How To Fly Ifr 2024

How to fly IFR
Copyright © 2023
Original title: How To Fly: Una completa gu a para vuelos IFR.

Author: Ales Aranburu Juaristi
In cooperation with:
Andrés del Val
José Luis Pérez-Íñigo Martens
Third edition (December 2023)

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DISCLAIMER
Aviation is a form of transport that
carries a very high risk, neither the
author nor the company will be responsible
for death or bodily injury, property
damage or any other direct, indirect or
incidental damage or other loss suffered
by third parties that may arise as a
result of the use of the book by the
reader, nor for the damages inflicted with
respect to any property of the client or
any other loss suffered by said reader.
Neither the author nor the company will be
responsible for the accuracy or validity
of the data entered in the book. All
references used are examples for
illustrative and educational purposes,
without operational validity. The client
will be responsible for the validation and
verification of the actions carried out,
in order to guarantee compliance with the
appropriate norms and standards. Please
consider this as a disclaimer.
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to my fellow pilots.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
WHAT IS IFR 1
EQUIPMENT 9
NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB) 11
VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) 15
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) 21
GLIDE SLOPE 23
FMS 26
FLIGHT PLANNING 35
FLIGHT PLANNING CHECKLIST 35
OPERABILITY 37
PLANNING MINIMAS 40
AIP 48
ROUTE AND CHARTS 49
DESCENT CALCULATION 64
ALTERNATE ROUTE 66
FUEL CALCULATION 66
PERFORMANCE 77
MASS AND BALANCE 79
OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLAN 80
FLIGHT PLAN 81
ON THE GROUND 105

REQUIRED DOCUMENTS 106
COCKPIT INSPECTION 107
EXTERIOR WALK AROUND 107
COCKPIT PREPARATION 108
TAKEOFF BRIEFING 108
ATC CLEARANCE 113
CONTROLLED AIRPORT 113
UNCONTROLLED AERDROME 117
BEFORE START OR PUSHBACK 120
ENGINE START 120
TAXI 121
DEPARTURE 127
AIRPLANE CONFIGURATION 127
TAKEOFF 132
DEPARTURE ROUTE 134
INITIAL CLIMB 135
ALTIMETER CHECK 137
FL100 137
PBN DEPARTURE 137
OMNIDIRECTIONAL DEPARTURE 140
IFR JOINING 140
DEPARTURE REGULATIONS 141
CRUISE 145
CRUISE POWER SETTING 145
AIRSPACES 147
REGIONS 148
AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION 153
COMMUNICATIONS 155
NAVAID CHANGE 157
FILLING IN THE OFP 159
MINIMUM ALTITUDES 161
MINIMUM EN-ROUTE ALTITUDE (MEA) 162
PBN 165
RNP 165
FD / FDE 166
LATERAL ERRORS 167
AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS 168
OPERATIONAL DIFFERENCES 172
MANEUVERS 175
FLIGHT TECHNIQUES 175
POINT TO POINT 176
DME ARC 179
ARC ANTICIPATION 183
RADIAL INTERCEPTION 183
CDI PUSH 190
CLEARANCES 192
VECTORING 194
ARRIVAL 197
BEFORE DESCENT 197
METEOROLOGY 198
APPROACH BRIEFING 199
DESCENT COMMUNICATIONS 205
IFR CANCELLATION 207
MINIMUM VFR CONDITIONS 207
SPECIAL VFR (SVFR) 208
HOLDING 209
ENTRY IN HOLDING 211
HOLD ENTRIES 212
OFFSET ENTRY, SECTOR 1 213
OFFSET ENTRY TIPS 216
TEARDROP ENTRY, SECTOR 2 218
DIRECT ENTRY, SECTOR 3 219
WIND CORRECTION 222
ABEAM 222
INBOUND TURN 223
TIME CORRECTION 229
REFERENCE TIME 232
ADJUSTING THE WIND CORRECTION IN OUTBOUND 233
APPROACH 235
APPROACH TYPES 235
AIRCRAFT CATEGORIZATION 242
TURNS 242
SPEEDS 242
REVERSAL PROCEDURES 243
RNAV T/Y ARRIVAL 244
DEAD RECKONING (DR) SEGMENT 245
RADAR GUIDANCE TO IAF 246
MINIMUM CONDITIONS 247
APPROACH SEGMENTS 249
CONFIGURATION 258
STABILIZED APPROACH 260
VISUAL REFERENCES TO LAND 261
LANDING 262
MISSED APPROACH 262
DESCENT CALCULATIONS 264
WIND CORRECTION ON APPROACHES 268
EXAMPLES 273
PBN APPROACHES 283
OVERLAY METHOD 292
MISSED APPROACH 292
FINAL TAXI 297

WHAT IS IFR
In the early days of aviation, pilots only flew during the day
in good weather conditions. They had to use what we today
call visual flight, navigating by following visual references
on the ground, such as roads, rivers, towns, coastlines, or
other landmarks.
Figure 1.1.1. Representation of a visual flight.
A line drawn on the map showed the pilot the route to

follow; taking into account the speed, distance, and wind,
the pilot calculated the time and course between sections.
During the flight, the pilot checked the plane’s position with
the references. This type of navigation was accurate for
short distances, but as airplanes evolved to fly faster,
higher, and for longer, the need to navigate through clouds
or during the night, in situations where maintaining a visual
reference with the terrain was impossible, required a new
way of navigating.
Radio stations (also known as radio aids) replaced visual

landmarks. The pilot receives the location of these stations
through systems in the aircraft which allows the pilot to
orient themselves in much the same way as landmarks.
In this way, instrumental flight was born, and from that

moment on, pilots flew directly from one radio aid to the
howtoflyairplanes.com 1
next. As it was no longer necessary to have visual
references, flights during the night and/or in bad weather
conditions became possible.
Figure 1.1.2. Radio Station.
Figure 1.1.3. Representation of an instrumental flight.
Conventional navigation systems such as LORAN, ADF, VOR,

ILS, and associated procedures are based on direct signals
from ground-based radio aids. The biggest disadvantage of
this type of radio station is that all routes depend on the
location of the radio aid itself. Pilots have to navigate to or
from the station, which results in longer than optimal
routes and often the inability to navigate areas with high
ground.
This type of navigation is impractical and limits resources

to maintain an adequate level of safety. Because the
obstacle protection areas are also relatively large, the
possibility of navigation errors increases with the distance
2 howtoflyairplanes.com
of a station.
To solve this problem, area navigation, or random
navigation (RNAV) was introduced.
Figure 1.1.4. Route of a conventional instrument flight.
Random navigation (RNAV), commonly called area

navigation, allows for more direct flying routes, thus saving
time and fuel. To fly RNAV routes, airplanes must be
equipped with more precise navigational systems, which
also allow them to fly closer to each other, increasing
airspace capacity.
Figure 1.1.5. Route of a RNAV flight.
Area navigation was first launched using sensors such as

the inertial reference system (IRS) and distance measuring
equipment (DME) / DME coupled to a flight management
system (FMS) under specific design criteria.
Figure 1.1.6. Satellite.
The biggest advance in area navigation came with the

creation of fixes defined by name and coordinates, instead
of radio aids on the ground, along with position updating via
satellite.
This allowed for a new area navigation system and the

creation of routes that were independent of the location of
the navigators.
In modern aircrafts, all conventional procedures such as

very high frequency omnidirectional radio (VOR) or
instrumental landing system (ILS), as well as
unconventional procedures such as RNAV/RNP, are encoded
in the flight management and guidance system (FMGS) on-
board navigation database and flown with the autopilot or
manually.
Flying a conventional procedure does not require an on-

board database, but unconventional procedures do because
the aircraft follows the waypoints programmed into the
FMS. The FMS must be able to follow the path indicated by
the designer of the procedure.
Required navigation performance (RNP) is a series of

precision, functionality, integrity, and continuity parameters
that the aircraft's navigation equipment must meet to fly in
RNAV zones. You can think of it as a series of parameters
that define a cube around the aircraft from which it cannot
escape, and a series of virtual windows along its route that
the plane must cross. In RNAV navigation, these “windows”
do not appear on any screen. They are only points and
parameters that the system handles internally for self-
diagnosis and error checking.
Future developments will likely include 4D navigation,

which will include adding time as a parameter: the on-board
navigation computer will guide the aircraft laterally and
vertically, allowing it to reach certain time constraints with
high precision along the route, including approach. If done
well in advance, this will minimize the need for additional
holdings and separation, saving time and fuel.
Figure 1.1.7. Flight management system.
Instrumental flights are divided into phases: departure,

airway, arrival, and approach. During departure, we will
complete the published instrumental departure that will
take us from the airport to the entry point on the airway. In
the same way, we will have an exit point to leave the
airway. We will then follow the published instrumental
arrivals to where the approach begins and complete the
approach to the arrival airport until the final landing.
Figure 1.1.8. shows the planning of a flight from Madrid to

Paris, which is the example flight we will use throughout
this book.
Figure 1.1.8. Flight from Madrid to Paris.
EQUIPMENT
There are several types of radio stations. Each one has its
own characteristics and is linked to a specific instrument in
the cockpit. This section explains the instruments and
stations we will use in flight.
The cockpit of a conventional instrument aircraft will look

like Figure 2.1.1. You can see the instruments on the left
side and the equipment on the right side, where you can
select the radio aid frequencies.
Figure 2.1.1. Cockpit of a conventional instrumental aircraft.
Figure 2.1.2 illustrates a cockpit with electronic flight

instrument display (EFIS) instruments, where conventional
instruments have been replaced by two screens: the screen
on the left is the primary flight display (PFD), were we will
find the parameters regarding the flight. The most
important elements are the airspeed indicator (left),
altimeter (right), vertical speed indicator (extreme right),
heading indicator (down), artificial horizon (center), and
selected modes (above).
The screen on the right is the electronic horizontal situation
indicator (EHSI), also known as the navigation display (ND).
On this screen we will have the information regarding
navigation, such as the flight plan, wind, the projection of
the meteorological radar or the terrain (if equipped), and
the position of the radio aids. Many aircraft models
integrate the information from both screens into one.
Figure 2.1.2. PFD (left) and EHSI/ND (right).
As in Figure 2.1.1, we will have a space to select the

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f r e q u e n c i e s , A D F, N A V, a n d a
communications box to chose the frequencies we want to
hear. You can most often find them somewhere in the
cockpit as a separate display or on an EFIS screen.
All airplanes are different, and each manufacturer organizes

the instruments differently, but they all have what is
described here. We just have to locate them.
Figure 2.1.3. Flight management system.
If the aircraft we are flying is authorized to complete RNAV/
RNP procedures, it will be equipped with a flight
management system. There are many presentations of FMS.
Most modern aircraft integrate it into the EFIS screens. In
other models of commercial aircraft, it will resemble Figure
2.1.3.
Here we will insert the route we are going to fly, entering

the points already defined or inserting new points with the
coordinate information. The selected route will then appear
in the navigation display, and we will be able to tell the
autopilot to follow the route. Inside the FMS, we can insert
many parameters that we will use later during the flight,
such as takeoff speeds, secondary flight plans, weight of
the plane, and so on.
The main characteristics of the navigation display are that

it can show the flight path, the weather, the wind, our
ground speed, the position of radio aids in the form of a
horizontal situation indicator (HSI), and the needles as if it
were a relative magnetic indicator (RMI). It can also warn
us of the position of other traffic (TCAS) and airports.
NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB)
An NDB radio station sends radio signals in all directions.

The antenna of the automatic direction finding (ADF)
equipment receives these signals and transmits them to the
instruments, which indicate the position of the station.
The charts illustrate an NDB station as in Figure 2.2.1.
Figure 2.2.1. Illustration of a NDB on the charts.
To receive the indication from the ground station, we will
tune the designated frequency in the ADF, illustrated in
Figure 2.2.2.
Figure 2.2.2. ADF.
When the frequency is active and identified, we will see the

information in the RMI or the relative bearing indicator (RBI)
instruments, illustrated in Figure 2.2.3.
Figure 2.2.3. RBI (left) and RMI (right).
Radio signals from NDB equipment operate between the 190
and 1750 kHz frequencies.2.1
Normally, the NDBs used operate between the frequencies

190 and 535 kHz.
For practical purposes, this manual will illustrate the RMI

with one needle. In Figure 2.2.4, you can see the operation
of the RMI on the map compared to the indication in the
cabin.
Figure 2.2.4. Operation of a RMI.
As we can see in the first image, the aircraft is on heading

150º and has the station to the northeast of its position, to
be more precise, on the course 038º.
The image on the right will be the only thing we see in the
cockpit. Here, the 150º course is at the top of the RMI. That
is our heading. The arrow indicates that the station is on
the left and behind our position, exactly on the course 038º.
The RMI indications are relatively easy to decipher. If we

only look at the arrow, we will know the relative position of
the station. That is, if it is in front, behind, to the right, or to
the left of us. If we look at the heading chart, we will know
in what direction, referenced to the north, the station is
located. Although it seems simple, analyze this image in
depth. Understanding the operation of the equipment on a
map will save you a lot of confusion.
In Figure 2.2.5, the five upper representations express how

the situation will look on a map, with the instrument
referenced to the north. The five lower representations
show what we will see in the cockpit, with the instrument
referenced to our heading.
Figure 2.2.5. Operation of a RMI on a map.
In the vertical direction to the NDB there is the so-called

“cone of silence”. When we pass through here, the antenna
will lose the signal, and we will have no indication. The
diameter of the cone increases with our altitude.
When we lose the signal, the only warning will be the

course indicators going to 90º. For this reason, when we
navigate following an NDB, we should listen to the Morse
code at all times; if the callsign stops ringing, we have lost
the signal.
The ADF mode is used to monitor conventional NDBs.

Stations that require the use of BFO mode transmit a signal
that does not contain audio. To identify it, the receiver must
add an audio component to the received signal. Finally, the
ANT mode improves the clarity of the audio reception. You
cannot use this mode for navigation because it eliminates
the indication on the instruments.
Figure 2.2.6. Cone of silence.
The range of route NDBs, which are the most powerful

NDBs, is from 25 NM to 150 NM or higher.2.2 NDB locators,
used for procedures near airports, have a range between 10
and 25 NM.2.3
VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR)
A VOR station sends out radio signals that aircrafts receive

by NAV equipment antenna.
Unlike an NDB station, a VOR produces 360 radials/courses

with 1° difference, aligned to magnetic north at the position
of the VOR. This information is transmitted directly to the
instruments.
VOR stations operate in a frequency range between 108 to

117.975 MHz (VHF), but frequencies are normally reserved
between 108 and 111.975 MHz for ILS and between 111.975
and 117.975 MHz for VORs. 2.4
Most of the radio aids used to define airways and
approaches are based on stations of this type. Although the
NDBs were elements of great importance in the early days
of instrument flight, they gave way to VOR stations and are
no longer in use today. Soon the VOR stations will also give
way to a navigation based entirely on satellite systems.
When the frequency is active in the NAV equipment (Figure

2.3.1), the indication will be displayed in the HSI, omni-
bearing indicator (OBI) (Figure 2.3.3), and RMI equipment.
Figure 2.3.1. NAV equipment.
Not all aircraft are equipped with the instruments described

in this book, but most of them follow the principles of
operation of the HSI and RMI instruments.
For aircrafts equipped with an EFIS instrument system, we

can make the HSI and/or RMI indications appear by
selecting them in the EFIS control panel (ECP). Each aircraft
model has a different ECP, but all follow similar operating
principles.
Figure 2.3.2. Illustration of a VOR station on the charts.
As with NDB stations, the frequency is identified when it is

selected, but HSI and OBI devices are equipped with flags
that appear if they lose the signal. Thanks to this, it will not
be necessary to listen to the Morse code at all times.
Figure 2.3.3. HSI (left) and OBI (right).
The HSI has a variable heading chart, which means the

heading chart will rotate so that our heading is always at
the top of the instrument, marked by the lubber line. In the
HSI of Figure 2.3.3, the plane is heading north. The fixed
heading chart of an OBI means that we will have to turn the
heading chart manually to select the course.
Figure 2.3.4. Differentiation of Radial, Course and Heading.
There are three concepts used when flying following

directions from a station: radial, course, and heading. A line
drawn from the VOR to the aircraft is called a radial or
outbound course. A line from the plane to the station is
called an inbound course. The radial and course are
referenced north at the station position, and heading is the
direction the aircraft is facing in reference to north. Figure
2.3.4 and Figure 2.3.5.
Figure 2.3.5 represents the relationship between inbound

courses and radials of a VOR station. Each radial has an
associated inbound course. For example, the 270º radial is
at the same time the 090º inbound course.
Figure 2.3.5. Relationship between inbound courses and radials.
Figure 2.3.6. HSI operation.
In Figures 2.3.6 and 2.3.7, we can see how the CDI and TO/
FROM indicators show the quadrant where the station is.
Although the HSI may seem complicated to understand, it is

an extremely useful instrument. To use it, we have to select
the course/radial we want to follow with the course
selection arrow. The instrument will act as if there are two
lines drawn: one parallel to the course selection arrow and
another perpendicular to it. The CDI and TO/FROM
indicators will tell us the quadrant where the station is
located in reference to these lines. In Figure 2.3.7, we have
selected the 030º course, and in Figure 2.3.8, the 070º
course (250º radial).
If the station is ±10º from the course we have selected, the

CDI will move within the scale, indicating our deviation from
the selected course.
If we navigate through an airway based on the 070º
approach course with the course selected, and we fly with
the CDI centered, we will be exactly on the airway. If we go
off route, the CDI will move, indicating the degrees we have
deviated and if the route to follow is to the right or left.
Figure 2.3.8.
The HSI indication is affected by course selection, our

position, and the station position, which tells us the
quadrant where the station is located according to the
course we have selected. Our heading does not affect the
indication at all.
Figure 2.3.9 shows the image of the HSI that we will see in
the cockpit. Take time to understand the indications of the
instrument. It will avoid many misunderstandings.
In Figure 2.3.9, the first four images are referenced to the

course selector where we can clearly see the station’s
quadrant.
The following four images are the same case, referenced to

the heading of the plane, which is the image we will see in
the cabin.
There will also be a “cone of confusion” or “cone of silence”,

where the received indications will change rapidly and will
not be reliable. Once the aircraft passes through this area,
the readings will stabilize.
VHF waves travel in a straight line, and there are no

significant effects of rebound or diffraction. For this reason,
the range of a VOR station depends on the curvature of the
earth and the height of the emitter and receiver. The
following formula calculates the range:
Range (NM) = 1.25 × ( h Air cr a f t ( f t) + h St a t i on ( f t) )
The actual formula uses a multiplication factor of 1.33,

which results in a theoretical range of the VHF signal. In
practice, the actual range is less because of the power of
the transmitter, the sensitivity of the receiver, the losses
caused by the cables, or the efficiency of the antennas.
For example, an aircraft at FL100 will receive a signal from

a VOR station at sea level at approximately 125 NM, and an
aircraft at FL300 will receive a signal from a VOR station at
sea level at approximately 215 NM.
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)
A DME equipment indicates the oblique distance between

the station and the aircraft. They are linked to VOR or ILS
frequencies, and although they are different nav aids, they
are in the same position and usually have the same range.2.5
Figure 2.5.1. DME distance.
DMEs operate between the 960 and 1215 MHz
frequencies.2.6
The chart depict that a VOR frequency has an associated

DME as follows:
Figure 2.5.2. Illustration of a DME in the charts.
What we see in the cockpit resembles Figure 2.5.3. By

selecting the frequency in the NAV equipment, we will
obtain the distance indication in the DME instrument.
Figure 2.5.3. DME equipment.
If we choose to select the distance to the station in the

NAV1 or NAV2 equipment, we will do it through the four-
position switch:
We will use N1 to choose the frequency of the NAV1. N2 will
serve to choose the frequency of the NAV2 and HOLD to
keep the indication of the last monitored frequency.
If after selecting N1 we move the switch to HOLD and

change the frequency of the NAV1 unit, we will continue to
see the previous indication. The same will happen if we
change the frequency of the NAV2 after turning the switch
from N2 to HOLD.
As a secondary function, there are DME devices that

indicate the speed to/from the station and the time it will
take to reach the station at the current speed.
Figure 2.5.4. DME indication in the ND.
On an aircraft equipped with instruments in the form of

EFIS, we will see the nav aid distance information at the
bottom of the navigation display, as shown in Figure 2.5.4.
GLIDE SLOPE
The aircraft we are going to fly will be equipped with a

system that allows the pilot to view instructions in the
cockpit to fly a predetermined final descent path.
Figure 2.6.1. Final vertical path.
We are going to descend following the indications received
until the decision altitude/height (DA/H). Upon reaching this
altitude, the pilot will look outside in search of the runway
and decide whether to land or abort the landing.
Today the most used approaches with a predetermined nal

descent path are the ILS, although they are rapidly being replaced
by RNAV approaches (you will nd a detailed explanation in the
Approach section).
There are two types of nal descents: those with a nal descent
path that the aircra can detect, known as 3D approaches, and
nal descents without a predetermined nal descent path, known
as 2D.
For the ILS, the frequency is selected in the NAV equipment.

Frequencies between 108 MHz and 111.975 MHz are
normally reserved for ILS instrument landing systems. 2.7
We will have both the indication of the descent path and the
horizontal guide. The indications will follow the same
principles as a VOR’s. The horizontals will be the same, but
the maximum deflection of the CDI will indicate a deviation
of 2.5º instead of 10º. On the vertical scale, the arrow will
represent the position of the path and the center of scale
will represent our position. If the arrow is above the scale,
it means we are below the path of descent, and vice versa.
Figure 2.6.2. Vertical indication.
The closer we get to the station, the more sensitive the directions
will be. The corrections we make will also have to be less.
An ILS is depicted on the charts as follows:
The localizer will have a range of 25 NM if we are at a
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deflection less than 10º from the center of the course. 2.8
Figure 2.6.3. Horizontal profile (up) and vertical profile (down) of

an ILS.
In addition to having the indication of glide slope (GS) and

localizer, there will be beacons to determine the distance to
the field: the outer, middle, and inner markers. As we pass
over these beacons, we will hear them announced in Morse
code.
Figure 2.6.4. Markers.
The outer marker will normally be 3.9 NM from the runway

threshold, the middle marker at approximately 3,500 ft
(±500 ft), and the inner marker at a distance between 250 ft
and 1,500 ft. 2.9
These beacons were essential in the early days of aviation,
but they are no longer in use today, having been replaced
with ILS approaches with DME indication.
The operating principle for RNAV/RNP-based approaches

with a predetermined final descent path will be the same:
we will follow the instructions of the instruments, which
will direct us in the horizontal and vertical planes. The
biggest difference is that our position will be indicated
through satellite readings (in some cases, the altitude will
be provided by barometric readings from the plane), and we
will select the approach in the FMS.
If we are operating a cockpit equipped with EFIS, we will have the

indication of the glide slope and locator in the primary ight
display. We can also see the indication in the navigation display if
we select HSI mode.
FMS
A Flight Management System (FMS) is a sophisticated

avionics system installed in aircraft to assist in flight
planning, navigation, and performance management. It
integrates with various onboard systems and databases,
using information from global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS), waypoints, and airways to calculate and optimise
the aircraft's route, fuel efficiency, and overall flight
performance. The FMS aids pilots in executing precise
navigation, managing autopilot functions, and adhering to
established flight plans. It plays a crucial role in enhancing
operational efficiency, safety, and overall control
throughout different phases of flight.
The hardware architecture of a Flight Management System

(FMS) typically involves several components working
together to ensure the system's functionality. While specific
implementations may vary, a general overview of the
hardware architecture includes the following key
components:
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Flight Management Computer (FMC)
The central processing unit of the FMS is the Flight

Management Computer, often referred to as the FMC. It is a
specialized computer responsible for executing navigation
computations, flight planning algorithms, and managing
communication with other avionics systems. It will send
data to our Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)
about our navigation and inputs to our autopilot and
autothrottle.
Control Display Unit (CDU)
The CDU is the interface through which the flight crew

interacts with the FMS. It consists of a keyboard and
display screen, allowing pilots to input data such as
waypoints, routes, and performance parameters. The CDU
displays information generated by the FMC and provides a
means for the crew to monitor and control the system.
The Flight Management System (FMS) draws information

from the following sources:
Navigation Sensors: The FMS relies on various navigation

sensors to gather essential data for navigation and position
determination. These sensors may include Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers, VOR/DME
(VHF Omnidirectional Range/Distance Measuring
Equipment), and inertial reference systems (IRS).
Air Data Computers (ADC): Air Data Computers provide

information related to the aircraft's airspeed, altitude, and
other crucial parameters. This data is used by the FMS for
performance calculations and to adjust the flight plan
based on real-time conditions.
Engine Control Unit (ECU): ECU provides information

regarding our performance, fuel storage and consumption
and our engines.
Autopilot and Autothrottle Interface: The FMS interfaces

with the aircraft's autopilot and autothrottle systems. It
provides guidance commands to these systems to ensure
the aircraft follows the planned trajectory, maintaining the
desired altitude, heading, and speed.
Communication Interfaces: To enhance communication

capabilities, the FMS may include interfaces for data link
communication, allowing for the exchange of information
between the aircraft and ground-based systems. This is
particularly important for receiving updates to the flight
plan or other relevant data.
Data Storage: FMS systems include databases about

performance and navigation. These databases are regularly
updated to ensure the FMS has the latest information for
navigation and performance calculations. Before each flight,
you must always check that your navigation database is up
to date.
FUNCTIONS
Functions provided by the Flight Management System

(FMS) include:
Flight Planning: FMS allows pilots to input and optimise

the flight route, considering factors such as airways,
waypoints, and alternate routes.
Navigation: FMS continuously calculates the aircraft's

position using inputs from multiple sensors, including GPS
and inertial navigation systems.
Auto-Thrust Control: FMS automates thrust control,

optimising engine performance based on the aircraft's
position, speed, and phase of flight.
Autopilot Interface: Coordinates with the autopilot system

to manage various flight phases, including take-off, climb,
cruise, descent, and landing.
Per formance Monitoring: Monitors the aircraft's

performance, including fuel efficiency, airspeed, altitude,
and other parameters, optimising for efficiency.
Vertical Navigation: Manages the aircraft's vertical profile,
including altitude constraints, climb, descent, and
compliance with approach procedures.
Database Management: Stores and updates a

comprehensive aviation database, including airports,
airways, waypoints, and navigation procedures.
Communication Interface: Interfaces with communication

systems for data exchange, including air traffic control
communications and data link capabilities.
Terrain Awareness: Incorporates terrain databases to

provide terrain awareness and terrain avoidance warnings
to enhance safety.
Weather Integration: Integrates weather data to help

pilots make informed decisions based on real-time weather
conditions and forecasts.
Precision and integrity monitoring: Provides vital

information for PBN regarding integrity and precision.
Weight and Balance Calculations: Assists with weight and

balance calculations, optimising the distribution of payload
for safe and efficient flight.
Approach and Landing: Manages precision approaches,

including Instrument Landing System (ILS) and RNAV
approaches, ensuring accurate and safe landings.
Conflict Resolution: Provides alerts and suggestions for

conflict resolution in case of potential airspace conflicts or
deviations from the planned route.
Emergency Procedures: Offers guidance and assistance in

emergency scenarios, facilitating safe decision-making
during critical situations.
CDU
The control display unit will be our interface with the FMS.
From there, we will enter and check all the data regarding
performance and navigation, activate flight plans and
routes and manage our navigation. It consists of a keyboard
and a display.
CDU will have several pages that may change depending on

our aeroplane. The following guide is based on the CDU
found on an A320:
DIR: Used to enter or erase waypoints, intercept radials and

configure direct navigation to a waypoint.
PROG: Progress page is used to change cruise flight level,

check accuracy, update FMS position, and monitor the
descent. We will also find the following information and
subpages:
• OPT: Displayed in green, it shows our computed

optimum flight level.
• REC MAX: Maximum altitude, displayed in magenta.
• REPORT: Report subpage will show us FROM, TO and
Destination waypoints and also information regarding
temperature, wind, distance and time to our next
waypoint.
• Position update: Allows to update our current FMS
position.
• Predictive GPS: Subpage that displays information
relative to predictive availability of GPS PRIMARY at
any point in our route.
• GPS Source: Displays our current source of navigation.
• GPS Accuracy. Displays our required accuracy, our
current GPS accuracy and our actual navigation
performance (ESTIMATED). GPS accuracy can be either
HIGH or LOW.
PERF: Includes subpages for preflight, take-off, cruise

(CRZ), climb, (CLB), cruise (CRZ), descent (DES), approach
(APPR), go-around, CLB-APPR (Available only when go-
around phase is active) and DONE. Here you will enter your
performance data and you will activate the approach phase.
Information displayed in green means it’s active, while
information displayed in white means inactive. Information
displayed in amber, means that it is mandatory to insert a
value.
• Take off: In this subpage you will find take-off speeds

(V1, VR and V2), transition altitude, flaps setting, flex
take off temperature, acceleration altitude and
engine-out acceleration altitude, among other data.
•
• Climb: Displays current speed mode (SELECTED or
MANAGED), cost index, target altitude, time and
distance predictions, among other information.
•
• Cruise: Displays current speed mode, cost index,
distance and time predictions, among other
information.
•
• Descent: Displays information on cost index, speed
mode and time predictions.
•
• Approach: Here we will insert temperature and QNH.
We will also find our wind, temperature at our
destination, transition altitude, speeds (Vapp, Vls),
approach, and landing configuration, among other
information.
•
• Go-around: Shows thrust reduction altitude,
acceleration altitude and engine-out acceleration
altitude.
INIT: Here you will enter your flight plan with information
about your route and alternates. You will also find your
flight number, cost index, tropopause, departure and arrival
aerodrome and cruise temperature. Here you can also align
your IRS, by pressing the IRS INIT button. Information
displayed in amber means it is mandatory to insert a value.
• INIT B: This page is used to enter and find information

on weight, centre of gravity and fuel.
DATA: Provides information from navigational sources on

board. Consists of 2 pages:
PAGE 1:
• Position Monitor: Here we will find our current

computed position coordinates provided by each of
our FMS, GPS and IRS and the deviation of each
source. Press FREEZE to freeze the information
displayed.
• IRS Monitor: Displays parameters for our IRS.
• GPS Monitor: Displays parameters for our GPS.
• A/C STATUS: Information about our aircraft type,
engine, and our current navigation database.
• Closest airports: Displays or closest airports,
bearing, distance and predicted time to airport.
PAGE 2:
Here you will find access to the navigation database to

see details about waypoints, radio aids, runways, and
routes.
• F-PLN: Standing for flight plan, here we will find

our current waypoints of our active flight plan, with
information on time, speed, and altitude. You can
find here the Lateral revision page, where you will
be able to select your departure aerodrome, change
your current flight plan, select arrival runways and
procedures, enter an offset between 2 waypoints,
set up a holding pattern, enable alternate flight
plan, enter new destination, display our alternates,
and select airways, among other functions.
• RAD NAV: Used to select radio aids and display
information on them.
• FUEL PRED: Displays information on weight, time
and fuel prediction and fuel management.
• SEC F-PLN: Here we will insert our secondary
flight plan.
Be aware that FMS includes many more functions, and this

is intended only to be an introduction on its functionality.
FLIGHT PLANNING
Before any flight, a complete flight plan must be prepared.
Doing it manually takes a long time, so this section outlines
the steps to follow during planning to do everything needed
as quickly and efficiently as possible. There are web pages
and applications that will help us plan a flight.
Previous knowledge of airports will help a lot when

planning and later flying. If you are not familiar with
airports and their procedures, it will help enormously to
either call the airport o to ask people who have already
been to those airports and know their peculiarities.
We will also have to look at the Notice Air Missions

(NOTAM) that affect us, check the weather for each airport
and route, do a mass and balance sheet, and send a flight
plan. These steps will be necessary for any type of flight
you plan, be it a commercial flight, a local training flight, or
a recreational flight.
Following, a small checklist to perform your flight planning

as quick, complete and safe as possible.
FLIGHT PLANNING CHECKLIST
1. Choose your destination aerodrome and your

destination and take off alternate.
• Verify the meteorological conditions. Check the latest

METAR and TAFOR available for each aerodrome.
• Determine the runway in use.
• Check NOTAM for aerodromes.
• Check AIP for the following information:
- Operational hours.
- Handling services and facilities. Here you will
find info about refueling capacity, maintenance
and de-icing.
- Aerodrome and Airway charts. Determine your
expected departure, cruise, arrival and approach
for each aerodrome.
- Check the taxi routes from your stand to the
expected runway in use.
- Any other requirement.
- Use the charts and meteorology to find out if we
satisfy the planning minima.
2. Determine your route in accordance with AIP.
• Still with the charts, find out the vertical limits to

determine your altitude for each part of the route.
• Look for meteorological conditions in our route.
Verify SIGWX charts and find the wind for your route
at your expected altitude in accordance to your
aircraft’s performance.
• Check NOTAM for each airway.
• Determine the ground speed for each part of the route
and your TOC and TOP, considering the expected wind
and your aircraft’s performance.
3. Calculate the fuel we need. It will be the sum of:
Taxi + Trip + Contingency + Alternate + Final +

Additional + Extra + Discretionary
5. Fill your mass and balance sheet.
6. Calculate the speed for each part of the route and your
TOC and TOP, considering the expected wind.
7. Verify whether your plane complies with performance

requirements for
• Take off and landing distance.

• Climb gradients.
8. Fill your operational flight plan in accordance with

your operator requirements.
9. Send your flight plan.
OPERABILITY
Choose the departure aerodrome, destination aerodrome,

arrival alternate, and departure alternate airports. Take a
quick look at the weather and notifications for each airport
before selecting them.
We are interested in the following airports:
Figure 3.2.1. Airport selection.
The takeoff alternate is where we will go if we have a

problem as soon as we take off and cannot return to the
departure airport. In the case of a two-engine aircraft, it
will need to be within one hour of cruising speed with an
inoperative engine. 3.1
We will go to the alternate destination airport if the

meteorological or operational conditions at the arrival
airport make it impossible for us to land. We will select one,
or two if needed. The alternate airport must be far enough
away from the destination airport because if we cannot land
due to weather conditions, and the alternate is only a few
miles away, it is likely that we will not be able to land there
either.
Figure 3.2.2. METAR and TAF.
We are going to note the direction and intensity of the wind

at each airport to figure out the runway we will use. We can
also listen to the Automatic Terminal Information Service
(ATIS) to determine the runway in use at each airport or use
applications that give us the information.
Other than takeoff, we need to know the wind information

for the arrival time at said airport, so we will make an
approximate calculation of the time en route, and we will
use the weather forecast (TAF) to look up the wind.
Figure 3.2.3. Planning.
We will read the notifications of the airport and route

through the NOTAMs, which are essential to read and
understand. Here we will read any information that differs
from normal operation or any other data that affects us.
Figure 3.2.4. NOTAM . Source: (notampib.enaire.es, 2019) 3.2
Figure 3.2.5. SUP 149/18. Source: (ais.enaire.es, 2019) 3.3
We will read the notice, and if we can operate at the

airport, we will continue with the planning.
PLANNING MINIMAS
There are minimum meteorological conditions that will have

to be met for us to select an airport. Depending on the
conditions of the day, we will need alternate airports to
make sure we can land somewhere.
This manual incorporates documents from the International

Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the AIR OPS
document written by EASA. Both documents outline
planning minima, detailed in the following paragraphs.
Information from both sources is included to enhance the
reader's understanding. It's crucial to note that EASA
serves as a regulatory body, while ICAO provides
recommendations. In Europe, the AIR OPS regulations, more
restrictive than ICAO recommendations, are the primary
governing rules. Readers should also compare the content
of this book with the regulations of their respective
countries.
To find out if weather conditions allow us to select an

airport, we will go to the approach charts: each airport
usually has more than one approach, and each approach is
defined in these charts, where the minimum visibility or
cloud ceiling necessary to complete each approach are
indicated.
Each operator has its own charts, approved by the

competent authority, or hires a chart service. What we want
to know at this point, the minimum visibility or cloud
ceiling, will be indicated in the approach charts as in the
Figures 3.3.1 and 3.3.2. Depending on the aircraft category,
the minimums vary. Let us assume we are flying a category
B twin-engine piston aircraft.
Figure 3.3.1. Chart minima. Precision approach.
Figure 3.3.2. Chart minima. Non-precision approach.
As for the minimums, we will have the following:
• Takeoff minima
• Takeoff alternate minima
• Arrival minima
• Airport operating minima
• Arrival alternate minima
TAKEOFF MINIMA
For single engine airplanes, visibility should not be less

than 800 m. For multi-engine airplanes, the minima will be
the following. Always check the visibility at your aerodrome
charts. 3.4
Figure 3.3.3. Takeoff minima for multi engine airplanes.3.4
Multi-engine airplanes unable to attain an altitude of 1500
feet above ground level (AGL) and ensure obstacle
clearance in the event of an engine failure will follow a
different criteria. These airplanes may be operated under
the following take-off conditions, provided they can adhere
to the relevant obstacle clearance criteria, assuming an
engine failure occurs at the specified altitude. The operator-
determined take-off requirements should be established
based on the height at which the one-engine-inoperative
(OEI) net take-off flight path can be formulated. The
minimum Runway Visual Range (RVR) used should not fall
below the values outlined in Table below:
Figure 3.3.4.
These values apply for operations that are not approved for
low visibility takeoff (LVTO). Low visibility conditions means
meteorological conditions with a runway visual range (RVR)
of less than 550 m. 3.5
In case the visibility falls below 400m we will require

specific approval and the following conditions. 3.5
Figure 3.3.5.
It is possible to perform a take off if the visibility is lower
than 125 m but not less than 75 m. The requirements for
this are having runway centre line lights spaced 15 m or
less and having an approach with at least Cat III
requirements.
If we do not have the runway visual range (RVR) value but

we have the visibility, we can apply the following table to
convert the visibility into RVR.
Figure 3.3.6. Conversion of visibility to RVR.
A visibility conversion to RVR/CMV should not be used to

calculate the takeoff minima, for CAT II/III approaches, when
there is a reported RVR or for RVR less than 800 m.
According to ICAO Annex 6, Part I, we should not take off

from an airport unless the weather is above the minimum
required by the operator, and we should not take off or
continue through the in-flight re-planning point unless the
weather forecasts indicate that at the destination airport or
at the alternate airport the weather conditions will be
above the minimum established by the operator at the time
we expect to operate at the airport..3.6
TAKEOFF ALTERNATE MINIMA
According to EASA AIR OPS we will need to select a takeoff

alternate, if the meteorological conditions at the aerodrome
of departure are below the operator’s established
aerodrome landing minima for that operation or if it would
be impossible to return to the aerodrome of departure for
other reasons. 3.7
The operator will only select an aerodrome as an alternate

takeoff aerodrome when the meteorological forecasts
indicate that, from between one hour before to one hour
after the estimated time of arrival (ETA) at the aerodrome,
the meteorological conditions will be equal to or greater
than the RVR or VIS specified in accordance with Aerodrome
Operating Minima and for type A or a circling operation,
ceiling at or above MDH. 3.8
According to Annex 6, Part I of ICAO, the available

information must indicate that, in the estimated time of
use, the meteorological conditions will be above the
minimums required by the operator. 3.6
For aircraft with two engines, the takeoff alternate should

be at a maximum distance of one hour with one engine
inoperative cruising speed according to the AFM, ISA still
air conditions and actual TOM, or the extended-range twin
operations (ETOPS) diversion time up to a maximum of 2
hour flight time at OEI cruising speed according to the AFM,
ISA and still air conditions using actual TOM. 3.8
ARRIVAL MINIMA
In order to select the destination airport, the weather

forecasts will have to indicate that the RVR or visibility is
above that indicated on the approach charts from one hour
before to one hour after our ETA. If we expect to make a
type A approach, the ceiling will have to be above the
minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/H). 3.8
If these conditions are not met or if no meteorological

information is available, we can still select the destination
airport as long as we select two alternate airports. 3.9
AERODROME OPERATING MINIMA
Depending on the types of approach of each airport, there

will be a minimum DA/H or MDA/H that will have to be met,
described in the following table.
Figure 3.3.7. Arrival minima.
The final altitude DA/H or MDA/H that is established may be

higher than indicated in the table.
Each DA/H or MDA/H final altitude will require visibility to

complete the approach. We can find a table that indicates
the visibility required for each final altitude and type of
airport lighting system in the AMC 5 CAT.OP.MPA.110 on
page 885, ANNEX IV of the AIR OPS. 3.10
In the case of ILS approaches, there are several types of

approaches that allow us to achieve minimums below 200
feet.
ILS DA/MDH (ft) RVR (m)
CAT I ≥ 200 ≥ 550
CAT II 100-200 ≥ 300
CAT III 50-99 ≥ 175
0-49 or no DA ≥ 125 (Fail Passive)
≥ 75 (Fail Operational)
Figure 3.3.8. CAT. 3.11
It is important to note that CAT II and CAT III are LVP (Low
Visibility Procedure) and that there are additional training
and technical requirements. More information can be found
on this on AIR OPS Annex V Part-SPA Subpart E.
In some AFM you may see CAT III referred as CAT III A, CAT
III B and CAT III C. This is just the old ICAO designation.
CAT IIIA: a DH lower than 30 m (100 ft) or no DH and an RVR

not less than 175 m;
CAT IIIB: a DH lower than 15 m (50 ft) or no DH and an RVR

less than 175 m but not less than
50 m; and
CAT IIIC: no DH and no RVR limitations. This is not used in

Europe as the minimum visibility required is 75 m.
If we plan to complete a circling approach, the following

table shows us the minimum visibility/cloud ceiling required
for each category of aircraft.
Figure 3.3.9. Circling minima. 3.12
ARRIVAL ALTERNATE MINIMA
According to Air OPS, all IFR flights should have an

alternate aerodrome selected unless the flight time is less
than 6 hours (Or in the event of replanning the remaining
time does not exceed 4 hours), two separate runways are
usable at our destination and the appropriate weather
reports and/or weather forecasts indicate that for the
period from 1 hour before to 1 hour after the expected time
of arrival, the ceiling is at least 2 000 ft (600 m) or circling
height + 500 ft (150 m), whichever is greater, and ground
visibility is at least 5 km. 3.13
As a rule, we will have to make sure that the weather

conditions outlined at the table below will be satisfied from
1 hour prior to 1 hour after our ETA.
Figure 3.3.10. Alternate airport minimas.3.14
In 2023, EASA introduced in the AIR OPS certain conditions

that when met, can reduce the meteorological margins
needed.
For the first scenario, the operator should utilize a suitable

computerized flight-planning system and establish an
operational control system that includes ongoing flight
monitoring. Additionally, for flights, the duration from
takeoff to landing should not exceed 6 hours, or in the case
of in-flight re-planning, the remaining flying time to the
destination should not exceed 4 hours. Furthermore, a
minimum flight crew of two pilots is required. 3.15
If additionally we hold an approval for low-visibility
approach operations, the conditions will be the following:
AIP
Each state part of the ICAO publishes the AIP, which

contains the aeronautical information necessary to operate
in the country. It contains permanent information, and its
use is essential for air navigation. Here we will find the
available services, the procedures, and the approach charts
to each airport.
There will also be manuals and operating procedures that

guide you to comply with all the laws of each state. All
information is kept up to date by regular amendments,
AIRAC amendments, supplements, and NOTAM. You should
also read the GEN and ENR sections of the AIP to
familiarize yourself with the country procedures.
When you have chosen the airports and the minimums are
met, enter the AIP of each airport. Read the aerodrome data
document with special attention to the local regulations
section. If possible, look at the entire AIP for each airport
where you are going to operate. Look at the supplements of
each airport in case there is something that affects us.
In Figure 3.4.1 we can find a part of the aerodrome data

document for Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas airport.
Look up information about fuel services if you need them.
Figure 3.4.1. AIP. 3.16
ROUTE AND CHARTS
You will have to plan your route from the departure airport
to the destination airport, and then you will have to plan
the route from the destination airport to the first alternate
and from the destination airport to the second alternate.
Read the NOTAMs of each airport and route to find out

about the restrictions that affect you.
We are going to use an airway map and four types of flight

charts. The charts will be for taxiing, standard instrumental
departure (SID), standard terminal arrival route (STAR), and
finally the approach charts.
In Figure 3.5.1 we will find the route we will take through

the airways. Airways are defined between two radio
stations/waypoints, and each one has its own callsign.
Along each airway, there will be reporting points. These
reporting points will be defined by coordinates or by a radial
and distance from a station. We are going to enter or leave
an airway through these reporting points or from the
beginning of the airway itself.
The airways, defined between two radio stations or by

waypoints, follow the course that joins both points/
stations. We will have to fly following this course while
offsetting the effect of the wind. Each section of the airway,
defined between two reporting points, has minimum and
maximum altitudes that we will have to meet. In
bidirectional airways, we will have to maintain an even
altitude flying in one direction (e.g. FL120, FL140, FL160,
etc.) and an odd altitude in the other direction (e.g. FL130,
FL150, FL170, etc.).
While it is also possible to fly between points that we

choose ourselves, we should fly through the airways. This
manual explains a flight on an ATS route (airway flight)
because this is what we will do in most cases.
You will have to open the airways chart and select a route
from the departure airport (LEMD) to the arrival airport
(LFPG). To do it faster, you can also log the parameters in
an online application or web page that gives us a route
according to our flight.
We can select the route we want and change from one

airway to another if necessary. In our case, we will fly
through airways defined in the lower airway charts. You can
find detailed information about the restrictions of each
airway in the AIP of each country you fly over. In the case of
our flight, which goes from Madrid to Paris, we will fly
through the airways detailed in Figures 3.5.1 and 3.5.2.
Later, we are going to write down all the points of our

route. It is also important to note a way to define each
point of the airway. Normally they will be defined based on
a course/distance from a radio station or by coordinates. In
this way we can check our position with respect to them.
Also, we should write down the name of each airway, as
well as the distances and course between each section.
Figure 3.5.1. Airway chart.

Once our route is defined, we will write it down as shown in
Figure 3.5.2. Besides the points of the route, we will have to
write down the points of the instrumental departure, top of
climb (TOC), top of descent (TOD), arrival, and approach, so
the notes in Figure 3.5.2 will not be final.
Figure 3.5.2. Provisional operational flight plan.
Afterwards, we will open all the SID charts to see where the
different instrumental departures finish.
Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas airport has more than forty

departure charts. As you can imagine, making the flight
planning by hand is an extremely time-consuming job.
We can find the RBO2N exit, which takes us from runway

36L to the RBO point.
Figure 3.5.3. SID chart.
We will find a lot of information in the standard

instrumental departures charts. This chart is explained in
the Departure section, where you can find out what each
piece of data of the chart means. The information that most
matters to us at this time is the departure route (lower
end), the minimum ascent gradients (bottom), the radio aids
used on the route, and other information such as the initial
ATC clearance.
If within the instrumental departure we had route points,

we would write them to put them on the route. In the same
way, if those points were affected by restrictions of some
kind, we would also write them down, but since that is not
the case here, we will only write down what you see in
Figure 3.5.4.
A big part of the information we find in this chart will be

needed during planning: we will sum the approximate
distance of the departure to later calculate the necessary
fuel and the required initial ascent gradients, and then we
will compare them to the maximum ascent gradient that we
can maintain. Finally, we are going to note the radio aids
used at the departure.
Once we have written down everything we need, the next

thing to do is open the STAR charts. We will search to see if
any arrival route starts from any of the last points of the
route that we have chosen.
Figure 3.5.5. STAR chart.
We have the chart with the code 20-2B (Figure 3.5.5) that
takes us from KOVAK to BANOX. The approach to one of the
four runways of the Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris will
begin at BANOX.
This STAR chart is an RNAV arrival, because of this, the

points will not be defined through the course/distance of a
radio aid but will be defined by coordinates and inserted in
our flight management computer (FMC). The aircraft and the
crew will have to be qualified to operate a RNAV procedure.
In a RNAV procedure, it will not be necessary to search for
our location using radio aids. It will appear directly on the
EHSI/ ND screen.
As we can see in the STAR chart (Figure 3.5.5), the arrival

we are going to follow is called KOVAK 7E.
We will write down the route and altitude or speed

restrictions, arrival distance, the name of the STAR, and the
radio aids we will use during the arrival. We should pay
attention to the minimum sector altitude (MSA), explained
in the Minimum Altitudes section.
Figure 3.5.7. Initial approach chart.
Figure 3.5.8. Approach chart.
Once we have all the arrival information, it is time to open
the approach charts (Figure 3.5.8), which will be the final
part of the flight.
At Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, due to its large size, the

initial approach is on a separate chart, known as STAR +
transition, when in smaller airports the entire approach is
on the same chart.
There are many types of final approaches, and we will find

the necessary information about all approaches on each
airport’s charts. The most common types of approaches are
explained in the Approach section.
In this case, as can be seen in Figure 3.5.8, we want to

complete the ILS-type approach to runway 08L.
You will have to calculate the distance you will travel

during the approach (in this case, adding the distances from
two charts). Write down the frequencies of the radio aids,
the altitude at which the approach begins (glide slope
capture altitude), and get an idea of how to fly each
approach.
Each airport will have its own peculiarities in the approach

route. It is important to familiarize ourselves with local
procedures by reading all the available information (AIP,
NOTAMs, etc.), and if possible, consult with someone who is
already familiar with the airport.
As you can see, all these charts contain a great deal of

information, but in planning you should pay special
attention to the route you are going to fly and the altitude/
speed restrictions, if any. If you know an approach is out of
service at the destination airport, prepare alternative
approaches.
In the following figure, we have a table taken from the AIP

Spain ENR 3.1, where we find the information for the lower
ATS routes (airways), that is, the airways lower than FL180.
Here we can find all the airways that fly over the country. In
the R10 airway, we can read the vertical limits at each
point, and if the altitude at which we have to fly in the
airway is even or odd. We will check the same information
for all the airways through which we fly.
Figure 3.5.10. ATS Routes. Source: (ais.enaire.es, 2020)
Finally, it is important to study the departure and arrival

airport taxi charts. These charts are a map of the airport
taxi area.
Figure 3.5.11. LEMD chart.
Figure 3.5.12. LFPG chart.
With the route defined, look at the significant weather chart

and the wind map. Note the wind along the route and if
there are any meteorological phenomena that affect us,
such as storms or major icing effects.
Fortunately, there is no meteorological phenomenon that

affects us on our route. In northern Europe, however, we can
see there are a lot of clouds, icing, turbulence, and storms.
If there were unfavorable weather conditions or a storm

along our route, we would consider changing the route or
altitude. We should not operate in icing conditions unless
the aircraft is equipped and certified to fly in such
conditions. 3.17
Figure 3.5.13. Significant weather chart.3.16
Figure 3.5.14. Wind map. 3.16
Figure 3.5.13, called the significant weather chart (SIGWX),

represents the meteorological conditions over the European
continent between flight levels FL100 and FL450. It is
vitally important to check the meteorology en route to
anticipate what may happen in flight and to prepare in case
we have to go to the alternate airport.
In Figure 3.5.14, we can see the wind we will have at FL100

at 12 UTC. To calculate the wind at other altitudes,
remember the wind veers and increases in intensity with
altitude.
Depending on the wind and weather conditions, we will

choose the most favorable cruising altitude. In this case, we
will ascend to FL140 on the way to RBO (even heading), and
we will maintain that altitude throughout the route. If when
changing airways, the altitude to stay in the new airway is
odd, we will simply go up or down 1,000 ft.
DESCENT CALCULATION
When arriving at the destination, we will have to descend

from the cruising altitude to the glide slope capture
altitude, following all altitude restrictions. Calculate how
far you will have to start the descent to reach the
appropriate altitude at the glide slope capture point, in our
case 5,000 ft. The descent starting point will be our TOC.
The goal is to stay as high as possible throughout the entire

route, as turbine engines are much more efficient at higher
altitudes.
To calculate the distance of descent, we will divide the

vertical distance we have to go down by the vertical speed
we expect to have, and we will multiply it by our horizontal
speed on the ground (ground speed equals speed over the
air plus or minus the effect of the wind). We expect to have
a GS of 165 kt, which results in 2.75 NM/min.
Thanks to our arrival chart, we noted our altitude

restrictions.
Figure 3.6.15. Planning. Descent calculation.
The first restriction is that we have to be below FL150 at

point FF501. As we are going to be flying at FL140, we
already comply with that restriction.
The second restriction says we have to be below FL120 over

NERKI. For this, we will calculate to descend 2,000 ft in two
minutes, starting the descent 6 NM before NERKI. The third
restriction is that we have to be below FL110 and above
FL090 on BANOX. Because we are at FL120, we calculate
descending to FL110 in one minute, starting the descent at
3 NM before BANOX.
Finally, we will have to descend to 5,000 ft to capture the

glide path at 14.6 NM GLE. To have a safety margin, we will
try to reach that point 5 NM earlier. We will descend 6,000
ft in six minutes, which means we will begin the descent at
18 NM before the point where we want to be at 5,000 ft,
that is, 37.6 NM from GLE.
The vertical speed of 1,000 ft/min is an orientative vertical

speed.
ALTERNATE ROUTE
When we are done with the destination route, we will have

to do exactly the same from the arrival airport to the two
alternates.
It is important to check all the charts for all the airports.

You will have to be familiar with all the taxiways,
departures, arrivals, and approaches.
FUEL CALCULATION
After the route, you must calculate the required fuel and
the distances and the times between points.
The fuel we are going to carry is the sum of the following

fuel quantity:
Total fuel = Taxi + Trip + Contingency + Alternate + Final

+ Additional + Extra + Discretionary
Fuel calculation can change slightly depending on the

nature of our flight, as it may be ruled under different
annexes of the Air ops:
• Annex IV CAT: For commercial air transport.
• Annex VI NCC: For non-commercial operations using

complex aircrafts.
• Annex VII NCO: For non-commercial operations with

non-complex aircrafts, this means having a MTOM of
less than 5,700 kgs and less than 19 seats.
• Annex VIII SPO: For aerial works.
This will guide you through the necessary calculations for

fuel in accordance with all the different regulations
provided in Air OPS:
Taxi fuel
This is the fuel we will consume prior to takeoff, and we will

consider local conditions at the departure airport and APU
(Auxiliary Power Unit) consumption. 3.18
Trip fuel
This is the fuel we will need from takeoff to landing at the

destination airport.3.19 Trip fuel is made up of climb fuel,
cruise altitude fuel, and descent fuel. 3.19
Contingency fuel
It will be 5% of the route fuel or the fuel necessary to hold

for 5 minutes at 1,500 feet above the destination airport
under standard conditions, whichever is higher. In the event
of a commercial operation using an enroute aerodrome, in
accordance with Air Ops AMC7 CAT.OP.MPA.181, we can
make this calculation using 3% of the fuel, instead of 5%.
There are more procedures allowing for reduced contingency
fuel. For convenience, it will be mentioned in the next
page.3.20
Alternate fuel
Is the fuel we need to perform a missed approach from the

DA/DH of our destination aerodrome to our alternate
aerodrome, using the expected route, cruise altitude and
approach. If we have 2 alternate aerodromes, we will
calculate both amounts and use the highest one.
When a flight is operated without a destination alternate,

we will add sufficient fuel to fly for 15 minutes at holding
speed at 1500 ft above our destination aerodrome in
standard conditions for commercial operations or any
amount considered needed for holding in the case of non-
commercial operations.3.21
Final reserve
This will be the amount of fuel needed to fly at 1500 ft

above aerodrome elevation at ISA conditions for:
• 45 minutes in the case of piston engines on VFR by night
and IFR.
• 30 minutes in the case of turbine engines
• 30 minutes for piston engines only under VFR flight during
the day performing under SPO, NCO, and NCC.
For operations under NCO, we will also calculate the fuel

needed for 10 minutes at maximum continuous cruise power
at 1 500 ft (450 m) above the destination under VFR by day,
taking off and landing at the same aerodrome/landing site,
and always remaining within sight of that aerodrome. If the
amount needed is higher than the one previously calculated,
we will use this amount.
For operations under SPO, we will also calculate the

amount needed to fly 10 minutes at cruising altitude and
performing take offs and landings, always remaining within
VFR and within sight of the aerodrome. Same as before, we
will use the highest amount.3.20
Additional fuel
This is the fuel needed in case of an engine or

pressurization failure at the most critical point of the route
and shall be enough to get you from that point to the
alternate airport, fly 15 minutes at holding speed at 1,500
ft above the alternate airport, make an approach, and land.
If the fuel we carry on-board covers these circumstances,
we will not need to add additional fuel3.20
Extra fuel
It will account for any amount of fuel needed for anticipated

delays and operational constraints.3.20
Discretionary fuel
It will include any fuel that the commander may consider

necessary.
In case our destination is an isolated aerodrome, we will

use this amount of fuel instead of the alternate fuel and we
will make use of a PNR (Point of No Return) procedure3.20
FUEL FOR ISOLATED AERODROMES
• For piston engines, it will be the fuel required to fly for 45

minutes plus 15% of the cruise fuel, including final
reserve fuel, or 2 hours, whichever is less.
• For turbine engines, it will be the amount required to fly

for 2 hours at normal cruise consumption, including final
reserve fuel.3.20
In commercial operations, we have several additional fuel

schemes that allow for reduced contingency fuel. The
operator will need for this specific approval in accordance
to requirements provided in EASA AIR OPS CAT.OP.MPA.180:
• Individual fuel scheme: Contingency fuel will be

reduced to the amount considered needed for any
unforeseen factors. 3.20
• Basic fuel scheme with variations: There are 2

possible variations. Contingency fuel will be reduced
to the highest of the following calculations:
• 3% of the planned fuel trip.
• 20 minutes of fuel consumption based on the

planned trip fuel consumption.
• A statistical amount that ensures an appropriate

statistical coverage.
• 5 minutes of fuel consumption at holding speed,

1500 ft above the destination aerodrome in ISA
conditions.
The operator will need for this specific approval in
accordance with requirements provided in EASA AIR OPS
CAT.OP.MPA.180.
In the event of including flight planning to our destination
aerodrome and an alternate aerodrome via a decision point,
there will be slight changes to the way we calculate trip
fuel and contingency fuel. We will use the highest of the
following calculations:
• Trip fuel to our destination aerodrome via the

decision point, plus;
• 5% of contingency fuel from our decision point to our

destination aerodrome.
Or
• Trip fuel to our alternate aerodrome via the decision

point, plus;
• Contingency fuel calculated with the basic fuel

scheme with variations mentioned above.
In the airplane flight manual (AFM) or the pilot operating

handbook (POH) of your plane, look for the power setting
chart where you will see the consumption and speed for
each power and altitude.
We are going to simulate flying a category B twin-engine

airplane. We will maintain a power of 24.0 inHg and 2 450
RPM. With the power information and the temperature for
that day, we will select the power setting chart illustrated
in Figure 3.7.1, and we will find the data for our cruising
altitude of 14,000 ft.
Figure 3.7.1. Power setting chart.
Taxi fuel is the fuel we will consume prior to takeoff. We

will take into account local conditions at the departure
airport, or use a standard, depending on the operator ICAO.
Annex 6. p.4-10 (4.3.6.3). Trip fuel is the fuel we will need
from takeoff to landing at the destination airport ICAO.
Annex 6. p. 4-11 (4.3.6.3). Route fuel is made up of climb
fuel, cruise altitude fuel, and descent fuel.
To calculate the climb fuel, we have to know the

approximate weight of the plane at takeoff. That is, we have
to know how much fuel we will take. For this reason, we
will first make an approximate calculation of the total fuel
of the flight, and the actual calculation will be made last.
For the approximate calculation, let’s imagine we will fly

the departure and arrival at cruising altitude. We will make
the sum of the total distance of the route, considering the
effects of an average wind, and dividing the distance by the
speed.
As we can see in Figure 3.7.1, at 14,000 ft we are going to

consume 9.7 US gal/h per engine (x2 engine = 19.4 US gal/
h), our GS will be 160 kt. Convert the fuel to pounds to
calculate the fuel weight. We will use a fuel density of 6 lb/
US gal for the calculations (AVGAS 100LL).
Figure 3.7.2. Planning. Approximate route fuel calculation.
This will be our approximate route fuel.
Do exactly the same from the destination airport to the

farthest alternate to calculate our alternate fuel. The
alternate fuel is the fuel required to complete a missed
approach at the destination airport, climb to cruising
altitude, fly the expected route, descend to the calculated
approach start point, and complete another approach. If we
do not have an alternate destination airport, we will need
enough fuel to be at holding speed at 1,500 ft above the
destination airport for 15 minutes. 3.21
Calculate the contingency fuel. This fuel is used to

compensate for unpredictable factors. Normally it should be
5% of the route fuel or the fuel necessary to hold for five
minutes at 1,500 feet above the destination airport under
standard conditions, whichever is higher. In our case, the
flight will be approximately 240 minutes, so we will
calculate 5% of the route fuel.
Next, add the final reserve fuel. We will perform under IFR
with a piston engine, so the amount we need will be the
amount required to fly 45 minutes, or to fly for 10 minutes
at maximum continuous cruise power at 1500 ft above our
aerodrome in VFR conditions. In our case, we will use the
first option.
We should add additional fuel in case of an engine or

pressurization failure at the most critical point of the route,
enough to get to the alternate airport, fly 15 minutes at
holding speed at 1,500 ft above the alternate airport, make
an approach, and land. If the fuel we carry on-board covers
these circumstances, we will not need to add additional
fuel.3.21
For extra fuel, we are not anticipating any delay, so we will
skip this part.
We can add any discretionary fuel that we deem necessary.

3.21
We will add 160 lb to have approximately an extra hour of

flight.
Figure 3.7.3. Planning. Fuel calculation.
To simplify the alternate calculations, you can divide the

total distance of the route by the cruising speed (GS) and
multiply the time by the consumption at cruising altitude.
Always add a margin of safety.
Now that we know the fuel required for the flight, we can do
the climb fuel calculations using the AFM graphs.
After that, we will do the route fuel calculations,

calculating each section separately.
Figure 3.7.4. Climb time, distance, and fuel.
Following the instructions in your climb graph, calculate the
time, distance, and fuel needed for the cruise altitude. In
this case, 9 minutes, 24 NM and 41.7 lb.
With this information, calculate the fuel for the

instrumental departure. We will divide the instrumental
departure into two sections: the initial ascent we already
calculated (LEMD-TOC), and from when we reach the
cruising altitude to the next waypoint (TOC-RBO).
Figure 3.7.5. Operational flight plan.
The TOC is included in the operational flight plan as if it

were another point on the route. In this case, we will arrive
at the cruising altitude before any other point on the route,
but if it were the opposite, we would first put the row of the
point with its data, and after this row, we would add the
TOC row where it corresponds with the distance, we have
left to reach the cruise altitude.
Next, we will calculate the time and fuel we will consume

on all the sections of the route.
To calculate the time and consumption in each section of

the route, we need to know our airspeed and hourly
consumption; we will obtain this information in Figure 3.7.1.
Next, we will add the wind component to our airspeed. At
this point, we know the speed over the ground. Dividing the
distance by the speed, we will have the time for each
section, and multiplying the consumption by this (19.4 US
gal/h), we will know the consumption in each section.
Use Figure 3.7.1 to log the fuel consumption for each leg.
The figure is called an operational flight plan, and we will
need one for every flight. We will have to add up all the fuel
consumption on the route. The final sum is noted in Figure
3.7.6.
We will complete the calculations for the entire route as

described. To calculate our consumption in descent, we
should calculate the approximate weight we will have at
the starting point of the descent and use the graphs to
calculate the consumption from the cruising altitude to the
altitude of the airport. In this manual, descent is calculated
as if we were at cruising altitude to simplify planning.
If we calculate the descent to cruising altitude and power,

we will add a safety margin, and we will take off with a
little more fuel than necessary.
If we think we will spend some time holding, we will have to

find the consumption at the holding altitude at the required
power and multiply it by the time we expect to be holding
the position.
This will be the actual fuel we will have at takeoff.
Figure 3.7.6. Planning. Corrected fuel calculation.
You can see there is only a 30 lb difference between the

approximate fuel we have calculated and the actual
calculation, but the latter is more accurate.
Then check that the ascent gradients with one and two
engines meet the requirements described in the SID chart. If
your ascent gradients do not meet the requirements in the
departure, you will not be able to complete the departure
unless you have a procedure for engine failure. Also
calculate the route with an inoperative engine. Make sure
the takeoff and landing distances allow us room for the
operation.
LEMD's RBO2N SID restriction tells us we need to have a

6.6% climb up to 8,000 ft. The first thing we will do is see if
at 8,000 ft we can maintain more than 6.6%.
It is assumed that, if not indicated otherwise, departures
require a climb gradient of 3.3%. 3.22
We understand that after 8,000 ft the required climb

gradient will be 3.3%, so we are also going to calculate
until what altitude we can maintain the 3.3% climb with one
and two engines operating.
Figure 3.7.7. Climb with both engines operative.
In the climb graph with both engines operative, we can see

that we meet the departure restriction and that we can
maintain a 3.3% climb until past 16,000 ft.
Figure 3.7.8. Climb with one engine inoperative.
As for the climb graph with one engine inoperative, we will
not be able to maintain the 6.6% of climb required, which
means that we need a contingency procedure in case we
have an engine failure during the climb.
Figure 3.7.9. Service ceiling with one engine inoperative.
Based on the service ceiling graph with one inoperative

engine, we will be able to maintain an altitude of almost
6,000 ft. If we have an engine failure during the route, we
will not be able to maintain more than that altitude, so we
will have to go to an area where the minimum altitude to
maintain is less than 6,000 ft. As fuel is consumed during
the flight, the resulting drop in weight will raise the
maximum altitude with an inoperative engine.
PERFORMANCE
We will have to ensure that the performance of the aircraft

allows us to take off and land from/in the airports where we
are going to operate, taking into account the declared
distances and applying the necessary safety corrections for
each situation.
TAKEOFF
In Figure 4.8.1, we can see the maximum takeoff distance

that we are allowed.
Figure 3.8.1. Takeoff distance.
Figure 3.8.2. Takeoff distance.
We will calculate the needed takeoff distance, taking into

account the conditions of the day, the elevation of the
takeoff airport, and the weight of the plane. We will
compare the takeoff distance we will need and the distance
from the airport takeoff runway. The required takeoff
distance should not exceed that described in Figure 3.8.1.
3.23
LANDING
We are going to calculate the landing distance we need and

compare it with the distances available at all the airfields
where we might land.
The required landing distance should comply with that

described in Figure 3.8.3 at all airports. 3.24
Figure 3.8.3. Landing distances.
As with the takeoff distance, we will have to use the wind

information at the arrival time, so we will add the route
time to the takeoff time to figure out our arrival time and
thus use the correct wind. As for the weight of the plane,
we are going to subtract the route fuel from our takeoff
weight to get the landing weight.
Figure 3.8.4. Landing distance.
MASS AND BALANCE
We will do the mass and balance sheet of the plane when

we know the fuel we are going to carry for the day's flight.
We will have to know the number of people who are on

board the plane. Ideally, we should also know how much
each person weighs and the seat where they will sit. The
effect that each person will have on the center of gravity
will vary according to their position and weight. We also
need to know the load we are going to carry. If we do not
know the weight of the passengers, we will add a standard
weight.
We will find all the information on how each passenger or
cargo will affect the plane’s center of gravity in the AFM.
We will have to ensure that the center of gravity remains
within limits throughout the flight.
As can be seen in Figure 3.9.1, we will write down the

weight in pounds of each item in the column indicated as
“Weight”. With the AFM information, we will multiply the
effect of each element on the center of gravity, and we will
pass it to the graph.
Figure 3.9.1. Mass and balance.
OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLAN
In the operational flight plan, we will put the points where

we pass, starting with the departure airport, including the
TOC (the point where we reach the cruising altitude), and
the TOD (the point where we will start the descent).
We will find the wind aloft in the wind maps (Figure 3.5.14).
With this wind and our speed over the air, we will calculate
the speed over the surface and the wind correction angle.
With the distance and our ground speed, we will know the
time and consumption in each section. The rest of the data,
such as airways, altitudes, and details can be found in the
information we have used during planning.
During the flight, we will have to fill in the empty cells. The
Airway section describes how to fill them in.
FLIGHT PLAN
For all IFR flights, it will be necessary to send a flight plan

with the required information.3.25
The flight plan will be submitted to the air traffic

notification office. It will be presented at the departure
aerodrome in person, by telephone, or by other means
prescribed by the ATS authority.
Depending on the services we request and the aerodrome

from which we are going to depart, it may be necessary to
send the flight plan in advance. The minimum notice time
will be 60 minutes, unless the appropriate ATS authority
indicates otherwise. 3.26
The maximum notice time will be 120 hours. 3.27
The flight plan is sent so that the airports are prepared for
our departure or arrival. In the event of an accident or
disappearance, the emergency services will start looking for
us on the route we have indicated.
In a controlled airport, there is a tolerance of -15/+30

minutes to initiate the flight plan. If the flight plan does not
start until 30 minutes after the indicated time, it will be
necessary to cancel the flight plan and send a new one. The
maximum delay will be one hour for non-controlled
aerodromes. 3.28
All information regarding flight plans can be found in the

ENR section of the AIP.
To regulate the flow of air traffic through route sectors or

airports, the concept of calculated takeoff time (CTOT),
commonly known as slot, was created by the European Air
Traffic Flow and Capacity Management (ATFCM). Each
airport and area control sector in Europe has a declared
capacity, expressed as a maximum number of flights per
hour.
Within Europe, each IFR flight must submit a flight plan to

the Integrated Initial Flight Plan Processing System (IFPS),
based in Brussels and Paris. The system will verify that the
flight plan is in the correct format and that it complies with
the restrictions that have been published.
If the number of planned flights (demand) exceeds the

declared capacity en route or at an airport, IFPS will start
issuing CTOT.
A CTOT is a precise -5/+10-minute departure window in
which the affected flight must take off to ensure that when
the flight arrives at a sector or airport, demand does not
exceed capacity. The advantage of this is that flights will
spend the inevitable delay time on the ground at the
departure airport, rather than in the air. IFPS will distribute
the delay fairly between the flights. If an airport can handle
forty-four flights per hour, and there are forty-six flights
planned for one hour, the system will issue small delays to
many flights, instead of giving large delays to two flights. In
the event that CTOTs are issued to flights as a result of an
overload during a single one-hour period, CTOTs will also be
issued to flights scheduled one hour before and one hour
after that time to avoid delaying the issue by one hour.
When submitting a flight plan, the aircraft operator includes

an estimated off-block time (EOBT), which is the time the
aircraft is planned to start moving at the departure airport.
If a flight is ready to leave its boarding gate more than 15
minutes before the original EOBT, or is delayed more than
30 minutes, the airline must send a new EOBT to the
system, as the new departure time could cause an overload
somewhere along the route. Similarly, if a flight has
received a CTOT, but cannot take off within the CTOT
tolerance (-5/+10 minutes), the operator or air traffic
control must send a delay message to IFPS, and a new
CTOT will be issued.
Taxi time is the time it takes for the aircraft to leave the
gate (EOBT) and be ready for takeoff. This time is calculated
by ATC. The IFPS must know the taxi time to calculate the
CTOT, because it only knows the EOBT time from the flight
plans it receives.
If a flight is ready to depart before its CTOT, ATC must make

the aircraft wait. If a flight misses its CTOT, ATC cannot
issue a takeoff clearance. A new CTOT must be requested
through IFPS, and the flight will potentially be delayed.
A CTOT is not permanent or immovable. IFPS can send a

review message. Flights that are ready to depart but are
subject to a CTOT delay, can ask ATC to send a ready
message, indicating to IFPS that if a previous CTOT is
available, the flight would be ready for it.
Finally, some flights are exempt from ATFCM restrictions,

which means that CTOT delays will not be issued. Examples
of such flights are ambulances, firefighting flights, search
and rescue flights, and flights with heads of state. Flights
leaving outside of Europe will also not receive CTOT,
because there is no global ATFM system yet, but IFPS will
have these flights’ information, and they will be included in
the calculations.
Figure 3.11.1 illustrates the flight plan that we would

complete for our flight from Madrid to Paris. What should be
included in each box is detailed below.
Figure 3.11.1. Filled flight plan. Source: (ais.enaire.es, 2019)
ITEM 7 3.29
Aircraft Identification
Insert one of the following aircraft identifications, not

exceeding seven alphanumeric characters, and without
hyphens or symbols:
a) The ICAO designator for the aircraft operating agency

followed by the flight identification (e.g. KLM511, NGA213,
JTR25). When in radiotelephony, the call sign to be used by
the aircraft will consist of the ICAO telephony designator
for the operating agency followed by the flight identification
(e.g. KLM511, NIGERIA 213, JESTER 25).
b) Or the nationality or common mark and registration mark

of the aircraft (e.g. EIAK O, 4XBCD, N2567GA) when either of
the following factors are true:
1) In radiotelephony the call sign to be used by the

aircraft will consist of this identification alone (e.g. CGAJS)
or be preceded by the ICAO telephony designator for the
aircraft operating agency (e.g. BLIZZARD CGAJS).
2) The aircraft is not equipped with radio.
ITEM 8 3.29
Flight Rules
Insert one of the following letters to denote the category of

flight rules with which the pilot intends to comply:
I The entire flight will be operated under the IFR.

V The entire flight will be operated under the visual
flight rules (VFR).
Y The flight initially will be operated under the IFR,
followed by one or more subsequent changes of flight rules.
Z The flight initially will be operated under the VFR,
followed by one or more subsequent changes of flight rules.
For the last two options, specify in Item 15 the
point or points at which a change of flight rules is planned.
Type of Flight
Insert one of the following letters to denote the type of

flight when so required by the appropriate ATS authority:
S Scheduled air service

N Non-scheduled air transport operation
G General aviation
M Military
X A type of flight not listed above
Specify status of a flight following the indicator

STS in Item 18, or when necessary to denote other reasons
for specific handling by ATS, state the reason following the
indicator RMK in Item 18.
ITEM 9 3.29
Number of Aircraft (One or Two Characters)
The number of aircraft affected by that flight plan. In

formation flights, only the squadron leader would send the
flight plan.
Type of Aircraft (Two to Four Characters)
Insert the appropriate designator as specified in ICAO Doc

8643, aircraft type designators.
If no such designator has been assigned, or in case of

formation flights comprising more than one type, insert
“ZZZZ”, and specify in Item 18 the numbers and type(s) of
aircraft preceded by “TYPE/”.
Wake Turbulence Category (One Character)
Insert an oblique stroke followed by one of the

following letters to indicate the wake turbulence category
of the aircraft:
H HEAVY, to indicate an aircraft type with a certified
takeoff mass of 136,000 kg or more
M MEDIUM, to indicate an aircraft type with a
certified takeoff mass of less than 136,000 kg but more
than 7,000 kg
L LIGHT, to indicate an aircraft type with a certified
takeoff mass of 7,000 kg or less
The wake turbulence for each aircraft is also defined in ICAO

Doc. 8643.
ITEM 10 3.29
Capabilities comprise the following elements:
a) Presence of relevant serviceable equipment on

board the aircraft
b) Equipment and capabilities commensurate with
flight crew qualifications
c) Where applicable, authorization from the
appropriate authority
Radiocommunication, Navigation, Approach Aid

Equipment, and Capabilities
Insert one letter as follows:
N No COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route

to be flown is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable.
S Standard COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the
route to be flown is carried and serviceable. Standard
equipment is considered to be VHF RTF, VOR, and ILS,
unless another combination is prescribed by the appropriate
ATS authority.
And/or insert one or more of the following letters

to indicate the serviceable COM/NAV/approach aid
equipment and capabilities available:
A GBAS landing system
B LPV (APV with SBAS)
C LORAN-C
D DME
E1 FMC WPR ACARS
E2 D-FIS ACARS
E3 PDC ACARS
F ADF
G GNSS (see Note 1)
H HF RTF
I Inertial Navigation
J1 CPDLC ATN VDL Mode 2 (see Note 2)
J2 CPDLC FANS 1/A
J3 CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode A
J4 CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode 2
J5 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (INMARSAT)
J6 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (MSTAT)
J7 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (Iridium)
K MLS
L ILS
M1 ATC SATVOICE (INMARSAT)
M2 ATC SATVOICE (MTSAT)
M3 ATC SATVOICE (IRIDIUM)
O VOR
P1 CPDLC RCP 400 (see Note 6)
P2 CPDLC RCP 240 (see Note 6)
P3 SATVOICE RCP 400 (see Note 6)
P4-P9 Reserved for RCP
R PBN approved (see Note 3)
T TACAN
U UHF RTF
V VHF RTF
W RVSM approved
X MNPS approved
Y VHF with 8.33 kHz cannel spacing
Z Other equipment carried or other capabilities (see
Note 4)
Note 1. If you plan to conduct any portion of the flight

under IFR, it refers to GNSS receivers that comply with the
requirements of Annex 10, Volume I. If the letter G is used,
the types of external GNSS augmentation, if any, are
specified in Item 18 following the indicator NAV/ and
separated by a space.
Note 2. See RTCA/EUROCAE Interoperability Requirements

Standard for ATN Baseline 1 (ATN B1 INTEROP Standard –
DO-280B/ED-110B) for data link services, air traffic control
clearance, and information/air traffic control
communications management/air traffic control microphone
check.
Note 3. If the letter R is used, the performance-based

navigation levels that can be met are specified in Item 18
following the indicator PBN/. You can find guidance on the
application of performance-based navigation to a specific
route segment, route, or area in the Performance-Based
Navigation (PBN) Manual (Doc 9613).
Note 4. If the letter Z is used, specify in Item 18 the other

equipment carried or other capabilities preceded by COM/,
NAV/, and/or DAT as appropriate.
Note 5. Information on navigation capability is provided to

ATC for clearance and routing purposes.
Note 6. G u i d a n c e m a t e r i a l o n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
performance-based communication, which prescribes RCP to
an air traffic service in a specific area, is contained in the
Performance-based Communication and Surveillance (PBCS)
Manual (Doc 9869).
Surveillance Equipment and Capabilities
Insert “N” if no surveillance equipment for the

route to be flown is carried, or the equipment is
unserviceable.
Or insert one or more of the following descriptors,

with a maximum of twenty characters, to describe the
serviceable surveillance equipment and/or capabilities on
board:
SSR mode A and C
A Transponder Mode A (4 digits – 4096

codes)
C Transponder Mode A (4 digits – 4096 codes) and mode C
SSR mode S
E Transponder Mode S, including aircraft identification,
pressure-altitude, and extended squitter (ADS-B) capability
H Transponder Mode S, including aircraft identification,
pressure-altitude, and enhanced surveillance capability
I Transponder Mode S, including aircraft identification but
no pressure-altitude capability
L Transponder Mode S, including aircraft identification,
pressure-altitude, extended squitter (ADS-B), and enhanced
surveillance capability
P Transponder Mode S, including pressure-altitude but no
aircraft identification capability
S Transponder Mode S, including both pressure-altitude
and aircraft identification capability
X Transponder Mode S with neither aircraft identification
nor pressure-altitude capability
ADS-B
B1 ADS-B with dedicated 1 090 MHz ADS-B “out”

capability
B2 ADS-B with dedicated 1 090 MHz ADS-B “out” and
“in” capability
U1 ADS-B “out” capability using UAT
U2 ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using UAT
V1 ADS-B “out” capability using VDL Mode 4
V2 ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using VDL Mode 4
ADS-C
D1 ADS-B with FANS 1/A Capabilities

G1 ADS-C with ATN capabilities
ITEM 13 3.29
Departure Aerodrome
Insert the ICAO four-letter location indicator of the

departure aerodrome as specified in Doc 7910, Location
Indicators.
Or if no location indicator has been assigned, insert

“ZZZZ”, and specify in Item 18 the name and location of the
aerodrome preceded by “DEP/”.
Or insert the first point of the route or the marker

radio beacon preceded by “DEP/...” if the aircraft has not
taken off from the aerodrome.
Or if the flight plan is received from an aircraft in

flight, insert “AFIL”, and specify in Item 18 the ICAO four-
letter location indicator of the location of the ATS unit from
which supplementary flight plan data can be obtained,
preceded by “DEP/”.
Departure Time
Then, without a space, insert for a flight plan

submitted before departure and the EOBT.
Or for a flight plan received from an aircraft in

flight, insert the actual or estimated time over the first
point of the route to which the flight plan applies.
ITEM 15 3.29
Route
Insert the first cruising speed as in (a) and the first

cruising level as in (b), without a space between them.
Then, following the arrow, insert the route description as in
(c).
(a) Cruising speed
Insert the true airspeed for the first or the whole

cruising portion of the flight, in terms of one of the
following:
Kilometers per hour: Expressed as “K” followed by four

characters (e.g. K0830)
Knots: Expressed as “N” followed by four characters (e.g.
N0485)
True Mach number: When so prescribed by the
appropriate ATS authority, to the nearest hundredth of unit
Mach, expressed as “M” followed by three characters (e.g.
M082).
(b) Cruising level
Insert the planned cruising level for the first or the whole
portion of the route to be flown, in terms of one of the
following:
Flight level Expressed as “F” followed by three

characters (e.g. F085; F330).
Metric level Expressed as “S” followed by four
characters (e.g. S1130).
Altitude in feet Expressed as “A” followed by three
characters (e.g. A045; A100), in hundreds of feet.
Altitude in meters Expressed as “M” followed by four
characters (e.g. M0840).
For uncontrolled VFR flights, use the letters “VFR”.
c) Route (including changes of speed, level, and/or

flight rules)
Flights along designated ATS routes
Insert, if the departure aerodrome is located on or

connected to the ATS route, the designator of the first ATS
route.
Or if the departure aerodrome is not on or

connected to the ATS route, insert the letters “DCT”
followed by the point of joining the first ATS route, followed
by the designator of the ATS route.
Then insert each point at which either a change of

speed, level, ATS route, and/or flight rules is planned.
Note – When a transition is planned between a lower and

upper ATS route, and the routes are oriented in the same
direction, you do not need to insert the point of transition.
Follow each point by the designator of the next ATS

route segment, even if it is the same as the previous entry.
Or by DCT, if the flight to the next point will be
outside a designated route, unless both points are defined
by geographical coordinates.
Flights outside designated ATS routes
Insert points, normally not more than 30 minutes

flying time, or 370 km (200 NM) apart, including each point
at which a change of speed, level, track, or flight rules is
planned.
Or when required by appropriate ATS authority(ies),

define the track of flights operating predominantly in an
east-west direction between 70°N and 70°S by referencing
significant intersection points of half or whole degrees of
latitude with meridians spaced at intervals of 10° of
longitude. For flights operating outside those latitudes,
define the tracks by significant intersection points of
parallels of latitude with meridians spaced at 20° of
longitude. The distance between significant points, if
possible, should not exceed one hour’s flight time.
Additional significant points should be included as
necessary.
For flights operating predominantly in a north-

south direction, define tracks by referencing significant
intersecting points formed of whole degrees of longitude
with specified parallels of latitude which are spaced at 5°.
Insert DCT between successive points unless both

points are defined by geographical coordinates or by bearing
and distance.
Use only the conventions in (1) to (5) below and

separate each sub-item by a space.
(1) ATS route (two to seven characters)
The coded designator assigned to the route or

route segment including, where appropriate, the coded
designator assigned to the standard departure or arrival
route (e.g. BCN1, Bl, R14, UB10, KODAP2A).
(2) Significant point (two to eleven characters)
The coded designator (two to five characters)
assigned to the point (e.g. LN, MAY, HADDY), or, if no coded
designator has been assigned, one of the following:
Degrees only (seven characters):
For describing latitude in degrees, use two characters

followed by “N” (North) or “S” (South), followed by three
characters describing longitude in degrees, followed by “E”
(East) or “W” (West). Fill in the correct number of
characters, where necessary, by inserting zeros, e.g.
46N078W.
Degrees and minutes (eleven characters):
For describing latitude in degrees and tens and units of

minutes, use four characters followed by “N” (North) or “S”
(South), followed by five characters describing longitude in
degrees and tens and units of minutes, followed by “E”
(East) or “W” (West). Fill in the correct number of
characters, where necessary, by insertion of zeros, e.g.
4620N07805W.
Bearing and distance from a reference point:
Identify the reference point, followed by the bearing from

the point in the form of three characters giving magnetic
degrees, followed by the distance from the point in the form
of three characters expressing nautical miles. In areas of
high latitude where it is determined by the appropriate
authority that reference to degrees magnetic is impractical,
degrees true may be used. Fill in the correct number of
characters, where necessary, by inserting zeros – e.g. a
point 180° magnetic at a distance of 40 nautical miles from
VOR “DUB” should be expressed as DUB180040.
(3) Change of speed or level (maximum twenty-one

characters)
At the point a change of speed (5% TAS or 0.01

Mach or more) or a change of level is planned, express the
information exactly as in (2) above, followed by an oblique
stroke and both the cruising speed and the cruising level,
expressed exactly as in (a) and (b) above, without a space
between them, even when only one of these quantities will
be changed.
Examples:
LN/N0284A045
MAY/N0305Fl80
HADDY/N0420F330
4602N07805W/N0500F350
46N078W/M082F330
DUB180040/N0350M0840
(4) Change of flight rules (maximum three

characters)
At the point a change of flight rules is planned,

express it exactly as in (2) or (3) above as appropriate,
followed by a space and one of the following:
VFR if from IFR to VFR

IFR if from VFR to IFR
Examples:
LN VFR
LN / N0284A050 IFR
(5) Cruise climb (maximum twenty-eight characters)
Insert the letter C followed by an oblique stroke;

then the point where cruise climb is planned to start,
expressed exactly as in (2) above, followed by an oblique
stroke; then the speed to be maintained during cruise climb,
expressed exactly as in (a) above, followed by the two
levels defining the layer to be occupied during cruise climb,
each level expressed exactly as in (b) above, or the level
above the planned cruise climb followed by the letters plus
without a space between them.
Examples:
C / 48N050W / M082F290F350
C / 48N050W / M082F290PLUS
C / 52N050W / M220F580F620.
ITEM 16 3.29
Destination Aerodrome and Total Estimated Elapsed

Time (Eight Characters)
Insert the ICAO four-letter location indicator of the

destination aerodrome as specified in Doc 7910, Location
Indicators.
Or if no location indicator has been assigned, insert

“ZZZZ” and specify in Item 18 the name and location of the
aerodrome, preceded by “DEST/”.
Then, without a space, insert the total estimated
elapsed time.
Note – For a flight plan received from an aircraft in flight,

the total estimated elapsed time is the estimated time from
the first point of the applicable route to the termination
point of the flight plan.
Destination Alternate Aerodrome(s)
Insert the ICAO four-letter location indicator(s) of

not more than two destination alternate aerodromes, as
specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators, separated by a
space.
Or if no location indicator has been assigned to the

destination alternate aerodrome(s), insert “ZZZZ”, and
specify in Item 18 the name and location of the destination
alternate aerodrome(s) preceded by “ALTN/”.
ITEM 18 3.29
Note.– Use of indicators not included under this item may

result in data being rejected, processed incorrectly, or lost.
Hyphens or oblique strokes should only be used as

prescribed below.
Insert “0” (zero) if no other information is available.
Or insert any necessary information in the sequence shown
hereunder in the form of the appropriate indicator selected
followed by an oblique stroke and the information to be
recorded:
STS/ Reason for special handling by ATS, e.g. a search

and rescue mission, as follows:
ALTRV For a flight operated in accordance with an altitude

reservation
ATFMX For a flight approved for exemption from ATFM
measures by the appropriate ATS authority
FFR Fire fighting
FLTCK Flight check for calibration of navaids
HAZMAT For a flight carrying hazardous material
HEAD A flight with head-of-state status
HOSP For a medical flight declared by medical
authorities
HUM For a flight operating on a humanitarian mission
MARSA A flight for which a military entity assumes
responsibility for separation of military aircraft
MEDEVAC For a life critical medical emergency
evacuation
NONRVSM For a non-RVSM capable flight intending to
operate in RVSM airspace
SAR For a flight engaged in a search and rescue mission
STATE For a flight engaged in military, customs, or police
services.
Other reasons for special handling by ATS shall be

denoted under the designator RMK/.
PBN/ Indication of RNAV and/or RNP capabilities. Include

as many of the descriptors below, as apply to the flight, up
to a maximum of eight entries, i.e. a total of not more than
sixteen characters.
RNAV SPECIFICATIONS
A1 RNAV 10 (RNP 10)
B1 RNAV 5 all permitted sensors

B2 RNAV 5 GNSS
B3 RNAV 5 DME/DME
B4 RNAV 5 VOR/DME
B5 RNAV 5 INS o IRS
B6 RNAV 5 LORAN-C
C1 RNAV 2 all permitted sensors

C2 RNAV 2 GNSS
C3 RNAV 2 DME/DME
C4 RNAV 2 DME/DME/IRU
D1 RNAV 1 all permitted sensors

D2 RNAV 1 GNSS
D3 RNAV 1 DME/DME
D4 RNAV 1 DME/DME/IRU
RNP SPECIFICATIONS
L1 RNP 4
O1 Basic RNP1, all permitted sensors

O2 Basic RNP1, GNSS
O3 Basic RNP1, DME/DME
O4 Basic RNP1, DME/DME/IRU
S1 RNP APCH
S2 RNP APCH with BARO-VNAV
T1 RNP AR APCH with RF (special authorization required)

T2 RNP AR APCH without RF (special authorization
required)
Combinations of alphanumeric characters not

indicated above are reserved.
NAV/ Significant data related to navigation equipment,

other than specified in PBN/, as required by the appropriate
ATS authority. Shows GNSS augmentation under this
indicator, with a space between two or more methods of
augmentation, e.g. NAV/GBAS SBAS.
COM/ Indicate communication equipment and capabilities

not specified in Item 10 a).
DAT/ Indicate data communication equipment and
capabilities not specified in 10 a).
SUR/ Indicate surveillance equipment and capabilities

not specified in Item 10 b). Indicate as many RSP
specification(s) as apply to the flight, using designator(s)
with no space. Multiple RSP specifications are separated by
a space. Example: RSP180 RSP400.
DEP/ Name and location of departure aerodrome if

“ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 13, or the ATS unit from which
supplementary flight plan data can be obtained if “AFIL” is
inserted in Item 13. For aerodromes not listed in the
relevant Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate the
location as follows:
With four characters describing latitude in degrees and tens

and units of minutes followed by “N” (North) or “S” (South),
followed by five characters describing longitude in degrees
and tens and units of minutes, followed by “E” (East) or
“W” (West). Fill in the correct number of figures, where
necessary, by insertion of zeros, e.g. 4620N07805W (eleven
characters).
Or bearing and distance from the nearest significant point,

as follows:
Identify the significant point followed by the bearing from

the point in the form of three figures giving degrees
magnetic, followed by the distance from the point in the
form of three figures expressing nautical miles. In areas of
high latitude where it is determined by the appropriate
authority that reference to degrees magnetic is impractical,
degrees true may be used. Fill in the correct number of
figures where necessary by inserting zeros, e.g. a point of
180° magnetic at a distance of 40 nautical miles from VOR
“DUB” should be expressed as “DUB180040”.
Or the first point of the route (name or LAT/LONG), or the

marker radio beacon if the aircraft has not taken off from an
aerodrome.
DEST/ Name and location of destination aerodrome, if
“ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 16. For aerodromes not listed in
the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate
location in LAT/LONG or bearing and distance from the
nearest significant point, as described under DEP/ above.
DOF/ The date of flight departure in a six-figure format

(YYMMDD, where YY equals the year, MM equals the month
and DD equals the day).
REG/ The nationality or common mark and registration

mark of the aircraft, if different from the aircraft
identification in Item 7.
EET/ Significant points or flight information region (FIR)

boundary designators and total estimated time from takeoff
to such points or FIR boundaries, when required by regional
air navigation agreements, or by the appropriate ATS
authority.
Examples: EET / CAP0745 XYZ0830
EET / EINN0204
SEL/ SELCAL Code, for aircraft so equipped.
TYP/ Type(s) of aircraft, preceded if necessary, without a

space by number(s) of aircraft and separated by one space if
“ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 9.
Example: TYP / 2F15 5F5 3B2
CODE/ Aircraft address (expressed in the form of an

alphanumerical code of six hexadecimal characters) when
required by the appropriate ATS authority. Example:
“F00001” is the lowest aircraft address contained in the
specific block administered by ICAO.
DLE/ For an en-route delay or holding, insert the

significant point(s) on the route where a delay is planned to
occur, followed by the length of delay using four-figure time
in hours and minutes (hhmm).
Example: DLE / MDG0030
OPR/ ICAO designator or name of the aircraft operating
agency, if different from the aircraft identification in Item 7.
ORGN/ The originator’s eight-letter AFTN address or other

appropriate contact details, in cases where the originator of
the flight plan may not be readily identified, as required by
the appropriate ATS authority.
Note – In some areas, flight plan reception centers may

insert the ORGN/ identifier and originator’s AFTN address
automatically.
PER/ Aircraft performance data, indicated by a single

letter as specified in the Procedures for Air Navigation
Services — Aircraft Operations (PANS-OPS, Doc 8168),
Volume I — Flight Procedures, if required by the
appropriate ATS authority.
ALTN/ Name of destination alternate aerodrome(s), if

“ZZZZ” is inserted in Item 16. For aerodromes not listed in
the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate
nearest significant point, as described in DEP/ above.
RALT/ I C A O fo u r- l e t t e r i n d i c a t o r ( s ) fo r e n - r o u t e
alternate(s), as specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators,
or name(s) of en-route alternate aerodrome(s) if no
indicator is allocated. For aerodromes not listed in the
relevant Aeronautical Information Publication, indicate
nearest significant point, as described in DEP/ above.
TALT/ ICAO four-letter indicator(s) for takeoff alternate,

as specified in Doc 7910, Location Indicators, or name of
takeoff alternate aerodrome if no indicator is allocated. For
aerodromes not listed in the relevant Aeronautical
Information Publication, indicate location in LAT/LONG or
bearing and distance from the nearest significant point, as
described in DEP/ above.
RIF/ The route details to the revised destination

aerodrome, followed by the ICAO four-letter location
indicator of the aerodrome. The revised route is subject to
reclearance in flight.
Examples: RIF / DTA HEC KLAX

RIF / ESP G94 CLA YPPH
RMK/ Any other plain-language remarks when required by

the appropriate ATS authority or deemed necessary.
ITEM 19 3.29
Endurance
E/ Insert a four-character group, giving the fuel

endurance in hours and minutes.
Persons on Board
P/ Insert the total number of persons (passengers and

crew) on board when required by the appropriate ATS
authority. Insert “TBN” (to be notified) if the total number
of persons is not known at the time of filing.
Emergency and Survival Equipment
R/ (radio) Cross out “U” if UHF on frequency 243.0

MHz is not available.
Cross out “V” if VHF on frequency 121.5 MHz is not
available.
Cross out “E” if emergency locator transmitter (ELT) is not
available.
S/ (survival eq.) Cross out all indicators if survival
equipment is not carried.
Cross out “P” if polar survival equipment is not carried.
Cross out “D” if desert survival equipment is not carried.
Cross out “M” if maritime survival equipment is not carried.
Cross out “J” if jungle survival equipment is not carried.
J/ (jackets) Cross out all indicators if life jackets are
not carried.
Cross out “L” if life jackets are not equipped with lights.
Cross out “F” if life jackets are not equipped with
fluorescein.
Cross out “U”, “V”, or both, as in R/ above to indicate radio
capability of jackets, if any.
D/ (dinghies) Cross out indicators “D” and “C” if no
dinghies are carried, or insert number of dinghies carried.
(capacity) Insert total capacity, in persons, of all
dinghies carried.
(cover) Cross out indicator “C” if dinghies are not covered.
(colour) Insert colour of dinghies if carried.
A/ (colour) Insert colour of aircraft and significant

markings.
N/ (remarks) Cross out indicator “N” if no remarks, or

indicate any other survival equipment carried and any other
remarks regarding survival equipment.
C/ (pilot) Insert name of pilot-in-command.
ON THE GROUND
This section details the steps to follow from getting to the
plane until lining up on the runway.
This phase is susceptible to incidents or accidents such as

collisions with other traffic, collisions with obstacles,
disorientation, or exits from taxiways. Disorientation could
lead us to cross taxiways or runways without authorization,
putting ourselves and other traffic in serious danger.
In commercial operations, there will always be two pilots in

the cockpit who will divide the work for greater efficiency,
but in other types of operations, you may find yourself
alone in the cockpit and having to do the work of two pilots.
This book covers both scenarios.
In multi-pilot operations, there are two roles: the pilot

flying (PF), who is going to be in charge of flying the plane,
and the pilot monitoring (PM), who will be in charge of
taking assistive actions, such as taking care of
communication, navigating, or reading the checklists.
As soon as you get to the plane, you will have to enter the
cockpit to do a cockpit inspection and then do the preflight
or exterior inspection.
If we need to refuel, we will follow the airport instructions

and our operations manual to carry it out.
We will have to follow the procedures of each aircraft,

detailed in the POH. Although each aircraft is different, the
general idea at this point will be to do the following: a
preliminary cockpit preparation, an exterior inspection, a
cockpit preparation, a pre-start procedure, and the
engine(s) starting.
But first of all, we must check that we carry to the air all
the documents and information required.
REQUIRED DOCUMENTS
Aircraft documentation
• Aircraft Manual.
• Certificate of Registration.
• Certificate of Airworthiness.
• Noise Certificate (with English translation if needed).
• Air Operator Certificate (with English translation if in
another language).
• Operations Specifications (with English translation if in
another language).
• Aircraft Radio License (if applicable).
• Third-Party Liability Insurance Certificate(s).
• Journey Log.
• Aircraft Technical Log.
Flight Information
• Filed ATS Flight Plan (if applicable).

• Aeronautical Charts for the route and possible diversion
routes.
• Procedures for intercepting and intercepted aircraft.
• Information on search and rescue services.
• Relevant parts of the Operations Manual.
• Minimum Equipment List (MEL).
• Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) and weather information.
Passenger and Cargo Details
• Passenger and/or Cargo manifests (if applicable).

• Mass and balance documentation.
• Operational flight plan (if applicable).
• Notification of Special Categories of Passengers (SCPs)
and special loads (if applicable).
Additional Items
• Any other documents required by the concerned states.
COCKPIT INSPECTION
Preliminary cockpit preparation is done to ensure all

systems and selectors are in the indicated position before
energizing the aircraft. We will complete this procedure as
described in our AFM. The most common elements in these
procedures are checking the position of the landing gear
selector, the selection of brakes, flaps, ventilation, and
checking the position of the oxygen selector.
We need to do this in case some selectors are in an

unwanted position. When the aircraft is powered up, control
surfaces such as the flaps, or even the landing gear, could
begin to move without us wanting them to.
You will also have to check the documentation of the plane,

including the technical logbook, which will have to be filled
in and checked when the next revisions are due.
EXTERIOR WALK AROUND
After the cockpit inspection, we will complete the preflight

inspection or exterior walk around.
In multi-pilot operations, it is the PM who will be in charge

of this procedure.
First, we need to untie tie-downs, chocks, or sensor covers,

if any. Then, if it is physically possible, we will have to make
sure that everything is in good condition and works
correctly: the wings, the ailerons, horizontal and vertical
stabilizers with the elevators and tail rudder respectively,
the lights, the stall indicator, the landing gear, and wheels.
In planes of a considerable size, we cannot inspect all the

elements because they are out of reach. The manufacturer
of the plane will have proposed solutions for these cases.
The most important thing is to check that the engine oil is

within the required limits and that we have enough fuel to
complete the flight. If we do not have a visual fuel indicator,
we will have to check it in the cockpit.
COCKPIT PREPARATION
While the PM is doing the exterior inspection, the PF will be

doing this procedure up to a point and will finish the
procedure with the PM when he/she returns to the cockpit.
We will power up the aircraft to check most of the aircraft's

systems and ensure they are configured correctly.
We are going to configure the FMS with the route we sent in

the flight plan and the speeds we calculated. Then we will
check alarm systems, electrical panels, and the rest of the
elements indicated by the aircraft manufacturer.
If control informs us the route we need to follow is different

from what was planned, we will change the route of the
FMS.
TAKEOFF BRIEFING
We should give a briefing for the taxi, takeoff, departure,

and arrival phases. In this manual, we will give two
briefings, one including taxiing, takeoff, and departure and
another for the arrival 4.1
The objective of the briefing is to review what we will do so

that there are no surprises during the flight. You will have
to be clear about the important parts of the briefing to be
able to present them concisely.
The takeoff briefing should be given before starting the

engine. Although there will be situations in which, due to
lack of time, we will need to do it afterwards.
In the preflight briefing, we will highlight the information

necessary for the flight, including threats, mitications,
operational plan, differences from standard operation and a
summary of key points. 4.2
You will need to have the taxi and departure charts handy.
Here are the points we should touch in a good takeoff
briefing.
Taxi
Our position, what runway are we going to, and the taxi
route, highlighting the hot spots.
Takeoff
How we're going to take off, including configuration, steps,
speeds, and callouts.
Departure
The departure route we are going to fly, including turns,
when we are going to raise the flaps and the gear, the rate
of climb, the initial climb altitude, and restrictions.
Emergencies
Procedure in case of emergency during takeoff.
Extras
If we have any anomaly, such as equipment out of service,

NOTAM that affect us, the weather if there is something out
of the ordinary, and fuel.
It is critical to be able to do this briefing concisely. There is

a lot of information we could give at this point, and
although it may valuable information, it can take a long
time. It is also important not to ignore too much information
and give too short a briefing. Over time the briefings
become boring and repetitive, but they are given for safety
reasons so both cabin crew members are aware of what is
to come.
Below is an example of the briefing we would give on the
flight from Madrid to Paris.
Figure 4.5.1. Aerodrome chart of Madrid.
Taxi
We are at stand T5, first right turn to take the M7 taxiway,

later left turn to continue on M8, until M17. Left turn on R6,
then right turn on R8 until waiting point Z2 of runway 36L.
We will be especially careful at intersections marked on the
chart as “hot spot”.
Takeoff
We are going to take off with a 15º flap configuration. The

steps to follow will be: Takeoff power, V1 at 60 kt, VR at 80
kt, V2 at 90 kt. With positive climb landing gear up, at 400
ft, accelerate to 100 kt, flaps up, reduce power and
accelerate to 120 kt.
Departure
We will complete the RBO2N departure, chart 10-3T5, June

7, 19, effective June 20. Runway heading to SSY, then 017º
to D10.0 BRA / D5.6 SSY, intercept course 005º of BRA, until
D12.0 BRA. Turn right to intercept RBO R237. Initial ascent
to 13,000 ft. We have to be above 12,000 ft at RBO, max
250 kt below 10,000 ft. MSA 10,000 ft. BRA116.45 and
SSY117.85 selected.
Emergencies
If there is an emergency before rotation, idle power, brakes,

and reverse if possible. If we cannot stop before the end of
the runway, we will cut fuel lines, call for an emergency,
and turn everything off.
In case of emergency after takeoff, we will try to land on

the runway. If this is not possible, we will make an
emergency landing as slowly as possible with full flap,
landing gear as required. If we are above 1,000 ft, we are
going to do a 180º to land on the runway again.
Extras
Meteorology OK. There is no NOTAM that affects us or

systems out of service. We have 1,230 lb of fuel on board.
We will land with 3:30 h of fuel.
Figure 4.5.2. SID chart.
ATC CLEARANCE
In every IFR flight we will need an ATC clearance to fly the

route, this clearance will be received through voice
communication with ATC.
The ATC clearance will detail the steps to follow during the
flight. Normally they will inform us that we are cleared for
the destination via flight plan, which means that initially we
will follow the route that we have planned and inserted in
the flight plan. 4.3
In the same authorization, they will tell us how to complete

the departure. We will probably receive the authorization to
fly a published instrument departure. If an initial ATC
authorization at an altitude is written in the chart, we will
be authorized at that altitude without the need for control
to say it. If there is no published instrumental departure, we
will be directed to follow a route and ascend to an altitude.
Still, we may request changes to the authorization if we

require them for any reason, and they will grant them to us
if possible.
CONTROLLED AIRPORT
For IFR flights, we will usually take off from a controlled

airport where the controller will direct us at all times.
However, it is possible that we take off from an
uncontrolled airport, and for that reason, this manual
covers both cases.
In controlled airports, there will normally be the ATIS,

which is a recording on a specific frequency, that can be
found in the aerodrome chart, that gives meteorological
information and airport notifications, if any, an example
from the LEMD airport below:
“This is Madrid Barajas status information

departure S, at time 1030. Runway in use for
departure 36L and 36R. Runway in use for arrival
32L and 32R. Transition level 140, wind 030º 6 kt,
maximum 10 kt, minimum 4 kt, variable between
350º and 080º, visibility CAVOK, temperature 22,
dew point 07, QNH 1023, NOSIG. This was
Madrid Barajas status information departure S.”
As you can see, at the beginning the transmission an

indicator is reported. When communicating with the
controller, we will report the ATIS indicator that we have
received so that they know that we have updated
information. If there is no ATIS service, when communicating
with the tower we will request information from the airport
by saying, “We request information from the field”.
In a controlled airport, we will need authorization to start

the engine and to taxi. Similarly, if we are parked in a
position that requires pushback, we will need authorization
to do so. As with all IFR flights, we need ATC clearance.
At first, we will only request the authorization for start-up,

which is really the only thing we need at that moment.
They may give us the ATC clearance directly along with the
start-up authorization, but there will be airports where the
controller usually gives the ATC clearance during the taxi.
We do not need to request ATC clearance at this point;
control is fully aware that we need authorization to take
off. They may not give it to us at the beginning for various
reasons, but they will give it to us before takeoff clearance.
We can request it if we are in a hurry to know our route, but
to avoid saturating the frequency, generally we will wait for
them to give it to us.
If we require pushback, we will contact the platform. We

will find the platform frequency on the aerodrome chart.
In Figure 4.7.1 we have the procedures for requesting start-

up in LEMD.
Normally, we will find the frequencies in the aerodrome

charts. Look for the frequency responsible for the
clearances. It will probably be Ground in most airports, but
in extremely busy airports have a specific frequency for
departure clearances, called Departure or Delivery.
Figure 4.7.1. Airport briefing LEMD.
As you can see in Figure 4.7.1, they indicate the procedure

for requesting authorizations. We are heading towards RBO,
so we will contact Clearance Delivery East. Looking at the
aerodrome chart, we find that it is frequency 130.080. They
also tell us what notifications we have to give and when /
how we should make the initial call.
As a general rule, the initial communication should include

the designation of the station we are calling, our identifier,
for aircraft super or heavy, the word super or heavy, our
position, and any other information required by the
appropriate ATS authority. 4.4
The route of flight shall be detailed in each clearance when

deemed necessary. The phrase "*cleared flight planned
route" may be used to describe any route or portion thereof,
provided the route or portion thereof is identical to that
filed in the flight plan and sufficient routing details are
given to definitely establish the aircraft on its route. The
phrases "cleared (designation) departure" or *cleared
(designation) arrival" may be used when standard departure
or arrival routes have been established by the appropriate
ATS authority and published in Aeronautical Information
Publications (AIPs). 4.5
If we are subject to CDM regulations, we will have to

request the start-up in a range of -5/+5 min of our target
off-block time (TOBT).
“Barajas Clearance Delivery East. HTF22. Good

morning, Beechcraft Baron 55. At T5 with
information S received. Request start-up.”
“HTF22, good morning in T5. Cleared to Paris Charles

de Gaulle via ight plan, standard instrumental
departure RBO2N, FL130 squawk 5266. Start-up
approved. Contact platform on 121.705 for pushback.”
“Cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via ight plan,

standard instrument departure RBO2N, FL130,
squawk 5266. Start-up approved and with platform
for pushback on 121.705. HTF22.”
“Platform, HTF22 on sand T5. Ready for

pushback.”
“HTF22, starting pushback.”
If the ATC clearance was not passed to us during the start-

up call, it will be passed to us later as follows:
“HTF22, ready to copy?”
“Af rmative. HTF22.”
“HTF22, cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via ight

plan, standard instrumental departure RBO2N, FL130,
squawk 5266.”

standard instrumental departure RBO2N, FL130,
squawk 5266. HTF22.”
Although many aspects will remain the same, each flight

will be different, and we have to be prepared.
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The pilots should have received the following information
prior to taxing for takeoff:
a) the runway to be used;

b) The surface wind direction and speed, including all
significant variations;
c) The QNH altimeter setting and, either on a regular basis
in accordance with local regulations if so requested by
the aircraft, the QFE altimeter setting;
d) The air temperature for the runway to be used, in the
case of turbine-engined aircraft;
e) The visibility representative of the direction of take-off
and initial climb, if less than 10 km, or, when applicable,
the RVR value (s) for the runway to be used;
f) The correct time. 4.6
The ATC clearance authorizes us to fly the route, but that

does not mean we are authorized to taxi or take off yet. For
this, we need an authorization that clearly details it.
The following data that we receive has to be transmitted

back to the controller to ensure we have received the
information correctly.
a) ATC route authorizations;

b) clearances and instructions to enter, land, take off,
hold, cross, or taxi on a runway;
c) Runway in use, altimeter selection, transponder code,
flight level instructions, heading, speed, meteorology,
and transition levels. 4.7
Whenever you communicate with controllers, be prepared to

write down the instructions you receive.
UNCONTROLLED AERDROME
An uncontrolled airport means there will be no control
tower and therefore no instrumental departure. In those
cases, we will have to take off with visual flight rules and
change to IFR rules in flight by doing an IFR joining.
Fortunately, these airports are usually aware of the

situation, and we may find details of the actions to be taken
in the AIP or in the airport documents.
To illustrate this, we will use the example of the airport of

Annemasse (LFLI).
Figure 4.8.1. Aerodrome chart LFLI.
Like all IFR flights, we need an ATC clearance to enter

controlled airspace. We will have to communicate with the
airspace’s control.
In the Annemasse airport information, we see that we can

join the IFR routes in the VOR CBY or at the MOLUS
reporting point. It also details that Geneva Departure
controls IFR joining flights departing from Annemasse.
We will contact Geneva Departure to receive the ATC

clearance while we are still on the ground. The first point on
our route will be the VOR CBY. The idea is to take off in
visual flight rules, and when we get to the VOR CBY (entry
point in airway), transition to IFR rules and continue with
the flight through the airway.
Figure 4.8.2. IFR joining.
Communications with Geneva will resemble the following,

where we are going to tell them where we are, our flight
plan, and when we plan to join the IFR route.
“Geneva Departure, HTF22. Good morning,

Beechcraft Baron 55. On ground at LFLI
(Annemasse), with ight plan to Paris. We expect to
be airborne in 10 minutes for IFR joining.”
"HTF22, Geneva Departure. Good morning. Climb 7,000

ft on course to CBY. In the air, contact Geneva Departure
at 119.53.”
“Climb to 7,000 ft on course to CBY, airborne with

119.53.”
As it is an uncontrolled airport, we do not need

authorization to start the engine or to taxi, but we must
communicate everything we do on the airport's air-to-air
frequency so the rest of the traffics are notified. In principle
we will not receive answers because there is no control
tower, but it is possible that other traffic will answer us for
coordination. We will communicate when we start the
engine, start the taxi, enter the runway, and go for take off.
“HTF22 in stand 12, starting up.”

“HTF22 taxiing to holding point 12.”
“HTF22 entering runway 12 for takeoff.”
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When departing from an uncontrolled airport, we are
unlikely to have a transponder code when taking off. We will
select the 7000 code as the standard code until we are
assigned a code. For VFR flights in most of Europe, code
7000 is selected when none have been assigned to us. In
North America, the code that is selected in these cases is
1200.
BEFORE START OR PUSHBACK
Once we are authorized to start, we will prepare everything

for starting the engine. If due to our stand we need
pushback, we will do it with the engine off, and once they
have placed us in position, we will start the engine.
It will be important to know the procedures by heart in

order to operate smoothly. Focus on memorizing the
important steps. There are critical steps, such as opening
the fuel lines when starting the engine, and there are less
critical steps, such as checking the ventilation selection. If
you are aware of the critical points, you will not forget
them, and you will be able to quickly go over some other
steps on the days you need to speed up the procedures.
In the procedure prior to starting the engine, in general, the

most important points will be to turn on the batteries if
they were off, turn on the external lights, check that the
fuel lines are open, make sure the parking brake is on, and
check that power is set to idle.
ENGINE START
We will ask for authorization, if we do not have it, and start

the engine(s) following the AFM procedure. After starting
the engines, we will check that all the engine indications
are correct.
The generators, from this point on, will have to be in line to
feed the batteries with charge. We will check that all the
anti-icing systems, instruments, and equipment are working
correctly. We will select the takeoff flaps configuration and
configure the navigation systems by selecting the
frequencies of the radio aids we are going to need. If we
have a weather radar, we will leave it in standby mode.
Usually we will have to do what is described in this section,

but this information is only orientative. While each plane
will have its own peculiarities, the general idea is that we
configure the plane with almost everything necessary to fly.
For airplanes equipped with EFIS instrument systems, we

will have to configure the navigation display to show us the
flight plan. We will select a range according to the
departure we are going to complete.
TAXI
Taxiing will be similar in all airports. Small airports will

have simple taxi routes, and busier airports will have
longer, and consequently, more complicated taxi routes.
The biggest difference we are going to find is in

uncontrolled airports where there are no taxi clearances,
and therefore, we are going to start taxiing when we see fit,
communicating our actions to the rest of the traffic.
In busy airports, it is likely we will find the taxi routes

already defined in the airport information chart, but it does
not hurt to look at the taxi charts and get an idea of how
the taxi will be. You can see which will be our taxi route
from Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas airport in Figure 4.11.1.
We are at R-3.
When we are ready to taxi, we will request authorization to

do so. The controller will give us the taxi route if we don't
already have it. It is likely that the controller will give us a
partial route that does not reach the holding point of the
runway. In that case, we will simply complete the
authorized taxi route. We will contact the controller when
we reach that point, and they will authorize us to continue,
or they will ask us to hold the position.
Figure 4.11.1. Airport briefing chart.
In the takeoff briefing we will have described a taxi route. If

the route changes upon receipt of clearance, we will give a
confirmation briefing with the new taxi route, basically
highlighting the new taxi route.
We will contact Ground directly to let them know we are

ready to move. In Madrid, due to the large size of the
airport, each section of the taxi is controlled by a different
frequency. We will call the one that corresponds to us.
“HTF22. Ready to taxi.”
“HTF22, cleared to taxi via M7 until M17, later R6 and

R8, until holding point Z2, runway 36L.”
“Taxi via M7 until M17, later R6, R8 to hold Z2 of

runway 36L. HTF22.”
During the taxi, we will need to have the taxi chart in view.
If we are in a multi-pilot cabin, the PF will taxi, and the PM
will guide the PF in navigation. Before moving, we will make
sure that the platform is free of people or traffic. We will
not do any checklists, and we will not look inside the
cockpit because most accidents occur during taxi. If we have
to look inside the cockpit, we will ask the PM to take the
taxi controls.
In the POH, you will have indicated the taxi power, the
cylinder temperature, and the oil temperature required prior
to the taxi.
At the beginning of the taxi, we will check that the brakes

and the flight controls are working correctly, deflecting
them to the maximum.
We will need authorization from the controller to cross a

runway intersection. Whenever you are unsure whether you
can cross a runway intersection, call the controller again,
indicating your position:
“Reaching runway intersection A. HTF22.”
“HTF22, cleared to cross the runway 08-26.”
“Cleared to cross the runway 08-26. HTF22.”
If you have doubts whether you are authorized to complete

any action, do not hesitate to ask. If you ask, the worst that
will happen is the controller will repeat the authorization. If
you don't ask and complete the action anyway, you could
cause an accident and put many lives in serious danger.
Before reaching the holding point, they will have probably

told us what actions to take later.
If we had not received a similar communication, we would

report our position while waiting for authorization to enter
the runway and take off.
“Holding point Z2, runway 36L. HTF22.”
“HTF22, hold position. You are number 3 for departure.”
“Holding position, number 3. HTF22.”
If we fly in an airplane with a piston engine, at the holding

point, or at the point established for it in the aerodrome
data, we will do the engine run up according to the
procedure.
We will check the altimeter error at the holding point,

comparing our indication with that of the runway
threshold’s altitude, shown on the taxi chart. The maximum
allowed error is ±60 ft if our altimeter is designed to
indicate up to 30,000 ft, and a maximum error of ±80 ft if
our altimeter is designed to indicate up to 50,000 ft. 4.8
Figure 4.11.2. Explained aerodrome chart.
“HTF22, reaching holding point Z2. Hold your position.
You are number 3 for departure.”
“Holding position, number 3. HTF22.”
DEPARTURE
This section describes the steps to follow from when we are
authorized to take off and apply takeoff power until we
enter the airway.
During the instrumental departure, we will follow the route

defined in the SID chart. Complying with the altitude and
speed restrictions, it will take us from the takeoff runway
to the entry point on the airway.
It is possible that we will reach the cruising altitude during

the departure, before entering the airway where we will do
the cruise procedure. This procedure is included in the
Airway section.
AIRPLANE CONFIGURATION
To be clear about the departure, we will look at the chart

(Figure 5.1.1), and we will get an idea of what we are going
to do. We will complete the RBO2N departure, taking off
from runway 36L. We will climb on the runway heading and
turn right on VOR SSY to continue on heading 017º until we
intercept the BRA 005º radial. When we have intercepted
the 005º radial, we are going to stay on it and monitor the
VOR RBO. When we are approaching the 237º radial of RBO
(approach course 057º), we will begin the turn towards RBO
to keep the 237º radial inbound.
At the holding point, we will wait to be cleared to enter the

runway and take off. Until we receive a clear call saying,
“Cleared to enter the runway” or “Cleared to take off”, we
will not have authorization to do so. It is important to
emphasize that the ATC authorization for the route does not
allow us to enter the runway or take off. It is only an
authorization for the route.
Being clear about what we are going to do during departure,

we will check that the plane is configured for takeoff and
that we have the radio aids selected correctly. The most
important thing in the aircraft configuration will be to check
the following points:
Flaps
According to performance calculations
Navigation
Selected radio aids and OK
Flight control panel

Flight directors, selected altitude, EHSI mode and range,
and autopilot mode
Electric systems
Especially the battery and generators
Anti-ice systems
Depending on the weather
Lights
Beacon, navigation; strobe when entering the runway; and
landing when starting takeoff
Transponder
Code and mode selected
Ventilation
As required
Other systems
Peculiarities of each airplane.
Figure 5.1.1. Explained SID chart.
The selection of radio aids will be as follows, VOR SSY

selected in the NAV1 equipment with BRA in standby. VOR
BRA selected in the NAV2 equipment with RBO in standby.
There is no NDB in this chart, but we are going to select the
NDB BJ (Barajas) to have it just in case.
In a conventional cockpit, the NAV1 equipment will be

connected with the RMI single needle and with the HSI. The
NAV2 equipment will be connected with the RMI double
needle and with the OBI, and the DME equipment will have
a switch to flip between NAV1, HOLD, and NAV2.
If we have a conventional cockpit, it will look like Figure

5.1.2. With the track course selected in the HSI, receiving
the SSY indication, in the OBI we will have the course 005º
and the indication of BRA. The DME will be with BRA, the
RMI single needle with the NAV1, and the double needle
with ADF.
The reasons for this selection are as follows:
NAV1
We will have SSY active because it is the first radio aid we

are going to use. BRA will be in standby because it is the
next radio aid we will use.
NAV2
We will have BRA active at all times to monitor the 005º
distance course. We will not have SSY here because we
already have the NAV1 indication, so we will select RBO in
standby to have it prepared, this being the third radio aid.
DME
As you can see on the chart, we should get to point D5.6
SSY / D10.0 BRA, and then to D12.0 BRA. At first we won’t
care if we have the indication of SSY or BRA, but then we
need the indication of BRA, so we will have the BRA
indication from the beginning to avoid having to change the
frequency.
ADF
Although in this departure there is no procedure that uses
the NDB, we are going to select a nearby NDB to have its
indication in case the rest of the systems fail.
Figure 5.1.2. Cockpit prepared for the RBO2N departure.
If we had a cockpit with the instruments in the form of the

EFIS, the selection of radio aids would be identical, but
instead of selecting specific courses on the instruments, we
will have the route points projected in the ND. In the ND, we
will select a mode that allows us to see at least the next
point on the route.
Figure 5.1.3. Cockpit prepared for the departure RBO2N (EFIS).
When we are ready to take off, we will call on the frequency

we are using to communicate. If we were taxiing, we would
probably contact the tower. It is helpful to select the next
frequency you have to communicate with as a standby
frequency. The tower will give us the ATC clearance or
transponder code, if it has not already been given, and it
will give us the takeoff clearance.
As with taxiing, we may be asked to fly a different

departure or unpublished procedure for various reasons. If
the departure authorization differs from what was said
during the departure briefing, we will make a confirmation
briefing highlighting it.
We will not be able to take off until we have clearance to

take off, clearance for the departure, and a transponder
code.
When we get to the holding point, they will call us, saying
we are authorized to enter the runway and take off, or that
we are authorized to line up on the runway and maintain
position. Airports usually have a frequency that deals with
approaches or departures they will tell us in the takeoff
clearance if we have to contact any other frequency while in
the air.
“HTF22, cleared to enter and take off runway 36L. In the

air contact departure on 118.08.”
“HTF22 cleared to enter and take off runway 36L.

In the air with departure at 118.08.”
When entering the runway, we are going to check that there

is nobody in it and that no traffic is coming to land. Turn on
the strobe lights and landing lights, and check that all the
heading indicators show the runway heading with a
maximum error ±10º. If we have an error of more than 10º,
we should cancel the takeoff.
TAKEOFF
The first phase of takeoff is completed visually, following

the center line of the runway until you start to fly, have a
positive climb, and raise the landing gear. Afterwards, we
will follow the route of the instrument departure. We will
not make any turn until we are 400 ft above the elevation of
the aerodrome and are 600 m from the start of the runway.
During takeoff, we will do callouts to check that everything

is going according to expectations. Callouts vary from
operator to operator, but they will maintain a similar
structure.
When we are ready to take off, we will say, “Takeoff

power”, and we will apply power. We will look at the engine
instruments. When we have confirmation that the motor is
giving the required power, we will say, “Set” to confirm that
the motor operates correctly.
As soon as the plane starts to accelerate, we will check

that the speed indicator gives us an incremental speed,
reaching our V 1. We will check the engine and oil
parameters, if everything is correct, we will say the speed:
“60 kt, V1”.
Reaching our VR, we will say the speed, “VR, rotate”, and
we will gently pull the controls to make the plane takeoff.
With positive climb, we will say, “Positive climb, landing
gear up”. We will raise the landing gear, and we will turn off
the landing lights. When we reach 400 ft, we will let the
plane accelerate and say, “Flaps 0”. We will raise the flaps,
and we will accelerate to our rate of climb. We will surely
also have to reduce the power at this point.
Now we can do the climb checklist.
Figure 5.2.1. Takeoff profile.
When the workload allows, we should follow the
instructions to contact the approach frequency and report
our intentions. That is, the previous authorization we have
received. This frequency deals with departures and
approaches. It will direct us to our next point. Sometimes
they will allow us to continue with the published
instrumental departure. Other times they will direct us to
other points on our route or will ask us to make changes to
the route.
“Madrid Approach, HTF22. Good morning.

RBO2N climbing to 13,000 ft.”
“HTF22, continue with RBO2N departure.”
“Continue with RBO2N departure. HTF22.”
If during the start you suffer an engine failure and your

operator has an engine failure procedure, you will have to
communicate it to the controller and detail the procedure
that you are going to follow, because he will not know your
company’s engine failure procedure.
DEPARTURE ROUTE
Navigation in instrument flights is carried out by

understanding the position of the station through the
information provided by the instruments.
If we have three instruments, we can monitor the position

of three radio stations at the same time.
In this departure, at first we monitor SSY in the RMI, when

the station goes from being right in front of us to being
exactly behind, it means that we have just passed precisely
above the station.
At that moment, we will set the heading 017º, and we will

monitor the OBI with the BAR frequency and the selected
005º radial. When the course deviation indicator moves into
the center, we will be exactly on the 005º radial of BRA. We
are going to turn to heading 005º, and compensating for the
wind, we will stay with the OBI indication centered.
Figure 5.2.2. Departure route.
At the same time, we will have changed the frequency of

the NAV1, and we will have selected the one of RBO. We
will also have selected the 057º approach course. When the
course deviation indicator centers in the HSI, that means we
are exactly on the 057º approach course. In that moment,
we will turn to keep the approach course to the VOR RBO,
and we will look for the following frequencies to select
them.
INITIAL CLIMB
VX will be the speed to reach the MSA in the shortest

horizontal distance possible (best angle of climb). When we
are above MSA, we will accelerate to our speed VY, the best
rate of climb speed (ft/min).
During the climb, we will continue to maintain climb power.

If we fly in a piston plane, we will have to gradually
increase the position of the levers. At higher altitude, the
density of the air decreases and the power that a lever
position gives us will also decrease. You will also have to
reduce the mixture gradually. If the density of the air
decreases and we continue to feed the engine with the
same amount of fuel, the fuel/air ratio will be enriched. The
fuel pressure required at each altitude will be indicated in
the AFM power charts. See Figure 5.3.1.
The mixture should be reduced progressively, according to

our current level. If we go from FL050 to FL140, at FL100
we should have around 6.2 PSI of fuel flow. If at the
beginning of the climb we put the mixture that we should
have at FL140, it may not be enough for combustion, and
the engine will turn off. The opposite will happen if we keep
the configuration we had at FL050. Too much fuel will enter
for combustion, and the engine may stall.
As you climb, keep checking the engine gauges and act

accordingly. Each aircraft will have its own actions to
manage the systems. We will have them detailed in the
AFM.
ALTIMETER CHECK
As we go through the transition altitude, we will switch to

flight levels and do an altimeter check; change the
altimeter pressure sub-scale to 1013 hPa to have the
indication of flight levels.
To do the altimeter check, choose a level that we will reach

relatively soon; for example, for FL063, say, “Altimeter
check, FL063”. When your altimeter passes through FL063,
say, “Now”. The CM2 will check its altimeter, comparing the
indication of its altimeter and yours. Calculate and state
the difference between altimeters. For example, if when you
said “now” his altimeter was passing FL064, that is 100 ft
above, so say, “Plus 100 ft”.
After doing the altimeter check, proceed to do the climb

checklist if you didn’t do it before.
When you are at 1,000 ft from your cruising altitude, say,

“1,000 ft to level” and begin leveling 10% in advance of
your climb rate. For example, if you are going at 500 ft/min,
begin leveling when 50 ft remain to level.
FL100
When passing through FL100, we will check several

elements before reaching cruising altitude. If we are
carrying passengers, we would turn off the seatbelt lights
now. It will also be the end of the sterile cockpit.
PBN DEPARTURE
With the creation of area navigation, RNAV charts were

created where the points we are going are not defined by
course/distance from a station.
In area navigation, the points are inserted in our FMS via
coordinates, and we can go to them directly because the
aircraft is able to locate its own position. On the navigation
display screen we will have an indication similar to
conventional mobile GPS, where our route will appear
drawn as a line and will move, keeping our position fixed on
the screen.
In Figure 5.6.1, we can see the chart of two RNAV

departures with an endpoint at RBO, the RBO2R departure
has only one point on the route, called MD047. When we are
at this point, we will have to turn to the course indicated by
the ND.
This is how RNAV navigations are completed. The

communications will be identical to the conventional
procedures where they will authorize us to an RNAV
departure by its callsign.
Figure 5.6.1. RNAV SID.
OMNIDIRECTIONAL DEPARTURE
If we want to take off from an airport to enter an

airway through point ZZZ, but that airport does not have
any published instrumental exit that connects point ZZZ and
the airport, we could make an omnidirectional exit, which is
about making a route from the point of takeoff to point ZZZ,
following the controller's heading and altitude indications.
In the following example, we would be taking off from an

airport with no instrumental exit, bound for Paris Charles de
Gaulle, and the first point on the route would be ZMR. The
ATC authorization would be similar to the following:
“HTF22, cleared to Paris Charles de Gaulle via ight

plan. Maintain runway heading up to 4,500 ft then right
turn to ZMR”

runway heading up to 4 500ft, then left turn to
ZMR. HTF22.”
IFR JOINING
For a IFR joining, the takeoff profile will be identical, but we

will navigate following visual flight rules on course to the
first point of our route, where IFR will start.
The communications that we will have on the ground are

detailed in the uncontrolled aerodrome section.
The change of flight rules will be done verbally on the

frequency, where they will confirm that we are under IFR
rules as follows.
“HTF22, contact reaching CBY. IFR starts passing CBY.”
“We will report reaching CBY. HTF22.”
When we get to CBY, we'll report it.
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“Reaching CBY. HTF22.”
“HTF22, at 13:03Z, IFR starts now.”
“IFR starts now. HTF22.”
They might also tell us that we start IFR when crossing an

altitude.
Figure 5.8.1. IFR joining.
DEPARTURE REGULATIONS
Unless otherwise specified, the instrument departure is

assumed to require a minimum climb gradient of 3.3%
ICAO.5.2
When we have to make a course change of more than 15º

during departure, it is considered a turn departure. 5.1
In turn departures and omnidirectional departures, it is

assumed that after takeoff the runway heading is
maintained, and no turn is completed until over 400 ft from
the field elevation and 600 m from the start of the runway
5.3
Figure 6.9.1 details the maximum speeds in a
turning departure for aircraft of different categories. 5.4
Figure 5.9.1. Maximum speeds for turning departures.
CRUISE
This section covers the actions we will complete from the
moment we enter the airway until we arrive at the exit point
and the approach to the airport begins.
The airway portion of flights is the phase with the lightest

workload. We will have to follow our route and record the
times and fuel consumption. Each region is controlled by a
control center where they radar monitor our position. We
will change frequencies when flying over each region. We
will communicate with the controller of the region, and if
we get disoriented and go off the route for any reason, the
controller will call us asking us to return to the route.
During the cruise, you will need to continue checking the

engine gauges and the remaining fuel. At the same time,
you can compare your speed on the ground (ground speed)
with your indicated speed to know if you have headwind or
tailwind. Note that to calculate the true air speed (TAS),
your indicated air speed (IAS) increases by 2% for every
1,000 ft.
You can determine the crosswind by keeping the heading of

a radial and seeing if you are being pushed to the right or
left. If our aircraft is equipped with systems capable of
calculating the wind speed/heading, it will not be necessary
for us to calculate it.
CRUISE POWER SETTING
When you level at the cruise altitude, do the cruise

procedure. It is possible that you will reach that altitude
during the SID. You will have to select the engine
configuration, which will consist of cruising power, engine
revolutions, and the fuel mixture in a piston plane; this info
will be in the AFM power tables. When flying turbine
engines, we are going to select only the engine power.
Depending on the temperature of the cylinders, you will
need to operate the engine cooling/ventilation systems. One
way to control the temperature of the cylinders on a piston
engine is to regulate the fuel/air mixture: the fuel is cold, so
more fuel per revolution will cool the cylinders, and vice
versa.
It is likely the cruise procedure will say we have to close

the engine vents to keep it warm, but there is no point in
doing so if the engine is still too hot. In that case, we will
let the engine cool down and then we will close the
ventilation. It is critical that the actions you take are for a
reason, and not just because it is said in the procedures.
Figure 6.2.1. Max cruise.
The power that we will put in cruise varies from operator to

operator, in the AFM we will have tables for different cruise
speeds, among them the max cruise, max endurance, or long
range. Depending on which one we want to fly, we will face
our weight, the temperature, and the altitude at which we
are to find the power and speed to fly.
In some aircraft, especially ones with a piston engine, the

manufacturer may not have published charts with so many
configurations, and may have published charts that indicate
only the different speeds and consumptions for each cruise
configuration.
AIRSPACES
The world's airspace is divided by regions. Depending on the

kind of airspace we are in, the characteristics will change.
Within controlled airspace, ATC service is provided in

accordance with the airspace classification. We will need
authorization to enter the controlled airspaces, for which
we will have to communicate with the frequency of the
airspace we are going to enter. In uncontrolled airspace, air
traffic control does not exercise any authority, although it
can act in an advisory manner by providing information.
As the routes that we fly in the air are three-dimensional,

the airspaces will also be three-dimensional. That is, they
will be cubes defined by coordinates positioned on top of
each other. Each airspace will be located in relation to the
requirements of the area.
Each airspace will have a designation and dimensions in

relation to the flight phases it deals with.
REGIONS
AERODROME TRAFFIC ZONE (ATZ)
The ATZ is a controlled airspace associated with an

aerodrome that is established so that the control tower
(TWR) can control aerodrome traffic and protect VFR flights.
When there is also IFR traffic and a controlled traffic region
(CTR) has been established, this usually encompasses the
ATZ.
Figure 6.3.1. Aerodrome traffic zone.
Figure 6.3.2. Aerodrome traffic zone.
CONTROLLED TRAFFIC REGION (CTR)
A control zone (CTR or controlled traffic region) is a

controlled airspace, usually around an airport, that extends
from the surface to a specific upper limit and is established
to protect the air traffic operating to and from that airport.
In an area where there is more than one airport, the CTR
will likely cover all of them. This airspace is usually
dedicated to a tower controller.
Figure 6.3.3. Controlled traffic region.
Figure 6.3.4. Controlled traffic region.
CONTROL AREA (CTA)
A control area called CTA is a controlled airspace that

exists in the vicinity of an airport, extending from a lower
level to a specified upper level. The lower level will not be
the floor. It is usually located on top of a CTR and provides
protection for aircraft leaving the airport.
It differs from a terminal maneuvering area (TMA) in that

the CTA is smaller and controls the smaller airport(s).
Figure 6.3.5. Controlled area (CTA).
TERMINAL CONTROL AREA (TMA)
A TMA is a controlled airspace surrounding a large airport

with a high traffic volume. It is where the approach and
departure control service is provided.
TMA airspace is normally located at the main airport.
It differs from a control area, or CTA, in that it is divided

into several levels of larger areas.
Figure 6.3.6. Terminal control area (TMA).
Figure 6.3.7. Terminal control area (TMA).
FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION (FIR)
A flight information region is an uncontrolled

airspace of defined dimensions within which the flight
information service and the alert service are provided.
The size of FIRs is a matter of administrative

convenience for the countries concerned:A FIR for the
airspace of a medium size country, Multiple FIRs for the
airspace of a large country, One FIR for the airspace of
several small countries
In some cases there is a vertical split of the FIR

where the lower part remains called the FIR, usually from
ground level to FL245, while the above airspace is called
the upper information region (UIR), usually from FL245 to
FL410.
Figure 6.3.8. Flight information region.
Figure 6.3.9. Flight information region.
AREA CONTROL CENTER (ACC)
An area control center, known as a radar center, monitors

IFR traffic in its flight information region.
In this airspace the en-route control service is provided to

IFR flights.
It extends from a lower level to a specific upper level, both

levels at high altitude.
It differs from a FIR in that the ACC provides control service

and the FIR does not. The name of an ACC will be identical
to that of the FIR that encompasses it.
ATS ROUTE
An ATS route is a speci ed route designed to channel traf c

ow as necessary for the provision of air traf c services.
The term “ATS route” has several meanings: airway, advisory

route, controlled or uncontrolled route, arrival or departure
route, and so on.
An ATS route is de ned by route speci cations that include

an ATS route designator, the route to or from signi cant
points (waypoints), the distance between signi cant points,
the noti cation requirements, and, as determined by the
appropriate ATS authority, the lowest safe altitude.
Speci cations for ATS routes are published in national AIPs.
AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION
Each airspace will be different because the regulations

within that airspace will change. Seven classes of airspace
are identified with callsigns from A to G.
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Figure 6.3.10. Airspace classification.
Figure 6.3.11. Example of airspace class distribution.
Figure 6.3.12. Illustration of airspace class of Salamanca.
Figure 6.3.11 illustrates how the different regions of

airspace are usually assigned according to the size of the
airport they encompass. It also illustrates the class that
each airspace usually has.
Figure 6.3.12 shows how we would see the class of each

airspace in the charts. In the case of Salamanca (LESA), it
would be class D.
COMMUNICATIONS
When you enter the airway, the controller of the takeoff

airport will pass you to the area control center responsible
for the FIR where you are. When we change from one FIR to
another, it is the controller who will ask us to communicate
with the next region. The communications will resemble the
following:
“HTF22, contact Madrid Control in 136.525.”
“With Madrid Control 136.525. HTF22.”
In the initial call with a frequency, we should include the

following elements ICAO. Doc 4444. p. 4-15 (4.11.2):
a) Identification of who we are calling

b) Identification of the aircraft
c) Flight level or altitude
d) Additional elements required by the ATS authority,
such as the next point where we are going
“Madrid Control, HTF22. Good morning. Passing

FL100 to FL140, on course to RBO.”
“HTF22, Madrid Control, radar contact. Continue

climb.”
“Radar contact. Continue climb to FL140.

HTF22.”
Radar contact means that we appear on their screen. We

will continue with the route of our flight plan and report at
the reporting points.
It is possible that at this point we still do not have

authorization to climb to our cruising flight level. When we
contact the control center, they will surely grant us an
authorization to climb.
“Madrid Control, HTF22. Good morning. Passing

FL100 to FL140, on course to RBO.”
“HTF22, good morning. Continue climb. What nal level

do you request?”
“Continue climb. We request nal level FL240.”
“HTF22, cleared to climb to FL240.”
“Cleared to FL240. HTF22.”
If we notice we are reaching the authorization limit, and

they do not call us to grant us a higher altitude, we will
communicate our altitude to them.
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“HTF22 reaching FL140. Request higher level.”
The controller may change our route or send us directly to

some point within our route. It is therefore important to
know our position at all times and to know how the rest of
the points of the route are defined. We can request direct
routes to points to cut time. It is also possible that they
will ask us to maintain course, change altitude, or change
speed.
Communications will resemble the following:
“HTF22, continue direct to BAN.”

“HTF22, maintain present heading.”
“HTF22, descend to FL220.”
“HTF22, decelerate to 150 kt.”
“HTF22, turn right to heading 040º.”
When we receive authorizations, we will have to repeat

them to the controller to ensure we have received the
information correctly. The data to be called back will be the
following: ATC route authorizations; authorizations to land,
take off, cross and taxi the runway; information on the
runway in use, altimeter setting, transponder code, level,
heading and speed instructions, transition levels, and ATIS
information. 6.1
If we leave the airway we will have to comply with the

minimum off-route altitude (MORA), detailed in the
Minimum Altitudes section.
NAVAID CHANGE
During conventional instrument flights, we will fly following

the indications of a radio aid. We will have NAV1 and the
HSI/RMI as our main instruments.
If we have to monitor a second radio aid, we will select it in

the NAV2 to see its position in the OBI/RMI.
Figure 6.5.1 shows us the case of a radio aid and course

change. At the beginning we will go through the 360º radial
of XYZ, with XYZ on NAV1 and the next radio aid, which is
CBA on NAV2.
Once we are on the CBA 075º inbound course (we will see it
on the RMI, double needle), we will turn to the 075º course
to stay on course.
We are going to tune the CBA frequency on the NAV1 and

keep the 075º course using the HSI. If the frequency and the
equipment work correctly, we will select the next frequency
in the NAV2, which in this case will be BBI.
Figure 6.5.1. Radio aid change.
In general, the NAV1 equipment will be connected to the

RMI single needle and the HSI. The NAV2 equipment will be
connected to the RMI double needle and the OBI, and the
DME equipment will have a switch to change between
NAV1, HOLD, and NAV2. The ADF equipment will be
connected to both needles of the RMI, which we can select
if we want to have the NAV or ADF information on each
needle.
Figure 6.5.2. Communication box.
To identify each station by listening to the Morse code, we

are going to press the pads marked with each device in the
communications box. To hear it through the speakers, we
will press the upper pad, and to hear it through the
headphones, we will press the lower pad.
Before following the indications of a new frequency, check

as well that you are receiving the correct distance
indication in the DME.
In the departure chart we have indicated the frequencies

and equipment (DME, VOR, ADF) that we will need during
the departure. We cannot stop receiving this information at
any time during the departure.
FILLING IN THE OFP
During the flight, we will have to fill in the operational

flight plan that we made during planning. The idea of the
operational flight plan is to check how we are doing on the
route and whether the calculated time and fuel are being
met. It also helps to take notes of the authorizations
received and to record the different sections of the flight.
At each point, we will write down the time, the duration of

the leg, and the current fuel. Later, we will compare with
what we had calculated.
Initially, we are going to write down the takeoff time in the

actual time of arrival (ATA) box and the fuel that we have in
the REM box (remaining).
When we have the takeoff time, we will add the calculated

time to the next point and write it down in the ETA box, in
the row of the next point.
Then we are going to add the time to the next point and
write it down in the same way, repeating the action until all
the points of the route are covered.
When we get to the next point, we will write down the time
in the ATA box. We will also write the time it took from the
previous point in the ATE box and the remaining fuel under
the REM box.
That is how we will fill out the operational flight plan. In

Figure 6.6.4, you can see the operational flight plan filled in
until ALEPO. According to this image, we would find
ourselves between ALEPO and NOLSA.
MINIMUM ALTITUDES
During the route, we will nd altitude limitations. We should

not y below these altitudes, but if we do, it will be our
responsibility, and we should have visual contact with the
ground.
MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE (MSA)
MSA is the safe altitude that protects us from obstacles

within a 25 NM radius of a radio station. It will appear on
approach, SID and STAR charts. Pay close attention to the
station it is based on, in this case, BBI.
It's going to give us a minimum clearance of 1,000 ft from

the highest obstacle in that sector.
Figure 6.7.1. MSA.
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Flying between the 075º and 002º inbound courses, we
should not go below 5,800 ft. Between the 075º and 284º
inbound courses, we should not go below 4,500 ft, and
between the 284º and 002º inbound courses, we should not
go down below 7,000 ft in a range of 25 NM from the VOR
BBI.
We can go down below these altitudes, but we will have to

communicate to the tower that we have visual contact with
the ground.
When flying below these altitudes, we will be responsible

for maintaining the minimum altitude, and if an event
occurs, we will be held responsible.
MINIMUM EN-ROUTE ALTITUDE (MEA)
We can find the MEA on the airway charts, indicated as

Figure 6.7.2. If we stay between the minimum and maximum
altitudes, we will have guaranteed reception of the radio aid
signal and communication in both directions with ATC, while
protecting us from the
obstacles that will be
encountered along the route.
According to Figure 6.7.2, in
the section between ELTEP
and FORNO, we will have to go
between 5,500 ft and FL245.
If we fill a flight plan through

airways, we should select
altitudes that comply with the
MEA.
Figure 6.7.2. MEA.
MINIMUM OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE (MOCA)
The MOCA is the minimum altitude that provides us with the

necessary vertical separation from the highest obstacle in
the section of the route. This minimum altitude does not
ensure that we will have ATC radar reception or radio aid
reception.
It will give us a vertical separation of 1,000 ft when the

maximum elevation of the obstacles is less than 3,000 ft, a
vertical separation of 1,500 ft when the elevation of the
obstacles is between 3,000 ft and 5,000 ft, and a separation
of 2,000 ft when the elevation of obstacles is greater than
5,000 ft.
Figure 6.7.3. MOCA.
MINIMUM OFF-ROUTE ALTITUDE (MORA)
There are two types of MORA: MORA and GRID MORA.
The MORA protects us when we leave the route for less

than 10 NM laterally. It ensures
1,000 ft of vertical separation in
non-mountainous areas and
2,000 ft in mountainous areas.
The GRID MORA will protect us

within a quadrant limited by
latitude and longitude. It will
protect us with 1,000 ft where
the highest elevations are 5,000
ft MSL, and 2,000 ft where the
highest elevations are 5,001 ft or
more.
MINIMUM HOLDING ALTITUDE (MHA)
The minimum holding altitude is the minimum altitude that

we can maintain during the hold.
Figure 6.7.5. MHA.
PBN
PBN, or Per formance-Based Navigation, marks a
groundbreaking transformation in air navigation, redefining
the manner in which aircraft navigate the airspace.
Unlike traditional Area Navigation (RNAV), PBN equips

aircraft with advanced navigational capabilities, offering a
more accurate and dynamic approach to planning and
executing routes.
PBN isn't a specific technology but rather a framework that

utilises Area Navigation (RNAV), navaid infrastructure and
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) specifications.
While RNAV enables navigation within defined airspace

using onboard systems, RNP adds an extra layer of
precision by specifying the required level of accuracy,
ensuring aircraft remain within a defined containment area.
This advancement in navigation technology promotes more
efficient and flexible air travel, optimising routes and
enhancing safety across the aviation landscape.
PBN = RNAV + Navaid infrastructure + RNP
PBN can be envisioned as a set of parameters delineating a

cube around the aircraft, within which it must remain, and a
series of virtual checkpoints along its route that it must
traverse. These "windows" are not visibly displayed on any
screen in RNAV navigation. Instead, they are internal points
and parameters managed by the system for self-diagnosis
and error checking.
RNP
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) is a navigational

concept in aviation that establishes precise standards for
aircraft navigation. It defines specific accuracy
requirements, ensuring aircraft adhere to predetermined
paths with minimal deviation. RNP enhances safety and
efficiency by demanding a higher level of precision, actively
managing deviations from intended flight paths. Four key
aspects govern RNP: functionality, integrity, continuity, and
accuracy.
Functionality
It involves the range of functions and tools available to

enhance and optimise aircraft navigation.
Integrity
Is the measure of the trustworthiness and reliability of the

navigation system. It involves the ability of the system to
detect errors and provide alerts or corrective actions if
deviations from the intended path occur.
Accuracy
Relates to the level of accuracy required and maintained by

the navigation system. Precision required will change
depending on the RNP requirement for each part of the
flight.
Continuity
is the assurance that the navigation system maintains its

required level of performance without interruption. The
requirement is that the performance level shall be
maintained for 95% of the flight.
In plain language, this means that the aircraft must comply
with several equipment requirements and has to be able to
navigate without deviating beyond the legal limits for 95%
of the flight and also monitor and provide an alert in case of
malfunction or loss of precision.
FD / FDE
Fault Detection’s (FD) purpose is to pinpoint any

irregularities or failures within the system, utilising
algorithms and monitoring mechanisms. These irregularities
might include issues like sensor failures, data
inconsistencies, or faults in the navigation equipment.
When a fault is identified, the system can take corrective

actions. These actions may involve isolating the faulty part
or switching to backup systems to maintain the accuracy of
navigation information.
Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE) not only recognizes

when a fault occurs but takes proactive steps to mitigate
its impact, such as isolating the faulty sensor or system
and relying on redundant components. The key distinction
from Fault Detection (FD) lies in this additional action,
contributing to a higher level of system robustness and
reliability. There are different RNP specifications that will
require you to have FDE.
LATERAL ERRORS
In the context of on-board performance monitoring and

alerting, there are three primary independent lateral errors
contributing to the Total System Error (TSE). The TSE
serves as the foundation for performance estimation and
monitoring. These errors include:
Path Definition Error (PDE): This occurs when the path

defined in the RNAV system (database) does not align with
the intended path expected to be flown over the ground. For
practical purposes, it is considered cero.
Flight Technical Error (FTE): This error is associated with

the aircrew or autopilot's ability to follow the prescribed
path or track, encompassing any display error like CDI
centering error, sometimes referred to as Path Steering
Error (PSE).
Navigation System Error (NSE): NSE refers to the variance

between the aircraft's estimated position and its actual
position. The accuracy of a navigation system may also be
denoted as NSE or Estimated Position Error (EPE). Multiple
sensors and systems like INS are used to calculate this
error. The aircraft desired path will be represented in your
navigation display as DTK (RNAV-Computed desired path).
TSE=PDE+FTE+NSE
Lateral errors should be monitored for the duration of the

flight and can be found on FMS and EFIS. Common terms
used for this are ANP (Actual Navigation Performance), EPU
(Estimated Position Uncertainty), ACTUAL or ESTIMATED.
AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS
Augmentation systems stand as a transformative leap in

aviation technology, reshaping navigational capabilities by
synergizing with global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS). Despite the impressive reach of GNSS, the inherent
limitations, such as its precision and the historical presence
of Selective Availability (SA), highlight the need for
augmentation. GPS, on its own, may not provide the
accuracy required for advanced navigational procedures like
PBN (Performance-Based Navigation). In response, three
key augmentation systems have emerged: SBAS (Satellite-
Based Augmentation System), GBAS (Ground-Based
Augmentation System), and ABAS (Aircraft-Based
Augmentation System). Together, these systems address
environmental challenges, ensuring unparalleled accuracy
and reliability throughout an aircraft's trajectory while
enhancing safety measures in modern air travel.
SATELLITE BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (SBAS)
Satellite based augmentation systems rely on a

constellation of geostationary satellites and ground
infrastructure. It significantly contributes to the accuracy,
integrity, and reliability of signals. In addition to its primary
role in improving satellite navigation, SBAS also plays a key
role in enhancing Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE)
capabilities.
The key components of SBAS include ground-based

reference stations, a master control centre, and
geostationary satellites. Ground-based reference stations
strategically positioned receive signals from GNSS
satellites, continