximum take-off mass (MTOM) is the field limiting weight.
100
Take-off speeds:
v.,1cc vn
3> ........ .
I VMCC: .s:
All engine Take-off distance (TOD):
V LOF
+ 15%
_ _ _ ____ _ ___ _ ,___--1,___,,~ ----11--- safety margin
dis tance
V,
.I
YR Flare-out ik ~,ancc:
.__ _ _ _ _ _ __ __Tc,ak
e,Cs;•,coff"-"
ru"-'n-'-(T
-'-O=R),__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ __ _..
1
Take-off distance (TOD)
All cngmc Takc-offd11'tancc (TOD)
◄
Engine failure Take-off distance (TODE,):
cngmc failure
y 1 _ _ _:::_
YR flart'-01.ll r ~laf!CC:
1.._ _ _ __ _ _ _ _..!Tcea,skc,:•,eoff.,_,_,
rue,n..1.(T,_,O"'R
" '),__ _ _ _ _ _.:.._ _ _ _ _ _ _..,.•
inglc engmc Take-off distance (TOD )
Accelerate-Stop distance (ASD):
35
engmc fatlurc
di slall..:c:
v,
Accelerate-Stop di~tancc (ASD)
FAR Field fen

Lowest mass
max allowable mass for T/O)
L-------==.:.;..-"--'-------- or
~M
::.c. ::.T
.::....O
=.M
: :c..::.._________ } Longest distance
Climb limits
L------ -------------

Take-off Field Considerations
The Take off decision speed V 1 is decisive for the length of the engine failure take off
distance (TODEF) and the accelerate stop distance (ASD).
When V I is chosen so that the TODEF equals the ASD balanced field conditions prevail.
Balanced V 1 results in the highest possible take off weight on a short runway without
clear- or Stopway unless the all engine TOD limits the field. The all engine TOD cannot
be influenced by the Take off decision speed V1•
When V 1 is chosen smaller than balanced V 1 ( clearway available, runway wet, slippery
or contaminated):
• TODEF increases
• ASD decreases
If one engine fails at a slow V I the acceleration distance with the remaining engines is
longer because of the missing power for the acceleration and the deceleration distance
shorter.
When Vl is set higher than balanced V 1 (Stopway available):
• TODEF decreases
• ASD increases
The Stopway is a concrete surface following the runway and not assigned as runway. The
strength of the Stopway must be sufficient to bear the stresses of a decelerating aircraft.
V I must be chosen higher than balanced V I to utilize the Stopway given that V I remains
smaller than VR·
A Clearway is an unobstructed area (grass, water) following the runway. The clearway
must be at least 500ft wide, aligned with the runway centerline and under aerodrome
control. The clearway has to fulfill an obstacle clearance slope of 1,25% beginning at the
runway end (exception: opposite approach lights up to 66 cm). V 1 has to be reduced to
match the ASD in the shorter accelerate stop distance available (ASDA). The maximum
usable clearway must not be longer than half the runway (TORA).
On a runway equipped with either a clear- or a Stopway the take off performance will be
higher than on the same runway without clear- or Stopway at the same conditions.
Disadvantageous factors like tailwind, high pressure altitude, high temperature, low flap
setting, antiskid inoperative, bleed air on, upslope runway and runway wet, slippery or
contaminated decrease the take off performance. This means either the required
distances are longer or the maximum permissible masses have to be lower to match the
conditions.
When the take off power is intentionally reduced to safe engine lifetime the TOR, TOD
and ASD are fit into, but must not exceed the TORA, TODA and ASDA. This is done
gradually by the assumed temperature method. A higher anticipated temperature is
assumed and set as power limit. The Derate method reduces the take off thrust in
predetermined increment settings.
102
Balanced Field conditions: TODEr = ASD
--
Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD) = Take•orT Distance engine failure (TODEF) S max available Runway
Stopway: high V" shorter TODm longer AS D, TODEF<ASD v

I
Sl!opway
Accelerate Stop Distance {ASD)
Clearway: low V 1, longer TODEF, shorter
V
- Speed description --i D Distance descriotion 7
VEF Anticipated En}!ine Failure TOR Take Off Run
VMcG Minimum Control Ground Flare out TOD minus Optimum TOR
v, Take Off Decision TOD Take Off Distance over 35ft
VMu Minimum Unstick TODEF TOD with one en}!ine inop
VR Rotation ASD Accelerate Stop Distance
VLOF lift Off TORA TOR available
YMCA Minimum control air TODA TOD available (RWY+ Clea1wav)
V2 Climb speed z Vx EF ASDA ASD available (RWY + Stopwa_y)

Take-Off Field Condition Considerations
,~
A runway has to be considered wet if the tower advises the pilot that the runway is wet or
if the pilot perceives a shiny, slightly reflective appearance of the runway surface and the
water coverage is less than 3mm.
Other definitions exist for the requirements of a take-off on a wet runway compared to a
dry runway surface. A certain amount of mass, as given in the planes manual has to be
subtracted from the maximum allowable take-off mass to make up for the increased
rolling resistance and the decreased brake coefficient. The decision speed V I is also
reduced when balanced field conditions are desired to compensate the longer ASD. The
screen height for the accelerate-go distance is reduced from 35 to just 15 feet and unlike
on a dry runway the usage of the thrust reversers or the remaining reversers is anticipated
for the ASD. Clearways have to be taken into account for wet and contaminated take-offs
because of the low screen height of 15ft at the end of the accelerate-go case. Another
mass reduction has to be subtracted from the maximum allowable mass for take-off if no
or no sufficient clearway is available.
If one or more reversers are inoperative and a take-off on a wet runway is desired the
pilot will find large mass penalties for the take-off in the plane's performance manual.
Large penalties are as well published for inoperative anti skid systems and any other
inoperative systems having impact on the brake efficiency.
Runways have to be considered contaminated if the water depth is 3mm or more but less
than 13mm or the surface is covered with dry or wet snow, slush or ice. Airplane
manufacturers or operators have to determine mass penalties for the contaminated
surface. These penalties are usually factored wet correction take-off mass and V 1
reductions. As a rule of thumb the penalties for wet and contaminated runways are least
on a long runway and highest on a runway, which can be considered short for the needs
of the specific type of airplane. The take-off power may be reduced for take-offs on wet
runways. Power reductions for take-offs on contaminated runways are usually forbidden.
The required field length for landing on a wet runway should be 115% of the factored
distance on a dry field. 140% or more should be added for the determination of the
required field length for landing on a contaminated runway.
The rotation speed VR and take-off safety speed V2 are increased for improved climb
operations. The basic principle is to accelerate to higher speeds than the minimum
required speeds on the ground before lifting the nose. This will enable steeper climb
angles to clear obstacles or comply with local noise abatement procedures. The V 1 speed
is set in such a way that the ASD and accelerate-go distance remains equal for balanced
field conditions. Improved climb take-offs can also be conducted in combination with
wet runway conditions and as reduced power take-offs.
The table in the bottom gives some hints about the dimensions of the penalties one can
expect on a wet or contaminated runway for take-off and landing with wheel braking
only.
104
• Wet- and contaminated runway, improved climb
Balanced Field conditions: TODEr = ASD, dry runway
Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD) = Take-off Distance engine failure (TODEF) 5 ma."< available Runway
Balanced Field conditions: TODu = ASD, wet runway or contaminated runway:

j Lower VI , Lower MALTOM ®
0
151---:::::=-- -- -- - - - - - - -- - +-- -- - - - t -----,;.=,,.--,,~ ~
Reverse Thrust taken

into account for ASD!
< max available Runway
Balanced Field conditions: improved climb procedure
Accelerate Stop Distance (ASD) = Take-off Distance engine failure (TODEF) :S max availabl Runway
• Dimensions of penalties on contaminated runways

Expectable Penalties expressed in distance (anti-skid wheel braking on~y)
Contamination Take-off (BFL) Landing distance Landing field length
D LFL - r uired
Contaminated LD · 2,0) LD · 2,3 Contaminated LD · I, 15

D Snow LD · 2,3 D LD · 3,0 Snow LD · 1,15
Icy Dry BFL + ( Dry LD · 3,4) Dry LD · 3,4 Icy LD · 1,15
(On~y rough dimensions! - No guarantee! - check y our ai1p/a11es pe1ji:m11ance manual and OM-A in any case!)

Take-Off with Reduced Power
Reducing the take-off power saves fuel and engine live by running them cooler. There are
two different ways to accomplish this reduction.
The de-rate reduction decreases the power output by a constant value. It can be either a
de-rate fixed by the manufacturer or a pilot selectable de-rate setting.
A higher than actual temperature is assumed by the assumed temperature method to
adjust the power output for the needs of the runway. The runway-mass chart reflects the
contents of the airplane's performance manual customized for a specific runway (length,
altitude and slope), configuration (flap setting), de-rate setting, aft CG option and normal
or improved climb procedures. The performance limited mass is the highest airplane
mass which can be carried out of sufficiently long runways with regards to engine power.
This mass must be equal to or greater than the airplanes maximum certified take-off
mass. In the case of an airplane with two engines this performance limited take-off mass
is the maximum mass at which the plane will master the second climb segment with the
required 2,4% gradient with the critical engine out. In airplanes with more than two
engines the performance limit may be different, depending on the type. The actual
performance limited TOM for the given conditions (temperature and wind) can be taken
directly from the runway-mass chart. This mass reflects the lowest mass of the accelerate-
stop, accelerate-go and climb mass for the current conditions and local requirements. The
horizontal track of the zero wind line up to the flat rated temperature in the example on
the next page indicates that the actual take-off situation is limited by the climb
requirements only. Above the flat rated temperature of the engines the actual
perfonnance limited TOM decreases because the engine power output decreases (W AT
climb limit). The maximum allowable take-off mass (MALTOM) results after subtracting
all mass penalties from the actual performance limited TOM. Such mass penalties are
usually published for any equipment decreasing the engine's power output and/or
decreasing the brake efficiency. In the example the engine bleeds are chosen to be on
during the take-off and another mass penalty is subtracted for a wet runway correction.
The assumed mass is the actual TOM according the mass and balance report plus all the
mass penalties as they have been subtracted from the actual performance limited TOM
before. An according assumed temperature can be determined from the runway mass
chart when the assumed mass is entered. The resulting assumed temperature can be either
entered in the FMC if it has engine performance access capabilities or the according
engine limit figure (Nl, N2 or EPR) can be obtained from the performance manual of the
airplane. As the available power decreases with increasing temperature this is a fine
method to decrease the take-off power. Any method of reduced power take-offs must be
certified by the manufacturer and the authorities. Usually there is a minimum and a
maximum assumed temperature from and up to which this method may be used. All
methods of reduced power take-offs anticipate that the throttles of the remaining
engine(s) do not need to be advanced within the entire take-off and climb in any case.
106
• Runway weight chart
-RWY mass chan-
virtual airplane on a virtual runway, flaps 2. normal climb, aft CG
nat rated temperature (ISA+l5)
• MAL TOM determination

given: wind calm, 22°C, RWY wet, bleeds on TIO
MAL TOM calculation
act. perf. limit TOM 96 .000
minus
RWY condition 4600 y es
ENG bleeds on 2500 ves
ENG TAI on 0 no
LNOP equipment 0 no
total reduction 7100
MALTOM 88 .900 (<MTOM)
• Assumed temperature power reduction

T/0 thrust reduction (assumed temerature)
act. TOM (acc. W&B 75 .000
plus
RWY condition 4600 .1·es
ENG bleeds on 2500 y es
ENG TAI on 0 110
!NOP equipment 0 110
total reduction 7100

assumed mass 82.100 (<MTOM )
L+ assu med temp 54°c

Climb Performance
Despite the distance limits on the take off field there are also climb limits. FAR/JAR part
25 requires certain minimum net climb gradients for each climb segment. The net
gradient plus the safety margin results in the gross gradient, which has to be fulfilled for
the departure routing for the all engine as well as the engine failure case. Some departures
require higher than specified climb gradients that have to be fulfilled to clear the terrain.
The departure flight path for the engine failure case may be different from the all engine
case if required. The engine failure of the critical engine is anticipated at the VEF before
V 1- same speed than for take off- and also represents the most adverse case for climb
calculations. Any engine failure after VEF is less critical for the climb because higher
speed at less distance and higher altitudes are already gained. The first segment reaches
from 35ft over the runway to the point where the gear is fully retracted. The start of the
gear retraction is anticipated 3 seconds after lift off after the climb rate is verified to be
positive. The second segment starts at the end of the first and terminates at the minimum
flap retraction altitude. The plane's configuration, except the gear retraction must not be
changed until reaching the minimum flap retraction altitude. The second segment is most
limiting in many cases because the minimum climb gradients for this segment are high
(see table at the bottom) and the plane's climb performance is rather degraded by the
extended flaps.
Depending on the aircraft used the minimum permissible flap retraction altitude is 400ft
or higher as prescribed by the authorities or the operator. The start of the third segment
might also be higher depending on the local obstacles and the take of flight path. Usually
the flap retraction or the third segment is a level flight segment. The required minimum
climb gradient (see table) is valid for the third and the final segment. Any level segment
below 1500ft AGL must be out climbed in the final segment until reaching 1500ft AGL.
The flap retraction altitude is also called acceleration altitude.
The final segment starts when the enroute configuration (gear & flaps up, final climb
speed) is reached and ends at 1500ft over the runway elevation. At the start of this
segment a power reduction to the maximum continuous power (MCP) is anticipated but
not mandatory. The take off thrust limit time as given by the engines manufacturer
( usually 5 or I O minutes) is limiting for the reduction and occurs well after the
completion of the third segment. Whenever the enroute configuration, final climb speed
and I 500ft AGL already are reached within the third segment the final segment is not
applicable. Unlike the take off considerations the wind has no influence on the climb
performance. (Already included in the take off climb calculation by assuming the worst
case). High take off flap settings to reduce the TOR are disadvantageous for the climb.
The total air temperature has no effect until the flat rated temperature ( usually 29°C) is
reached. The WAT limit (weight-altitude-temperature) restricts the climb performance
beyond the flat-rated temperature of the engines.
108
• Climb Segments
Take off
I. S ment 2. Se ment
minimum 488ft
one enoine ino rative

wer max continuous ower
down retraction
take off fla s
acceleration to V V,
Take off
• Minimum Climb Gradients with one engine failed
Segment Minimum Gross Gradient

Number of Engines
2 3 4
1 Positive 0,3% 0,5%
2 2,4% 2,7% 3,0%
3 1,2% 1,5% 3,0%
Final
Safety Margin 0,8% 0,9% 1,0%
(2&3)

Cruise Performance
Different cruise modes can be chosen for appropriate enroute performance to influence
the speed and the fuel flow.
Specific range (SR) is the enroute true airspeed divided by the current fuel flow. Specific
consumption (SC) equals one divided by the SR.
The required power on the y-axis of the power curve is linearly proportional to the fuel
flow. The SR curve results after dividing all fuel flow figures by the appropriate TAS.
The tangent from the origin onto the SR curve shows the appropriate minimum drag
speed at the TAS axis. The minimum drag speed can also be found at the minimum of the
power curve and equals the speed for the maximum endurance (holding).
The peak of the SR curve indicates the speed for the maximum specific range or the
maximum range cruise speed (VMRc). The VMRc can be found as well at the touch point
of the tangent from the origin onto the power curve. The SR curve is shifted slightly to
the right of a virtually inverted power curve.
The long range cruise speed (V LRc) results from a cost-profit calculation considering the
relation of hourly aircraft costs (lifetime limits and maintenance) and fuel costs. One
percent higher fuel flow than at MRC cruise power setting is used by definition to
achieve the higher LRC speed. Flight management systems offer a cost factor as input
variable. This numeric value - as defined by the manufacturer - adjusts the performance
of the entire flight (enroute climb, cruise and descent except take off, approach and
landing) to fit the desired cruise thus the fuel flow and costs into the company's strategy.
The table in the middle shows common cruise altitude definitions. When approaching the
aerodynamic ceiling the low and high-speed stall converge (graphic adjacent to the table).
High altitude flight near the converging limits is called flight in the coffins comer. In the
most extreme theoretical case the low and high (maximum mach number) speed stall
speeds as well as Yx and Vy are equal (aerodynamic ceiling by definition). Any speed
variation caused by the airplane or ambient factors will lead to a complicated, dangerous
and altitude consuming aircraft recovery.
When one or more engines fail in cruise the cruise altitude can normally not be
maintained. By decelerating the airplane in the cruise level to the speed for the best glide
angle and consecutively drifting down at this speed to the maximum single engine cruise
altitude at MCP on the remaining engine(s) the shallowest drift down angle is reached.
Part 25 planes with two engines must clear all obstacles by not undershooting the
minimum safe altitude (2000ft over obstacles around 8km in high terrain) with one
engine out. Aircraft with more than two engines must be able to do the same with two
engines out. The safety margin on the net (actual) drift down gradient (negative) has to be
added to get the gross gradient that must be used for drift down calculations. The
maximum single engine cruise altitude depends on the ambient air pressure and
temperature and on the current gross weight of the plane.
110
• Cruise Modes
I TAS
. _ True airpecd (T AS)
Spcc,r\C Range (S R) - Fuel Flow (FF)
. . Fuel Flow FF
Speed Range Specific Consumptton (SC)= True airpeed (TAS)
1
max endurance
I FF @ LRC = l.Ol •FF @ MRC
l 1% (more fuel flow)
MRC
LRC
TAS
v,.ollll Rang~ mi~ (LRC)
'-------+ v=, Rm, , (MRC)
- vmin 0r,. (Max endurance)
• Cruise Definitions
Altitude Definition I
Absolute Altitude ROC = 0 ft/min coffins comer
Service Ceiling ROC = 100 ft/min
SE Service Ceiling ROC = 50 ft/min
Max Altitude 30° Bank possible
Max operating Alt. Max cabin alt (FL80) +
Max cabin diff. press
Aerodynamic ceiling Convergence of low and
high speed stall • CAS
Vlow speed stall
'
V high speed sUJll
• Driftdown
en inc failure
Failed Safety margin on Net gradient
.g !---4""'-- --,.
engines Number of Engines -E dcccllcration ~;,-?.
Drift-do,m @MCP & Speed
for best angle o.fglide
2 3 4 ~
'q,
~
1 1,1% 1,4% 1,6%
2 0,3% 0,5%
high Gross weight low

Engine-Out Performance
Flight with one engine inoperative imposes the largest performance penalties on propeller
driven airplanes with two engines. The critical engine is the engine which results in the
least over all performance of the airplane when failed. The engine with the down going
propeller blade inboard is the critical engine in airplanes with propellers rotating in the
same direction (P-Factor). Airplanes with counter rotating props do not have a critical
engine based on performance consideration. Note that the critical engine is named by the
airplane manufacturer. This is primarily determined from performance factors but may
also be the engine which affects the most airplane systems when out of service.
Furthermore the propellers produce a reduced AOA at the wing area behind the propeller
disc when operating hence this extra lift is also missing on one side of the wing when the
respective engine is off. The propulsive power output is cut in half when one engine is
out of service in a twin engine plane. Additionally the control surface deflection (rudder
& aileron) required for coordinated flight increases the parasite drag. The remaining
envelope is narrower and offers way less excess power compared to the all engines
envelope. The V-speeds for best angle and rate of climb with one engine out are always
smaller than for the all engines case. The minimum TIO safety speed V2 lies in between
Yx EF and Vy EF(blue line in Part 23) and represents the absolute minimum speed to be
flown (little higher is fine). The minimum control speed (VMc - in the air) is the lowest
speed at which the direction of the airplane can be maintained with the critical engine out.
The longitudinal position of the center of gravity (CG) is very important for the
determination of the VMC· A CG close the aft limit is most critical and results in the
highest VMc because the effective arm to the rudder is shortest to balance the torque of
the asymmetric propulsion. The VMC decreases with increasing density altitude because
the available power thus the yawing moment of the remaining engine decreases. A
normal stall may turn into a spin by the engine yaw if the VMC is close to, equal or slower
than the stall speed. Flight tests proved that the VMc decreases slightly with increasing
gross weight. One explanation of this phenomenon may be that in a heavy plane flying
straight and level the wings produce more lift. Shallower bank angles are necessary to
zero the sideslip when heavy because the lift vector is longer in magnitude and the
required horizontal component of the lift remains the same with the unchanged maximum
power of the remaining engine(s). Flights at high density altitude should always be well
above VMC and VMC demos never be attempted.
All transport category airplanes must fulfill minimum climb gradients for different flight
phases with the critical engine off. The second climb segment is the most limiting in
many cases. The more engines an airplane has the smaller the performance penalties are
when one engine dies. The remaining performance with the critical engine gone must still
be sufficient for the minimum gradients. Therefore a twin engine plane has the most
excess power in the all engine case.
112
• Critical Engine & Performance loss
same rota!iag direction counter r~tating props
i• Two Engines vs. one Engine out
[i,r,,.,.,:,l\'cJXl",<1 d~ tnhont<•n "'"r'~'"~ "'"'~'™"'""1111111 ~

~
1LJ
:0
-----
1--------l- '1'
-;;:;:- ·~ -1 ----. TA S
1j Ill
'
j l.,lhli,tnl,,nu~,I
no critica l en ·nc
,,
crit ical cnumc
L
• Torque Balance & V Mc

... torque balance ..
,I
~
'~ .,, ,I
1,1
11"
rr
1
11
-----6!.!4 v ~l'\\'Ooo IAS
)I
11
Fwd CG - smaller V.,c Aft CG - higher V Mc

(shorter arm CG-Rudder)
• Performance Penalties
All Engine Thrust vect or
Engine out Thrust vector
·•"'<
-~
---------1~'7
I
----:---__
,,
l'Jl
"
,,
~~ ir~
,,. t,.
r 'r'-"
ll!I V
2 3 4 I
2,4% 2,7% 3,0%
50% 33% 25%
-40% -60% -70%
250% 165% 140%

Approach and Landing Performance
The descent graphs show the sink rate versus the speed (CAS). A heavier aircraft can
descends at the same best angle of glide but at higher speeds than the same aircraft at a
lighter mass. Changing the plane's configuration (adding drag) by extending the flaps, the
landing gear or the speed brakes tilts the best angle of glide to steeper figures.
Like for take off a maximum mass is also calculated for the landing. The limiting mass
for landing is the lowest of:
• The maximum certified landing mass,
• The approach and landing climb limited weight and
• The length of the runway (FAR field length for landing)
The maximum certified landing mass is a specific limit for each aircraft type calculated
from the strength of the gear and the maximum certified load factor for the landing (~2g).
The airplane has to fulfill minimum go-around gradients for the approach.
For the certifying calculation the plane is considered to fly with the flaps in the approach
setting (intermediate: stall speed max I 0% higher than in landing configuration) and the
gear up to the outer marker or to approximately four nautical miles and 1200ft from and
above the threshold. Depending on the number of engines the go-around gradient must be
equal or greater than the figures shown in the illustration for flight with one engine
inoperative at speeds higher than 1,5· VREF· Beyond the outer marker all planes must be
able to go-around in the landing configuration with all engines running at more than
3,2%. A go-around below the prescribed minimum is called balked landing and not
mandatory covered by the certification. Some approaches require higher than normal go-
around gradients. The prescribed minimum for a specific approach can be higher due to
the go-around case or different minimums may be given for different aircraft
perfonnances. Auto-landing aircraft need to certify for a higher gradient to cope with the
low minimums for these approaches.
While the approach ends at the minimum in regard to performance considerations the
landing distance counts from 50ft overhead the threshold.
60% of the demonstrated landing distance must be sufficient for the calculation of the
FAR flied length for landing thus the demonstrated distance on a dry runway (current
weight and configuration) multiplied by 1,67 equals the required field length for landing
(only exemption: 70% for the selection of an alternate field for propeller aircraft). 15%
shall be added on the FAR length for a landing on a wet runway hence the demonstrated
landing distance on a dry runway multiplied by 1,92 equals the required FAR landing
distance on a wet runway. Additional landing distances for abnormal conditions and low
brake coefficients may be found in the aircraft's manual.
Low-pressure altitudes, high ambient air temperatures, tailwind and low flap settings as
well as downhill slopes increase the landing distance or decrease the landing weight.
114
• Descent Performance
Glide angle vs. Aircraft weight Glide angle vs. Aircraft configuration
spee spee
""~~
bestg/ "d bestg/"
~ , cang/e ~ Ide ang/e
m1111nu£ sink m~~--------- ~

A/C hght // ·.\"'--
A/C heavy\ ~ ''"" ---------

1
V:i
\ I
Land ing config\ "-

V
\I
• Approach & Landing climb gradients
min gradient:
2 engines: 2.1 %
3 engines: 2,4%
4 engines: 2,7%
►
Landing distance
Approach Landing
• Landing Distances
full stop
full stop
dis111ncc
FAR Ftcld lc n°111 for landinc (d - 1.67 Dcmonstartcd La ndin Distance (d )

FAR Field Jcmi:ht for landin (wet) - 1.92 Dcmonstartcd Landin Distance (D
Landi a Distance available LOA

Crosswind Landings and Speeds
In-flight the aircraft moves in the air mass, which is also in motion. To keep a specific
track in reference to the ground the heading has to be altered accordingly (wind triangle).
While on the ground the plane moves in reference to the ground only. Take offs and
landings in crosswind conditions are also transitions from the "fixed" ground into the
moving air mass and vice versa.
During take off the wind acts on the vertical stabilizer and tries to yaw the plane in the
wind like a weather vane. Opposite rudder must be applied to keep the runway track.
The upwind wing generates more lift. The fuselage shelters a fraction of the downwind
wing when the wing is rectangular. Swept wing designs additionally generate more lift on
the entire upwind wing because the horizontal angle of incidence is closer to 90° on the
upwind wing. Aileron input into the wind is required to correct these effects. After being
airborne the aircraft is in a sideslip situation. Depending on the directional stability of the
plane it will take some seconds until this sideslip ceases with the rudder centered.
Three methods of crosswind landings can be distinguished:
The runway track is kept with the ailerons only when touching down in a crab with the
full wind correction angle. This is possible with all tricycle landing gear planes. The
center of gravity is ahead of the main landing gear and the track aligned with the runway.
The inertia of the aircraft and the rolling resistance of the main landing gear will
straighten the plane at the cost of high side forces on the main landing gear and high tire
wear; nevertheless it is the safest method.
The heading of the aircraft is aligned with the runway by applying downwind rudder in
the flare just prior touchdown when the de-crab method is used. Upwind aileron input has
to be given in this phase to keep the wings level. The wind drift in this short period of
time usually is negligible. By reacting to the roll (keeping the wings level) resulting from
the downwind rudder input rather than acting avoids inadvertent roll to the wrong
direction.
The plane is flown in a sideslip well prior to the flare when the low wing method is used.
Rudder input aligns the plane's heading with the runway track while the lateral offset is
corrected with the aileron. The resulting horizontal component of the lift equals the
crosswind component when stabilized. Rudder and aileron inputs are highly coupled;
changing one variable requires the change of the other too. The wind usually changes in
direction and magnitude during the approach thus early alignment of the airplane does
not make much sense. The low wing method should be avoided when flying planes with
the engine pods below the wing or with few wing or propeller tip clearance.
The graphic at the bottom shows a standard part 23 airspeed indicator with the applicable
speed definitions. Speed definitions important for the approach and landing are listed in
the adjacent table and the text below.
116
• Crosswind Landing techniques hon1. com ncnt ofl1ft
.. w md comr,oncn1
Crab: De-Crab: Low Wing:
ii+' ;,.3/ l!
h,6riz. Angle of
(; i mc1 ence
Center of Gravity
~
~
~
Main Landing Gear

~ ~
~
~
~\
• Speeds
stall speed in Landing configuration (Vso)
Further speeds Description ,,-,tall speed clean (V,)
Vs Stall speed (specific Conf.)
Stall speed (Landing Conf.) Flap (full) speed range
Vso
VREF 130% Stall speed (Any Conf.)
Vw Landing gear operation -Minimum control speed air (V~icJ
VLE. Landine: gear extended
V man vcar c:rtcn'iion Manual Landing gear ext. ..__Speed for best single engine
Flaps extended climb rate (V ,.,J
VFE
VAC Approach climb speed for GA Nonnal operating range
1,5 · V5 (to the OM)

1,3 · V 5 (from 50ft to touch)
V REF+ wind/1mst additional
wind/gust additional ½· A TIS HWC + gust add
gust add A TIS gust speed - wind speed
total VREF add 5 KIAS < VR EF add < 20 KJAS

Aircraft Weight
All weight terms are referred to as mass according the international SI-unit system.
Weight is the gravity force induced by a mass (Weight = gravity-mass, earth gravity :::::
9,8lms· 2)
The aircraft as it is finished in the factory without any liquids is at the empty mass (EM).
After all non-usable liquids, like engine and hydraulic oil and all non-usable fuel are
filled in the plane it is at the empty mass, wet (EM, wet).
Extra equipment added to the empty mass, wet makes the basic mass (BM). This extra
equipment might be additional electronic equipment in the cockpit deviating from the
original layout, charts and binders belonging to the cockpit as specified by the operator
and any cabin equipment and seating configurations deviating from the standard for that
airplane.
The basic mass usually is the figure given in the airplanes manual and the mass and
balance report.
The mass of the crew, the crew baggage and the pantry or catering for the crew and the
passengers, if carried added to the BM make the dry operating mass (DOM).
DOM plus the take off fuel (TOF) equals the operating mass (OM). Traffic load is the
mass of all passengers, baggage and cargo carried on board. For commercial flights the
average passenger mass is given by the authority issuing the airline operating certificate.
OM plus traffic load (TL) makes up to the take off mass (TOM). Additional taxi fuel
added to the TOM results in the ramp mass.
The maximum zero fuel mass (MZFM) is the maximum permissible mass without fuel. It
is detennined by the structural strength of the wings and especially the wing roots. Tanks
carried in the fuselage are usually not considered for the calculation respectively they are
included in the term MZFM at their maximum capacity. The maximum take off mass
(MTOM) is based on structural and primarily on performance considerations, while the
maximum allowable take off mass (MAL TOM) is based on performance calculations
only. The lowest of MTOM and MAL TOM is the limiting mass for take off.
The maximum landing mass (MLM) is also determined by structural considerations
especially of the landing gear and wing structure strength. This term can also be reduced
to the maximum allowable landing mass (MALM) by performance considerations
The lowest of A/B/C method is a simple scheme to cope with all the limiting figures. The
MZFM plus the TOF equals the figure A, MTOM or MAL TOM (lowest) is B and MLM
or MALM (lowest) plus trip fuel equals C. The lowest of these figures is the reduced take
off mass (RTOM). The calculation of the actual take of masses is done separately. The
OM must be subtracted from the limiting figure (A, B or C) to obtain the maximum
allowable traffic load. Maximum allowable traffic load minus actual traffic load is the
under load. A negative under load is an overload. This means somebody or something
has to be left behind or less fuel be tankered and an intermediate fuel stop be planned.
118
• Mass Definitions
Term Abbr. Additions l

Empty EM Blank
A/C
mass
Empty EM + Non-
usable
mass, wet wet
liquids
Basic BM + Extra
equipment
mass
Dry DOM + Crew,
Crew baggage
operating
& pantry
mass
Operating OM + Take off
fuel
mass (TOF)
Take off TOM + T raffic
load
mass
~
Ramp RM +
1
mass
• Lowest of A/B/C method
Actual:
DOM max zero fuel mass max T/O mass Max Land mass
(MZFM) (MTOM or MALTOM) (MLM or MALM)
+TOF +TOF + Tri fuel TF
= A lowest =B =C
-OM
calculation in blue
= Allowable TL on lowest value
-Actual TL (of A,B or CJ
= Under load

Aircraft Balance
The position of the center of gravity (CG) is even more important than the maximum
masses because it will directly influence the flying ability of the plane regardless of
performance considerations.
The maximum elevator down force at the slowest speed and the most adverse
configuration determines the forward CG limit. The forward limit is slanting backwards
at masses higher than a certain actual mass because the maximum elevator or stabilizer
down force remains the same regardless of the mass. The rearward limit is set by the
pitching stability requirements of the plane. The CG has to be ahead of the aerodynamic
center in any case or the plane will be instable means not flyable or determined to crash
soon after take off. Both limits (forward and aft) are sheltered by a buffer zone set by the
manufacturer. Inadvertent exceedance of the forward limit is less critical and will cause
the plane to lift off later, performing worse enroute because of the high trim drags and
stall earlier. The stall characteristics will be of good nature because the horizontal
stabilizer -not the wing- stalls and causes the plane to pitch down. The approach and
landing speeds should be altered accordingly to avoid a stall during the approach and a
nose wheel landing. A CG to far aft, penetrating the buffer zone (not exceeding the
aerodynamic center) increases all performance figures but makes the pitch characteristics
more neutral worsening the flight and stall behavior.
The horizontal distance from the reference (usually the nose or the firewall in single
engines) is called station. Adding all torques (mass • arm) and dividing it by the total
mass gives the position of the CG in station (distance) from the reference. The formula in
the middle shows how to obtain the position of the CG in respect to percentage of chord
length (leading edge minus leading edge station). For balance purposes the shape of the
wing is changed to an imaginary rectangular profile with lift and pitching properties
equal to the real wing. Therefore the position is called mean aerodynamic chord (MAC).
Practical figures for transport category airplane are between l O and 30%.
The Index method is a measure to simplify the calculation with the big numbers.
Basically it is a graphic extension of the shift equation. The reference is shifted to a
station representative for the dry operating mass of the plane (around 20% for many
transports). The real dry operating index (DOI) lies at or close to this point. The traffic
load index calculation is done on a different scale. Nevertheless the change of CG due to
the traffic load becomes more transparent with the reference laid at or close to real DOM
CG's. The fuel bum is directly entered in the mass/index graph. The index change due to
fuel bum is indicated on a separate graph and can be transferred to the main mass /index
picture.
120
• CG position
:n - - -
~
~
,;
g
Forward CG lim it:
~ '"""'""'" st,obilimdown fo"'.,
-4 •••
<:M2
~
L
'
~
Aft C'G 111ml: m 1t'il be ahead nf thc m:r(IUynamu: ccntcr tac)
•
MTOM ~ - - - ~- - - ~- -
distance (stat ion st )

CG_eo~111on
~ tra iling edge
• :ift CG limil
forward CG limit
... leading edge
dis tance
L /mi ·St;) (DOM ·stDoM )+(m 1 ·St 1)+(m 2 ·st 2 )+(mx ·st x)
CG [st] = - - - - = - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
m,01.1 DOM + m 1 + m 2 +m ,
CG [¾MAC] = LE[st] - CG[st] = LE[st] - CG[st]

LE[ st ] - TE[ st] chord lenght
m,hin = ~CG
• Shift equation
m,01al ~St
• Index calculation
Index = (mass . arm ) + cons/ 2 = torque + cons/ 2
cons/ I cons/ I
DO_I_ _O_ _ _ _ __,r-=c,...,-- - - - ~'00
PAX O 200
Car o O 2000
~ ~
MAC~¾~•-.,=o~=;i==i...Jt--r===-.--t-iiiiriaiiii~g_
'= IO'h,
TOM
DOM
0 50 100
Pilot' s Reference Guide© - 121
Flight Planning
It is always the same sequence in the flight planning process. The magnetic track (MT) or
the true course (TC) when flying VFR and the distance are obtained from the chart. The
wind and temperature for the chosen altitude are indicated on the wind chart for this
altitude. The rest is determined by performance figures given in the appropriate manual
or calculated by a flight planning computer program.
The wind calculation results in the ground speed (GS) for the leg. The trne airspeed
multiplied by the leg time results in the nautical air miles (NAM) for this leg. This figure
equals the distance to fly in imaginary still air (no wind).
When planning a flight overhead/overhead the entire flight is considered to take place at
the cruise altitude or level. Time and fuel additions and deductions are added and
subtracted on the resulting figures thereafter. This method is very practical for manual
flight planning. Unfortunately many general aviation airplane handbooks do not show
theses figures. Nevertheless they can be calculated from the tables showing the integral
planning method to simplify further flight planning's.
All climb, crnise and descent segments are integrated when the integral flight planning
method is used. That sounds simple but is rather complicated for manual planning. A top
of climb point (TOC) has to be determined and specified as extra fix. The same applies
for the descent and the top of descent point (TOD). The integral method is used by all
computer flight planning applications.
The minimum fuel reserves are specified by the applicable flight rnles. When flying
according to the visual fight rnles (VFR) a minimum of 30 minutes during daytime and
45 minutes when flying at night have to be planned.
It is different when flying according to the instrnment flight rnles (IFR). The fuel
required from the initialization of a go around at the specified minimum at the destination
field to the landing at the alternate field at current conditions is the alternate fuel. The
final reserve fuel is the fuel required to hold 45 minutes 1500ft above the alternate
aerodrome elevation at current conditions (temperature). For jets operated according to
the JAA rnles the final reserve is reduced to 30 minutes. The contingency equals 10% of
the actual trip fuel for unforeseen route or level changes.
If a JAA operator applies for a reduction of the contingency fuel from 5 to 3 percent the
authorities may approve the procedure.
Nevertheless the pilot in command (PlC) is responsible to increase the fuel load
inasmuch to cover all foreseeable and predictable delays and deviations from the flight
plan. The National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) alternate fuel reserve is a
standardized reserve case to compare different airplanes types. The NBAA lFR reserve
consists of 5 minutes holding at the destination in 5000ft then a standard approach and
missed, 200nm flight to the alternate at LRC in FL250, 30min holding at the alternate in
5000ft and the final standard approach. NBAA VFR fuel reserves are 30 min holding in
5000ft.
122
• Planning
NextFix MT Dist. Alt/FL wind TAS GS Time Burn
MUN 065 85 370 230/45 493 536 0 : 10 0.4
From navigation chart. from Wx chart, set/determined from pcrfonnancc figures
• Nautical air miles (NAM)
■ WCA/GS calculation ➔ Leg time

■ NAM1eg = T AS 1eg • Leg time = still air distance range
• Flight planning methods

Overhead / Overhead Integral
Time and Fuel additions/deductions

for climb/descent
A B A B
L NAM
Leg
LEG + c Jim b additional
C Jim b + cruise - descent ➔ Tripfuel & time
- descent deduction ➔ Tripfuel & time
• Fuel reserves
VFR: VFR day ➔ 30 minutes res. ; VFR night ➔45 minutes res.
Final Reserve
,--A--,.
_________
IFR alternate not rcq. if: ±lh ETA, ceiling 2000ft+, visibility\....._
3sm +; (FAA Part 91 only!) ,/
V
Minimum diversion Fuel

Long Range Flight Planning
Whenever a flight is conducted over uninhabited terrain or large bodies of water the time
to reach an alternate airfield enroute may increase. Therefore applicable alternates should
be carefully planned.
The positions A and B in the illustration at the top are either the departure/destination or
the last and the first available enroute alternate fields.
The point of safe return (PSR) is the position measured in elapsed flight time from point
A from which a safe return to point A will be possible. Any required or desired fuel
reserves at point A must be subtracted from the figure "rest endurance" before the
calculation of the PSR. The average ground speed on the way outbound of A (GS 0 u1) is
known from the previously flown distance and the ground speed for the way back
(GS,e,um) can be calculated from the true airspeed and the wind component experienced
on the outbound flight.
The point of equal time (PET) is the position in distance from A where the flight times to
point A and B are equal. In contrast to the PSR the PET can only be calculated properly
provided the groundspeed continuous (GScontinuous) for the remainder of the continued
flight to B is known.
Shortfall is the missing fuel from a normal fuel calculation. When the flight departs with
fuel figures below the minimum take off fuel but with a shortfall less than the
contingency fuel the first decision point (FDP) is the position in elapsed flight time where
the first decision about continuing the flight to the planned destination can be made.
Provided that no contingency fuel is used the FDP is the first point where the shortfall
fuel can be saved by unused contingency fuel.
The reclearance method is a mean trick to bypass the required fuel reserves for IFR
flights. A suitable airfield is chosen on the way to the destination and declared as
destination while the original destination is assigned as alternate. Enroute the pilot
request a rerouting to the alternate and lands legally at the "destination" with the final
reserve fuel. Most authorities do not tolerate such a practice for commercial flights any
more.
The decision point (DP) method is a means of legally bypassing some of the contingency
fuel requirements. The fuel at take-off must be sufficient to:
Fly to the destination with normal contingency from the DP to the destination only and
land there with the minimum diversion fuel.
Or to fly from the departure to a predetermined enroute alternate with contingency fuel
(authorities may grant a reduced percentage) for the entire way and land at that field with
no less than the final reserve fuel.
If the requirements from sentence one are fulfilled at the decision point the flight to the
planned destination can be continued.
124
• Point of safe return & point of equal time
G S rctum [ ·
Point of safe return (PSR): PSR AB x = - - - == - - · Rest endurance time]
- G S return + G S out
G S return
Point of equal time (PET): PETAB-X = -----'="----- · Dist AB [Dist]
GS return + GScontinuous
shortfall
First decision point (FDP): FOP = - - - - · Flighttime [time]
contingency
► Contingency >shortfall -+.flight possible
• Reclearance method Alternate

(real destination)
landing fuel > final reserve!
X
Departure e---- -- - ~
Destination
(formal)
current min. fuel > min d1vcrs1on fuel
• Decision point method
Plo11ed Fuel at departure:
-TF to Dest
+ contingency from DP to Oest
+ Diversion Fuel to Destination Alternate
or: Enroute Alternate
-TF to enroute alternate la ndmg fue l > fina l resen.e
+contingency from Dep. to enroute alternate
Destination Alternate
~
landing fuel > final reserve
+Final reserve fuel
whiclte11er is higher
- X
Departure • ~
Decision point
Destination
current mm. fuel "> mm d.i,·ersmn fuel
Fuel At DP to cmllim, e:
-TF from OP 10 Dest
+cont 111gency from DP to Dest
• Diversion Fuel to Destmat1on Alternate

Material Properties
Tension, compression, shear and torsion stresses must be considered for the design. On a
molecular scale tension and shear are effective only while compression and torsion are a
mixture of both.
When bending a specimen the material will experience tension on the one and
compression on the opposite side. The neutral fiber is an imaginary line, which changes
its direction only - not its length. It is the limit between the opposing stresses. The
position of that line in the cross-section depends on the geometry of the profile only. The
tension stress is limiting for most solid materials. That mean it will fail where tension
stress is greatest. When a specimen is stressed to its static limit a minor crack or fault in
the material decreases the effective or load carrying cross-section and causes an
immediate failure.
Dynamic stress crushes solid materials at magnitudes much smaller than the static limit.
Huge safety factors should be considered for dynamically stressed areas. In this case a
failure is also most likely in areas of the highest tension. A crack once formed virtually
cycles through the material decreasing the effective or load-bearing cross-section of the
specimen with each cycle until the remaining cross-section is too small to hold the static
load at the maximum magnitude of the dynamic force.
The behavior of material can coarsely be divided into elastic, and plastic properties. Any
stretch that zeros after the load is relieved is elastic. When the specimen stretches linearly
with the load like a spring the behavior is called linear elastic. After the load relief some
materials take a little time to reach their original length again. That behavior is called
hysteretic and caused by internal friction on a molecular scale. At loads higher than a
certain limit for each material the stretch transits to plastic or irreversible characteristics.
When the load is relieved the material will contract for the amount of the elastic stretch
while the plastic expansion remains.
All mechanical properties greatly depend on the temperature. With few exceptions they
worsen at higher temperatures. After stress is applied a time-dependant stretch can be
observed in any material. The magnitude of this expansion depends on the temperature.
Turbine vanes are exposed to high temperatures and mechanical stress at the same time.
They are the best examples for that plastic behavior, also called creep. Initially they will
stretch fast then the stretch becomes almost linear. The vanes are designed to fit as long
as this stretch is within the linear area. The appropriate time period equals the life time or
life cycle of the part. After this limit the creep progresses exponentially with time causing
the part to break finally. Just a few degrees more than the design limit reduce the lifetime
of the vanes greatly or might even cause them to fail immediately.
126
• Mechanical stresses
Tension
• Static stress
bending force vs. displacement
tension
comprcss1on
--~t ~
0
'-J
• Dynamic stress 2
crack progress cross-section of a
dynamic fracture
• Important properties
force vs. displacement material behavior displacement vs. time
• (force= constant, temperature in
i= b
relation to the melting point
~
-0
!Lfaililre\£,cl_ 2 0
u
"c.
"j(. :al
failO re
/dampening (hystcrcsis)-
whcn force is released
displacement time

Design Factors
Trouble zones with marginal stresses should be detected and eliminated already in the
design stage. A good example ofnot doing so is the British "Comet" jet transport airplane
from the 50ies. The windows had sharp rectangular edges. The pressure cabin causes the
fuselage to stretch and focuses the mechanical tension in the rectangular edges. The stress
cycles with the pressure cabin activity caused cracks in the edges of the Comets
windows. Unluckily the fuselage of the Comet was also constructed in a very integral
monocoque way. That caused almost the entire fuselage to disintegrate under the high air
loads after the cracks from the edges weakened the structure sufficiently. All time
dependant material failures -dynamic and creep- are called fatigue and are considered in
the construction just since the spectacular sinking of some Comet Airplanes.
Weight reduction is always a hot topic in the aviation industry. The more the weight is
reduced the more exact the occurring forces must be known and the sharper the operating
limits finally get. Composite materials are the smartest way to reduce the weight up to the
factor ten compared to a solid solution for certain parts. In real life a composite structure
will be about 35% lighter than the same structure constructed in aluminum alloy. High
tension resistant materials like carbon fibers are on the surface while the interior is filled
with foam or honeycomb structures to prevent the composite from collapsing. The
direction of the carbon fibers should be aligned with the occurring tension. This makes
the design and especially the strength calculations time consuming. The production time
is adequate after the tools and forms are produced. The maintenance is a problem. Unlike
traditional metal constructions damages might not be noticed immediately. After a bird
strike the outer surface material might feather backwards in place leaving delaminated
and destroyed layers beyond the surface undetected. As well the carbon fibers must not
be in conductive contact to aluminum. When aluminum and carbon structures are fitted
together the connection must be electrically isolated. Otherwise the aluminum will
become the sacrificing anode and corrode in record time.
A structure cannot just be enlarged when constructing a bigger plane. The example with a
sphere hung from a wire shows the axiom of enlargement. The strength of the wire
depends on its cross-section thus on the square while the weight of the wire (not
considered) and the sphere increases by the exponent three. This means when the
diameter of the sphere is doubled its weight is eight times more and the wire must be 2,82
times thicker to support the higher weight.
Skews or rivets should not hold two parts together by their shape but press the panels
together to produce a friction between both which should be times greater than the
occurring forces.
128
• Reducing local stress by design
sharp conrner rounded conmer
even medium tension
Weight reduction optimization degree
Q)
8
c.8
100%
ID
80% 40% 30% -15%
approx. weight @ equal mechanic properties
• Connections and axiom of enlargement

rigid connection
good
Ax'8,n ofE""1rg,111e1r,t
d1an:ieter of e
-~
-t
friction < force s~rting structure =
false /«largement 6':'1or1 ·
(here 2,82) _ ,.
~ t ' C f00u1:i\ed
rotatable connection
nut
low load

Materials
Material science is a very wide field- this page should show a little extract only.
Steels are Iron/Carbon alloys, which can be forged without further treatment and a carbon
content of less than 2%. No other material's properties can be altered by the mixture
(alloy) and the production process in such a wide range than steel. The table just shows
one in hundreds steels ( 1C45) with very fine properties in two different production
versions. Alloys with more than 2% carbon content usually are brittle and formed by
casting the final structure.
Aluminum is the classic aviation construction material. The density is only one quarter of
steel while the mechanical properties are good. Like all metals aluminum is produced in
many different alloys and the final properties are a variable of the treatment.
Magnesium is used often for gearboxes. It is the lightest metal with acceptable
mechanical properties. The melting point is even lower than of aluminum. The ratio of
the design limit temperature to the melting temperature is an important statement for all
metals. Adding very expensive components like rare earths refines the high temperature
characteristics of aluminum and magnesium. As well both metals are chemically very
devoted to oxygen. This makes the processing and the anti-corrosion measures
complicated. Titanium is as strong as steel while it is very elastic, stretchable and
temperature resistant. After expensive processing it has also excellent corrosion
characteristics. Unfortunately titanium costs up to ten times more than any other
construction metal.
Plastics can coarsely be subdivided into duro- and thermoplasts. Thermoplasts are
formable and reformable at temperatures around 100°C. Duroplast materials loose their
elastic properties above 100°C and melt at higher temperatures like thermoplasts but they
loose their internal structure.
Glass fibers show completely different mechanical properties when the diameter of the
specimen is one millimeter or smaller. The tension limit rises with decreasing diameters
because the size and the probability of surface defects decreases.
Carbon fibers are stretched out of a carbonized plastic. The stretch causes the graphite
layers to align with the direction of the fiber thus the extraordinary tension limit. Cast in
thermoplastic or epoxy resins forms glass and carbon fibers. The fiber/plastic compound
reaches the tension properties of average steel with 65% glass or 50% carbon fibers. The
final properties of a composite panel consisting of two surface layers of embedded glass
or carbon fibers and a filler layer made of foam and honeycomb depend primarily on the
design. Carbon fiber composites are used for horizontal and vertical stabilizer and flight
control surfaces so far.
Other composites are used in the engine or gear to locally enhance the characteristics of
metals: Carbon fiber/metal casts, porous ceramic/metal casts and so on.
130
• Simplified material classification
Metals (Non-Metals)
~ ~ \ ~
Aluminium, Ceramic, (Plastics) ( Fibers )
Titanium, Glass,
Magnesium.... , Porcelain.. ...
~~
---=::::::,,.__ _ [Composites)
• Some Material properties
Material Elasticity Tension limit Fracture limit

N/mm2 /mmz %
I t l
Mieas
Steel (1C45) 9,5 1536 (iron) 170k >620 >14
normal
Steel (1C45) 9,5 1536 (iron) 600k 1400 <2
hardened
Alwninum 2,7 670 65k 40 .. . 180 4 .. .50
Titanium 4,5 1670 110k 880 ... 1270 <18
Magnesium 1,74 649 45k 80 ... 180 1.. .12
I Non-Metals I
Ceramic 3,9 >2000 390k 4000 <0,1
(Ah03) (compression) (compression)
Carbon fiber 1,8 None 200k .. .400k 2000 ... 3000 5
Plexiglas 1,8 Use to 100 2k ... 3k 50 >10
(PMMA cast)
PVC 1 Use to 80 >3k 500 .. .600 >40
Composites I
GFP (65%) 2 Use to 150 18k ... 30K 340 ... 750 2
(GF-EP)
CFP (50%) 1,5 Use to 150 30k 800 3
. . ,Hension[N / mm 2 ] Lenght under tension

El ast1c1ty = - - - - - = - - - - - " Stretc h =- - - - - - -
!lStretch [l] original Lenght

Design Limits
The US American Federal Aviation Authority (FAA) regulates the construction criteria
for aircraft applying for type certification in the states. Usually all other states implement
the American construction regulations (FAR Part 23 and 25) with minor supplements.
The speed/acceleration (v/n) diagram shows the flight envelope of an imaginary jet
transport aircraft.
The green area in the center is the operating area. It is limited by the stall region on the
left, low speed side and the maximum and minimum limit accelerations above and below.
The maneuvering speed (VA) is the speed where a full abrupt deflection of the flight
controls, especially of the horizontal stabilizer will not exceed the load limits of the
plane. Gust loads further restrict the envelope. In-flight the airplane experiences gusts of
different intensities. These gusts can only be recorded statistically. The maximum cruise
speeds (Ve, Ve, V 0 ) result out of the v/n diagram after the appropriate graphs for vertical
gusts of+/-66 fps (7,6rns· 1) for Ve, +/-50 fps (15ms· 1) for Ve and +/-25 fps (20ms· 1) for
the determination of V O are entered. When an aircraft flying at Ve experiences vertical
gusts greater than 7,6ms· 1 the speed must be reduced or the limit loads will be exceeded.
The small blue area (yellow frame) lay over the left side of the v/n diagram shows the
flight envelope with flaps extended. That area is much more restricted by a lower
maximum speed (VFE) and lower limit loads. The cut point of the actual acceleration
(here lg for straight and level flight) with the flight envelope indicates the stall speed
(Vso for the landing- and Vs 1 for clean configuration).
FAR Part 23 certified planes are lighter than 5700 kg (MTOM) and feature less than 9
passenger seats. Part 23 is subdivided into normal, utility and aerobatic planes with
different load limits. The more restricted transport category (by performance, equipment
and training) is limited to +2,5/-1,0g in clean-, and +2,0/0g in landing configuration.
Both part 23 and 25 feature a minimum safety factor of 1,5 to be multiplied with the
respective limit loads. Part 25 planes will reach the limit load in a coordinated turn in
calm air at a bank angle of 66,4° (2,5g) and the ultimate load at 74,5g (3,75g). Note that
the negative limit load at flaps down is zero and that zero multiplied by 1,5 remains zero.
Parts constructed according to the safe-life method are designed to withstand any static or
dynamic loads during the entire life period of the plane which can be up to a couple of
decades.
Parts or structures designed according to the fail-safe method must withstand 80% or
more of the original design limit loads if one part of the structure fails (e.g. double spar
wing structure) without further failures for a predetermined period of time. The
maintenance for fail-safe parts is more sophisticated but must be guaranteed for the
operation.
132
• Speed/Acceleration diagram
-1,5....,..---,.---.,....--....,- -....L:;:-:-:.==-'.::..:;.:C-L- -.:.;;,a:c._•.-,::a,...---.--L--...-- ---'911

o 50 100 I 15@ 200 250 300 350 400 4$0
y I( y
Equivalent airspeed (EAS) [kt] v
Yso Ys 1 VFE YMo,VNE
•
Category
A"ircraft ea te1 ones
SF Maneuvers -Weight Pax seats
FAR23 Normal Stall , lazy eight, chandelle,

steep turns with bank < 60° <1 2500 lbs :S 9 + pilots
Utility 1,5 Nonnal + spins & bank< 90°
Aerobatic unlimited
Commuter Like normal <19000 lbs :S 19 + pilots
FAR25 Transport Like normal 0 - 00 0 - 00
• FAR Part 23 & 25 load limits

Category Configuration SF Maneuvering Limit Loads (g)
FAR23 Normal 2,1+ x (max 3,8) 0,4 · positive LF

Utility Flaps up 4,4
Aerobatic 6,0 0,5 · positive LF
Commuter 1,5 2, 1+ x (max 3,8) 0,4 · positive LF
All part 23 Flaps down +2,0 +I- 0
FAR25 Transport Flaps up 2,1+ x (2,5<LF<3 ,8) - 1,0
Transport Flaps down +2,0 +I- 0
x=2l+ 24000
' max.T / 0 MASS [tbsj+ 10000
Ultimate Load [g] = Safety Factor (SF) · Limit Load [g]

Airframe Structures
In the early days of aviation wooden rods or steel or aluminum tubes formed the carrying
structure of airframes. Besides the lateral rods forming the longitudinal rods or tubes
stiffening rods or wires had to be used to keep the torque out of the connection points or
nods and prevent them from breaking apart. These tubular airframes were covered with
fabric. The fabric has to carry the air loads only but does not have any further load
requirements. The attachment of the fabric is very time consuming thus expensive like
the maintenance of the airframe. The fabric has to be cut off to access the frame for
repairs.
At high speeds the flexible fabric is susceptible to flutter. Therefore the development
changed to more rigid metal -in most cases aluminum- skins. Like tubular frames lateral
formers or frames and longitudinal stringers form semi monocoque structures. Stiffening
wires or rods are no more required in these airframes because the rigid skin prevents the
frame from parallel displacement. Furthermore the skin carries a share of the total
airframe loads. Bulkhead frames form an air lock in the fuselage in the front and at the
end in airplanes equipped with a pressurized cabin.
The construction of a semi monocoque wing is comparable to a fuselage built this way.
The ribs form the profile while the skin and the stringers take the air loads. Additional
wing spars carry the major part of the lateral bending forces and prevent the wing from
flexing too much. The graphic shows a double spar wing setup constructed according to
the fail-safe method. If one spar should break the remaining spar must be able to take
more than 80% of the original design loads.
The non stressed-skin surface is a special intermediate case in the airframe evolution.
Like in tube/fabric planes the inner structure carries almost all loads while the metal skin
is wavy perpendicular to the load direction offering the inner frame to bend almost freely.
Good examples for that design are the early Junkers airplanes (JU-52). It allowed the
engineers to form a frame shaped and calculated for the applicable load cases without
considering the metal skin. The result was an easy to design (without sophisticated
calculations) and long lasting airframe at the cost of a higher weight and more
aerodynamic drag. This method is still used for the construction of flight controls of some
slow flying planes (Cessna's flaps, ailerons and elevator).
The engine and gear attachment represents a special case in all airframes. Usually the
engine is the heaviest single part to be fixed at the frame, which is designed to withstand
predominately area loads. The weight of the engine, thrust loads, reverse thrust loads,
gyro loads and vibrations must be suspended by a small area. As in most cases when
things get tight the designer prefers a clear load case with single parts bearing single
loads rather than multiple stresses on a single part. A reinforced wing spar is the base for
wing-mounted power plants. The engine is hung on a bolt (pivot) while tension and
compression rods introduce all other forces in the frame via the rib.
134
• Tubular frames
• Semi monocoque structure
• Semi monocoque wing structure
• Engine attachment Pivot tcnsion/comprcss1on rods
lhrusrl
weight

Transport Aircraft Layout
The construction and the layout of airframes are connected to the engine development. In
most cases in history the airframe was constructed around the engine rather than the
engine fitted in the frame.
Until the end of WWII single engine tail draggers were predominantly built. Powerful
engines in the nose made attachment points for a nose wheel rare. There was also not
enough room for a wheel well to retract the nose wheel because the entire lower nose was
stuffed with power plant accessories. Tail draggers are rather instable on the ground
especially in the landing roll when the power output from the propeller is low and the
brakes are actuated. Nevertheless they are fine for flying out of dirt runways because
there is no nose wheel to break off and the tail has to be strong and stiff anyways to bear
the air loads.
Multiengine designs with the engines mounted at or on the wings combined with higher
cruise speeds thus also higher take off and landing speeds lead the logical way to the
tricycle landing gear setup. Engineers especially became aware of this fact when testing
the first prototypes of the ME-262 in WWII - the first serial production jet fighter- with
two engines fixed below the wings. The plane could not rotate at the appropriate speed in
the tail dragger setup because the elevator was aerodynamically sheltered by the
downwash of the wings thus totally ineffective because there was no propeller slipstream
to blow the horizontal stabilizer. The temporary solution in this case was to actuate the
brakes at a predetermined speed to bring the nose down and get elevator control.
A high wing setup of airplanes always leads to slightly heavier airframes because the
center fuselage section must be constructed to withstand more tension which is more
critical than compression for most materials. Cargo planes should be accessible from both
sides leaving maneuvering area blow the wings thus a high wing setup is desirable. In the
case of turbo prop planes the diameter of the propellers and the fact that the engines
should be mounted on the wings to save in extra structures and aerodynamic drag
determines the high wing design to keep the propeller tips off the ground. In the old days
people did not have the materials to design long wings. Therefore multiple wings were
stacked over each other forming double and triple-deckers and keeping the torques thus
the material stresses at the wing roots low. Most small high wing airplanes feature rods
supporting the wing structure (single engine Cessnas) to keep the inner wing structures
lighter. T-tails are used whenever the tail should be accessible for loading cargo or when
engines are to be placed laterally at the tail instead of the wing. Engines at the tail are
desirable to keep performance requirements in the single engine case low (short arm) thus
requiring lower rated engines and smaller vertical stabilizers having less drag in the daily
operation. Propeller planes sometimes feature extraordinary tail constructions like fork or
split tails. Both variants put the vertical stabilizers into the accelerated slipstream of the
propeller to decrease the size of an imaginary single vertical stabilizer.
136
• r,Land:ng gear setu~ ~
Tail-dragger Tricycle landing gear
• General transport aircraft layouts
• Tail layouts
T-tail fork-tail
T-tail
split-tail
standard
tail

Hydraulic System Basics
The hydraulic system drives actuators in remote locations of the airframe and boosts
pilots control inputs to lower control forces. Gear, Flap and fly-by-wire flight control
systems are directly operated by the hydraulic systems and controlled by computers to
produce the desired deflections.
Most liquids are incompressible thus forces spread evenly in all directions. The graphic at
the top shows the basic principle. A large deflection of the pump piston causes the
actuator piston with a larger piston area to deflect at a smaller magnitude. The force at the
actuator rod is amplified by the ratio of the pump and the actuator piston deflections.
The picture in the middle gives an overview over the main components of a hydraulic
system. An eccentric motor-driven flywheel oscillates the pump piston. The hydraulic
reservoir stores the quantity of fluid to fill the actuator piston and the two check valves
up- and downstream of the pump assure the one way flow of the fluid.
The physical basics of any hydraulic system are summarized at the bottom. The moved
fluid volume multiplied by the pressure detennines the net power output of a system.
Today's airplane hydraulic systems run at 1000 to 3000 PSI (700 to 2100 kPa) and
feature powers of 1 up to 800kW depending on the airplane.
Advantages of hydraulic systems are:
► Low system weight: A l 5kW hydraulic motor weights around 3kg while a
comparable electric engine with the same power weights up to 80 kg.
► Linear and rotating movements can easily be performed at the appropriate speed
without additional gears or transfer mechanisms.
► Efficiency is almost I 00%
► The system is self-lubricating
► Long lifetime and few maintenance
Disadvantages are:
► All pressurized parts must be produced in high quality
► Leaks resulting from low quality production
► Hydraulic fluids are highly aggressive and toxic
The fluid should be as incompressible as possible in the operating range, be lubricative
and have same viscosity from around -50°C to 200°C. The boiling point must be higher
than 280°C with least tendency to cavitation (formation of bubbles at low static
pressures). Mineral hydraulic fluid is based on petroleum. Synthetic seals have to be used
and the fluid is highly flammable. Synthetic hydraulic fluids are used in aviation. The
violet fluid is based on phosphate and ester and called Skydrol. It features all
requirements plus is flammable only at high temperatures when in direct contact with a
flame. When the ignition source is removed the Skydrol flame dies immediately. Further
Skydrol is less toxic but skin and eye contact should be avoided in any case. Skydrol
must not be mixed. The system seals are designed for each single type of fluid. Filling
false fluid may lead to leaking seals or a failing system.
138
• hydraulic principle
actuator piston:
- area= 10m2
--
pump piston:
- area= lm2
- piston force = 1ON - piston force = IN
- displacment = 0,1 m - displacment = lm
t pump
fluid tank
check valves
• hydraulic system considerations
force = mass· acceleration; F = m · a

force F
pressure= - - ; p = -
area A
work = force • stretch; w = f •s
volume = area • stretch; v = A •s
work volume flow· pressure [kW]

power = - - = - - - - - - - - -
time 600

Hydraulic Devices
The pump is the heart of each hydraulic system making sufficient pressure and flow
available to the system. Gear and flywheel pumps are used in low pressure systems and
for fuel and engine oil pumps. Aviation systems usually feature axial piston pumps
(graphic at the top). The regulateable pump (also called engine driven pump or EDP-
connected to the high pressure shaft of the engine via the accessory gear box) features
around a dozen pistons radially organized in a cylinder rotating with the drive shaft. The
pistons are controlled by a variable swash plate like a helicopter rotor head. The angle of
the swash plate is set by another piston acting with the power of the pumps output
pressure against a preset spring assuring always constant output pressures. To shut the
pump off an electric operated valve clogs the output port causing the swash plate to
regulate to a zero angle when the internal pressure reaches the predetermined limit. The
left part of the graphic shows a pressure regulated motor. It works basically the same way
than the EDP pump; just the adjustable swash plate is replaced by the fixed angle of the
housing. The regulateable pump can be used as regulateable motor with minor
modifications as can the depicted motor easily be used as unregulated pump by just
changing the flow directions of the shuttle valves at the ports. Combining a hydraulic
pump and a hydraulic motor by connecting their drive shafts makes a power transfer unit
(PTU) equalizing pressures between two hydraulic systems and pressuring one system in
the event the others pumps (engine and electric pump) have failed. If one system has lost
its fluid the PTU will run dry but will not cause the remaining system pressure to
fluctuate or fail (no fluid transfer between connected systems). Air turbine motors (ATM)
are unregulated pumps driven by bleed air from the engine. The A TM output pressure is
regulated by the bleed air inlet pressure. Some large planes relying on their hydraulic
system feature an extensionable ram air turbines (RAT). The ram air drives a small
propeller and an unregulated pump. A overpressure valve regulates the pressure in this
emergency system draining excess fluid back into the reservoir.
The graphic in the middle shows common hydraulic linear actuators.
Flow control valves restrict the quantity of the fluid flow assuring constant pressure when
high volume consuming actuators like the gear retraction mechanism are operated. The
speed of the gear retraction and extension is controlled by the flow restrictor valves rather
than by the system pressure. In the event of a fluid leak the restrictor valve closes
partially or totally. Check valves restrict the fluid flow in one direction. The swing check
valve is good to regulate large quantities but will not withstand high pressures. Besides
hydraulic applications the swing check valve is commonly used within fuel systems.
The one way restrictor valve works like a check valve but permits a little fluid flow
against its lock direction through a small drilling. The priority valve is often used just
prior flight control actuator connected to more than one hydraulic system. The system
with the higher pressure becomes active. Priority valves also will isolate a failed
hydraulic system.
140
• hydraulic motor and pump
motor
-----7
regulateable pump (also EDP)
regulated by pressure (holds constant pressure) I
swash- ]ate
--+ out I
I
I
_J
A motor mechanically connected to a pump forms a power transfer unit (PTU)
• hydraulic actuators
double action actuator
double action actuator

having two exposed rods
three port actuator
• hydraulic valves
flow control valve check valve swing check valve
one way restrictor pressure relief valve priorty valve

Pl >P2
P2 PI
drain

Hydraulic Applications
Besides the gear retraction system the flight control system is the primary user of the
hydraulic systems. In large airplanes the control forces become high through the high air
loads and the sheer size and weight of the control surfaces. Many large planes can only
be controlled manually with a maximum physical effort of the pilots or not at all any
more.
The picture at the top shows an imaginary conventional roll control system. The cockpit
flight controls are still mechanically connected to the flight control surfaces for
convenience of the pilots in the rare event of multiple hydraulic failures. Transport planes
usually feature two mechanical systems with all the right flight controls connected to the
right joke and all the left controls bound to the left steering wheel. Both yokes are also
mechanically interconnected but can be disconnected by a manual or a force actuated
clutch in the event one side of the system is mechanically jammed. Furthermore one
hydraulic system powers the left flight controls while the other pressurizes the right part.
Usually both hydraulic systems are interconnected through a power transfer unit
pressurizing the failed system through the operating pumps. A hydro mechanic switch
mechanism is fixed on both sides on the control wires between the cockpit and the flight
controls. The flight control valve is set between two parallel rods. Whenever the two rods
are no more parallel the flight control surface deflection is different to the deflection
angle manually set at the control yoke. The valve pressurizes the actuator in the proper
direction until the deflection and the yoke setting agree. The flight control valve has to
detect minimum disagree angles of the two rods to unleash the hydraulic pressure to the
actuator to avoid large offset angles at the cockpit controls. Furthermore the valve has to
assure a complete depressurization of the actuator in the event of a hydraulic failure. The
autopilot may use the same actuator but control it through a different electric actuated
valve.
The graphic at the bottom shows an imaginary hydraulic operated flight control system.
There is no mechanic connection between the yoke and the flight controls any more. The
angle of the steering wheel is sensed by at least two flight control computers calculating
the appropriate deflection angle of the flight control surface and electrically controlling
the appropriate flight control valve. The depicted imaginary system also features a force
feed back unit as it may also be connected to a hydraulically boosted flight control
system. Another actuator charges a spring working against the manual pilot controls. The
force feed back does not reflect actual forces but generates an artificial control force as
preset and calculated by the unit. The force feed back (feel unit) unit as well as the flight
control computers are fed with air data from the air data computers (AOA, CAS, TAT,
altitude) and information about the current engine power setting as well as the airplane
configuration (gear, flaps & spoilers/speed brakes).
142
• hydraulically boosted flight control system
hydro mcchn1c switch mcchamsm
• hydraulically operated flight control system
[ air data unit Z]

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Gear System
An airplane's landing gear consists of the main gear set close to the center of gravity,
bearing about 85% of the airplanes weight and I 00% of the initial touchdown shock and
a steerable nose or tail wheel.
The shock struts feature a nitrogen gas pre-charge for feathering and oil for dampening.
A flow restrictor within the oil waterline regulates the dampening. An additional
restrictor thorn penetrates the flow restrictor hole in a progressively dampened shock strut
restricting the oil flow further at large displacements. A torsion link connects the shock
strut's casing and the piston assuring directional stability of the wheels. Some airplanes
(B737) feature a damper within the torsion link instead of a rigid connection leaving the
main wheels a dampened travel of some degrees to prevent undesired oscillations. The
drag strut is fixed on the main hinge as is the shock strut reducing mechanical forces at
the top of the shock strut and the fuselage main gear pivot points. Besides the main gear
actuator the bungee held side strut assures the down lock of the gear in the event of a
hydraulic failure. Transport planes flying faster than the maximum gear extension speed
and operating over large bodies of water feature an mechanical up lock as well. The
entire gear system is depressurized in cruise excluding the possibility of an inadvertent
free fall extension of the gear when the hydraulic is lost. The up lock can be released
manually for emergency extension. When the gear does not free fall from design -self
extending and down locking through gravity- an emergency use nitrogen charge can be
fired in the actuators to bring the gear down. The gear of slower planes is just held up by
the hydraulic pressure. When pressure is lost it free falls down automatically. The
pressure of the system is simply dumped for emergency extension in such planes.
The hanger type landing gear as invented and cultivated by the Cessna Company is an
interesting special case. The fixed gear is feathered through the design of the gear bar
while dampening is accomplished through the friction side forces when the gear bar is
depressed upon touchdown pressing the main tires outbound.
The brake system is essentially the same than known form automobiles except that the
brakes are equipped with multiple brake discs and brake pads organized radially around
the discs in heavier planes. An antiskid system prevents a lock of the tires while a auto
brake function manages a maximum breaking effort in the case of a rejected take off, also
offering predetermined deceleration settings for the landing. The brake system is powered
by the hydraulic system. A nitrogen prefilled brake pressure accumulator saves hydraulic
energy for the event of a landing without hydraulic power guaranteeing a minimum of
five full brake application cycles.
Like for cars tubeless tires are used for large planes to reduce the friction between the
tube and the tire thus reducing wear and temperatures. The tires are filled with nitrogen at
up to 300kPa pressure in heavy crafts (ten times more than car tires) to reduce
flammability and weight. Furthermore heavy plane's tires have thermal plugs releasing
the tire pressure at a gas temperature of typically 204 °C to prevent the tires from bursting.
144
• Gear components
dampening
standard progressive
main hinge
drag strut
~\
torsion link
emergency manual UJl lock re~ease

t \~
down lock release actuator
\ up lock release actuator
I
' ~ '
a
t:: down lock
• hanger type landing gear passive dampening

Air Pressurization & Conditioning
FAR part 25 regulations require transport airplanes to maintain a cabin pressure of

maximum 8.000ft at the maximum operating altitude. If certification for altitudes above
25.000ft is desired a cabin pressure of maximum 15.000ft altitude equivalent must not be
exceeded in any reasonably probably failure or malfunction of the pressurization system.
This means minimum two independent air conditioning packs. Furthermore the
regulations ask for two full capacity positive pressure relief valves, two full capacity
negative pressure relief valves to assure no under pressure exists on the ground and an
automatic or manual regulator for controlling the intake or exhaust airflow of the cabin or
both to maintain the required cabin pressure. The cabin equivalent altitude, the
differential pressure and the rate of cabin altitude change have to be displayed in the
cockpit. The plane must feature an aural or visual warning when the cabin altitude
exceeds 10.000ft. The outflow valve, fixed usually in the tail regulates the cabin pressure
while the cabin air intake remains more or less the same. The rate of cabin altitude climb
or descend should be around 300 to 500ft/min to fondle the human ear while the
maximum positive pressure differential is typically around 9 PSI. The graphic in the
middle shows the classic Cl52 with a ram air cooling and heating (via heat exchanger)
system like in cars. Some airplane feature refrigerator cooling. A compressor pumps
Freon gas through a closed circuit. The refrigerant cools when the liquid evaporates at the
expansion valve. The absorbed heat is released in another heat exchanger later in the
circuit. The pressure for the cabin is produced by the engine direct (bleed air) or via bleed
air driven cabin chargers. Air becomes hot in the pressurization process. Bleed air
directly from the engine comes at around 250kPa and up to 350°C thus there will never
be a need for heating. Jet transports cool their cabin air in a highly effective expansive
cooling process. The hot bleed air is directly routed to the first (primary) heat exchanger.
Subsequently a radial compressor compresses the air again thus increasing its
temperature which in turns is cooled in the secondary heat exchanger. This rather cold air
enters the turbine which drives the radial compressor. The final expansion in the turbine
causes the largest temperature drop. The air right after the turbine is typically around 2°C.
Ram air cools the heat exchangers and multiple deflector doors control the ram air flow
through the cooling duct. Additionally a bleed air powered turbofan boosts the airflow in
slow flight and while on the ground. The high efficiency of the process comes from the
large temperature differentials of the ram and the hot air and the high pressure of the
bleed air which is almost fully exploited. The low temperature exhaust air is routed
through a centrifugal water separator where the air is accelerated to high axial rotation
speeds causing the water molecules to collect at the outer portions of the water separator.
The complete expansive cooling processor is also called air conditioning pack. The cold
air is mixed with hot bleed (trim air) air downstream of the packs to achieve comfortable
cabin air temperatures.
146
• pressure cabin components
conditioned bleed air outflow al/ ,,.
__,_
pressure cabin
.....-. .....-•..... .-.. .'-!_,.>·•• . .~ .....,•..----->·I·. -

n~!\l f & \\ a ll!- --- > . . ---► ~ --·>
negative pressure , - , positive pressure

relief valve relief valve
• conventional ram air cooling and heating
• refrigerator cooling
- - Compressor gaseous refrigerant

- high pressure
~
I :C
liquid refrigerant
hot pressurized bleed air
• expansive cooling
Air cycle machine (ACM)
-◄ ~t1- ~ fan control
ram doQr
l econdary primary
dclkctor door .
I
C =~~
heat exchangers
~
ram air

Fuel System
Jet transport airplanes have a high demand in fuel. To enable longer range capabilities fuel
storing volumes are created in virtually all practical places (GC). The main tanks are
always within the wings because extra weight in the wings will not induce another amount
of torque into the center wing structure. These main tanks are usually filled first and
emptied last. Another high capacity center tank is often located ahead of the main wheel
well in swept wing jets. Other fuel storing spots are wing tip tanks and the vertical and
horizontal stabilizer. Tanks in the tail are also used as trim tanks to transfer fuel aft in-
flight. Airbus planes employ this principle to reduce the required elevator down force in-
flight thus reducing drag and fuel flow. The Concorde used the same trick to balance the
plane nose up in preparation for supersonic flight (see "transition to supersonic speeds").
The wing or fuselage structure is sealed to realize integral tanks. Flexible or rigid plastic
structures are built in the existing airframe structure to create fuel cell tanks. Fuel tank
sump drain valves are located in the lowest spot of each isolated volume and within the
fuel pipe system to drain residues and water. Each tank usually contains two electric fuel
pumps totally or partially immersed in the fuel to cool the motors. An additional suction
pipe enables the engines to bypass and suction feed fuel from the main tanks if the other
pumps fail or clog. The main tank in the wing structure is in most cases subdivided into
two or more tanks. The outboard tanks feed into the inboard main tank. The main tank
supplies the engine(s) located on the same side while the center tank supplies all engines
and is emptied first during normal flight. A cross-feed valve connects the left and right
side of the fuel system and enables balancing of the fuel or cross-feeding one engine from
the tank on the other side. All tanks are connected to the fuel ventilation system. It
provides overfilling protection, ventilation during tankering and ram air pressurization
during flight to reduce evaporation of the fuel. The fuel level is then transferred
mechanically or electrically to the fuel indicators. In large airplanes the fuel quantity is
measured with multiple capacitator elements within each tank. Fuel mass changes the
dielectricity constant of the volume between both capacitor plates thus the capacity of the
part alters the frequency of the oscillation circuit with the collocated coil. This method
determines the fuel mass; not the volume, which is actually better for flight planning.
Only the fuel mass indicates the energy content of the fuel while the volume is variable
depending on the temperature. Furthermore the volume does not matter for flight planning
as well because the fuel mass (weight) has to be lifted up. Drip sticks usually are an
emergency means of determining the fuel level on the ground to get airborne with
inoperative fuel gauges according to the minimum equipment list (MEL).
Single engine planes have wing tanks with the option to feed the engine either from both,
left or the right tank. Multiengine planes with more hunger for fuel sometimes have very
complicated wing tank fuel systems. Basically all additional or auxiliary tanks feed
electrically or by gravity into the main tanks which supply the engines.
148
• Fuel system overview
fucling valves
~ -
• ~ to port engine(s)
\_ fuel shutoff valve
• Fuel qu~ntity measuring systems
Fuel quantity
capacitor type measuring sticks
__Ll
t
_g
=!
,,.
~
a
"u
'-'===" - - - - - - - - ----!'---,----'[,i;' - --',.r'--'
dripstick dripless
• small airplane's fuel systems
Ill

Ice Protection System
While visibility limits the visual flight operations, icing is one burden of instrument
flight. Whenever flying in clouds at temperatures below freezing there is a possibility of
structural icing. Icing is most likely to form on all leading and protruding edges. It is not
totally clear yet when icing starts. Some airplanes types are more susceptible to icing and
others are not. Jets usually are least likely to ice up due to their high speeds (ice breaks
off at speeds faster then approx. 350 KIAS) and the warm and hot downwash of the
turbofans when the engines are fixed below the wings. The Boeing 73 7 for example is not
deiced at the tail surfaces while other T-tail jets with the engines at the tail are more
likely to ice up at the tail. Furthermore jets fly high. At temperatures below -10°C the
chance of icing decreases rapidly and jets have large amounts of extra power to climb
above the icing altitudes and out of the weather in a short period of time even if ice
accumulations degrade their performance. Propeller airplanes do not fly high. They are
damned to fly within the weather, cope with ice accumulations, and spend a part of their
limited excess power for de-icing measures. De-icing boots are used to burst existing ice
accumulations off leading edges. They are used on all propeller planes and some small
jets as well as on the tail of some larger jets. The rubber boots are powered by a low
pressure and a vacuum source and cycled by a controller. Bridge over ice rendering the
boots useless is a fairy tale originating from the early days of aviation when low pressure
boots were used. Whenever icing exists the boots should be active in modern planes. Jets
have thermal anti-ice. Bleed air warms the leading edges of the wings and sometimes the
stabilizers as well. Thermal anti-ice is a large consumer of bleed air. Turboprops and
small jets cannot afford to loose this much bleed air.
The first third of the propeller diameter should be anti-iced as well. The outer portions of
the prop run fast enough to break off the ice anyways. The heating is accomplished with
electric heating elements which are cycled on and off by an automatic controller to
reduce the electric load. Quickly changing the propeller RPM is another -not certified -
way to get rid of ice. All jets anti-ice their engine cowlings thermally with hot bleed air to
exclude the chance of ice building there and being ingested in large pieces in the engine
later destroying the engine or parts of it. Furthermore all planes certified for flight in
known icing conditions anti-ice the cockpit windows and all probes and drain masts.
Turboprops also de-ice or anti-ice their engine inlets.
Fluid anti-ice systems are effective non-certified retrofit measures to relief the pilot's
conscience when flying in icing conditions. Even if fitted with such a device pilots must
not enter known icing conditions. Practical icing tests for certification to receive the
predicate "for flights into known icing" are very complicated and expensive. Attempts to
deice the wings leading edges electrically are on the way. Blowing hot exhaust gases into
the leading edges would unfortunately never get certified because of the chance of
exhausts entering the cabin through cavities.
After all there is no countermeasure for flight in freezing rain other than getting out of it.
150
• Wing de-ice deflated inflated
vacuum source <E- <~ pressure source
•
wing bleed air duct
/ ~ ding edge track
~ \
IIIrnn-
leading edge (de1ced area)
extendable tube
(in shape and position simi lar to
the hydraulic leading edge actuator)
• Propeller & engine cowl anti-& de-ice

(
• Fluid anti-ice, window -& probe heat

••
cngmc cowl an t1 cc
.
clectnrollyhca~d
,,,
\\mdow mla~
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e lectncally---heated windows
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static port plalc
__ \ ljj,,,,e AOA,~,o,
' ~ 1cmpcratureprobc
- ---,,
~ pro e e~ectnc)
• Ice sensor (princi le

Ice accumulation reduces
RPM or increases amperage

Fire Detection and Extinguishing
All transport planes are equipped with various fire detection and extinguishing systems.
Double fire detection and extinguishing systems have to be available at any fuel
combusting system. These are the engines and the auxiliary power unit (APU) if
installed. Cargo compartments are also equipped with such devices in most cases -
depending on the fire classification of the cargo bay.
The Lindberg fire detection system consists of a sealed tube filled with a special solid
material. A gas is chemically bound in the material and released at temperatures higher
than 400°C. Consecutively pressure builds up in the tube and activates a pressure switch.
Another test circuit heats the detection tube to the threshold temperature and activates the
warning thus testing the integrity of the entire system.
Other systems are based on semi conductive materials. These decrease their resistance
with increasing temperatures. The Fenwall and the Kidde system both measure this
resistance directly. The Kidde system is driven by DC power and more sophisticated.
Two parallel wires are coated with semi conductive material in Graviner type sensor
tubes. Together they form a capacitator with a capacity depending on the temperature.
The Graviner system sensor works even if the sensor tube is interrupted. All semi
conductive material based sensors measure the temperature rather than switching at a
predetermined threshold temperature. They are able to detect overheat and fire
conditions. Such overheat detection sensors are also installed along the bleed air ducts.
Leaking bleed air can heat up and corrode the surrounding structure. It can warm the
structure to temperatures higher than 200°C which will significantly decrease the strength
of the aluminum.
Halons are halogenizing carbon hydroxides. They loose their structure in the heat of a
flame absorbing heat for this transformation. They are very effective for the use in
airplanes and not toxic at all. Halon (chemically Freon like in old refrigerators) fire
extinguishers are labeled BCF (Halon 1211) or BlM (Halon 1301 ). They differ in the
boiling point of the agent only. This makes the BCF agent fit to fight all class A, Band C
fires. They can be used on burning metals (E) but will not be very effective. Agents for E
fires should also suffocate the fire.
Two sufficient charges of Halon agent should be available for release into each engine
from the cockpit. In the B373 for example two containers (one shot each) are available
for two engines. Each container is connected to each engine and can be fired into the
burning engine from the cockpit. Some types also monitor their wheel wells to indicate a
fire condition there.
Cargo/baggage compartments and lavatories are guarded by smoke detectors. Waste bins
in the lavatories are connected to a charge of Halon. A thermal plug seals the charge and
a sticker on the surface of the skin changes its color with the temperature in the bin. It
shows which peak temperature exits or existed inside the bin.
152
• Fire detection and extinguishing systems
Fire cxtlngushiog agent containers
Fire / overheat detection circuits

\
I
• Fire detection sensor types

Lindberg type Fenwall (AC) /Kidde (DC) Graviner
~ - - -- ,cns,,.
+-1.Smm
o _ _ _~
<
O> - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
t test switch
test switch I ------c-"o----lJ
<l , vn I r<I••= '"" whL'tl boiler Umt ~011 l.
------------r:____. ~ - -; -:th,
fire light CPS= temperature
• Cargo compartment classifications

class - cargo baggage accessible fire/smoke extinguishing no smoke vent.
detection system to cabin switch off I
A yes yes yes no no no no
B yes yes yes yes no yes no
C yes yes no yes yes yes yes
Fire resist. wiring
D yes yes no yes yes yes yes &parts
Crew emergency
E yes no no yes yes yes yes ex its unobstructed
in any case
• Fire classifications and extinguishing,~agents

class combustible material
·
water powder C02 - Halon
A rigid yes yes Yes (BCF)
B liquid yes yes
C gas yes
D metals yes yes

Weather Radar
Weather radar scans the skies ahead in a sector of approx 60° on the vertical axis and
stores the picture of the return on the cockpit display until the next antenna sweep
updates the data. The Pilot can set the lateral axis (tilt) to the levels of interest.
Weather radar detects water only. Airborne radar operates at about 9,4 GHz (X band,
32mm wave length). When raindrops are illuminated by radar energy, the molecules
within the droplets are energized or dipoled. As everything in nature seeks equilibrium, a
charged raindrop begins to discharge or scatter, to deplete itself of energy omni
directionally. It's those few vectors, back scattered or returned to the radar receiver that
are detected and displayed. The run time between the transmitted and received signal
results in the distance to the target on the display. When radar energy travels through
water drops in the form of clouds or as rain, it interacts best with raindrop diameters of
20% (6,4 mm) the size of the wave length. Any drop smaller than 10% or larger than
30% of the wavelength can not be well detected. Water vapor, ice crystals and small dry
hail will not be detected at all. Dry hail, dry snow and wet snow make some poor to
marginal returns. Rain and wet hail are the only phenomena that can be well detected.
Newer radars also may detect turbulence and wind shear. Measuring minimal frequency
differences in the return signal and considering the Doppler Effect enables the system to
quantify movements relative to the aiming direction of the radar beam, meaning
horizontal speed differences of rain drops ahead, assuming that these movements indicate
either turbulence or wind shear. A radar picture, that looks kind of cut off with strong
echoes at the farther side is suspicious. The nearer strong echoes can hide echoes farther
away (shading) or the raindrop size may be too large to generate a good return. At a water
drop size of ¾ of the wave length the radar energy is fully absorbed. This is called
attenuation. The radar will not display anything although the flight might head directly in
an extreme thunderstorm. Such a full attenuation caused the loss of a DC 9 in the US in
an undetected extreme storm. Full attenuation can only be tricked by tilting the antenna
down to the ground close to the storm. In this case the radar will not display any ground
echo because all radar energy is absorbed in the storm on the way down. Another good
option is to team up weather radar with a lightning detection installation to not, overlook
neither attenuation nor shading. Sheer size matters when it comes to radar antennas.
Obviously the size of the airplane's nose cone limits the antenna. Small general aviation
airplanes usually have a 10 inches antenna setup which gives them a radar cone width of
10° as a function of the antenna's size. The safe detection range is just 80 nm with such a
wide beam because plenty of energy passes by a normal sized target. Any returns
received from 80 nm and farther must be considered as well under dimensioned. Large
airliners usually use a 30" antenna giving them 3° cone width hence reliable returns up to
160 nm or about 20 flight minutes prior notice. The picture at the bottom shows a vertical
cut through the life cycle of a thunderstorm and the resulting radar returns that can be
expected.
154
• Scan pattern, droplet size vs. reflectivity
~c.---qr: 0
Idl
l1"llllllll''
0 d....lCTll(lO
11,imdica,wn
1
painting scale
none
lcvcl2 ■
C
lcvc13 ■
30° right
lcvc14 ■
!-:-.· ....~ . · - -======P~+l; ti lt
1
· 10°
10% 20% 30%
• Antenna size effects / beam width
_large plane - 30 iru:hes antenna

'lii\.
\ 3 • beam ;vidth
Safe target for 1O" antenna

Distance
0 80 run
F1ightt:1me (Jet) - - - - - - --,--- -- -- - - -- - +- - --
10 min 20min
• Thunderstorm life cycle radar target cut
450 -,
~
0 5 10
;i.., ~
90 -,
~& 0 15

Autopilot Modes
All control systems should close their control loop. In a manual flight situation the pilot
detects deviations from his desired flight path first. Meaning he compares facts with
desired parameters (information processing). Second he initiates countermeasures in a
reasonable way to reach his desired figures (controlling). Third he closes the control loop
by reassessing the situation and starting all over again (reassessment).
When the flightdirector (FD) is engaged in the desired mode the information processing
and the reassessment are done by the FD system. The pilot closes the control loop by
accomplishing the controlling part. When the autopilot (AP) is engaged the
autopilot/flightdirector system (APFDS) runs self contained and the pilot remains in a
monitoring position.
The variance figures feed the controlling part of either the AP or the pilot. Consequently
the controller exports concrete setting commands for the flight control servos which
directly manipulate the flight control surfaces. Three virtual engines within a controller
can be distinguished. The proportional part activates a flight control deflection which is
opposite proportional to the variance. The integral part commands an opposite deflection
which increases in magnitude the longer the variance lasts. The magnitude of the
differential part in- and decreases with the rate of change of the variance. The three
signals accumulate to a complex control output for the flight control servos.
The table shows all popular APFDS and autothrottle (A/T) modes together distinguished
by the relevant control axis. The check marks on the right side indicate weather the given
mode will directly kick in or can only be armed. Consequently the activation will occur
not before certain conditions are met (captured). The altitude mode can be directly
engaged in any case to maintain the current pressure altitude although huge overshoots
can be expected depending the vertical speed (VS) at the time of the ALT mode
engagement. If an altitude pre-select function is installed the selected altitude is always
armed and all pitch modes except GS and Flare will revert to altitude capture and hold
when the selected altitude is approached. The VNAV mode adjusts the pitch and auto
throttle (A/T) to follow a flight trajectory calculated by the FMC. Nevertheless the
altitude selected in the autopilot control panel remains primary for climbs and descends.
The take-off and go-around mode (TOGA) will set the FMC thrust limit until a system-
specific speed is reached (usually below I 00 KIAS). After this speed the A/T will
physically hold the throttle in place. A safe optimum pitch to fly the selected speed (V2
for T/O and VREF for GA) is commanded. The approach mode will follow the vertical
and lateral guidance ofan ILS system. If the approach mode is fully engaged the autoland
function can be armed below 1500 AGL within a stable approach (max deviation on LOC
and GS within a certain time window) in complex APFDS to touch the plane. In some
cases it is also capable to control the roll-out portion with reference to the localizer as
well.
156
• Control loop
Manual/Raw Data flight Manual/Flight Director flight Automatic Flight
~ J; . tJ, .
___....,!9"",,,,...~ -' '"'~ "Jt ~
~ APSERVO
r) = information processing
• PID controller
o
~p~•: 1'K
~ =controlling
~ cot'.r~kl~ olr< 11I➔ Bank

Limiter
• I
sensed deviation
contro ller react ion
~--~
• Flight director, Autopilot & Autothrottle modes

Pitch Modes
min pitch limit for spl>ed mode .,;»
Pitch maintains pitch angle
VNAV Speed/Mach maintains speed or Mach
Altitude maintains the altitude
Vertical speed holds the selected vertical speed
[ ~A~pip~r!oa~c~h~ }== +== ==fi- GS tracks the glideslope ✓
Autoland Flare Flares the plane in reference to RA1 ✓
Roll Modes I
Roll maintains the roll angle
Wings level levels the wings horizontally ✓
Heading holds the selected heading ✓
NAV/LOC track VOR radials or Localizers ✓
LNAV tracks FMC lateral trajectories ✓
l
Yaw Modes
Yaw Damper dampens Yaw oscillations
Align aligns the plane for landing
l- · ····►
~
Throttle hold
I Speed/Mach
A/T Modes
holds the thronle in position
maintains speed or Mach
I
I
I
✓
✓ ✓
TOGA ;' l+
~
4 I Thrust Limit maintains FMC thrust limit I ✓
:, Climb maintains FMC thrust limit I ✓
Combined Modes
TOGA Take-off & Go-around guidance I ✓
Approach Lock on ILS I ✓
VNAV tracks FMC vertical trajectories I ✓
Autoland Touches the plane automatically ✓

Autopilot Setups
Three different system setups can be distinguished. The different system stability levels
are relevant for precision approaches and go-arounds initiated from such a precision
approach only. Either autopilot usually controls all other flight phases exclusively.
Single systems or individual APs can only be fail-safe (FS). FS systems monitor their
performance internally. The AP must disconnect automatically and indicate aurally and
visibly that it is offline if the internal error detection routine identifies failures. FS APs
must not be used below SORA anytime. Flight tests determined that an average pilot can
recover a pitch hardover in this altitude. A pitch hardover is a maximum pitch down
deflection initiated by the AP. Two independent AP systems are necessary to construct a
fail-passive (FP) system. An independent power source and an independent sensor setup
must feed each individual system. The power systems (DC systems usually connected in-
flight) must disconnect at glide slope intercept. A camout mechanism blocks the larger
actuator's displacement to exclude hardovers and disconnects both autopilot systems if the
effective displacements of the individual actuators disagree. FP systems may be used for
flare maneuvers if visual references can be picked up at 50ft RA (B737 NG).
There are three ways to design fail-operational (FO) autopilots:
1. Three fully independent systems drive at least three actuators per axis & mechanical
and electrical averaging devices on each axis (B747 NG)
2. Two independent channels in two independent systems (equals 4 channels) drive at
least four actuators per axis & electrical and mechanical averaging devices between
all actuators on each axis - not depicted (DC- I 0)
3. Two fully independent and fully cross monitored systems drive two actuators &
electrical averagers (voters) equalize both systems (channels & monitors) (A300)
All FO AP systems must run totally self-contained if they are online in parallel within a
precision approach like FP APs. FO AP systems are usually capable to conduct fully
autoland and automatic rollout operations. In case a single AP should fail within an FO
AP setup the autopilots remain engaged and the automatic landing and rollout can be
completed. FP and FO AP systems may also feature automatic go-around capabilities if
the go-around is initiated from a precision approach with all autopilots online. The TOGA
button automatically disengages FS APs. Cockpits featuring head up displays (HUD) with
individual power and sensor supply for the HUD system supplementing the normal
APFDS as displayed on the head down display (HOD) are called hybrid.
Airports and their approaches as well as airplanes and their crews have to be certified for
the respective approach categories. The crews must be trained on the operation at least all
six month and conduct a minimum of three approaches down to their minimum to be
current (max two may be conducted in a certified simulator). The performance of the
airplane system has to be continuously monitored to ensure that no failure occurs within at
least 95% of all conducted CAT II/III precision approaches.
158
• System stability
Fail safe (single AP or only one AP online in a multi AP setup)
,.,..-----------.____,\ AP SERVO
I
Sensor & Power Pitch channel - - ~
·- - - - - ----¼ . . - -- -~
internal error disconnetcts
Fail passive (B737 NG)

mechanical camout
(disconnect)
Pitch channel 1 -----➔ r--.....i.~1
---al--
disagree disconnetcrs
ensor 2 & Power :Pitch channel z' J ➔-----!.1'" borh s_rsrems
Power bus tic break.-. open
~--••-gl ide slope intercept
Fail operational - 3 independent systems (B747 NG)

~'_'J
Sensor I & Power I Pitch channel 1
1
> ·mechanical camout
( ) meclumical device
~ - - - - - - -~ ~ - - - - -~ . - --,__i, averager
Sensor 2 & Power Pitch channel 2 1--- ---¼ ":>;,-------<:>· averages all
1/zree ,1i_\ :s rems
Sensor 2 & Power Pitch channel 2f--->- -·-"
..
Fail operational - 2 independent system - cross monitored (A300)
Pitch channel 1 ~ (electric averager) .~'our channel a1·ereaged
Sensor I & Power ~~ - L> m rwosysrems
Monitor 1
w...._:M~on~1~
Sensor 2 & Power 2 j Pitch channel 2
·to~r~2=-__j-- ~ • ~ _J
2
• Display options
Head Down Display (HDD) Head Up Display (HUD)
\ \
• Approach categories
CAT OH VIS FSAP
- FPAP
--
FOAP Rollout control
I 200ft 1800fV550m Required (.IAA )
II 100ft 1200fV350m Required (or hybrid)
111A 0 700fV200m or FP AP & 50ft RADA Required
IJJB 0 150fV50m Required <1 25m VIS FP rollout
me 0 0 Required Required

Navigation Basics
The earth's diameter around the equator is divided by 360°. One degree of longitude
equals 60 nautical miles at the equator. Therefore one minute of longitudinal difference
(Lip) equals one nautical mile at the equator. All meridians converge at the northern and
southern pole.
This system is completed by latitude circles, parallel to the equator and spaced at a fixed
distance of one nautical mile per minute (Same as on the equator). This spacing is equal
to the spacing of the meridians at the equator. A latitudinal difference (Lip) can be easily
converted into a distance in nautical miles and used as a scale on any chart.
The distance between the meridians decreases pole bound with the cosine of the latitude.
For a conversion to distance the formula a = !':i.A · cos p · 60 [run] has to be used. To
approximate the distance (D) of a track not parallel or perpendicular to the equator you
can use Pythagoras equations: D2 = /':i.'A,2 [nm]+ !':i.p2 [run]
A great circle has the same diameter as the equator (earth diameter) and the great circle's
center is equal to the earth's center. The equator and all meridians are great circles. A
great circle is the shortest connection between two locations on the earth surface.
Any other circle is no great circle and not the optimum connection between two points.
The great circle is applicable for bearings received from ground-based stations
transmitting the bearing to an aircraft (station to aircraft bearing - VOR, Radar).
The line of equal bearings (LEB) is the virtual connection of all locations where the plane
will receive a constant bearing to a station determined by the plane itself (aircraft to
station bearing - ADF).
The meridian convergence (MC) depends on the sine of the latitude, is zero at the equator
and maximum at either pole.
Traveling on a great circle not parallel or perpendicular to the equator means crossing all
meridians at a different angle. Meridians are used as a course reference for true north.
The formula of meridian convergence (me) can be used to determine the change in true
course (TC) on a given track.
The me is the angle between the ground-based bearing and the aircraft based bearing or
the angle between the great circle and the LEB.
The rhumb line is the line, which crosses all meridians at the same angle and will end at
either pole in eternity (constant heading track). Only the equator and the meridians (TC
north or south) are great circles and also rhumb lines.
The conversion angle (ea) equals one half of the me and is the angle between the great
circle and its corresponding rhumb line between two locations.
The ea also is the angle between the rhumb line and the LEB
160
• Overview
A= longitude (long), p = latitude (!at)
equator
• Distance between meridians
a = 11A · cos p · 60 [nm]
• Meridian convergence
me = 11A · sin Pm (Pm= middle latitude)
• Dimensions
equator & meridians: 360°· 60 nm/0 = 21600 nm

on equator/meridian: 1° = 60 nm, 1'= 1 run
earth's diameter: ::::: 6300km
rotation: ""15,04°/h eastbound
• Conversion angle
~.r.eat_c_(r.c.~e.
ea= ½ · me
rhumb_line
is the angle between:
great eircle/rhumb line
great eirele/LEB
Navline descriotion Nav svstem

Great circle Shortest connection VOR
Rhumb line constant course
LEB Constant bearing ADF only

Course Schemes
The primary reference for every course scheme is the true north vector. It is the shortest
connection (great circle) between any location on the earth and the northern geographic
pole and is equal to the local meridian.
The nearest meridian on any chart is used to obtain the north reference on any chart.
The true course is the angle between this meridian and the course line on the chart
measured in clockwise direction.
After drawing a straight line between departure and destination (course line) an
intermediate true course can be approximated to minimize the error caused by the
convergence of the meridians predominantly found on easterly and westerly courses at
latitudes north or south of the equator by using a meridian in the middle (east/west) of the
course line as reference. With this method the difference between great circle and rhumb
line distance can be minimized because only a full-automated system is capable of
steering a variable course to track a great circle.
The magnetic north reference (MN) is depicted on charts as the difference between true
north and magnetic north, named variation (V AR) and depending on the aircrafts position
because of the inhomogeneous magnetic field of the earth.
The compass north reference is indicated as the difference between magnetic north and
compass north (CN), named deviation (DEV), usually found on a placard in proximity of
the magnetic compass, and depending on the airplane's heading.
A magnetic north vector being east or displaced clockwise of the true reference is
positive prefixed. This is also applicable for the compass north vector.
The angles between the north references and the course line are called true-, magnetic- or
compass courses. After the wind influence has been taken into account with the wind
triangle the relevant angles plus or minus wind correction angle are called headings.
It is wise to perform the wind calculation at the first step in the course scheme and to add
the wind correction angle (WCA) to the true course because winds are always given in
reference to true north (except surface winds - ATIS).
The effective true airspeed (T AS.rr) is the length of the airspeed vector pointing in the
direction of the true course line.
The actual path of the plane is named true-, magnetic-, or compass track. The DA is the
drift angle - the total angle between heading and track and caused by the influence of the
actual wind.
The D2 is the angle of the additional drift caused by the difference between forecast and
actual wind.
The 1:60 rule quantifies an angular deviation from a course, radial or desired track into a
lateral displacement when the distance to the fix or bearing station is known.
162
TN
• EB
~
T AS,rr.,,;,., = T AS · cos WCA =
GS + HWC or= GS - TWC
TC
±WCA sin( WCA ) = windspeed · sin (wind angle )
TAS
TH
-(±Var)
MR
-(±Dev)
CH
u
• Advanced course sche
wa = wind angle
TN
rwa = resultant wa
addit. wind = additional wind 0 EB
DA = drift angle ~ ~
Dz = addit. Drift
I An.!!le From To
WCA course headinl!
D,.. headinl! track
Dz course track
• Wind components
(Wind speed- ws: Wind angle - wa)

Head wind component (HWC) = ws · cos (wa)
Cross wind component (CWC) = ws · sin (wa)
• 1:60 Rule
(Quantification oflateral deviation from desired track - VOR vs. GPS)
0
lateral deviation[nm] = dis/ to fix· lateral deviation[ ]
60

Chart Projections
The whole subject is about how to depict a spheres surface on a plane surface.
Mr. Mercator wrapped a piece of paper around a ball. Later on Mr. Lambert changed the
shape of the paper to a cone. For navigational purposes the centerline of the projection
cone is the line from the geographic South Pole to the geographic North Pole and the
center of the projection is usually the earth's center.
In any chase the projection is most accurate north and south of the Latitude (Latrer or Prer)
where the projected plane is perpendicular to a line pointing to the earths center. The
accuracy always diminishes with increasing latitudinal distance to the reference latitude.
The shape of the cone used for the projection and the reference latitude are described by
the equation of the constant of cone (cc). The cc is zero for a cylindrical (Mercator)
projection and maximum for a stereographic projection (described in detail @ Grid
Navigation).
Another equation sets the cc in relation to the meridian convergence (me). The me on the
Mercator projection is zero. On the other extreme (stereographic) the me is equal to the
longitudinal difference.
On the Mercator projected chart (cc=0) the great circle is a function of sine. The rhumb
line (constant true heading track) is straight. The line of equal bearings (LEB) is equator
bound of both.
On the Lambert projected chart (0 < cc < 1) the straight line is the Lamodrome line and
almost equal to the great circle near the reference latitude. All other tracks are equator
bound in the same sequence. For all basic chart projections one sequence rule applies
regardless of the hemisphere:
• pole - great circle - rhumb line - line of equal bearings - equator •
The scale on any chart is usually depicted as the scale at the reference latitude. To
. scale given · COS(P,,ew)
calculate the scale at another latitude (Pnew) use: scale n e w = - - - - - - - -
cos(p given )
For each latitude there is an optimum chart projection (Lat = Lat,.r). Furthermore there is
a favorite basic projection for given regions:
Pr6 ·ection
Stereo hie
Lambert 20° ... 70°
Mercator 00 .. .400
164
• Basic Lambert Projection
• Constant of Cone (cc)
cc= sin (P,er); me= cc·!',,. 'A. ; gap angle = 360 ·( 1-cc)
• Basic Mercator Projection
uator\
90°w 90°E

Grid Navigation
The grid is a rectangular net laid over a chart projection (normally stereographic). The
orientation of the grid is equal to one specific reference meridian of the basic chart.
Reasons for this course scheme are:
• Strong convergence of the meridians in the proximity of the poles
• Huge changes in variation in the proximity of the magnetic north pole
• The magnetic compass is unusable at high latitudes because the horizontal
component of the magnetic field is decreasing to zero
• To simplify flights along the great circle
To calculate the distance of a given latitude from the pole on a stereodromic chart use
following equation: Distance from pole= 2 · radius earth · tan (x);
projection center = earth center: x = 90-Lat

projection center = opposite pole: x = (90 - Lat)/2
The straight line on the stereodromic chart is the stereodromic track. This track is almost
equal to the great circle track. In producing the new artificial reference grid north (GN)
the changes caused by the proximity to the reference are minimized by tuning a free gyro
or an INS system to GN. Nevertheless the earth rate- and the earth transport precession
must be observed and a mechanic directional gyro may tilt.
At the reference meridian true- (TN) and grid north (GN) are equal. Therefore the grid
convergence (Gcvg), which is the angle between TN and GN, is zero in this unique case.
In the grid navigation course scheme the same rules as in all other course schemes will be
applied.
The grid convergence can be measured from the chart. If you measure be aware that:
• -90° < Gcvg < +90° in areas of the reference meridian
• 90° < Gcvg < -90° in all areas opposite of the reference meridian
• Gcvg = +/-90 rectangular to the reference meridian
Note: A meridian is half a great circle pointing from the south to the North Pole
The Gcvg can also be calculated with the meridian convergence equation. In this example
!J.11, is negative because the local meridian (position of the aircraft) is east of the reference
meridian. (The opposite meridian is the turn point)
The constant of cone is (explained in detail @ Basic Chart Projections) is + or - 1 on
stereodromic charts (sin 90° = 1). In the southern hemisphere it will be negative prefixed
because the meridian is pointing away from the South Pole and all references remain
north.
166
• Grid navigation course scheme GN
$>- TN + ~
I
I
I I
I I
G,v 8 = grid convergence I
griv = grivation
Var = variation
GC = grid course
⇒ Gcvg = I:!.')., • CC
Referece
Meridian
I:!.').,: (LM: local meridian, ref. M: reference meridian)
LM west ref. M ➔ - /),)., (negative prefixed)

LM east ref. M ➔ +tJ. (positive prefixed)
Constant of cone (cc)

(Always± I for stereographic projection)
cc = + 1 in northern hemisphere
cc = - 1 in southern hemisphere

Bearings and Interceptions
The European Q- groups used in terms of navigation and meteorology (etc) range back to
the old times of aviation when Morse code was used and make no further sense.
Nevertheless the official groups are still in use:
QDM equals the Anglo American magnetic bearing to (fix) and is magnetic heading plus
relative bearing on a non-slaved radio-bearing indicator (RBI). On a slaved bearing
indicator (RMI) this addition is made graphically. The number behind the top of the
needle is the QDM (BRG) and the number behind the needles back equals the QDR
(BRGrrom). QDR is the reverse value of the QDM (360° circle). Both terms are referenced
to magnetic north.
QUJ is the counterpart of QDM with true north as reference. Accordingly QTE is the
reverse term to the magnetic QDR. QTE equals the American line of position (LOP).
This term can be used to simplify the determination of a position on a chart because the
meridians can be used for the measurement. The QUJ is useless (maybe that's the reason
why I could not find any American counterpart).
The intercept heading is the course to steer (CTS) for the pilot or the autopilot to intercept
a desired track (BRG) or desired QDM.
The interceptions are detailed in the table. Find the right interception and perform the
steps indicated in the Table from the left to the right.
For inbound interceptions the difference plus 30° method is shown which is best for
manual enroute interceptions. This method also assures that you arrive at the desired
track before reaching the reference fix. Nevertheless the intercept angle can be
individually chosen by the pilot to match the situation (departure and approach) and on
automatic intercepts by FMS or GPS optimized intercept angles may be issued according
the circumstances.
Outbound interceptions work the same way except the pilot usually chooses a intercept
angle of 30, 60 or 90° to simplify the task because there is no potential to over fly the
station before the intercept takes place.
Most important for all interceptions is the directional decision ( 1st step), especially when
you have to rely on raw data - Take your time and make it seriously.
Interception angles greater than 90° result in an interception of the reverse DTK (inbound
turns to outbound and vice versa)
168
• Bearing definitions
I bearing (European) = formula =

American
GPS/FMS 7
QDM MH+RB ma1rnetic bcarin1r to BRG
QDR ODM ± 180° magnetic bearing from BRG FROM
QUJ QDM ± Var true bearing to
QTE ODR +Var true bearing from LOP
desired QDM see interceptions desired track DTK
intercept beading see interceptions course to steer CTS
• Interceptions
interception direction enroute correct CTS
I inbound BRG>DTK ➔ right / plus

intercept
anRlellLI
BRG-DTK + 30°
to
DTK DTK+IL'.
(max 90°)
BRG<DTK ➔ left / minus DTK-BRG + 30° DTK DTK-IL'.
(max 90°)
outbound BRGfrom > DTKfrom➔ left / minus 30 I 60 I max 90° DTKFR DTK-lL'.
OM
BRGfrom< DTKrrom➔ right / plus 30 I 60 I max 90° DTKFR DTK+IL'.
OM
IL'. = intercept angle
Example: BRG = 220° ; DTK =270 ; Task : Find the CTS to intercept inbound
BRG < DTK : correction must be made to the left and intercept angle will be
Subtracted
Intercept angle = DTK - BRG = 50°+ 30°= 80° (< 90°)
CTS = DTK - intercept angle = 190°
Steer 190° until your BRG is almost 270° then turn right to 270° (be wired that
the intercept angle of 80° is large and avoid a potential overshoot.
MN
&
/
/4
/
intcrc .
angle ii,-

Ecliptic
The earth moves around the sun (fix star) on the ecliptic (earth's track around the sun) in
365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes and 9 seconds. This is approximately 365,25 days and the
reason why we have to add one day every 4 years. That is the sidereal year (in reference
to a fix star). According to the second law of Kepler the earth has to move faster in the
winter half year because the distance to the sun is shorter. Therefore the winter is shorter
in the northern hemisphere. In the aphel position the earth is farest away from the sun and
is nearest in the perihel. Average distance is 149,6 Mio Km or 8 light minutes or one
astronomic unit.
The earth axis (geographic south to geographic north pole) is tilt by 23,5° away from a
line perpendicular to the ecliptic or tilt by 66,5° to the ecliptic.
The strongest heating appears at the area where the sunbeams hit the surface of the earth
perpendicular. As you see on the picture (right bottom) a defined light beam illuminates
the smallest area on a sphere in a perpendicular angle. Therefore the solar power by area
is maximum in that area.
That area is called inner tropic convergence zone (ITCZ) and is described in detail in the
chapter weather. The ITCZ is shifting with the position of the earth on the ecliptic. At the
spring and autumn positions of the earth the sunbeams approach the geographic equator
in a 90° angle. At the summer point they are perpendicular at the maximum of 23,5°N
north and minimum at 23,5°S at the winter point (northern hemisphere winter). Due to
the rotation of the earth around its own axis the sun is apparently wandering over the
horizon. A sun day (true sun) is the time between two consecutive passages of the sun
through the opposite meridian at a given position. This time varies because of two
reasons:
The rotation of the earth around the sun has the same direction as the rotation of the earth
around its own axis and therefore lengthens the duration of a day compared to a fixed
earth in differing magnitude because the speed of the earth on the ecliptic is changing.
The earth's rotational axis is tilt. For a viewer on any other latitude than the ITCZ the sun
wanders on the profile of a sine curve with changing magnitudes.
To simplify the time measurement and to avoid the need to construct clocks running at
various speeds the average sun day was introduced. We are considering the sun to wander
at a constant speed. The local mean time (LMT) is the time, which elapsed at the average
speed of the sun since the last passage of the opposite meridian. The meridian passage is
the correction value between the true and the average sun.
The equation of time describes the difference between the true and the average sun.
170
• Ecliptic (northern hemisphere)
begin of spring
tea. 20 th march)
begin of summer
(ea. 21• june)
Peribel
Aphel --15T.Tl½io~ - - - ~ ea. 2"' january)
(ea. s• j uly)
begin of winter
(ea. 21 !II december)
ecliptic
begin of autom
(ea. 22nd september)
• Position of the ITCZ
• Equation of time
True sun (sun in zenith) = LMT ± MP
Dataji-om air almanac 1990:

Date 75eclination MP/min/ Date Declination MP/min/
01.ian 23,0°S +04 01.iul 23,1 °N +04
01.feb 17, l 0 S +14 01.aug 18,0°N +06
OJ.mar 7,6°S +12 01.seo 8,3°N 00
01.aor 4,5°N +04 01.okt 3,2°s - 10
01.mai 15,1°N - 03 01.nov 14,4°s - I6
01.jun 22,1°N - 02 OJ.dee 21 ,8°S - 11

The Day
The sun day starts with the average sun passing the meridian opposite of the local
position. The night lasts until sunrise m.inus the duration of twilight. The day starts with
the sunrise and ends with the sunset. The night starts again at sunset plus duration of
twilight.
The civil twilight begins and ends with the sun's m.idpoint 6° below the true horizon (12°
for naval twilight) by definition. The sunrise takes place when the midpoint of the sun
passes the true horizon.
Each position on the surface of the earth has its own vertical. The top is the zenith and the
bottom the nadir. As you see in the picture the surface perpendicular to the zenith-nadir
axis, crossing the earth's center is the true horizon (true for the viewer at that specific
position). The celestial north pole (CNP) and celestial south pole (CSP) are the endpoints
of a virtual axis through their geographic counterparts projected into space. In using the
peak height equation at the right bottom you can calculate the maximum height of the sun
above the true horizon at a given Latitude (p) and date.
With the picture and equation at the right side you can understand the topic and calculate
the height also with the factor time. As the latitude increases the cosine shaped curve
becomes flatter. The curve is also shifting up and downwards with the declination. That
makes the different durations of the day understandable.
A negative cosine function is used to enable easy time calculations. The track starts with
the maximum negative magnitude as the sun day starts with the sun crossing the opposite
meridian at its lowest position. The maximum positive magnitude or the peak height of
the sun takes place with the star crossing the local meridian or the meridian at the actual
longitudinal position of the viewer. This is again the meridian passage. The elapsed time
referring to the average sun from the crossing of the opposite meridian is the local mean
time (LMT). Correct the LMT with the MP correction from the table to obtain true sun
time (equation of time). You can use this excerpt from the air almanac for the declination
as well. Just be careful with the rules: Add the declination in the same hemisphere and
subtract it if the hemispheres are opposite to the declination.
The table in the bottom describes the ecliptic of the sun on the basis of the three Kepler
laws of planet orbits around a star (in that case the sun) and should be sufficient to
approximate the corrections by interpolating.
All areas above 0° height are day (always referring to the m.idpoint of the sun). The
narrow band below 0° to 6° is defined as twilight. As the curve gets flatter the duration of
the civil twilight increases accordingly. You can calculate any desired durations by
integrating the function of the height in the desired latitude.
• The day on the time axis
sunrise (SR) sunset (SS)
• The height and track of the sun

he ight axi s approximation:
height = (90 - Lat) • (-cos(LMT' 15,04)) +/- dee
90
MP
,.cnith
0
~
o:I / ~ ~,
I \
101:1lheigh1 ' time axi s
~have oo true hori z~ )
1
hori,oo
t"iligh 360° or 24h
1m~ horiro11
-60
/, ► I
loca l meridian
< :i
':= duration of civil twilight
'' I
'' ~
CJ)
>
' aiu.:itor
local mean time (LMT)
nodir
_900
Peak height in degrees (measured at viewers position): h = (90-p)±dee;

(p = Lat of viewer position, dee = declination of the sun - see actual air almanac)
Dec. of sun and lat of viewers position in same hemisphere: add dee figure
Dec. of sun and lat of viewers position in contrary hemisphere: subtract dee figure
Datafiwn air almanac 1990:

Dok Declination MP /mini Dat~ Declination MP /mini
Ot:u)
QI.fob
Ol.11111r ,,.,.,,
01.:lll • 06
00
01.okt -IO
0 1.niai -03 01.nov - lb
01.jun -02 01.doc - 11

Depression and Dip
The first picture on the top right shows the relations of the day once again and clarifies
the rotating direction of the earth as well as the apparent wander of the sun in the
opposite direction. At this graphic it is presently 12 o'clock LMT at the 0° Meridian
through Greenwich in the northern summer with a large northern declination of the sun.
The lighted area is huge, the area around the northern pole is permanently lighted and the
consecutive twilight zone is large. The outer amber circle represents the earth's
atmosphere. The atmosphere is gradually increasing in density and reaches it maximum
density at sea level. The atmosphere is scattering the parallel light from the sun
earthbound by refraction. The picture taken before sunrise on the upper left shows that
gradual refraction.
That average atmospheric refraction equals 34' of declination at sea level. The sun's
diameter equals 32' of declination. The sunset is defined as the sun's midpoint crossing
the true horizon. As you see at the picture in the middle you will perceive the sunrise 50'
(0,8°) earlier at sea level than it will take place by definition. That equals approximately
1½ sun diameters between the top of the sun and the apparent horizon at the defined
sunrise time. The same takes place upon sunset in the opposite direction.
For higher altitudes you have to add the dip of horizon from the air almanac which is a
correction including a geometric calculation because the horizon you see from above is
farther away (or lower) than the one you see from sea level and a reduced refraction
number because the higher you are the less atmosphere is above you to scatter the light.
Depression is the sum of refraction, half diameter of the sun and dip of the horizon.
Here are some numbers:
;'."r
- ": i·.. : ·-: , . "
-'" ~
MSL oo 0,8°
5.000 ft J,40 2,2°
10.000 ft 2,0 2,8°
20.000 ft 2,8° 3,6°
30.000 ft 3,4° 4,2°
40.000 ft 3,9° 4,7°
174
• The day from above
light scattered
SS bythc
atmosphere
~ apparent
movem
c showing north
twilight • day (Hh > summer
SR
• Depression A
50 ' or 0,83°
of the visible
horizon
-
/
--,+-~~~---i--ci--
T~
I
16' lead by the half sun diameter
true horizon
34' lead by refraction
T
•- - appearent vision
• Dip of the horizon

altitude
earth ·s surface curvan1rc

Time Definitions
The sun day starts with the true sun crossing the opposite meridian and ends with the
beginning of the new day. The time in between that period is the sun time.
The time of the sun day defined by the movement of the average sun moving with
15,04°/h is called local mean time (LMT). The meridian passage correction (MP) is the
difference between the sun time and the local mean time.
The universal time (former Greenwich Mean Time - GMT) is the local mean time of 0°
longitude or Greenwich meridian.
Universal time equals local mean time subtracted by the eastern longitude of the local
position divided by the average sun or added by the western longitude of the local
position divided by the average sun.
The universal time coordinated (UTC) is an artificial time based on the frequency of a
carbon isotope and is the time basis of aviation. It is calibrated to the international atomic
time scale.
The earth is divided in 24 zones spaced at intervals of 15° longitude. Each zone has a
center meridian spaced 7,5° from each border of its zone. That time is called zonetime
and the basis for the standard time. At each consecutive eastbound center meridian the
zonetime shifts one hour ahead ofUT.
Standard time (ST) is the time based on the zonetime and unionized for state borders.
Daylight saving time (DST) is also defined by states. DST is an attempt to shift the time
of the daylight period in the actual period of sunshine.
GPS was started in 1980. A switch second was added every I to 6 years to keep UTC in
track with the earth rotation (sidereal time correction: 1. January 2006 > GPS = UTC +
14 s). Most GPS convert their indication to UTC.
176
• Time definitions
Sun time: time defined by the real sun
LMT: time defined by the average sun
UT: LMT@Greenwich (former GMT)
UTC: artificial time
ST: time defined by state borders
DST: summertime shift of+ lh
sun time +I-MP

equation of time
true sun
eastern Ion ·tude

15,04°/h
western longitude
+ 15 04°/h
'
related to UT
UT
LMT @ 0° longitude
DST ST
smnmertime correction UT stepwise defined
on ST by state borders
Pilot's Reference Guide ©

Magnetic Compass
The magnetic compass is the basic method to determine directions and one of the
Most sophisticated mechanical instruments in the cockpit.
The inhomogeneous magnetic field magnitude of the earth ranges at an average of 30 to
60 mT and continuously changes. It originates in the centre of the earth and its shape is
changed by ire ore, the earth's atmosphere and by sun winds. It protects us from solar
particle winds and shows us a direction. The magnetic north pole is presently located in
northern Canada. The variation describes the angular difference between the magnetic
and geographic north direction at a specified position and can be found on navigational
charts. The direction of the magnetic field is only nearly parallel to the earth surface at
the magnetic equator. At all other latitudes the field is pointing into the surface at the
declination angle of the magnetic field at the present position. That angle is also
depending on altitude but usual flight altitudes do not change it significantly.
With increasing magnetic latitude, which is almost equal to the geographic latitude the
declination angle of the field increases. With an increasing field declination the
horizontal component of the field is decreasing and so is the ability to indicate the
direction to magnetic north. The compass erratic line or 6 mT line, depicted on polar
charts indicates that pole bound from that line the magnetic compass is considered to be
useless. The deviation is the magnetic field produced by the electric system and the metal
components of the aircraft. Deviation is depending on the heading but remains constant in
magnitude. The magnitude of the earth's magnetic field changes with latitudinal position.
Therefore a compass should be calibrated for to specified latitude.
The magnetic needle aligns with the direction of the field. A counterweight is fixed at the
360° mark to balance the ball to a horizontal position. That weight is depending on the
declination of the field at the latitude where the compass is normally used. As you see in
the picture in the middle the ball with the markings remains stationary and the frame with
the little window turns around it. If the system is accelerated on easterly or westerly
courses the inertia of this weight displaces the ball. That is the acceleration error:
acceleration - north; deceleration - south (ANTS)
When accelerating on these courses the indication turns northbound and vice versa -
independent of the hemisphere.
In turns the compass also indicates different numbers due to friction, field declination and
the counterweight. The picture in the bottom shows what the instrument indicates
normally (inner circle) and what it shows in a stabilized standard 3°/sec tum. When
turning between 270° and 90° the indication is leading by the figure in brackets
depending on present heading and you will have to roll out earlier. Act vice versa at
headings between 90° and 270°.
178
• Earth's magnetic field
counterweight
/
I ,
I I ---.
l [ field dcclinat1on
horizontal field component ➔
• Deviation and Acceleration error
MN
,;,
"~ - - - - ---,-
C
/
·=
C
a, /
I'
~ \
i1 / •r \
"~ \
g
_§ --------' , /
-2 - -............
y /'- ·, 0
) /\
~" / / ,,
,1~1. .
~0/ /
'o,~~ /
J ,o •
'
t/
magnetic field of the aircraft Frame = aircraft
• Turn error
]60~±30°)
'
Indication in a stahilizt'd 3°/sec turn
ndic n in

Electromagnetic Waves
Radio signals are used in every part of aviation mainly for communications and
navigation. The accuracy for navigation and the quality for communications are related to
the wavelength or frequency used.
The electromagnetic field is produced at the transmitter antenna, alternating at the desired
frequency and distributed at approximately the speed of light.
The wave length (A) is equal to the frequency (f) multiplied by the speed oflight
(c::::: 3 •108 m/s).
All classic aviation radio signals are amplitude modulated (COM, VOR, ADF). The
information is contained in the amplitude (surrounding curve) of the carrier wave.
As a rule of thumb transmitter and receiver antennas are optimum at the physical length
of the half wavelength. Reception theoretically is optimum with the transmitter and
receiver antennas equally oriented and zero with a tilt of 90° between both (ADF
principle).
The higher the frequencies are the higher the reception accuracy is and the more
complicated the transmitters and receivers can be developed and the more complicated it
is to achieve high output powers.
Lower frequencies are more subject to surrounding factors. The higher the frequency is
the more its distribution characteristics approach the characteristics of light. Light has a
dual character and can be seen as particle stream or as electromagnetic wave.
The classification of the frequency ranges is depicted in the table at the top.
Electromagnetic signals in the in the low, middle and high frequency range (LF, MF, HF)
are disturbed by convective weather (CB, TS, ICU), high solar activity in higher
latitudes, air density differences - known as shoreline effect, reflection - known as
mountain effect and interference - known as fading or twilight effect.
Frequencies in the high frequency range (VHF) are considered to be quasi optical - If
you can see the receiver or if you could without clouds you can receive it.
The range of a signal is depending on the transmitting power and the sensitivity of the
receiver. The longer the signal runs the more disturbances accumulate which receiver
gimmicks can out-filter. Those filter modes normally use an analogue or digital Laplace
transformation to divide regularities from irregularities in the frequency spectrum (noise
filter or squelch). The quasi-optical range of VHF information is also limited by the
curvature of the earth and described by the range formula. This formula shows the
theoretical range of a VHF signal only and no output power limitations or limitation
given by obstructions.
180
• Frequencies / modulations / range / disturbances
, Ranj!e Freq. {Hz] Systems Modulation (AM)
LF 30k . ....................... .... 300k A DF Ao CW
MF 300k ..... .. ................. 3000k ADF Ai CW,
broken
HF 3M . . .... .. .. .... .... .. .... .. .. .. 30M HFCOM CW+ tone
VHF 30M . . .. .......... ...... .. .. .. 300M COM/VOR voice
UHF 300M ................. .. ... 3000M G S/Tx/DME/ tone + voice
RADAR/GPS
SHF 3G . ....... ...... ... ... .. .. .... ... 30G PAR/ASDE
• Amplitude modulation (AM)

A
information
----1,
I\ II
I I\
I I
I .
1Carner wave
I
t1me ~ Rx
►
I
> -<---
wave \enght
• Wave length
A= c/f
• Optical range
Range= 1,23 - ✓ (height [ft]); [nm]

Approach Equipment
The ILS provides an approach path for exact alignment and descent of an aircraft on final
approach to a runway. The localizer [LLZ] provides lateral guidance 35° around the
runway centerline within 17nm and 10° from each side of the centerline within the range
of 25nm to fulfill ICAO requirement. The ground transmitter is located beyond the
opposite threshold and the airborne receiver usually in or near the airplanes nose. The
course along the extended centerline of the runway in the opposite direction to the front
course is called back course. The localizer transmits on a carrier wave from 108 to 112
MHz with uneven decimals (Terminal VORs use even decimals in the same frequency
range). The left side of the centerline is modulated with 90 and the right with 150Hz. The
magnitudes of both modulations are equal along the centerline. The localizer is adjusted
for a course width (full deflection) of 700 feet at the front course threshold. Hence the
localizer beam is more focused on a longer runway and tougher to track. A clearance
transmitter serves the localizer on airfields with reflection problems, mainly caused by
mountains. The clearance signal transmits on the localizer frequency minus 9 KHz and
enables the identification of the real centerline (capture). The glidepath (GP) completes
the ILS System. The GP transmitter is located about 100m offset of the runway and
abeam of the aim markings. An ICAO conform GP must work 8°lateral around the
runway centerline within a range of at least 10nm. The ground station transmits on a
carrier of329,6 to 335,4 MHz. It must not be separately selected in the airplane but tunes
automatically with the selection of the appropriate localizer frequency. The glideslope is
between 2 and 4 degrees steep (3° standard). 0,7° equals the full deflection from the
center. The GP has more side lobes than the localizer. The published glideslope intercept
position should be checked to verify the true lobe. Markers run on 75 MHz and identify
published positions on the ILS to cross check the altitudes. The outer marker is located at
around 4nm miles from the threshold and the middle marker around the CAT I minimum
(200 AGL or more). Localizer type directional aids (LOA) and simplified directional
facilities (SOF) are equal to localizers in principle and usage. While the LOA has almost
the same width and accuracy than the localizer the SOF beam is wider (6 or 12°) and less
accurate. SOF and LOA can be tuned with any ILS receiver in the same frequency range.
The SOF beam may be offset from the runway centerline. Straight in landing minima
may be published up to an offset of 30°. Higher offsets require visual circling procedures.
SOF and LOA are referred to as localizer or offset localizer in most countries. The
uniform usage of localizer (LLZ), LOA and SOF does not require the pilot to distinguish
between them. The microwave landing system (MLS) or time referenced scanning beam
system (TRSB) uses tilting beams for the lateral and vertical track. Individual lateral and
vertical tracks can be distinguished by the time between the changes of direction of the
beams (roughly comparable to the VOR principle). The MLS uses frequencies in the ILS
VHF range and converts these inputs to the applicable frequencies in the MLS range.
Individual lateral and vertical tracks can be chosen for the approach to land.
182
• ILS system Single Clearance transmitter
LOC freq CW - 9 o /
fron tcourse ~
Range 25nm+ '
runway centerline
back course LOC transmiller GS transmitter

108-ll2MHzCW
90Hz
MMker
OM blue
IM
• LDA&SDF
LDA I
SDF tmnsmittcr
108-11:?MHzCW
A 90Hz
L OA transmitter
108-112MHzCW
• MLS
/11,
~
5220-5250 MHz CW
MLS transmiucr GS transmitter

5000-5030 MHz CW

Radio Navigation
VHF omni directional range beacons (VOR) transmit with 50W (Terminal or gap fillers
enroute) to 200 Watts (enroute) a reference and a rotating signal. The phase difference
between both determines the position relative to the VOR. VORs are aligned with
magnetic north except at high latitudes and high variation figures where they reference
true north. They transmit on 108 to 118MHz. Doppler VORs (DVOR) features no
moving parts and are less likely to produce bended radials (bends) or fluctuating radials
(scalloping) when the terrain position of the transmitter is not optimum. Test VORs
(VOT usually at 108, 0 MHz) transmit an omni directional signal that is sensed as
360°FROM or 180°TO by any receiver. They are good for equipment tests only. The
VOR ground station accuracy should be less than 2° and the airborne receiver should not
exceed 2° as well. Hence the pilot should consider the equipment unreliable if more than
4 ° discrepancy is detected in the airplane. The FAA requires the pilot to check the VORs
at least all 30 days when operation under CFR part 91 (private). All other authorities and
operations require periodic checks by maintenance. The difference in Indication between
both airplane receivers may not exceed 4° on the ground and 6° when checked airborne
over a specified position (within 20nm of the station). Distance measuring equipment
(DME) measures the slant range distance to the station and is usually co-located with
ILS, VOR and TACAN. Modem FMS translate these slant range distances into ground
distance by using triangular calculations. The normal DME indicator will show the height
over the station when overhead. The T ACAN is the military version of the VOR. The
DME portion of the signals can be received by civilian airplanes by using the
channel/frequency conversion formula. VORTAC is the combination of a civil VOR and
a military T ACAN at the same position. For practical purposes the civil frequency of the
VOR and the military channel of the T ACAN a coordinated in such a way that only one
DME station is installed. DMEs receive and transmit from 960 to 1215 MHz. Like with
the MLS system the receiver translates the input of a VHF frequency to the appropriate
channel or frequency. The DME measures the time a signal takes to run from the airplane
to the station and back to the airplane. Therefore the signal is sent back by the ground
station with a slight delay of 50ms and a frequency different by 63MHz from the
interrogator signal so that the airborne equipment can distinguish between both signals.
The airborne receiver (interrogator) translates the signals run time into time to station,
ground speed vector relative to the station and distance. The DMEs maximum range is
200nm in perfect conditions. Implied in the DMEs principle and the limited frequencies a
maximum of 100 receivers can log into one ground station. If more than 100 receivers
apply for log on the 100 closest receivers will be accepted.
Automatic direction finding equipment (ADF) measures the relative bearing to the
station by tracking the minimum magnitude of the non directional beacons (NDB: 190 to
1750 kHz) signal with a directed receiver antenna. The undirected sense antenna
eliminates the ambiguity of the bearing.
184
• VOR System
undirected reference
~
~'~>.,..~
E:~
directed revolutin beacon
::::::.L&
·:O ·~l2s:,
"./..~
~
undirected reference
beacon (MN )
/ / , , di rected revol uting beacon
conventional VOR DVOR phase difference principle
• ADF System
loop an1enna
classic ADF antenna setup modern ADF antenna setup scn!<:antenn~
j ...
undirected radio beacon
~ - . .
undirected radio beacon
•
• DME
DME channel - Frequency (MHz( Use
1. .. 16 134,4 . . . 135,9 Military (T ACAN)
17 ... 56 108 ... 111,9 !LS& YOR
57 .. . 59 112 ... 112,2 VOR
60 ... 69 133,3 . .. 134,2 Military (TACAN)
70 ... 126 112,3 ... 117,9 VOR
DME channel formula

Channel + I 063
CH 17-59
10
Channel + l 053
CH70-l26
10

Area Navigation
All area navigation systems (RNAV) use ground or orbit based equipment to determine
the relative position or distance to the receiver. The navigation computer loads the current
position of the stations from its database and outputs the position of the receiver in
coordinates. Moving maps, FMCs and other systems use these raw data to indicate the
current position on a map or to calculate the position and distance to other virtual points,
defined by coordinates only.
GPS is the US American satellite navigation system. 24 satellites orbit the earth and
continuously transmit the time of their atomic clock, their identification and the
ephemeris (orbit track data of all 24 satellites). They provide standard (SPS) and precise
positioning service (PPS). The SPS data is artificially worsened but guaranteed to be
accurate within 100m at 99,9% of time. The PPS signal is far more accurate but for
military use only. These days the SPS signal scrambling is decreased worldwide so that it
is almost as accurate as the SPS data. The scrambling of the SPS signal is subject to the
political situation. This is the reason why authorities hesitate to clear GPS as sole
navigation system. The future European Galileo system should not be scrambled and
might change the usage of satellite navigation.
Three satellites are sufficient to compute a rough three dimensional position. A fourth
satellite boosts the accuracy up by eliminating the error of the receiver's clock (no atomic
clock). A fifth satellite or barometric data (QNH altitude) input is necessary to enable the
receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) which is required for IFR operations.
The RAIM assigns the data to be unreliable if certain conditions are not met. If six
satellites (or five plus barometric data) are tracked by the receiver the RAIM computer is
capable to extract the faulty or disturbed signal from the solution. The geometric dilution
of precision (GDOP) is an artificial figure indicating the actual geometric position of the
satellites in the celestial sphere above the receivers position. A GDOP of one is best and
ten is worst.
Though GPS equipment is now considered to be area navigation equipment (RNA V) the
classic RNA V tracks ground stations for its navigation solution. Multimode receivers
feed modem avionic setups. They receive DME, VOR and localizers (LLZ). Usually they
initialize at the pilot entered start position on the ground (runway or intersection) when
the TOGA button is pressed. Multimode receivers also track the GPS. The update priority
sequence is: GPS - DME - VOR/DME - VOR/VOR - LLZ. The reception and solution
of signals from multiple navigation systems enables the automatic or manual exception of
faulty systems in the overall navigation solution.
The concept of combining one standalone inertial reference systems (IRS) with one
independent RNAV update is state of the art. The IRS will drift away from the true
position with operating time. The RNA V radio update might only be occasionally
available over water or third world countries. Even the GPS solution is sometimes
unreliable. The IRS perfectly covers up all these RNA V gaps.
186
• GPS
,,
,,
;I
.,, ...
;I
;I
,,
., -.;..
t
,,
,, 'I\
-,..
,,,
~
,, ....
....
• Multimode Receiver
VORDME3
0
':
□
DME I
□
DME2

Navigation Indications
There are four different forms of raw data output from the receivers.
1. Relative Bearing (ADF)
2. Radial (VOR, TACAN)
3. Distance (DME)
4. Coordinates (GPS, RNAV computed from DME and VOR)
The first three are useful in the cockpit environment only with the appropriate charts at
hand. On the flight deck the coordinates are most helpful when they are plotted on a
computer map (moving map display). The way information is presented depends on the
generation where the equipment was introduced. This is like with MLS, DME and GP
where common frequencies in the VHF range are tuned to be translated to the appropriate
frequency later by the receiver. The relative bearing indicator (RBI) is probably the
oldest navigation instrument. It shows the angle to the tuned station relative to the
airplane's longitudinal axis. This bearing can be converted into a bearing to the station by
using the bearing formula (QDM = MH+RB) or by visually projecting the RBI needle
into the directional gyros display. The moving dial indicator (MDI) is just a little
improvement over the RBI. If the pilot sets the actual magnetic heading manually the
relative bearing to the station (QDM at the arrow) can be read from the turning scale.
The radio magnetic indicator (RMI) also indicates the relative bearing to the station just
that the scale is slaved with the directional gyro without that the heading has to be set
manually. While RBI and MDI usage is traditionally restricted to ADF equipment the
RMI is used to display either ADF or VOR (to be individually selected). The RMI
usually displays two arrows. Normally the single bar arrow shows set number one and the
double bar arrow set number two. The course deviation indicator (CDI) and the
horizontal situation indicator (HSI) both display the angular or linear deviation from a
pre-selected desired course. When showing a VOR both indicators display angular
deviation (2° per dot). When displaying RNA V outputs to virtual positions produced by
the computer from the database the deviation indication may be switched between
angular and linear. The linear indication may be further subdivided between one and one
quarter nautical mile cross-track from the desired track per dot of indication. The CDI
and HSI could theoretically also be used to display ADF outputs but this option is not
used in practice. The ancient NDB 's coordinates are selected from the RNA V database
and displayed with the desired track to or from the coordinates by GPS or RNA V. This is
usually more precise than tracking the raw data of the NDB itself.
The classic CDI indicates independent of the airplane's heading leading to occasional
confusion of the pilots. The HSI is a CDI fixed in a turning directional gyro. This makes
its indication very clear and obvious to identify for the pilot without. CDis and HSis are
also used to display ILS or MLS lateral and vertical information. The vertical path is
displayed on an additional vertical bar. The desired vertical path cannot be selected on
the instrument itself for safety reasons.
188
• Bearing indicators
RBI MDI RMI
• Course indicators Lubber Line
eoo ...
SeOct
Polole<
To.From
lndlcalot
Glldeslope
Oevialion
sea~
Hsadln,g
5"90\
Koob
CDI COU<H
HSI
SoleclKoob
• Glass cockpit

Barometric Instruments
All Instruments using the ram and static air pressure are barometric instruments. These
are the altimeter, vertical speed indicator and the airspeed and Mach speed indicator.
The altimeter and the vertical speed indicator are both connected to the airplanes static
port only. The altimeter measures and indicates the static pressure. Batteries of calibrated
serial vacuum diaphragms expand when the pressure in the altimeters housing decreases.
A complicated gear mechanism transfers the expansion of the cylinders to the altimeter's
handles. Most altimeters also incorporate temperature compensation in its gear by a
temperature sensitive mechanical link.
The vertical speed indicator (VSI) indicates the change in altitude or static pressure per
time. Technically it displays the derivation of the altitude. This is done by leading the
static air pressure from the airplane's static port into the vertical speed indicators housing
and a diaphragm like cylinder operating the indicator's handle. The trick herein is a
calibrated flow restrictor made from porous ceramic material. The flow restrictor limits
the flow into the diaphragm and delays the pressure equalization between the diaphragm
and the housing. Usually this flow restrictor is built in such a way that it also
compensates the altitude and temperature errors (density). The ceramic material expands
a little when the absolute pressure decreases or the temperature increases to indicate the
compensated vertical speed in a wide altitude and temperature range. Instantaneous
vertical speed indicators (IVSI) are backed up by gravity. A little steel ball hovers on a
spring in a tube. The ball seals the tube which is connected to the diaphragms inlet port in
the IVSI only. Hence it displays the acceleration instantaneously and the delayed vertical
speed information thereafter in a stable climb or descend. Unfortunately it will also
indicate nuisance information in turbulence when the altitude is kept constant.
The airspeed indicator indicates the true ram air pressure by pneumatically subtracting
the static from the ram air pressure. Therefore the static air pressure line is connected to
the indicators housing and the ram air pressure line to the sealed diaphragm operating the
indicator's handle.
Air data computers (ADC) measure the static and ram air pressure as well as the total air
temperature (TAT). Software out-corrects most installation, density and temperature
errors. The speed of sound is primarily a function of the static air temperature (SAT). The
ADC measures the TAT and decreases this figure by the appropriate amount caused by
the ram air friction to obtain the SAT and the Mach speed. The vertical speed must not be
displayed as derivation from the altitude only. If done so the vertical speed must be
backed up and checked for authenticity by comparing it to the IRS vertical
accelerometers output to have a redundant system. Furthermore the ADC compares all its
results with the independent IRS and the stall management computer (SMC) for
authenticity within a predetermined range. Any exceedance of this range will pop up a
warning flag in the respective instrument indication.
190
• Classic barometric instrument setup
ram ressure
pitot probe
static port
calibrated
flow reducer
• Modern barometric system
,.
pitot probe
~ .
static pon plate temperature probe AOA se~r
IRS
• TAT/SAT conversion (approximation)
SAT [0 CJ = TAT [°CJ- !AS [kl] (approximation valid beyond 200 KIAS]
10

Gyros
Rotating masses or gyros maintain their position in space and precede to any movement
perpendicular to their rotational axis. The stability of a free gyro is a function of the
rotating mass, its radial distribution and the rotating speed. The amount of precession
force of a rate gyro depends on its stability and the amount of displacement initializing
the precession. The direction of the precession leads the initial movement by 90° along
the turn direction of the mass (around z axis). A movement around they- axis is followed
by a precession around the x- axis.
This precession is used in turn and tum/bank indicators to determine the rate of turn
around the aircrafts vertical axis (y). The x-axis is slaved with a calibrated spring holding
against the precession. In this example (rate gyro) the x- axis is equal to the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft. In a tum and bank indicator the same configuration is used with the x-
axis tilt 45° downwards of the aircrafts longitudinal axis. That enables the gyro to also
detect turns around the longitudinal axis (bank). Nevertheless it is calibrated to indicate
turns around the vertical axis. A rate gyro has 1½ degrees of freedom (rotation axis plus
one slaved axis). The precession pattern is also the principle for steering the main rotor of
a conventional helicopter.
The free gyro has three degrees of freedom and maintains its relative position in space
(not relative to the earth surface). It is used for directional (DG) and vertical gyros (VG)
or artificial horizons. They are usually slightly gravity slaved by a small weight at the
bottom to prevent them from tilting due to the earth rate (ERP), earth transport precession
(ETP) and true precession. When flying with standard mechanical gyros this gravity slave
mode will indicate a little pitch up during high forward accelerations and tend more to a
wings level indication during prolonged flight at the same constant bank angle. A free
mechanical gyro gets locked up when the inner frame tilts by 90° in the outer frame. In
this case the gyro looses one degree of freedom and is useless at that time. As long as the
gyro is locked the outer frame is turned by the precession like a non-slaved rate gyro. The
gyro is turning away from its original alignment the longer the lock and the influence of
the precession lasts. This happens when rolling with standard directional gyros into a
steep bank angle.
More modern outfits without IRS or only single IRS systems use attitude heading
reference systems (AHRS). This is a remote box housing one free gyro. Electric sensors
pick up the movement of this single gyro delivering attitude and directional state to the
cockpit display. Rate gyros as they are used in most small planes, also as redundancy for
the VG are usually not displayed in larger airplanes. The redundancy principle is fully
satisfied when two independent AHRS feed both sides of the cockpit independently.
Furthermore the independent cockpit indications compare the left and right side
indication. The comparator triggers a comparator warning alerting the pilots of
disagreeing displays.
192
• Rate- and Free Gyro
Precession pattern Rate Gyro Free Gyro
• Triple Gyro setup in a standard Disco style cockpit
standard gyro
configuration:
~ yawaxis
J!l ro \ """ r ufa l ion
syro 's sensed rotation
pitch axis
Tum indicator
(rategyro)
tu

Inertial Refere nee Systems
Modern aircraft use inertial reference systems (IRS). These include either a gyro platform
with one free gyro or mechanical/optical rate gyros for each axis and accelerometers
along each axis.
A computer samples and integrates the accelerations around and along each axis. Outputs
of this box are the present position dead reckoned from the starting position, attitude and
heading. The outputs must be corrected for the true precession (mechanical friction in
the bearings - increasing with service life) and the apparent precession. The apparent
precession consists of the earth rate precession (ERP), which originates in the rotation of
the earth and the earth transport precession (ETP). ETP is induced by the movement of
the aircraft on the surface of the earth.
All IRS are capable to determine true north (TN) and the current latitude during the
alignment process. For the longitude of the stationary alignment position they rely on the
pilots inputs. For safety reasons the box has to compare the manual position input with
the last known position within the last operating cycle of the system.
The system determines the true north direction via the ERP of the spinning gyro during
the alignment (initialization on the ground). As the cosine approaches zero at 90° the
alignment becomes more complicated and longer lasting at high latitudes. The IRS
manufacturer will specify the maximum latitude for alignment and for usage. The current
latitude is also determined within the alignment process via the ERP by calculating the
vector to the center of the earth. Processing the vector to true north and to the center of
the earth delivers the latitude of the alignment position which is cross checked with the
pilot's manual entry and checked for authenticity within a specified range.
If at or slightly pole bound of the manufacturers maximum latitude for alignment the
initialization may be still possible if the airplanes nose remains pointed to true north
within the process. The tangent of 90° is not defined. For calculating the effects of the
moving airplane inflight the post processing of the IRS will stall at 90° north or south.
Technically the processing unit will calculate a not defined figure for the ETP on the z-
axis. Some systems feature pole flight capabilities. Therefore a virtual new pole is
produced by the post processing of the IRS to calculate the position relative to this new
reference. This position is counted back by another post processor to deliver the true
coordinates. The triangular laser gyro replaces the mechanical gyros in all modern
systems. Without any moving parts it detects turn rates around one axis. The coherent
laser light turns in opposite directions around the axis. Any turns cause one direction to
be faster or slower because nothing should be faster than the speed of light. This
difference in phase produces an interference pattern on the external detectors surface.
Three of these gyros plus three mechanical accelerometers make up one laser IRS. The
IRS produces the attitude information as well. Like AHRS one IRS feeds one side of the
cockpit instruments. All IRS can be downgraded to deliver attitude information only (like
AHRS) for emergency purposes.
194
• Inertial Reference Corrections
Precession Correction
geographic geographic vector to centre
east north of the earth
x-axis y-axis z-axis
ERP none IDE · COS p IDE · Sin p
ETP VN/R VE/R (vN/R) · tan p
ale speed vector northbound

a/c speed vector eastbound \._ N
earth's radius (6378 km) plus in-flight height .
geographic latitude
earth's rotation (1 5,04°/h)
w
• Avionic layout options
attitude
position
attitude and IRS
position
none both DU on IRS atLitudc on both DU on either DU on

either AH RS either DU either IRS either IRS
• Laser rate gyro

Basic Instrument Procedures
Holding procedures are used to keep an airplane waiting in a defined portion of airspace.
The inbound leg is the defined track to the holding fix. A standard holding pattern
employs right turns to re-intercept the inbound track while left turns are used for non-
standard patterns. There are three methods to enter a holding pattern after passing the
reference fix. The plane is turned:
• Directly to the outbound heading (direct entry).
• Parallel to the inbound track on opposite course. The course reversal is
accomplished in the opposite turn direction than the holding pattern (parallel).
• Into a 30° base turn to the holding side of the inbound track. The course reversal
is accomplished in the same turn direction than the holding (teardrop entry).
The outbound leg is used to compensate the wind drift for the outbound leg and the two
180° turns. Therefore three times the wind correction angle of the inbound leg should be
used on the outbound. The length of the outbound leg is defined either by timing (see
table) or by distance. Maximum speeds are defined by countries to ensure the planes do
not overshoot the defined holding airspace.
All IFR turns are considered to be standard rate (3°s- 1) or 25° bank angle whichever is
less.
Minimum IFR altitudes:
• Minimum IFR enroute altitudes ensure 2000ft obstacle clearance 4 nm to each
side of the airway in designated mountainous areas and I 000ft, 4 nm to each
side in all other areas. A mountainous area is defined by the ICAO as a change
in terrain profile of more than 3000ft within I 0nm.
• The minimum enroute altitude (MEA) is the lowest altitude between to fixes
which ensures both obstacle clearance and radio NAV and COM reception in
most countries.
• The minimum crossing altitude (MCA) is the lowest altitude at which a fix may
be crossed when the following MEA is higher.
• The minimum reception altitude (MRA) is the lowest altitude at which an
intersection can be determined.
• The minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCA) is the lowest altitude
ensuring obstruction clearance only.
• The minimum safe altitude (MSA) ensures 1000ft obstacle clearance in terminal
areas 25 nm around a defined homing Navaid of the aerodrome for emergency
use only. It is also referred to as minimum sector altitude if the MSA circle is
subdivided into different sectors.
• The minimum radar vectoring altitude (MRVA) is the lowest altitude the
airplane may be vectored by an air traffic controller. MRVA charts are usually
published for controllers only.
196
• Holding procedures
entry procedures lefthand pattern righthand pattern

I
Maximum holding speeds

Altitude EU Jet - EU Jet in EU prop USA Time
normal turbulence lminl
<6.000ft 210kt 280kt or M0.8 170kt 200kt I
6.000ft<alt<l4.000ft 220kt (whichever is less) 170kt 230kt I
>14.000ft 240kt 175kt 265kt I½
• Turns
procedure turns base turns
• Time/Distance Checks
90° T/D 30° T/D 45° T/D
) bearing change
timetostarioojmioJ- time~:~;~~~~
/4 900
time 10 double bearing = lime to s1a1ioo

Instrument Approach Basics
Any instrument approach consists of five segments. These are the arrival, initial
approach, intermediate approach, final approach and missed approach. Normally all
segments begin and end at designated fixes.
The initial approach segment starts at the initial approach fix (IAF) and ends at the
intermediate fix (IF), clearing all obstacles by at least 1000ft. Where no suitable IAF or
IF is available to construct the procedure a course reversal, or holding procedure is
required. The intermediate approach begins at the IF or when established on the inbound
track of a procedure turn and ends at the final approach point or fix (FAP or FAF). The
obstacle clearance is 500ft or more and the descend gradient should be at a minimum to
allow for configuration of the airplane for the final approach.
The final approach begins at the final approach fix (FAF) or final approach point (FAP)
and ends at the missed approach point (MAP). The final descend down to the published
minimum descend altitude (MDA) is accomplished in this segment. The location of the
FAF should be between 5 and 10 nm from the runway threshold.
The missed approach starts at the MAP or the decision altitude (DA) during a precision
approach and usually ends at a fix where a new approach can be initiated.
The published minima are derived from the obstacle clearance requirements of the final
approach. A non-precision final approach has to clear all obstacles by 250ft if a final
approach fix is available or by 300ft if there is no final approach fix or the FAF can not
be determined with the airplane equipment (USA only). The MDA equals the obstacle
clearance altitude (OCA) plus operational considerations for the airplane. These
operational considerations are distinguished by the approach categories. There may also
be different minimums for higher required missed approach climb gradients if these are
other than standard (2,5%). A procedure is considered straight-in if the approach track is
less than 30° different from the runway track. In a non-precision approach without FAF
the approach track is in most cases different from the runway track.
In a precision approach (ILS or MLS) the position in space where the glide slope
intersects the intermediate approach altitude replaces the FAF and the position of the DA
on the glide slope the MAP. These positions are subject to the temperature error of the
barometric altimeters. The DA must be corrected upwards if the temperatures are
significantly less than ISA. The glide slope intercept happens to be a little later in such a
case. Authorities encourage the operators to employ continuous descend procedures on
the final segment of a non-precision approach. Such a stabilized approach should be
around 3° and clear all mandatory crossing altitudes as depicted on the approach plate.
The visual descend point (VDP) is an operational consideration for all larger airplanes.
Usually the published MAP lies too close to the threshold or even beyond it so that a
normal landing maneuver from the MAP cannot be performed any more without
excessive sink rates. The pilots define the VDP as their new MAP before the published
MAP.
198
• Common lateral approach tracks
with FAF withoutFAF
missed nppr
Airport facility MAP Airpon fac ility

IAF IAF& MAP
• Common vertical approach tracks

precision approach nonprecision approach with FAF nonprccision approach without FAF
MAP
Airportfncility
l..
Airport facilit y
.&
Airport fac ility
IAF IAF IAF&MAP
• Continuous descend and VDP

stepdown nonprecision approach continuous descend nonprecision approach with VDP
FA For
~ -,, distance or v or from RWY lnm j = Mf~ [ftJ
'1~
MDA M~
• Approach categories
Airs eeds .for- the diflerent approach phases
category VREF.masTOM Initial - Final Max Missed, Missed,
Annroach Aooroach circlin2 initial final
A <91kt 90/ 150 70/100 100 100 110
B 911120kt 120/180 85/ 130 135 130 150
C 1211140kt 160/240 11 5/ 160 180 160 240
D 1411165kt 185/250 130/ 185 205 185 265
E 1661210kt 185/25 0 155/230 240 230 275

Atmospheric Properties
The air of the atmosphere consists of 21 % oxygen and 78% nitrogen as well as I% of
other gases. This distribution remains constant at all altitudes. The gas itself has a mass,
which accumulates with altitude. The gas law describes the relation between pressure,
density and temperature; R is the gas constant.
The standard atmosphere is a simplified atmospheric structure for the middle latitudes
and used as reference atmosphere. The pressure is 1013,25 hPa at sea level and
decreasing with altitude. At 18.000ft ambient pressure it is half and 50% of the
atmospheric mass lies below that altitude. At 36.000ft pressure is half of the figure at
18.000 ft or one quarter of sea level and 75% of the atmospheric mass is below this
altitude. Air temperature is l 5°C at sea level and decreases with a gradient of minus 2°C
per 1.000ft to -56,5°C at 36.000ft. The earth absorbs 51 % of the solar radiation. The
surface of the earth is the primary heat source for the lower atmosphere. The lowest layer
of the atmosphere is the troposphere and the layer where the weather takes place. The
temperature increase or temperature gradient inversion at the upper end of the
troposphere defines its limit (tropopause).
Differential heating, heat transfers as well as the state changes of water produce our
weather. Water vapor has the highest energy state and ice the lowest.
Sublimation, melting and evaporation consume ambient heat, which is stored in the
higher energy state of the water. Deposition, condensation and freezing release heat. The
capacity of this battery is depending on the air temperature. The wanner the air the higher
the capacity of the air to bear water vapors and the more energy can be stored. Relative
humidity is the relation between actual water vapors contained in a defined parcel of air
and maximum water vapor content (depending on temperature) in the same volume.
When air with a constant absolute humidity (weight per volume) is cooled the relative
humidity raises. Relative humidity reaches I 00% at the dew point and the air is saturated.
Further cooling causes the excess moisture to condense. This energy state change releases
heat, which in turns decelerates the cooling process.
The standard atmosphere is defined with a relative humidity of 0% and a temperature
gradient of -2° per 1000ft (average number).
Raising air without condensation is cooling with the dry adiabatic lapse rate of ::::: -
3°/l000ft. After the dew point is reached, relative humidity is 100%, the air is saturated
and condensation and/or deposition takes place releasing latent heat through the state
change of the water to a lower energy state. The amount of heat released depends on the
cooling rate and the content of water vapors contained in the air, which depends on the
actual air temperature. That heat slows the cooling process. The gradient is now called
saturated adiabatic lapse rate and varies from :::::-1,2° /1000ft for warmer air to :::::-
20C/l 000ft for cooler air.
200
• Standard atmosphere and solar heating
~ 19% absor bed b)

the atmosphere
11,_ FL360 or_l 1km ·-·
air,Qensi ty 1.225 kg/m3

--,__
\/4 1/ 2 air pressure IO13.25 hPa
• State changes of water and other atmospheric layers
all fkm f
Cl exosphere
.; 500
ta;
....Cl
C
0
C 90
Q.
0
-~ (b
50
.§ ~11
::0 ::,
~ 0
Tf°KI
1000
D E FI F2

Atmospheric Analysis
The Sti.ive diagram is a simple method to analyze the actual properties of the atmosphere.
Meteorologists ascend balloons fitted with various probes a couple of times per day at
predetermined positions. These gas balloons are equipped with an altimeter, a
temperature probe, a moisture sensor and a radar reflector or in newer versions a GPS
receiver. After an ascend (sounding) a vertical picture of the atmosphere can be drawn
with the temperature readings of the remote sensor.
In our example the temperature at the surface is 24°C and the dew point is 12°C -
therefore spread is l 2°C.
Up to the convective condensation level (eel) the air cools dry adiabatic with
-3°C/1000ft (dry adiabatic lapse rate DALR). At the eel the air is saturated and
condensation appears releasing heat. From there on the air cools with the saturated
adiabatic lapse rate smaller -2°/lO00ft (SALR). The saturated adiabatic line is curved to
depict the decrease of the saturated adiabatic lapse rate with altitude because of the
decreasing temperature. Cloud formations are inhibited to build up above 15.000 ft in our
example because there is a temperature inversion. Parcels of air can only ascend by
buoyancy as long as their temperature is higher than the temperature of the surrounding
air. Above the temperature inversion the air is no more saturated and again cools dry to
its next condensation level.
As a rule of thumb you can approximate the altitude of the lowest convective cloud level
by multiplying the spread with 400. That is 4800ft AGL for our example.
The highest inversion in the area of 20 ... 60.000ft indicates the upper end of the
troposphere and the beginning of the tropopause in the middle latitudes. Near the pole the
troposphere can start already at 22.000ft and near the equator it can be as high as
55.000ft. Controversly the temperature at a high tropospheric break is lower because the
atmosphere is thicker in this area and cooling modes are unchanged.
Any actual lapse rates greater than the DALR indicates an instable atmosphere or layer.
Controversly any LR < DALR indicates stability in the applicable altitude band.
Heating from the surface generally destabilizes and cooling from below stabilizes.
Inversions usually stop vertical growth of convective clouds. Heavy build-ups have
enough kinetic and thermal energy to break through rather big inversions. Summertime-
and ITCZ thunderstorms even break through the inversion at the upper end of the
troposphere to continue their growth in the tropopause where usually no weather exits.
Topographic charts are a summary of multiple sensor balloon soundings. Analysis charts
of different levels are usually published every 6 hours. For a quick check on the situation
certain levels are best for some properties as indicated in the table at the bottom.
202
• Temperature analysis (Stuve diagram)
altitude
al tropopause
30.000ft
18.000ft
10.ooon
5.000ft .
-i- sp- r-e a-d (o-n -l h-e surl:
- a-ce-) •4-0 0- --
height of lowest convective cloud all in feet
'
msl_ l-- -50

...!.-----------------
-40 -30 -20 0 10 20
--~
30 temperature [0 C]
j spread 1
• Stability
condition DALR = 3°11000ft 7
stable Actual LR < DALR
neutral Actual LR = DALR
instable Actual LR > DALR
• Topographies
pressure
850 hPa
flight
level
50
analysis
temoeran1re
7
700 hPa 100 humidity
500 hPa 180 wind
300 hPa 300 jet

Coriolis Force
Due to its shape, rotation and ecliptic the earth is subject to some basic macro scale
circulations. The Coriolis force is a key topic for understanding these movements.
Without the Coriolis force circulation patterns would be rather simple. Maximum heating
of the surface appears at the inner tropic convergence zone (ITCZ) where the sunbeams
hit the surface in a 90° angle. The ITCZ is the area of the highest intensity thunderstorms
with tops up to FL600, cloudiness and heavy precipitation. Thermal ascends of air masses
are maximum in this area and minimum 90° north and south of it where the air would
predominantly descend. The position of the ITCZ is depending on the date. It will shift
from a minimum of 23,5°S (Tropic of Capricorn) in north winter to maximum of 23,5°N
(Tropic of Cancer) in north summer. The ITCZ is equal to the geographic equator at the
autumnal and vernal equinoxes.
Ascending air at the ITCZ produces a stationary low-pressure area and sucks air from the
lower altitudes ITCZ bound. At higher tropospheric altitudes this air diverges pole bound
to descend at the higher latitudes and return southbound.
Because of the spheroid shape and the rotation, each latitude has its own rotational
velocity. With a given rotation rate and a variable distance from the rotational axis any
place at the equator moves with 1800 km/h around the axis. At 30° latitude this velocity
is down to 1550 km/h and at 60° with 900 km/h half of the equatorial velocity.
(Depending on the cosine of the latitude)
Example: A virtual parcel of air at 30°N is forced to move northbound to 60° N.

Its velocity at 30° is approximately 1550 km/h. At 60°N the rotation velocity is only 900
km/h. At 60°N it has an excess speed of 650 km/h.
From the beginning of its movement the parcel is drawn in the direction of the rotation or
as seen from the direction of the initial movement to the right.
In the other direction it will work the same. The parcel is slower than its environment
when moved equator bound and will displace against the rotational direction, which is
also to the right.
In any case any mass moved pole- or equator bound will - seen from the direction of the
pole-or equator bound vector - be affected by the Coriolis force tearing it to the right (in
the northern hemisphere; vice versa in the south).
The influences of the Coriolis force also have to be out corrected in inertial navigation
systems and are fundamental for understanding the life cycle of frontal systems and wind
direction.
204
• Basic circulation
• Influence of the Coriolis force on a mass forced

north/southbound
,◄
.,· 'II
,.
,ft
,. :11
,.
.,. "''
◄
"'•~;,;.

Global Circulation
The Coriolis force breaks the basics circulation pattern down to three cells.
The air masses aloft at the ITCZ are pressed pole bound by the ascending air. The
Coriolis force moves the diverging air eastbound. At approximately 30° latitudinal
distance from the ITCZ, westerly winds at high altitudes are predominant and the air
sinks back to the surface. This descending air creates a high-pressure belt at the surface
by compression. Half of the air sinking into the subtropical high-pressure belt flows back
to the equator and is tom to the right by the Coriolis force resulting in easterly winds at
the surface called trade winds (passat). The whole circulation pattern is called Hadley
cell. The subtropical high-pressure area is a region of constantly fair weather and calm
winds. Also called horse latitudes, they are home of the biggest desserts on our planet
(Sahara, Atacama ... ).
Temperatures at the poles are lowest. Permanent high-pressure areas are located here due
to the extremely cold temperatures and the resulting high air density. Air masses mainly
sink at the highest latitudes diverging near the surface and flowing in the direction of the
equator. Surface winds are easterly (polar easterlies) caused by the Coriolis effect. At 60°
latitude this airflow collides with warm moist air from the outflow of the subtropical
high-pressure belt. Converging winds force the air to ascend in this region called the
polar front, another area of permanent cloudiness and precipitation.
The Ferrel cell with its prevailing westerly surface winds is the link between the polar-
and the Hadley circulation cells.
Equalization airflows comparable to the basic circulation close the patterns.
The yellow arcs and wind arrows in the graphics show the directions of the winds at
lower altitudes. The airflow aloft is opposite and the height of the troposphere is
decreasing from approximately FL500 at the ITCZ to half of this figure at the poles. This
decrease is gradual but interrupted by two steps locating the polar jet aloft of the polar
front and the subtropical jet near 25° in the summer solstice.
The complete pattern is shifting with the ITCZ and the reason for our differing seasonal
weather throughout the year.
The monsoon circulation changes the shape and the simplicity of the global circulation
system. The heat coefficient of water and soil is different, causing masses of land to heat
up faster and create low-pressure areas at the size of a continent in the warm season
interfering with the global circulation on an idealized earth and vice versa in the winter
solstice.
206
• Hadley cell
subpolar
high pressure belt
ITCZ 0°
Trade wind circulation

(Hadley Cell)
• Ferrel and polar cell
subpolar
high pressure belt
cell
ITCZ 0°

Extra Tropical Cyclones
Normally the polar front is the birthplace of extra tropic cyclones. Converging winds and
cold air masses in the north as well as warm moist air in the south make that boundary
rather instable.
The formation of waves turns into warm and cold fronts. The cold front does not need
another energy source to start its movement and advances southbound dynamically. The
wind cannot follow the direction of cold front because the Coriolis force pulls it outbound
of the center where a low-pressure area forms. This region tries to suck in air from any
direction now. Air form outside cannot flow direct to the center because the Coriolis
force tears it to the right. With an increasing rotation the pressure in the center is also
decreasing.
Usually a low-pressure area merges with any adjacent air mass with higher pressure. This
air mass then starts to feed the low and in doing so starts its rotation in the opposite
direction (anti-cyclonic). After their merging the pressure couple becomes independent of
the polar front and starts it's wandering south- and usually eastbound. On its way they
may merge with other pressure systems, pick up moisture and energy over warm water or
soil or by sucking warm moist air masses in the warm sector.
Cyclones always rotate counterclockwise and anti-cyclones clockwise in the northern
hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere it is vice versa.
As you see in the drawing of a fully developed cyclone (right bottom) the pressure
gradient force points direct from the low- to the high-pressure area. Its attempt to
equalize the pressure is inhibited by the Coriolis force pulling in the opposite direction.
Those pressure systems have a diameter of a couple of hundred nautical miles in average.
For that size the Coriolis force will be almost equal to the pressure gradient force. The
resulting wind is called geostrophic wind and will rather flow along the isobars and rotate
around the cyclone as well as the anti-cyclone than equalize the pressure by flowing to
the centers.
The speed of the dissipation of the system through equalization of the pressure is
depending upon various factors. The Coriolis force is one of which. With all other factors
constant a decrease in Coriolis force by a southbound wandering will allow the wind to
flow more direct in the direction of the pressure gradient and dissipation speed will be
increase.
The area equator bound of the polar front and pole bound of the sub polar high-pressure
belt is also called frontal area. The Coriolis force has the right magnitude to enable the
formation and growth of cyclones as well as to suppress its dissipation. Farther equator
bound the Coriolis force which depends on the sine of the latitude is to weak to produce
pressure systems of the small size of an extra tropic cyclone.
208
• Development of a c_~y'--c=--=-l
' -'-o-n=--=.:..__
-e _ _ _ __ _ _
• Cyclone and Anti-cyclone
Cyclone

Weather in the Cyclone
The cold air behind the cold front is denser than the warmer air in the preceding warm
sector and moves like a wedge below the warmer air lifting the air in the warm sector.
The slope of the front depends upon the temperature difference and the moving speed. It
is normally around 1/100 for a cold front and can be as steep as 1/30 for an extremely fast
moving cold front. The height of the cold air wedge in the frontal region can be as low as
l 000 to 2000 ft. The forced vertical movement of the air masses produces convective
clouds at the cold front; usually cumulonimbus (cb) clouds in the frontal area and
cumulus (cu) as well as altocumulus (ac) behind the front. Showery precipitation as well
as all other phenomena produced by thunderstorms must be expected near the surface
front.
At the warm front a warmer air mass is moved up a slope of colder air. This upward
movement is primarily caused by the wind and more stable than a cold front.
Cirrus and Cirrostratus (ci & cs) can be observed as first indication of an approaching
warm front sometimes 350nm downwind of the surface front. The cloud deck is
continuously descending towards the front and the cirri form clouds are replaced by
Altostratus (As) and finally the Nimbostratus (Ns). The Nimbostratus cloud brings long
lasting rain and drizzle. Warm fronts can also produce freezing rain in the wintertime
when surface and aloft temperatures are below freezing and the warm front develops an
altitude band above 0° where the precipitation can melt and then become super cooled at
lower altitudes to refreeze upon impact.
Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts. The life cycle of the cyclone approaches its
end when the cold front runs into the warm front. Both fronts lift the remaining air mass
in the warm sector (ws) upwards. The velocity of the upward movement depends on the
character of the occlusion. Upward lifting at a cold front occlusion will be faster and the
weather a mixture of more cold and less warm front weather.
The international cloud classification names ten different cloud types (see table at the
bottom). Altitude ranges are given for each category. Cu and cb clouds are classified in
the lowest layer even though they develop vertically and cb clouds usually extend
through all altitude ranges.
The ns cloud is placed in the middle range and will normally also extend trough all three
layers.
210
• Idealized cyclone
Standard Cyclone - cross section
"'
WS
Windshift
Pressure
Temperature
• Occluded front
Occlusion - cross sections
warm front occlusion cold front occlusion
• Cloud levels
Level Clouds Hei!tht 7

High Cl, CS, CC > 20.000 ft
Middle AC,AS,NS < 20.000 ft
Low ST, SC, CU, CB < 6.500 ft

Tropical Cyclone
A tropical cyclone is a mesoscale cyclonic circulation that develops in the tropical

easterlies. In its most intense form, it becomes a hurricane with strong convection,
exceptionally strong winds and torrential rains. The only similarity to extra tropical
cyclones is the turn direction of the cyclonic inflow at the lower altitudes. Otherwise the
development, structure, behavior and energy sources are different.
The term ,,tropical cyclone" covers a number of similar tropical disturbances, which are
classified according to their maximum sustained wind speeds.
Tropical cyclones develop within 1.200 nm or 20° latitudinal distance to the equator
offshore over very warm waters (> 26°C) destabilizing the atmosphere and inducing
thunderstorms. Each begins its life cycle as poorly organized tropical disturbance. Main
energy source is the latent heat released by the condensation in the cb clouds. Over warm
water the storm increases in intensity and size and dies over cold water and land. The
main tropical cyclone tracks are shown in the table at the right bottom. Hurricanes and
typhoons can reverse their track when they reach the subtropical high and continue
eastbound with the prevailing westerly winds. Some dying storms can reach the polar
front or at least an area of strong temperature gradient and undergo redevelopment as
extra tropical cyclone. The cyclone acts as a large scale vertical ,,air pump" and the
Coriolis force causes the cyclonic inflow at the surface and the anti-cyclonic outflow on
the top. The Coriolis force is necessary to organize the system but the effects of the
Coriolis force are small close to the equator where cyclones form. Therefore systems
with potential for further development in intensity increase their size and rotation
gradually to not become de-organized.
If conditions are favorable, it develops through the successively stronger stages of a
tropical depression and tropical storm. A relatively small number of tropical cyclones
continue to intensify to hurricane strength. During the period of development, the
hurricane progresses to the west or northwest at about I O kt. When a tropical cyclone
reaches hurricane strength the storm is several hundred miles in diameter and the
diameter of the cloud signature is typically 300 nm or more. Centrifugal forces clear an
eye of 10 to 20 nm diameter in the storms center with relative light winds, the lowest
pressure of the whole system and mainly downward airflow which equalizes a little of the
pressure gradient. The surface pressure below the eye can be up to 10% smaller than the
surrounding pressure. The water is raised by 5 meters (CAT 5 Hurricane) or more in this
extreme low pressure area. The strong winds combined with the storm surge below the
eye cause the major part of the destruction where a hurricane makes landfall.
The eye wall is the region with the strongest embedded cb (embd cb) extending up to
50.000 ft and more. The anti-cyclonic outflow takes place radially at the very top of the
storm indicated by the cirrus cloud deck. Areas around the storm are usually high-
pressured fair weather regions caused by the downward movement of the air mass to
equalize the pressures.
212
• Classification of tropical cyclones
I Classification Wind speed (max.sustained) ]

Tropical disturbance WS < 20 kt
Tropical depression 20 kt < WS < 34 kt
Tropical storm 35 kt < ws < 64 kt
Hurricane 65 kt < ws
• Cross-section of a fully developed hurricane (Northern

Hemisphere)
• Common tropical cyclone tracks are
IName From
Track
To (westbound)
I
I
Hurricane Atlantic U .S west coast
Hawaiian islands
Cyclone Indian ocean India & far east
Eastern African coast
Typhoon Pacific Japan & China
Australia

Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm is a local storm invariably produced by a cumulonimbus (cb) cloud that

is always accompanied by lightning and thunder. It typically produces strong wind gusts,
heavy rain and sometimes tornadoes. It is usually of short duration, rarely over two hours
for a single storm. Concerning flight safety thunderstorms are also characterized by
extreme turbulence, icing and wind shear. Thunderstorms need sufficient moisture,
instability and a lifting mode to form. Thermals, fronts and orographic lifting can
initialize growths and the evolution of the thunderstorm begins.
The size of the updraft region becomes larger than the size of any of the individual
thermals (air mass thunderstorm) that are feeding the region. This can often be noticed
when one particular clouds grows more rapidly than the others in a field of cumuli.
Around the developing cloud, the smaller clouds will clear out as the air starts sinking in
response to the larger scale updraft. Typically the cloud grows in an unsteady succession
of upward bulges as thermals arrive at the top. During the cumulus stage the convective
circulation grows rapidly into a towering cumulus (TCU) cloud when passing 20.000ft
with already three nautical miles in diameter.
In this stage water droplets, ice crystals and hail become ionized by collision and charges
are separated by gravity and convection. The heavier negatively charged particles end up
in the lower part of the cloud with lighter positively charged particles at the top. Fifteen
minutes later the mature stage is reached. The cloud develops downdrafts by precipitation
opposing the updrafts and producing extremely sharp vertical wind shears and
recirculations in the shear area. Hail grows in these recirculations; predominantly in the
0° to - l 5°C altitude band where super cooled water is present and severe clear ice can be
experienced. The separated loads are equalized through cloud-ground, cloud-cloud
(sheet) and sometimes cloud-clear air lightning strikes. Thirty minutes after it begins the
single cell cloud reaches the dissipating stage with predominant downdrafts in the lower
levels cutting of the updraft.
Multiple cells coexist in a multi cell thunderstorm at different stages. A rather stable gust
front develops separating the up- and downdrafts. This continuous updraft enables cell
regeneration and make that kind of storm last longer than the single cell version. Rough
estimates of the storm movement can be made with the 700mb level winds (10.000ft).
The structure and cycle of a super cell storm is comparable to a multi cell except that the
storm movement and the vector of the updraft are horizontally shifted by up to 90°
making the gust front more stable because the downdrafts cannot cut off the updraft air
any more. Funnel clouds or tornadoes can develop in these permanently strong updrafts.
214
• Life cycle of a single cell thunderstorm
altitude
40.000 ft eqilibrium level
35.000 ft
30.000 ft
25.ooo n
20.000 ft
10.000 ft
5.000 ft
0 ft
• Structure of multi- and super cell Thunderstorms

altitude
40.000 ft
35.000 ft
30.000 ft
25.000 ft
20.000 n
15.000 ft
10.000 ft
5.000 ft
0 ft

Atmospheric Electricity
When an airplane flies through convective clouds, precipitation, sand, dust or is exposed
to solar rays (especially during sunrise, sunset and high latitudes) the impact of the
particles may cause an electrical charge to build up on a plane. Static electricity refers to
the discharge that occurs when the charge difference between the airplane and the
surrounding air mass becomes too large. Such discharges impair the whole frequency
band but will be worst in the 200 to 400kHz range (low frequency NDB) and HF
communications. Statics may also discharge in a corona known as "St. Elmo's Fire"
around some prominent edges or the windshield of the plane. Lightning defines all visible
forms of electric discharges especially from thunderstorms. In fact the lightning bolt
produces the thunder of a thunderstorm when the bolt momentarily heats up the
surrounding air to extreme temperatures and causes an explosive expansion of the air
around the bolt. Solid vertical movements and particles are required to produce charge
separation. This happens in thunderstorms but also in volcanic ash clouds and strong
forest fires. The vertical movements, wind shears and recirculations in a cumulonimbus
cloud cause ice crystals to collide with super cooled water droplets which likely tum into
graupel within the impact. One theory suggests that the ice crystals receive a positive, and
the graupel a negative charge as effect from the collision. The ice crystals are lifted up
and the graupel separates to the lower areas of the cloud because of their different weight.
Different charges attract each other. The growing charge difference in the cloud induces
opposite charges in the surrounding ground, air, clouds, sky and planes. When any charge
difference becomes higher than approx. 900kV per meter a lightning bolt will close the
circuit to equalize the potential. Those lightning bolts are most likely in cloud and cloud
to cloud, rarely also cloud to clear air. About 10 to 25% of the strikes equalize charge
differences with the ground. Those bolts will likely strike planes flying outside of the CB
cloud on their way down to the ground. Already existing static charges of the airplane
from flight through clouds and precipitation increase the chances that a lightning bolt will
make its way via the plane structure. The highest electric charge accumulation occurs in
sharp spiky objects. Static dischargers around the wingtip and tail plane are highly
insulated to the airplane structure. They should pick up any charges and route them to the
surrounding air. About 5% of the cloud-to-ground bolts are positive giants. Those
positive-lightning strikes short circuit the positive charged anvil, at the troposphere (or
higher) directly with the ground. Such a bolt will be up to 30 times stronger than normal
negative lightning and last about 10 times longer. It can hit the ground up to 30 miles
from the cb "out of the blue" and is, like other forms of lightning most likely to appear on
the active upwind side of a thunderstorm. A transport category airplane may not
withstand a direct hit of a positive bolt since this form of lightning was discovered well
after the certification regulations were introduced. A sprite equalizes the charges between
the positive upper side of the cb and the upper atmosphere. It can only be seen at night
and indicates strong charges on top of the cb, thus a high potential for positive giants.
216
• Charge separation and vertical actions
• Types of lightning
'--~~--T- [ positive giant j

:£
[ positive g;;,und to cloud ]

[cloud to air j

Fog
Cooling for cloud and fog formation is usually the result of one of two processes:
• Adiabatic expansion
• Contact of the air with a colder surface
Contact cooling can occur at night after the ground cools due to terrestrial radiation.
Contact cooling effects are greater under conditions of clear skies and light winds. When
the temperature is reduced to the dew point by such cooling, radiation fog will form. If
the dew point of the surface layer is below freezing, frost will form. This fog layer
usually is as thick as the surface inversion, which will normally not exceed 300ft above
ground level (AGL). If the fog is very shallow (less than 20ft) it is called ground fog.
Radiation fog is a common phenomenon in wintertime when nights are long. It is often
found in river valleys (valley fog) where cool air pools and moisture is abundant. Light
wind shear and performance penalties due to the inversion can be experienced in close
proximity to the ground. As a rule of thumb radiation fog will remain as long after
sunrise as it formed before sunrise. During the day the sun dissolves the inversion from
above. Surface winds greater than 5 kt can also render the surface inversion.
Contact cooling occurs as well when warm air is advected over a relatively cool surface.
If there is adequate moisture, advection fog will form when the temperature of the surface
is below the dew point of the advected air. Usually advection fog has a maximum
thickness of 600ft AGL and is very likely to form offshore where a warm current
converges with a cold current like at the California coast, which is notorious for low
clouds and fog.
Upslope fog forms when warm moist air is carried upslope by the wind and is
adiabatically cooled below its dew point. Both advection and upslope fog depend upon
wind in order to exist.
Clouds can also form when warm, moist air is mixed with cold air. A good example of
this process is steam fog. When very cold air moves over warm water, air very close to
the surface picks up water vapor from the strong evaporation. Because the moist air in
contact with the surface is warmer than the overlying cold air, convection develops,
causing the moist air to mix with the cold air aloft. With the mixing the temperature is
reduced below the dew point of the moist air. Condensation occurs in a shallow layer of
wispy, plume-like columns. This process explains why steam fog is also called
evaporation fog or sea smoke.
The table in the bottom shows the classification of phenomena, obstructing surface
visibility. Unlike brome (br) and fog (fg), haze (hz) is not directly related to cloud
formation and condensation. Haze will form near the surface of an old air mass trapped
below a low level inversion. Polluted air, particles and aerosols obstruct the visibility
while the inversion inhibits the exchange of the air.
218
• Radiation fog
• Advection fog
• Steam fog
Visibilitv relative h umiditv ohenomenon I

l ..5km < 80% haze (hz)
l....5km > 80% brome (br)
Vis< I km 100% fog (fg)

Local Winds
Thermally driven local winds include sea and land breezes, mountain and valley breezes,
and slope circulations. Because they depend on radiational heating and cooling, these
winds commonly develop in the middle latitudes in the warmer half of the year. They
may also develop in the lower latitudes during any season as long as there are no extra
tropical or extra tropical cyclones. The dependence of thermally driven local winds on
radiational heating and cooling causes directions and intensities of the circulations to be
linked closely to the time of the day. In the sea breeze, upslope and other circulations of
this scale and smaller, Coriolis force is usually much less important than the horizontal
pressure gradient force and frictional forces. Therefore the wind tends to blow directly
from high to low pressure. The boundary layer between the cool inflowing air and the
warmer air over land is often narrow and well defined. This is known as the sea breeze
front. The sea breeze reaches its typical speed of 10 to 20 kt in the late afternoon,
decreasing thereafter to invert to a land breeze at night. Upslope circulations are induced
at daytime when the sunbeams hit slanting mountains in a more perpendicular angle and
this region receives more solar heating. Upslope circulations are intensified when they
are focused through a valley. As the sea breeze the upslope breeze inverts its direction at
night becoming a down slope breeze. The scale and intensity of this circulation is
depending on the size of the mountains.
When large-scale circulations cause airflow across rugged terrain, two important
circulations develop over and downwind of the mountains. The formation of mountain
lee waves requires movement of stable air across a mountain ridge at a minimum of 20
kt. Lee waves tend to remain stationary with relatively warm air in the troughs and cold
air at the crests. The lifetime ranges from hours to days and the horizontal range in
nautical miles can be up to 100 times the height of the producing ridge. The upwind cap
cloud, roll clouds in the lower levels and lens shaped alto- and cirro cumulus lenticularis
clouds (ACSL & CCSL) are indicating lee waves and strong wind shears as well as
turbulence. Mountain lee waves are often accompanied by warm down slope winds. The
air cools with the SALR in the bad weather area upwind to warm with the DALR
downwind of the ridge. Depending on the scale of the mountains the surface temperature
in the downwind area can be up to 20°C higher than upwind. Prominent examples are the
Foehn at the northern slope of the Alps and the Chinook at the eastern slopes of the
Rocky Mountains. The table at the bottom shows the classification of severity levels of
low-level wind shear (LLWS) as well as turbulence. The numbers indicated at the
turbulence table are plus or minus peaks and the column ,,derived gust" shows the gust
peaks as indicated in the cockpit (only a rough estimate of the vertical peak gusts).
220
• Thermally driven
alritudc-"
seebreeze (daytime)
5.000 ft
,.oooft
3.000 ft
l .000 ft
t.000 ft
0 ft
• Externally driven
altit ude
mountain lee waves
40.000 ft
35.000 ft
30.000 ft
25.000 fl
ACSL
20.000 ft
15.000 ft
10.000 fl
5.000 ft
or,...,..___.........._ ___~ -
temperature-
wmo s eeo ►
horizontal distance - - - - -
• LLWS & turbulence classification
Low-level wind shear (LLWS) Turbulence classification

Severity magnitude [kt/lOOftl Severity IAS G-load derived
Ouctuationlktl h!I Gust (fpmJ
light < 4 .0 light 5 -14.9 0 .20-0.49 300- 1199
moderate 4.0 - 7.9 moderate 15 - 24.9 0.50-0.99 1200-2099
strong 8.0 - 11.9 severe ,:'.25 1.0-1.99 2100-2999
severe c:'. 12 extreme not defined c:'.2 ,:'.3000

Altitudes
The altitude indicated at the barometric altimeter always is the altitude over the selected
reference level in the altimeter-setting window (kollsman window). The instrument
measures the static air pressure at a static port at a favorable position on the airframe. The
altimeter setting as indicated in the kollsman window linearly corrects this pressure. The
change equals 30ft per hPa (:::: mb) or !Oft per 0.01 inches HG. When 1013.25 (QNE) or
29.92 are set in the kollsman window the altimeter shows the pressure altitude, which is
used to fly flight levels. A flight level is a level over the I 0 13 hPa reference given in
hecto feet.
As a rule of thumb; the altitude indicated by the altimeter increases when the altimeter
setting figure is increased at the same pressure and vice versa.
The altimeter setting (QNH) as issued by the aerodrome authorities is the value to which
the barometric pressure scale on the altimeter is set so the altitude indicates the true
altitude at field elevation.
The QNH altitude only equals the true altitude at the field elevation near the measuring
station. To determine the true altitude in-flight the average temperature deviation from
ISA (sounding) must be known. On a warm day (warmer than ISA) the indicated QNH
altitude will be lower than the true altitude (TA) over MSL and vice versa.
TA = (QWH alt _ Jile Id elev ) . (l + average ISA deviation [°C]) + Jile Id elev
273
The QNH altitude from the formula is the indicated altitude over the QNH reference.
Field elevation is the elevation of the airfield, which issued the QNH and should be in
close horizontal proximity to the aircraft.
As rule of thumb the mountains are higher in the wintertime expressed in all altitudes but
true altitude (when it's colder than ISA).
The density altitude (DA) is the altitude above mean sea level (MSL) at which a given
atmospheric density occurs in the standard atmosphere. The DA is the most important
performance factor for all aircraft. Start with the PA and correct plus 120ft per degree
Celsius warmer than ISA and vice versa.
If the DA is greater than the PA all performance figures will be worse than written in the
brochure. Aircraft performance manuals already contain the DA correction by showing
all figures in a table with the pressure altitude at the one and the ISA deviation at the
other axis.
Relative humidity is not taken into account at all for the determination of the density
altitude for performance calculations. In a worst case scenario of very hot air (40°C) and
a relative humidity of 100% the humidity corrected density altitude can be up to 1000ft
higher than the non-corrected figure.
222
• Altitude conversion scheme
- .
DA (service ceiling)
relevant for ale performance
calcuJations
QNH
act. altimeter setting
True alt
relevant for terrain clearance
• Density altitude
altitude
i warm cold
·-~
(II(
I
2000-,•
J1°c
·---'r-j_________.!_-:_JI. 11°c I
(•ISA +20"C) I (• ISA - JO"C)
soo -- -·-·-· -· - · -
~
· .J ~ - - - ..._ I - 10*120ft - • lZOOrt
I
Ms-s- - - - ' -- - - -- - - -~1--------'-- - -
L I. 1s c
0
□ ~ littk density (high

h:mpcrnture)
e: high density (low
h:mpcratlm:)

Hypoxia
Dalton' s law states that the partial pressure of a gas in a mixture equals the pressure this
gas would impose on its surrounding in the same volume if isolated from the other gases.
According to Henry's law the mass of a gas dissolving in a liquid at a given temperature
is proportional to the partial pressure of this gas. The partial pressure of oxygen in air at
sea level or 1013 hPa is 213 hPa (21 % ). Living cells use oxygen to burn carbon and
hydrogen to carbon dioxide and water. The respiratory system and the blood circuit
deliver oxygen to every single cell in the body and to dispose the developed carbon
dioxide. Diffusion according to Henry drives the gas exchange in both the lung and the
cells. The gas exchange in the lungs is called outer breathing and the exchange in the
body's cells inner breathing.
The partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the cells - the final consumers of
the oxygen - is approximately 40 hPa. A partial pressure gradient of 40 hPa or more must
be available to enable sufficient gas exchange in the lung and the cells.
The gradient of 160 hPa at sea level is well more than sufficient. At 18.000 ft this
gradient approaches the critical margin of 40 hPa and is zero at 34.000 ft. Hence no gas
exchange is physically possible any more. Physiological altitude is the altitude with equal
oxygen partial pressure than in the normal atmosphere.
Breathing pure oxygen (partial pressure 100%) shifts the physiological altitude down and
the critical margin up to almost 40.000ft. Pressure breathing pure oxygen shifts this
margin another 5.000ft up because the pressure is kept about 40 hPa (the physical limit of
the lung) higher than the surrounding pressure.
More than 90% oxygen saturated blood assures sufficient supply of the body. Anything
less than 70% is considered critical even for a short period of time. The lungs and the
blood circuit are high performing systems. The lungs offer up to l 20m3 surface for the
gas exchange and the hemoglobin molecules in the blood transport 21 ml oxygen in
100ml blood at 100% saturation; only 0,3ml oxygen would dissolve in 100ml of water at
the same conditions. The time of useful consciousness (TUC) table shows how long it
will take the blood saturation level to drop below 70% at physiological altitudes well
above the critical physiologic margins.
Smokers inhale combustion gases including carbon monoxide having a higher chemical
affinity to the hemoglobin and blocking its ability to bond with oxygen. The oxygen
saturation level in the blood of a chain smoker is lower and the physiological altitude can
be up to 8.000ft higher than the real altitude of the surrounding atmosphere.
The acid content of the blood is the primary regulator for the respiration. High carbon
dioxide blood saturation levels sour the blood and trigger the breathing reflex. Excessive
CO 2 levels cause the feeling of suffocation. Lack of oxygen in the blood will not trigger
any of these reflexes or cause a feeling of suffocation! Symptoms are individually
different. Common indications are drowsiness, impaired vision, headache, bluish
fingernails and tongue.
224
• Critical altitudes & the respiratory system
Dorsalaona Pulmonarv ar1erv
II'
&llalaa
I 22.QQQft I
incomplete compensation zone
1
12.000ft i
complete compensation zone

• 7.QQQft I
indifferent zone
• Physical altitudes and Times of useful consciousness

breathing first death Altitude ~ - Altitude TUC
de ciencies
air 10000 ft 22000 ft 25.000 ft 5 min 35.000 ft 45 sec
100% ox en 38000 ft 43000 ft 27.000 ft 3min 40.000 ft 20 sec
pressure (02) 45000 ft 50000 ft 30.000 ft 90 sec 43.000 ft 15 sec
• Oxygen regulations
FAA:
above
12500 ft MSL
for min. Crew, alwa s 14000 ft MSL
for each occu ant, alwa s 15000 ft MSL for each occupant, always
JAA commercial non- ressurized

above o en or above
10000 ft fli ht crew (30 min +: rcq. flight attend.) FL 250
13000 ft for each occupant, always FL 350 single hand
FL 350 multicrew masks off. if quick donning avail.
JAA commercial FL410 mask on
FL410 I CM always
quick donning masks shall be available in ale licensed for flight s above FL 250

Altitude Sickness, Rapid Decompression
I~
According to Henry's law the amount of the dissolved gases is proportional to the
ambient pressure. When this pressure is reduced excess gases outgas from the organism.
Practically a rapid pressure reduction of 50% or more in ambient pressure can be critical
for the human body's ability to evacuate the excess gases. Nitrogen gas dissolved in the
organism is the main troublemaker. Areas poorly supplied with blood like joints and fat
pads accumulate gas bubbles causing pain and the chance of a swift release of the gas
into the circuit. That can happen when climbing high mountains, flying high in an un-
pressurized environment, experiencing a rapid decompression or ascending to fast from a
scuba dive. First symptoms may appear from 10 minutes after the decompression to 24
hours thereafter. Bends are shooting pains in the joints. Pains in the chest caused from
altitude sickness are chokes. Furthermore skin disorientations and neurological blackouts
may occur. Big bubbles breaking loose can dread late effects like heart attacks and
cerebral apoplexy. Breathing pure oxygen for at least half an hour and increasing the
ambient pressure are effective countermeasures. The head and the left side of the chest of
a person suffering altitude sickness or a rapid decompression should be positioned low to
prevent the gas bubbles from reaching the heart and brain.
The boiling point of human blood at 37°C is reached at ambient pressures less than 63hPa
or 63.000ft. Such low pressures cause gas to develop rapidly enough to make the heart
run dry thus stalling the entire circuit.
Rapid decompression can cause mechanical damage and extreme pains in all spots where
air is trapped in the human body. These trouble zones are the para nasal sinus, sinus,
inner ear, lungs, and digestive tract.
A rapid pressure loss will decrease the temperature to more than uncomfortable figures
and form fog through the expansive cooling of the air. The fog will impair vision. The
high intensity airflow can mobilize dirt hurting the crew's eyes furthermore impairing
vision.
The pressure drop may damage the inner ear temporarily or permanently restricting
hearing in addition to the high noise level when the pressure vessel breaks open.
226
• Altitude sickness & gas embolism
pressurised pressure release
• Decompression trouble zones
~
m paranasal sinus,
sinus and inner ear

Optical Illusions
Reflection on moving lights and objects may cause drowsiness, especially at night when
the landing lights or the strobes illuminate snow flakes or rain.
Losing the visual horizon reference in white-out conditions, at night or when flying
between cloud layers can make flight with reference to instruments necessary even when
the flight visibilities and cloud situation would allow visual flight.
Visual fixation of lighted spots at night can also produce drowsiness and the light may
start to wander apparently. This effect can be avoided by not looking directly at the point
of interest at night. Instead observe the spot from the corner of yours eye.
Another tricky effect is the change in light intensity of a fixated object. Traffic not
moving relatively to the own position is most dangerous because it moves either away
from the own position or is on a direct collision course. Visual fixation on such an
airborne object makes the object appear less intense thus producing the illusion of traffic
flying in the same direction and removing from the field of view even if this traffic is on
a direct collision course closing in.
Geometric/perspective illusions are most interesting for the every day operation because
the landing flare is done visually in most cases. The shape of the runway as well as its
surrounding terrain and the approach and runway light facilities affect the visual
perception of the landing situation. A visual approach or the visual part of an instrument
approach is affected by the same perception factors. The landing is less likely to be
adequate if the approach is other than usual or even unstable. Any feeling of being too
high on the approach will result in a lower approach and vice versa. Getting too low is the
greatest danger for all types of airplanes especially if at night or marginal visual
conditions. While pilots can compensate for being to high on the final approach in small
and medium airplanes such a thing can become at first a challenge and at second a
dangerous situation when flying the big rigs.
The on-centerline illusion is quite common in any type of airplane with side by side
cockpit seating. Pilots try to compensate visually for their laterally offset position in the
cockpit with regards to their seat. In most cases this type of alignment will be much too
great in magnitude for the actual situation. Considering the width of the runway and the
actual offset of the pilot's seat - even if the plane is quite large and in a crosswind
approach - the visually perceivable offset to the runway centerline in approach and
landing should be close to nil.
228
• Optical illusions
Situation musion Reaction

Landin
too hi h low flare
too low hi h flare
too hi h low flare
too low hi h flare
A roach
on centerline left of centerline
on centerline
too low
too low
reater distance oach
reater distance r inside the RWY
smaller distance oftheRWY
contour less terrain too hi h
dust& haze too high
• On centerline illusion (left seat PF)

Vertigo
The human sense of balance consists of the following organs and components:
• The eyes provide the visual picture of the environment (primary sensors)
• Pressure receptors in the skin transmit the body position
• The vestibular canals work like rate gyros
• The otolith apparatus acts as inertia sensor
If either one or more of these information do not agree with the others dizziness or
vertigo may occur. Three vestibular canals are arranged around each main axis in each
inner ear. They are filled with a liquid. The inert liquid lags behind an angular tum
around the relevant axis exciting receptor hair in the canal. Turns with an acceleration
rate greater than l 0 s- 2 can be sensed but the ability of the brain to accumulate tum rates
and integrate an attitude position is limited. The main purpose of that system is to
coordinate the eye with the head and body movement.
The otolith apparatus consists of little crystals embedded in a gel. Movement of the gel
through gravity also excites little receptor hair in the gel. The otolith senses the vertical
providing information on the position of the head and actual liner accelerations.
In-flight the human balance system plays some tricks on our sensual perception. Anytime
one sense disagrees one may feel dizzy or even become spatially disoriented in a vertigo.
Symptoms of spatial disorientation visible for an observer are unreasonable control
inputs, miss-coordinated grip movements and difficulties to fixate the eyes on something.
One learning target for the instrument rating is to believe that the artificial horizon works
even if there is no outside reference. After a little instrument experience pilots fly well
with the vertical gyro as only reference. If the artificial gyro display should fail, things
easily can go wrong. Pilots at all experience levels are highly likely to experience
disorientation if flying in instrument conditions with a limited panel, the same way they
have been when they started their initial training for the instrument rating.
In accelerations people additionally feel a pitch up and vice versa in decelerations. This
illusion comes from our skin pressure receptors as well as from the fact that the
respective linear acceleration moves the head and induces an angular acceleration.
When flying at the same bank angle for a longer period of time - until the liquid in the
vestibular canals comes to a stop - the pilot may feel disoriented without outside or
proper instrument reference. The easiest way to get lost is to bank ferociously in
instrument conditions with the autopilot off and turn and tilt the head.
Normally all these are problems for pilots only especially when the autopilot is turned off
because they know they have the authority to change the attitude of the plane thus
continuously searching for an outside or inside reference. Passengers or even jump
seating persons mostly will take the passenger cabin or cockpit as reference like they
automatically do on a ship or train. Because the visual picture is our primary function for
judging the attitude passengers usually experience only little dizziness in the worst case.
230
,;--...
head turning
.~-0 0 --·
.~ ~7 inhib. inhib.
• Acceleration sensors Macula 0 tolfth9 G•l•Unoua

matttr1aJ
HOS
1
Gr■v11aUonal
force
sansory n•rv•- - -
flber
• Illusions
(•) HHd uprlghl (b) H•ad Hflt forward
acceleration illusion

Crew Coordination
There are many attitudes of airmanship and multi crew coordination around. It's though
to judge which procedures are good and which are senseless or even dangerous.
Procedures have to be customized for the airplane type or types and the type of operation.
They should cover all nonnal and non-nonnal or emergency situations. The procedures of
a good operation are the result of years of fine tuning. Furthermore the pilots have to be
convinced (by whatever means) to follow the actual version of the procedures to ensure a
minimum performance level of the flightdeck even in the worst case. This worst case has
not mandatory to be a technical fault or weather problem. Two absolute strangers
working together, one or both of them weak in performance and having personal
problems with each other sometimes can be even worse than a severe technical failure of
the airplane. One of many philosophies is shown on the next page.
The DODAR loop process is a simple means to describe many aspects of the term
airmanship. This Diagnose - Options - Decide - Action - Resume process can be used in
any type of airplane. It is as the common sense sequence of first thinking about what to
do then doing it and afterwards checking what the results are.
In the multicrew environment the workload level should be equalized especially in the
critical flight phases. Multicrew flying can be compared to acting in a theatre play. The
pilot flying (PF) and pilot non flying (PNF) both play their roles. While the PF controls
the plane the PNF coaches the PF to relief her or his workload by reading and completing
checklists and announcing altitudes and turn points. Both pilots should have a red line
leading them through the different phases of the flight. In time critical situations like fire
the coordination should follow the principle "Identify- Verify- Action - Resume". This
should work like a ping-pong play between the crew to ensure that both pilots stay in the
game by knowing what happens plus diminish the chance that the false action is taken.
Critical Items like any configuration chance, engine cutouts and firing extinguishers
should be confirmed by the other pilot in any case.
The sequence of events is sort of a master plan for any flight. If everything goes well the
non-normal items are omitted (red). If things get odd its nice to just follow the sequence
and do all applicable non-normal or emergency memory items and checklists and as
much of the normal items as time pennits. The clean cockpit principle dictates that the
pilots may not start or continue any unnecessary conversation at altitudes below 10.000ft.
FLl00 is a nice altitude to perform the FLAP (Fuel, Lights, APU, Pressurization) check
when going up and to switch the lights on and check and confirm that the final approach
setup is completed and ask for the approach checklist when going down. The PNF should
challenge the PF during the take-off to check for incapacitation of the PF. That happens
mostly according to the challenge and response principle at around 80 kt. The
incapacitation check before landing is usually done in 500ft above aerodrome elevation
(AAL) to ensure the availability of the PF before landing. The PNF has to take over the
controls anytime the PF does not respond to the second challenge attempt of the PNF.
232
• Decision making and acting process
Basic attitude Time critical items in Multicrew environment
D iagnose
~==P
=F===I [ PNF
Non-Normal Situation ~ "Identify!"
0 ptions?
D ecide !Verfiy the PNF Diagnose'
;=:=:~~ ~ ===
confirm
Diagnose
"Verify! 1
'
A ction Memory items and CL Perform

R esume
Finish Non-Normal Recheck "Complete!"
Resume Situation
• Desirable contents of a pilot
----- Discuss further action
=PILOT
• Sequence of events
Part of the flight Sequence Example
CD Cleanup
I Applicable non-normal CL
After Take-Off CL
Applicable non-normal CL
Engine Fire CL
One Engine !NOP LDG CL
Get Weather update

Decide for an approach
@ Inform
Decide
Preselect
I
I Prepare FMC for approach
NA V setup for approach Preselect the Cockpit for the Approach I
Approach briefing
Applicable non-normal CL One Engine INOP descend and approach CL1
® Prepare
I Decend CL
Approach sen,p Check final setup and identify the stations I
I Approach CL
Configure Approch configuration
0 Recheck
Finish up
Final Malfunction summary
(Non-) Normal Landing CL One Engine INOP Landing CL
Leg end Normal Items

Non-Normal Items

List of References
All graphics and text by Michael Grossrubatscher except:
• P.53: Fl5 by US Navy photographer John Gay

• P.175: Sunrise by NASA, shuttle "Endeavor" STS-410 Crew
• P.179: Earth magnetic field illustration by GFZ Potsdam
• P.187: GPS illustrations by US Coast Guard (gps.gov)
• P.189: Navigation Indicators by Rockwell Collins and Honeywell
• P.l 91: Instrument Panel from Jeppesen FlitePro Version 6
• P.231: Semicircular canals by brainconnection.com
• P.231: Semicircular canals and otolith apparatus from Hole's Human Anatomy
and Physiology by Shier (Higher Education Group, Inc)
234
Keyword Index
Airspeed Indicator ................................................. 8
-1- alignment process (IRS) .................................... 194
alloy ................................................................... 130
1/60 rule ............................................................. 162 alloys (turbine) ..................................................... 80
alternate fuel ...................................................... 122
-2- altimeter ............................................................. 190
altimeter setting ................................................. 222
25% line ............................................................... 14 altimeter-setting window ................................... 222
altitude ............................................................... 222
-A- altitude equivalent ............................................. 146
altocumulus ........................................................ 210
Aff ..................................................................... 156 al tostratus ........................................................... 21 0
absolute altitude ................................................. 111 aluminum ........................................................... 130
ac ..................................................................... 210 amplitude modulation ........................................ 180
accelerate stop distance ............................. I 00, I 02 Angle of Attack ............................................. 10, 12
accelerate-go distance ....................................... I 04 angle of flight path ............................................... 96
acceleration altitude ........................................... I 08 angular velocity ................................................... 46
acceleration error (compass) ............................. 178 anti balance tab .................................................... 20
accelerometer ..................................................... 194 anti detonation fuel injection ............................... 66
accessory gearbox ......................................... 70, 86 anti skid .............................................................. 104
accessory system (turbine engine) ...................... 86 anti skid system ................................................. 144
ACSL ................................................................. 220 anti-cyclonic .............................................. 208, 212
action turbine ....................................................... 80 anti-friction bearing ............................................. 94
actual performance limited TOM ...................... 106 AP ............................................................. 156, 158
actuators ............................................................. 138 APFDS ............................................................... 156
ADC ................................................................... 190 aphel ................................................................... 170
additional drift angle ......................................... I 62 apparent precession ........................................... 194
ADF ................................................................... 184 approach and landing speeds ............................... 44
adiabatic expansion ........................................... 218 approach categories ........................................... 198
adjustable stator vane .......................................... 76 approach path ..................................................... I 82
advection ........................................................... 218 area navigation systems ..................................... 186
adverse yaw effect.. ............................................. 36 arrival ................................................................. 198
aerodynamic ceiling .......................................... 110 artificial horizon ........................................ 192, 230
aerodynamic center ................................. 18, 34 -54 As ..................................................................... 210
aerodynamic center ............................................. 18 ASD ................................................................... 104
aft CG limit... ..................................................... 120 assumed mass .................................................... I 06
aft loaded wing profile ........................................ 26 assumed temperature method .................... I 02, I 06
afterburner ........................................................... 82 asymmetric propulsion ...................................... 112
afterburner engine ............................................... 54 atmosphere ......................................................... 200
AHRS ................................................................ 192 atmospheric stability .......................................... 202
air almanac ........................................................ 172 attenuation .......................................................... 154
air conditioning pack ......................................... 146 attitude heading reference systems .................... 192
air data computer ....................................... I 42, 190 auto brake function ............................................ 144
air density (performance factor) .......................... 98 autoland .............................................................. 156
air mass thunderstorm ....................................... 2 I4 automatic direction finding equipment ............. 184
air turbine motors .............................................. 140 automatic go-around .......................................... 15 8
air-cooled engine ........................................... 58, 64 automatic rollout.. .............................................. 158
aircraft mass ........................................................ 96 automotive engine ............................................... 58
Airfoil .................................................................. 12 autonomous integrity monitoring ...................... 186
air-intake .............................................................. 74
airmanship ......................................................... 232 :~!~f~~~!;i~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;:
Airspeed ................................................................. 8
airspeed indicator ...................................... 116, 190 :~:;:;it:!~i~~~.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:
average sun ........................................................ 176 cabin charger...................................................... 146
avgas .................................................................... 92 cabin pressure .................................................... 146
axial compressor ............................................ 72, 76 calibrated airspeed ................................................. 8
axial piston pumps ............................................. 140 Camber ................................................................. 12
axial turbine ......................................................... 80 camout (AP) ....................................................... 158
axiom of enlargement.. ...................................... 128 cap cloud ............................................................ 220
capacitator element (fuel) .................................. 148
-8-- capture (AP) ....................................................... 156
carbon .................................................................. 92
back course ........................................................ 182 carbon fibers ...................................................... 128
balance tab ........................................................... 20 carburetor heat ..................................................... 62
balanced field conditions ................................... I 02 carburetor icing .................................................... 62
barometric altimeter .......................................... 222 cargo compartment fire class ............................. 152
base tum ............................................................ 196 cargo planes ....................................................... 136
basic mass .......................................................... 118 carrier wave ....................................................... 180
battery ignition .................................................... 64 cascade type reverser system ............................... 84
BCF Halon ......................................................... 152 cast-off vortex ...................................................... 18
bends .................................................................. 226 cb ..................................................................... 210
bends (VOR) ...................................................... 184 cc ..................................................................... 164
Bernoulli principle ................................................. 8 CCSL ................................................................. 220
best angle of climb ............................................ I00 CDI .................................................................... 188
best angle of glide ....................................... 24, 114 celestial north pole ............................................. 172
best climb ............................................................ 24 celestial south pole ............................................ 172
best glide ratio ..................................................... 24 center of gravity ................................... 34, 112, 120
best power point .................................................. 66 center of pressure ................................................. 18
blackout ............................................................. 226 center of total aerodynamic drag ......................... 34
blade angle setting ............................................... 46 cent er tank .......................................................... 148
blade element.. ..................................................... 46 centerline thrust designs ..................................... .40
bleed air ............................................... 86, 146, 150 certified limit (EGT) ............................................ 80
blood oxygen saturation .................................... 224 CG ..................................................................... 112
blower supercharger engine ................................ 60 check valve ........................................................ 140
boiling point (fuel) .............................................. 92 chemical correct mixture ..................................... 66
boiling point (human blood) .............................. 226 chemical energy ................................................... 78
bolt of lightning ................................................. 216 Chinook .............................................................. 220
boundary fence .................................................... 14 chokes ................................................................ 226
boundary layer ..................................................... 10 chord length ....................................................... 120
boundary layer control ........................................ 22 Chord Line ........................................................... 12
brake coefficient ................................................ 104 chord ratio ............................................................ 12
brake disc ........................................................... 144 ci ..................................................................... 210
brake efficiency ................................................. I 04 cirrostratus ......................................................... 210
brake pad ........................................................... 144 cirrus .................................................................. 210
brake pressure accumulator ............................... 144 civil twilight... .................................................... 172
brake system ...................................................... 144 clean cockpit principle ....................................... 232
BRG&um .............................................................. 168 clear ice ................................................................ 30
bridge over ice ................................................... 150 clearance transmitter [LLZ] ............................... I 82
brome ................................................................. 218 Clearway .................................................... I 02, I 04
BTM Halon ........................................................ 152 climb limits ........................................................ 108
buffeting ........................................................ 10, 44 climb segment .................................................... 108
bulkhead frame .................................................. 134 cloud deck .......................................................... 210
Bypass axial-flow turbojets ................................. 70 cloud to clear air lightning ................................. 216
bypass ratio .......................................................... 70 cloud to cloud lightning ..................................... 216
cloud to ground lightning .................................. 216
-C- cloud types ......................................................... 210
CNP .................................................................... 172
cabin altitude waming ....................................... 146 cockpit window .................................................. 150
coefficient of drag (c 0 ) .................................. 16. 24 Crossed controls .................................................. 40
coefficient oflift (cL) ..................................... 18, 24 cross-feed valve ................................................. 148
coffins comer ..................................................... 110 cross-over speed .................................................. 40
cold front ........................................................... 210 crosswind (T/O & land) ..................................... 116
combination type chamber .................................. 78 crude oil ............................................................... 92
combined compressor.......................................... 76 cruise altitude definitions .................................. 110
combustion .......................................................... 56 cruise modes ...................................................... J I o
combustion chamber ......................... 68, 78, 82. 90 CS ·················································•···················2]0
compass erratic line ........................................... 178 CSP .................................................................... 172
compass north .................................................... 162 CTS .................................................................... 168
composite materials ........................................... 128 CU ·····························································•··· .... 210
composite structure ........................................... 128 cumuli ................................................................ 214
composites ......................................................... 130 cumulonimbus ........................................... 210, 214
Compressibility Error ............................................ 8 cumulus .............................................................. 210
compression ....................................................... 126 cyclones ............................................................. 208
compressor. ............................................. 60, 68 - 90 cyclonic inflow .................................................. 212
compressor stall ................................................... 76 cylinder ................................................................ 56
condensation ...................................................... 200 cylinder head ........................................................ 56
configuration (performance factor) ..................... 98 cylinder head temperature ................................... 66
constant of cone ................................................. 164
constant speed propeller ...................................... 46 -O-
contact cooling .................................................. 218
contaminated runway ........................................ I 04 DA ····························································· l62, 198
contingency fuel... ..................................... 122, 124 DALR ........................................................ 202, 220
continuity ............................................................. 18 Dalton's law ....................................................... 224
continuity equation ................................................ 8 dampening (gear) ............................................... 144
continuous descend procedure .......................... 198 Daylight saving time .......................................... 176
control axis ........................................................ 156 dead center ........................................................... 56
control loop ........................................................ 158 decision altitude ................................................. 198
control surface ..................................................... 20 decision point method ........................................ 124
convective circulation ....................................... 214 declination angle of the magnetic field ............. 178
convective cloud ................................................ 216 decompression ................................................... 226
convective condensation level .......................... 202 de-crab method (land) ........................................ 116
conventional roll control system ....................... 142 deflector door. .................................................... 146
conversion angle ................................................ 160 degrees of freedom (gyro) ................................. 192
cooling duct ....................................................... 146 de-icing boots .................................................... 150
coordinated flight ........................................ 40, 112 density altitude ........................................... I I 2, 222
coordinated tum ................................................. 132 departure flight path .......................................... 108
Coriolis force ..................................... 204, 206, 212 deposition ........................................................... 200
corona ................................................................ 216 Depression (sun) ................................................ 174
corrosion characteristics .................................... 130 de rate method .................................................... I 02
course deviation indicator ................................. 188 de-rate power reduction ..................................... 106
course line .......................................................... 162 De-rated engine .................................................... 88
course to steer .................................................... 168 desired track ....................................................... 168
course width [LLZ] ........................................... 182 detonation ............................................................ 66
crab method (land) ............................................ 116 deviation ............................................................ 178
crack .......................................................... 126, 128 dew point ................................................... 200, 218
crankshaft ............................................................ 56 DG ..................................................................... I~
creep ............................................................ 80, 126 diesel engine .................................................. 56, 60
critical angle of attack AOA,., 11 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 18 differential .......................................................... 156
critical engine .................................................... 112 differential ailerons .............................................. 36
critical Mach number .......................................... 50 differential controller ......................................... 156
critical Mach number (Mcn1ica1) ............................ 14 differential pressure ........................................... 146
critical margin (hypoxia) ................................... 224 diffuser ................................................................. 76
critical Reynolds number (Recnlica1) ..................... 10 diffusion ............................................................. 224
dihedral angle ...................................................... 36 elastic behavior (material) ................................. 126
dip of horizon .................................................... 174 electric fuel pump ........................................ 62, 148
Direct drive turboprop engine ............................. 72 electrical charge ................................................. 216
direct entry (holding) ......................................... 196 electromagnetic field ......................................... 180
directional gyro ................................................. 192 emergency extension (gear) ............................... 144
directional stability .............................................. 32 empty mass ........................................................ 118
displacement volume ........................................... 56 empty mass, wet ................................................ 118
dissipating stage ................................................ 214 engine attachment .............................................. 134
distance between the meridians ......................... 160 engine cowl anti-ice ........................................... 150
distance measuring equipment .......................... 184 engine driven hydraulic pump ........................... 140
dizziness ............................................................ 230 engine failure (climb) ........................................ 108
DME .................................................................. 184 engine failure speed ........................................... I 00
DO DAR loop ..................................................... 232 engine failure take off distance ......................... I 02
Doppler Effect ................................................... 154 engine oil ............................................................. 64
DopplerVORs ................................................... 184 engine start (turbine) ............................................ 86
dorsal fin .............................................................. 38 enroute configuration ......................................... 108
double decker .................................................... 136 entropy ................................................................. 52
double stage compressor ..................................... 76 equation of time ......................................... 170, 172
Double-flow type radial compressor ................... 76 equator ....................................................... 160, 164
down lock (gear) ................................................ 144 Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) ................................... 8
downwash ............................................................ 28 evaporation ................................................ 200, 218
Drag ..................................................................... 16 evaporation (refrigerator) .................................. 146
drag curve ............................................................ 96 except surface wind ........................................... 162
drag penalty ......................................................... 46 excess power ...................................................... 112
drag strut ............................................................ 144 Exhaust gas temperature ...................................... 66
drift angle .......................................................... 162 exhaust gas turbine .............................................. 60
drift down .......................................................... 110 expansion valve ................................................. 146
dry adiabatic lapse rate .............................. 200, 202 expansion wave .................................................... 52
dry hail ............................................................... 154 expansive cooling process ................................. 146
dry operating index ............................................ 120 extra power .......................................................... 96
dry operating mass ............................................ 118 extra tropic cyclones .......................................... 208
dry runway ................................................. I04, 114
dry snow ............................................................ 154 -F-
dry sump system .................................................. 64
dry sump systems ................................................ 64 FAF .................................................................... 198
DST .................................................................... 176 fail safe position (propeller) ................................ 46
duration of twilight ............................................ 172 fail-operational (AP) .......................................... 158
duroplasts ........................................................... 130 fail-passive (AP) ................................................ 158
Dutch roll ............................................................. 38 fail-safe (AP) ..................................................... 158
DVOR ................................................................ 184 fail-safe method ................................................. 132
dynamic and static stability ................................. 34 false vertical ......................................................... 42
dynamic stability ................................................. 32 FAP .................................................................... 198
Dynamic stress .................................................. 126 FAR field length (land) ..................................... 114
dynamic viscosity ................................................ I 0 FAR field length (T/O) ...................................... I00
dynamically stable ............................................... 34 FAR Part 23 ....................................................... 132
Dz ..................................................................... 162 FAR Part 25 ....................................................... 132
FD ..................................................................... 156
-E- feathered propeller ............................................... 46
feathering (gear) ................................................ 144
earth axis ............................................................ 170 feel unit .............................................................. 142
earth rate precession (ERP), .............................. 194 feeling ofsuffocation ......................................... 224
earth transport precession .................................. 194 Fenwall fire sensor ............................................ 152
ecliptic ....................................................... 170, 204 Ferrel cell ........................................................... 206
effective glide ratio .............................................. 24 final approach .................................................... 198
effective true airspeed ....................................... 162 final approach fix ............................................... 198
final approach point ........................................... 198 Freon .................................................................. 152
final reserve fuel. ............................................... 122 frequency ........................................................... 180
final segment (climb) ........................................ 108 frequency band .................................................. 216
fire class ............................................................. 152 frictional drag ...................................................... 16
fire detection system .......................................... 152 Friese tab .............................................................. 20
fire extinguishing system .................................. 152 front course ........................................................ J82
first decision point... .......................................... 124 frost .............................................................. 30, 218
first segment (climb) ......................................... 108 FS ..................................................................... 158
fixed pitch propeller ............................................ 46 fuel bum ............................................................. 120
flame arrestor ....................................................... 82 fuel cell tank ...................................................... 148
flame front velocity ............................................. 66 fuel control unit ................................................... 86
Flap .................................................................... 138 fuel injection ........................................................ 62
flap retraction altitude ....................................... I 08 fuel mass ............................................................ 148
flare out distance ............................................... I 00 fuel nozzle ............................................................ 78
flash point... ................................................... 92, 94 fuel reserve (long range) .................................... 124
flat rated temperature ................................ I 06, I 08 fuel storing volume ............................................ 148
flat rated ............................................................... 88 Fuel tank sump drain valve ............................... 148
flat spin ................................................................ 44 fuel ventilation system ....................................... 148
Flettner tab ........................................................... 20 fuel/air mixture .................................................... 56
flight control computer ...................................... 142 fuel/air mixture (turbine) ..................................... 78
flight control system .......................................... 142 full rated engine ................................................... 88
flight envelope ................................................... 132 funnel cloud ....................................................... 214
flight envelope with flaps extended .................. 132
flight in known icing conditions ....................... 150
-G-
fl~l~cl .......................................................... m
flight path angle ................................................... 42 Galileo ................................................................ 186
flight planning ................................................... 122 gas exchange ...................................................... 224
flightdirector ...................................................... 156 gas law ............................................................... 200
float-type carburetor ............................................ 62 gasoline engine .................................................... 56
flow control valve .............................................. 140 GDOP ................................................................ 186
fluid ant-ice ........................................................ 150 Gear .................................................................... 138
fluttering .............................................................. 20 gear attachment.. ................................................ 134
fly-by-wire flight control systems ..................... 138 geometric dilution ofprecision .......................... 186
flying tail ....................................................... 20, 54 geometric propeller pitch ..................................... 46
flying wing aircraft .............................................. 34 geometrical aspect ratio ....................................... 14
FMC ................................................................... 156 geostrophic ......................................................... 208
FMC thrust limit... ............................................. 156 glass fibers ......................................................... 130
FO ..................................................................... 158 glide slope intercept. .......................................... 198
Foehn ................................................................. 220 glidepath ............................................................ 182
fog ·····································································218 GMT .................................................................. 176
force feed back unit.. ......................................... 142 go-around gradient... .......................................... I 14
force-free elevator ............................................... 20 GP ..................................................................... 182
foreign object damage ......................................... 84 GPS ............................................................ 176, 186
forest fire ........................................................... 216 graupel ............................................................... 216
fork tail .............................................................. 136 Graviner fire sensor ........................................... 152
forwardCG limit ............................................... 120 gravity fuel feed ................................................... 62
Four-stroke engine ............................................... 56 gravity vector ....................................................... 34
fowler flap ........................................................... 22 great circle ................................................. 160, 164
FP ..................................................................... 158 Greenwich Mean Time ...................................... 176
free fall extension (gear) ................................... 144 Greenwich meridian .......................................... 174
free gyro ............................................................ 192 grid convergence ................................................ 166
freewheeling turbine principle ............................ 72 grid navigation ................................................... 166
freezing .............................................................. 200 grid north ........................................................... 166
freezing point (fuel) ............................................. 92 ground echo ....................................................... 154
freezing rain ....................................................... 150 ground effect ........................................................ 28
ground fog ......................................................... 218 ice crystal ................................................... 154, 216
ground speed return ........................................... 124 ice crystals ......................................................... 214
groundspeed continuous .................................... 124 icing ................................................................... 214
groundspeed out ................................................ 124 ideal (friction-free) fluids .................................... 10
gyro effect. ........................................................... 48 IF ..................................................................... 198
gyro lock ............................................................ 192 !FR (fuel reserves) ............................................. 122
gyro platfonn ..................................................... 194 IFR turn .............................................................. 196
ignition (turbine engine) ...................................... 86
ILS ..................................................... 156, 182, 198
-H-
imaginary rectangular profile ............................ 120
Hadley cell ......................................................... 206 improved climb operation ................................. I 04
hail ..................................................................... 214 in cloud lightning ............................................... 216
Halon ................................................................. 152 inbound interceptions ........................................ l 68
Halon 1211 ........................................................ 152 inbound leg (holding) ........................................ 196
Halon 1301 ........................................................ 152 incapacitation ..................................................... 232
hanger type landing gear ................................... 144 inclinometer ......................................................... 42
hardover ............................................................. 158 index method (W&B) ........................................ 120
haze .................................................................... 218 Indicated airspeed (!AS) ........................................ 8
HOD .................................................................. 158 induced drag .................................................. 16, 28
head down display ............................................. 158 inertial reference system .................................... 194
head up displays ................................................ 158 inertial reference systems .................................. 186
heading .............................................................. 162 initial approach .................................................. 198
heat value ............................................................. 92 initial approach fix ............................................. 198
helix ..................................................................... 46 injection pump ..................................................... 62
hemisphere ......................................................... 172 inner efficiency (turbine) ..................................... 90
hemoglobin ........................................................ 224 inner tropic convergence zone ................... I 70, 204
Henry's law ............................................... 224, 226 inoperative engine ................................................ 40
HF ..................................................................... 216 instability ........................................................... 214
high wing setup ................................................. 136 instantaneous vertical speed indicator ............... l 90
high-speed characteristics ................................... 38 instrument approach .......................................... 198
high-tension ignition ........................................... 64 Instrument Error .................................................... 8
holding airspac .................................................. 196 intake stroke ......................................................... 56
holding procedure ...................................... 196, 198 integral controller .............................................. 156
honeycomb ........................................................ 130 integral flight planning ...................................... 122
horizontal situation indicator ............................. 188 integral tank ....................................................... 148
horse latitudes .................................................... 206 interference drag .................................................. 16
HSl ..................................................................... 188 intennediate approach ....................................... 198
HUD .................................................................. 158 intennediate fix .................................................. 198
hurricane ............................................................ 212 international atomic time scale .......................... 176
hydraulic fluid ................................................... 138 international cloud classification ....................... 210
hydraulic linear actuators .................................. 140 inversion ............................................................ 202
hydraulic motor ................................................. 140 Iron ..................................................................... 130
hydraulic operated flight control system ........... 142 irreversible plastic defonnation ........................... 80
hydraulic principle ............................................. 138 IRS ..................................................................... 186
hydraulic pump .................................................. 140 ISA ..................................................................... 222
hydraulic system ................................................ 138 isobars ................................................................ 208
hydraulic system net power ............................... 138 ITCZ .......................................... 170, 202, 204, 206
hydrocarbon ......................................................... 92 IVSl .................................................................... 190
hydrogen .............................................................. 92
hysteretic behavior (material) ........................... 126 -J-
-I- jet fuel .................................................................. 92

Junkers double wing ............................................ 22
IAF ..................................................................... 198
ice accumulation .................................................. 30
-K- lowest of A/8/C method .................................... 118
low-level wind shear .......................................... 220
Kepler, laws of .................................................. 170 low-tension ignition ............................................. 64
Kidde fire sensor ............................................... 152
kollsman window .............................................. 222
Krueger flap ......................................................... 22 -M-
Mach angle .......................................................... 50
-L- Mach cone ............................................................ 50
Mach Number (M) ................................................. 8
labyrinth air-oil seal ............................................ 86 Mach speed .......................................................... 70
Lambert projection ............................................ 164 Mach speed indicator ......................................... 190
laminar ................................................................. 10 mach trim unit ...................................................... 54
laminar boundary ................................................. 16 Mach trim unit ..................................................... 50
laminar sub layer ................................................. I 0 macro scale circulations .................................... 204
land breeze ......................................................... 220 magnesium ......................................................... 130
large-scale circulations ...................................... 220 magnetic bearing to ........................................... 168
laser gyro ........................................................... 194 magnetic compass .............................................. 178
laser IRS ............................................................ 194 magnetic equator................................................ 178
lateral axis ............................................................ 32 magnetic north ................................................... 162
lateral stability ..................................................... 32 magnetic north pole ........................................... 178
Laval style nozzles .............................................. 54 magneto ................................................................ 64
LDA ................................................................... 182 magneto ignition system ...................................... 64
leading edge flaps ................................................ 22 Magnus effect ...................................................... 18
lead-tetra ethyl ..................................................... 92 main gear ........................................................... 144
lean of peak ......................................................... 66 main tank ........................................................... 148
LEB .................................................................... 160 MALTOM ......................................................... 106
lenticularis cloud ............................................... 220 mandatory crossing altitude ............................... 198
level offradius ..................................................... 42 maneuvering speed ............................................ 132
life cycle ...................................................... 80. 126 manifold pressure ................................................ 60
life cycle (thunderstorm) ................................... 154 manual flight ...................................................... 156
life time .............................................................. 126 MAP ................................................................... 198
lifetime ............................................................... 126 markers .............................................................. 182
lift ....................................................................... 18 mass (performance factor) ................................... 98
lift to drag (LID) ratio .......................................... 28 mass flow ............................................................. 88
lift vector ............................................................. 34 mass ratio ............................................................. 66
lightning ............................................................. 216 material science ................................................. 130
lightning detection ............................................. 154
Lindberg fire sensor .......................................... 152
line of equal bearings ................................ 160, 164
~::::~::~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~1:
maximum acceleration ....................................... 132
line ofposition ................................................... 168 maximum allowable take offmass .................... 118
linear elastic behavior (material) ....................... 126 maximum allowable take-off mass ................... I 06
line-type engine ................................................... 58 maximum altitude .............................................. 111
LLZ .................................................................... 182 maximum angle of climb ..................................... 96
LMT.. ......................................................... 170-176 maximum available thrust ................................... 88
load carrying cross-section ................................ 126 maximum climb power ........................................ 66
load factor ............................................................ 42 maximum continuous power ( ........................... I 08
local mean time ................................. 170, 172, 176 maximum cruise speed ...................................... 132
localizer ............................................................. 182 maximum elevator down force .......................... 120
localizer type directional aid ............................. 182 maximum endurance speed ................................. 96
long range cruise speed ..................................... 110 maximum except for take off power ................... 66
longitude ............................................................ 160 maximum holding speed ................................... 196
longitudinal axis ............................................ 32. 36 maximum landing mass ................................. •·•· I I 8
longitudinal stability ............................................ 32 maximum operating altitude ...................... I I I, 146
LOP .................................................................... 168 maximum range cruise ........................................ 24
low wing method (land) .................................... I I 6 maximum range cruise speed ............................ I I 0
maximum single engine cruise altitude ............. 110 multi crew coordination ..................................... 232
maximum specific range speed ......................... 110 multi shaft engine ................................................ 76
maximum take off mass .................................... 118 multicrew environment ...................................... 232
maximum take-off mass .................................... I 00 multi engine designs ........................................... 136
maximum tire speed .......................................... I00 multimode receiver ............................................ 186
maximum usable clearway ................................ 102 Multiple thunderstorm cell ................................ 214
maximum zero fuel mass .................................. 118 multi-stage supercharger engine .......................... 60
me ............................................................. 160, 164
MCA .................................................................. 196
-N-
MDA .................................................................. 198
MW ................................................................... l~ NACA profile ...................................................... 26
MEA .................................................................. 196 nadir ................................................................... 172
mean aerodynamic chord .................................. 120 nautical air miles ................................................ 122
mechanical efficiency .......................................... 90 naval twilight ..................................................... 172
mechanical stress ................................................. 80 NBAA !FR reserve ............................................ 122
melting ............................................................... 200 NBAA VFR fuel reserve ................................... 122
Mercator projection ........................................... 164 NDB ........................................................... 184, 216
meridian ............................................................. 160 negative limit load ............................................. 132
meridian convergence ............................... 160, 164 negative pressure relief valve ............................ 146
meridian passage ....................................... 170, 176 neutral fiber ........................................................ 126
mesoscale circulation ........................................ 212 night ................................................................... 172
microwave landing system ................................ 182 N imbostratus ...................................................... 210
middle marker. ................................................... 182 non directional beacon ....................................... 184
mineral hydraulic fluid ...................................... 138 non stressed-skin surface ................................... 134
mineral oil. ........................................................... 94 non-precision approach ..................................... 198
minimum control speed ............................. 100, 112 normal shockwave ............................................... 50
minimum crossing altitude ................................ 196 normally aspirated engine ................................... 60
minimum descend altitude ................................ 198 north reference ................................................... 162
minimum drag speed ................................... 96, 110 northern hemisphere .......................................... 208
minimum enroute altitude ................................. 196 nose down pitching .............................................. 34
minimum fuel reserves ...................................... 122 nose radius ........................................................... 30
Minimum !FR altitude ....................................... 196 nose Radius .......................................................... 12
minimum limit acceleration .............................. 132 Ns ..................................................................... 210
minimum net climb gradients ........................... I 08
minimum obstruction clearance altitude ........... 196 -0--
minimum radar vectoring altitude ..................... 196
minimum reception altitude .............................. 196 oblique shockwave .............................................. 50
minimum safe altitude ....................................... 196 obstacle clearance ...................................... 196, 198
minimum sector altitude .................................... 196 obstacle clearance altitude ................................. 198
minimum unstick speed ..................................... I 00 OCA ................................................................... 198
missed approach ................................................ 198 occlusion ............................................................ 2 I 0
missed approach point... .................................... 198 one way restrictor valve ..................................... 140
mixture lever........................................................ 62 operating area .................................................... 132
MLS ........................................................... 182, 198 operating mass ................................................... 118
MOCA ............................................................... 196 opposite meridian .............................................. 176
moment coefficient (c'1) ...................................... 34 optimum angle of attack AOA0 p, .•..••••••••..•••••••.••• 24
monsoon circulation .......................................... 206 orographic lifting ............................................... 214
mountain lee wave ............................................. 220 otolith apparatus ................................................ 230
mountainous area (!CAO) ................................. 196 out of the blue lightning .................................... 216
moving dial indicator ........................................ 188 Outbound interceptions ..................................... 168
MP ............................................................. 172, 176 outbound leg (holding) ...................................... 196
MRA .................................................................. 196 Outer efficiency (turbine) .................................... 90
MRVA ............................................................... 196 outer marker ....................................................... 182
MSA .................................................................. 196 outflow valve ..................................................... 146
MSL ................................................................... 222 overhead/overhead flight planning .................... 122
overpressure valve ............................................. 140 procedure tum ............................................ 196, 198
progressively dampened shock strut ................. 144
-P- propeller ............................................................... 46
propeller anti-ice ................................................ 150
parallel entry (holding) ...................................... 196 propeller pitch ...................................................... 46
parasite drag ................................................ 16, 112 propeller slipstream .................................... .48, 136
part 25 ................................................................ 108 proportional controller.. ..................................... 156
partial pressure .................................................. 224 propulsive efficiency ........................................... 90
particle ............................................................... 216 Pythagoras equations ......................................... 160
passat ................................................................. 206
peaky profile ........................................................ 26 -Q--
performance limited mass ................................. 106
performance limited take-off mass ................... I 06 Q- groups ........................................................... 168
performance penalties (inversion) ..................... 218 QDM .................................................................. 168
perihel ................................................................ 170 QDR ................................................................... 168
PF ..................................................................... 232 QNE ................................................................... 222
p-factor ................................................................ 48 QNH ................................................................... 222
P-Factor ............................................................. 112 QTE .................................................................... 168
physiological altitude ........................................ 224 quasi-optical range (radio) ................................. 180
pilot flying ......................................................... 232 QUJ .................................................................... 168
pilot non flying .................................................. 232
piston displacement ............................................. 56 -R-
pilot inlet... ........................................................... 74
pilot probe .............................................................. 8 radar antenna ...................................................... 154
plastic behavior (material) ................................. 126 radar cone width ................................................ 154
plastics ............................................................... 130 radar return ......................................................... 154
PNF .................................................................... 232 radial compressor. .............................................. 146
point of equal time ............................................. 124 Radial compressor ............................................... 72
point of safe return ............................................ 124 radial engine ........................................................ 58
polar diagram ....................................................... 24 radial turbine ........................................................ 80
polar easterlies ................................................... 206 radiation ............................................................. 200
polar front .......................................................... 208 radiation fog ....................................................... 218
polar jet .............................................................. 206 radiational heating ............................................. 220
pole .................................................................... 164 radio magnetic indicator .................................... 188
positive giant ..................................................... 216 radio signal ........................................................ 180
positive pressure relief valve ............................. 146 radio signal disturbances ................................... 180
positive-lightning .............................................. 216 radio-bearing indicator ...................................... 168
power ................................................................... 96 RAIM ................................................................. I86
power / thrust vector ............................................ 34 rain ..................................................................... 154
power curve ......................................................... 96 ram air cooling ................................................... 146
power definitions ................................................. 66 Ram Air Pressure ................................................... 8
power setting definition (turbine) ....................... 88 ram air turbines (hydraulic) ............................... 140
power stroke ........................................................ 56 ramp mass .......................................................... 118
power transfer unit .................................... 140, I 42 rare earths ........................................................... 130
PPS .................................................................... 186 rate of cabin altitude change .............................. 146
Prantl. ............................................................... 8, 18 ratio for a lean of peak mixture ........................... 92
precession .......................................................... 192 ratio for rich of peak mixture .............................. 92
precipitation ....................................................... 210 RBl... .......................................................... 168, 188
precision approach ............................................. 198 reaction turbine .................................................... 80
prescribed minimum (approach/performance) .. 114 real fluid ............................................................... 10
pressure breathing ............................................. 224 reclearance method ............................................ 124
pressure drag ........................................................ 16 recover height ...................................................... 42
pressure-type carburetor ...................................... 62 reference (W&B) ............................................... 120
primary area (combust. chamber) ....................... 78 reference fix ....................................................... 196
priority valve ..................................................... 140 reference level .................................................... 222
reflection ............................................................ 228 SE service ceiling .............................................. 111
refraction ........................................................... 174 sea breeze ........................................................... 220
refiigerator cooling ............................................ 146 sea breeze front .................................................. 220
regeneration ....................................................... 214 sea srnoke ........................................................... 218
regulateable hydraulic pump ............................. 140 second segment (clirnb) ..................................... 108
rejected take off ................................................. 144 secondary air (cornbust. chamber) ...................... 78
relative bearing indicator. .................................. 188 secondary air (turbine) ......................................... 82
relative humidity ............................................... 200 semi rnonocoque structure ................................. 134
required field length for landing ....................... I 04 sense ofbalance ................................................. 230
required missed approach climb gradients ........ 198 sensual perception ............................................. 230
required power ................................................... 110 separation point... ................................................. 44
residual drag ........................................................ 16 separation point ( SP) ........................................... I 0
respiratory system ............................................. 224 sequence of events ............................................. 232
rest endurance .................................................... 124 service ceiling .................................................... 111
reverse (propeller) ............................................... 48 servo tab ............................................................... 20
reverse airflow ..................................................... I0 shading ............................................................... 154
reverse power ...................................................... 72 shaft power .......................................................... 60
reverse power ( turbo prop engine) ...................... 84 shaft power engine ......................................... 72, 76
reverse thrust ....................................................... 84 shear ................................................................... 126
Reynolds number (RE) ........................................ 10 shock strut .......................................................... 144
rhurnb line .................................................. 160, 164 shock wave .......................................................... 26
rib ..................................................................... 134 Shock wave .......................................................... 52
rich of peak .......................................................... 66 Shortfall ............................................................. 124
rigging angle of incidence ............................. 12, 20 shortfall fuel ....................................................... 124
rime ice ................................................................ 30 side strut ............................................................. 144
ring type combustion chamber ............................ 78 sidereal tirne ....................................................... 176
rivets .................................................................. 128 siderial year ........................................................ 170
RMl... ......................................................... 168, 188 sideslip ................................................................. 40
RNAV ................................................................ 186 simplified directional facilities .......................... 182
rockets .................................................................. 54 single cell thunderstorm .................................... 214
roll ....................................................................... 36 single type combustion chamber ......................... 78
roll cloud ............................................................ 220 Skeleton Line ....................................................... 12
rotary engine ........................................................ 58 Skews ................................................................. 128
Rotary engine ...................................................... 58 skidding tum ........................................................ 42
rotation speed .................................................... I00 Skydrol (hydraulic fluid) ................................... 138
rotor ............................................................... 76, 80 slant range distance ............................................ 184
rudder horn .......................................................... 20 slats ...................................................................... 22
run time .............................................................. 154 slip (propeller) ..................................................... 46
run back ice .......................................................... 30 slipping tum ......................................................... 42
runway-mass chart ............................................. I06 slot ....................................................................... 22
smoke detector ................................................... 152
-S-- solar heating ....................................................... 220
sound source ........................................................ 50
safe detection range ........................................... 154 sounding ............................................................. 202
safe-life method ................................................. 132 Span ..................................................................... 14
safety factor (design) ......................................... I 26 spark plug ............................................................. 64
SALR ......................................................... 202, 220 spatial disorientation .......................................... 230
SAT.. .................................................................. 190 specific consumption ......................................... 110
saturated adiabatic lapse rate ..................... 200, 202 specific fuel consumption .................................... 90
Saybolt-Seconds-Universal ................................. 94 specific range ..................................................... I I 0
scalloping ........................................................... 184 speed brakes ......................................................... 20
scavenge pump .................................................... 64 speed definition (V speeds) ............................... I I 6
screen height ...................................................... I 04 speed for maximum angle of climb ..................... 96
sew .................................................................... 26 speed for maximum climb rate ............................ 96
SDF .................................................................... 182 speed for maximum endurance .......................... 110
Speed of Sound (a) ................................................ 8 supercharger engine ............................................. 60
speed/acceleration diagram ............................... 132 supercritical wing ................................................ 26
spin ...................................................................... 44 supersonic flight .................................................. 82
spirit level ............................................................ 42 supersonic lift ...................................................... 54
Split flap .............................................................. 22 surface inversion ................................................ 218
split tail .............................................................. 136 surge (compressor) .............................................. 76
spoiler .................................................................. 20 surge bleed valve ..................................... 70, 76, 86
sprite (lightning) ................................................ 216 swash plate (hydraulic pump) ............................ 140
SPS .................................................................... 186 sweep ................................................................... 14
S-shaped profile ................................................... 18 swept wing aircraft ............................................. .40
St. Elmo's Fire ................................................... 216 swept wings in crosswind T /0 & land .............. 116
stabilator .............................................................. 20 swing check valve .............................................. 140
stability ................................................................ 32 switch second ..................................................... 176
stabilized approach ............................................ 198 synthetic additive ................................................. 94
stabilized glide ..................................................... 42 synthetic hydraulic fluid .................................... 138
Stall ...................................................................... 10 synthetic oil .......................................................... 94
stall behavior (CG pos) ..................................... 120 system stability level (AP) ................................ 158
stall region ......................................................... 132
standard atmosphere .......................................... 200
-T-
standard rate tum ............................................... 196
standard time ..................................................... 176 T/D check ........................................................... 196
start cycle ............................................................. 64 TACAN .............................................................. 184
static air pressure ............................................... 222 tail dragger ......................................................... 136
static air temperature ......................................... 190 tail plane ................................................... 20, 34, 40
static dischargers ............................................... 216 take of flight path ............................................... I 08
static electricity ................................................. 216 take off decision speed ...................................... I 02
static stability ....................................................... 32 take off distance engine failure ......................... 100
statically stable .................................................... 34 take off fuel.. ...................................................... 118
statics ................................................................. 216 take off mass ...................................................... I 18
station (W&B) ................................................... 120 take offpower ...................................................... 66
stator .............................................................. 76, 80 take-off climb speed .......................................... I00
steam fog ........................................................... 218 take-off decision speed ...................................... I00
Steel ................................................................... 130 take-off distance ................................................ I 00
steep spin ............................................................. 44 take-off power reduction ........................... I 04, I 06
stereodromic track ............................................. 166 take-off run ........................................................ I 00
stereographic projection ............................ 164, 166 tank system .......................................................... 62
still air distance .................................................. 122 Taper .................................................................... 14
Stopway ............................................................. I 02 target type reverser system .................................. 84
straight-in procedure ......................................... 198 TAS,,r ................................................................. 162
stretch (material) ............................................... 126 TAT .................................................................... 190
stringer ............................................................... 134 taxi fuel .............................................................. 118
structural icing ................................................... 150 TCU ................................................................... 214
Stiive diagram .................................................... 202 teardrop entry (holding) ..................................... 196
sub polar high-pressure belt .............................. 208 temperature error (altimeter) ............................. 198
sublimation ........................................................ 200 tension ................................................................ 126
subsonic speed regime ......................................... 50 terrestrial radiation ............................................. 218
subtropical high ................................................. 212 test circuit (fire sensor) ...................................... 152
subtropical jet .................................................... 206 thermal anti-ice .................................................. 150
suction pipe (fuel) .............................................. 148 thermal efficiency ................................................ 90
sulphur content ( fuel) .......................................... 92 thermal plug (tire) .............................................. 144
summer solstice ................................................. 206 thermally driven local wind ............................... 220
sun day ............................................... I 70, 172. 176 thermoplasts ....................................................... 130
super cooled ....................................................... 216 Thickness (profile) ............................................... 12
supercooled water ............................................. 214 third segment (climb) ........................................ 108
super cooled water droplets ................................. 30 throttle lever ......................................................... 62
throttle plate ......................................................... 62 tubular airframe ................................................. 134
thrust .................................................................... 96 TUC ................................................................... 224
thrust nozzle ............................................ 68, 82, 84 turbine .................................................... 68, 80, 146
thrust reverser .................................................... I 04 turbine inlet temperature ...................................... 90
thunder ............................................................... 216 turbine vanes ...................................................... 126
thunderstorm ...................................... 154, 214,216 turbo prop planes ............................................... 136
thunderstorms .................................................... 202 turbo propeller engine .......................................... 72
tilt (Wx radar) .................................................... 154 turbofan (air conditioning) ................................ 146
time of useful consciousness ............................. 224 turbofan engine .................................................... 70
time referenced scanning beam system ............. I 82 turbulence .................................................. 154, 214
Time-Distance check ......................................... 196 turbulent boundary ............................................... 16
tire ..................................................................... 144 turbulent flow ...................................................... I0
titanium .............................................................. 130 tum error (compass) .......................................... 178
TOGA ................................................................ 156 tum indicator...................................................... 192
top of climb point .............................................. 122 tum radius ............................................................ 42
top of descent point ........................................... 122 tum/bank indicator ............................................. 192
torch igniter ......................................................... 82 twilight zone ...................................................... 174
tomado ............................................................... 214 twist.. .................................................................... 14
torque ................................................................... 34 two-stroke engine ................................................ 56
torque effect.. ....................................................... 48 typhoon .............................................................. 212
torsion ................................................................ 126
torsion link ......................................................... 144
-U-
total air temperature .......................................... 190
total drag .............................................................. 96 un-accelerated straight and level flight .............. .42
towering cumulus .............................................. 214 unbalanced control surface .................................. 20
towned ring .......................................................... 16 uncontrolled combustion ..................................... 66
track ................................................................... 162 under load .......................................................... 118
trade winds ........................................................ 206 universal time .................................................... 176
traffic load ......................................................... 118 universal time coordinated ................................ 176
trailing edge flaps ................................................ 22 up lock (gear) ..................................................... 144
transition point (Re,n,;ea1l ..................................... I 0 ups lope fog ........................................................ 218
transmitter antenna ............................................ 180 UTC ................................................................... 176
transonic cruise .................................................... 26
tricycle landing gear .......................................... 136 -V-
trim air ............................................................... 146
trim requirements ................................................ 54 V2 112
trim tab ................................................................. 20 valley fog ........................................................... 218
trim tank ............................................................ 148 variable pitch propeller ........................................ 46
tropical cyclone ................................................. 212 variation ..................................................... 162, 17 8
tropical disturbances .......................................... 212 VDP ................................................................... 198
tropical easterlies ............................................... 212 ventral fin ............................................................. 38
tropical storm ..................................................... 212 venture probe ......................................................... 8
tropopause ......................................................... 200 vernal equinox ................................................... 204
troposphere ........................................................ 200 vertical axis .................................................... 32, 36
tropospheric break ............................................. 202 vertical gust. ....................................................... 132
trouble zones (material) ..................................... 128 vertical gyros ..................................................... 192
TRSB ................................................................. 182 vertical peak gusts) ............................................ 220
True Airspeed (T AS) ............................................. 8 vertical speed indicator ...................................... 190
true altitude ........................................................ 222 vertical stabilizer.................................................. 38
true north ........................................................... 160 vertigo ................................................................ 230
true north vector ................................................ 162 vestibular canals ................................................ 230
true precession ................................................... 194 VFR ( fuel reserves) ........................................... 122
true sun .............................................................. 176 VG ..................................................................... 192
true vertical .......................................................... 36 VHF omni directional range beacons ................ 184
T-tails ................................................................. 136 visual descend point .......................................... 198
visual fixation .................................................... 228 weather vane .................................................. 38, 40
V"1c••·································································· l l2 weight reduction ................................................ 128
VNAV ................................................................ 156 wet hail. .............................................................. 154
volcanic ash ....................................................... 216 wet runway ................................................ 104, 114
VOR ................................................................... 184 wet runway correction ....................................... I 06
VORTAC. .......................................................... 184 wet snow ............................................................ 154
vortex generator ................................. 14. 36. 38, 44 WJG ..................................................................... 28
VOT ................................................................... 184 wind calculation ................................................. 122
voter ................................................................... 158 wind channel system model ................................ 34
VSl ..................................................................... 190 wind correction angle ........................................ 162
V-speeds ............................................................ 112 wind shear .......................................... 154, 214,218
V-Type engine ..................................................... 58 windmilling propeller .......................................... 46
Vx ....................................................................... 96 wing dropping ...................................................... 50
VxEf ................................................................... 112 Wing in ground effect... ....................................... 28
Vv ....................................................................... 96 Wing loading ....................................................... 14
Vv(F••································································· 'l2 wing tip tank ...................................................... 148
wing tip vortex ..................................................... 28
-W- winter solstice .................................................... 206
wann front ......................................................... 210 -X-

warm sector ....................................................... 210
waste bin (fire protection) ................................. 152 X band ................................................................ 154
WATclimb limit ............................................... 106
water droplet... ................................................... 216 -Y-
water droplets .................................................... 214
water separator .................................................. 146 yaw ....................................................................... 38
water vapor ........................................................ 154
water/methanol injection ..................................... 60 -Z--
water/methanol injection (turbine) ...................... 90
wave drag ...................................................... 26. 54 zap flap ................................................................. 22
wave length ........................................................ 154 zenith .................................................................. 172
wavelength ......................................................... 180 zonetime ............................................................. 176
weather radar ..................................................... 154

Pilots Reference Guide (Michael Grossrubatscher)

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Pilots Referenee Guide

Mobile: +49 I 7959 I 5877

How to use .................................................................................................... 2

Order Information ......................................................................................... 2

Piston Engine Fuel Systems ....................................................................... 62

Navigation Indications .............................................................................. 188

Keyword Index ......................................................................................... 23 5

• Prantl probe P , talk

Pilot' s Reference Guide © - 9

Pilot' s Reference Guide © - 11

An airfoil is a body so shaped as to produce aerodynamic reaction normal to the direction

chord lenght (cl)

Pilot's Reference Guide © - 13

wing loading = weight

• Sweep and taper

Pilot' s Reference Guide © - 15

interference drag residual drag

• Drag versus Speed

dragparasite. profile = Co· A· 1 2

draginduced = Co. induced •C\. AOA

Pilot' s Reference Guide © - 17

Pilot's Reference Guide © - 19

balance tab Flettner tab

statically unbalanced tab

counterweight 1crnd,- niunK dr;n

Friesetab6 aerodynamic balance

Pilot's Reference Guide© - 21

• Leading (LE) and trailing edge (TE) flaps

tra iling edge lift devices

plain flap 2,25 0,80

slotted flap - 2,60 1,15

zap flap 2,50 1,05

(LE dcv1!~!?u~~! c:~~~ J~t!,h?r ~iii~l;~;c dcvkcs:

Pilot's Reference Guide © - 23

/\0,\• .7"' v- ~ • weight

Pilot' s Reference Guide © - 25

• Pressure distribution on the supercritical airfoil at

standard NACA airfoil supercritical airfoil

strong normal shockwave

weak normal shockwave

sonic ~pced ram air pressure

separated flow area lower surface

Pilot' s Reference Guide © - 27

• Ground effect versus altitude

vorticics fully developed at altitude

vorticies compressed near the ground

Pilot's Reference Guide© - 29

• Angle of attack and polar diagram after ice

Pilot's Reference Guide © - 31

Stability is the ability of an object, such as an aircraft, to maintain equilibrium or resume

stable neutral unstable

..,._~ neutral static

Pilot's Reference Guide © - 33

f-, '! lon2itudional axis

~~, < 0 = stable

Pilot's Reference Guide © - 35

Pilot' s Reference Guide © - 37

Pilot's Reference Guide © - 39

adverse yaw crossed controls engine failure case

• Level off and turn radius

Pilot's Reference Guide© - 43

\ rising wing (rw) 00="'"'

steep spin flat spin

Pilot's Reference Guide © - 45

(LE dcv1!~!?u! c:~ J~t!,h?r ~iii~l;~;c dcvkcs: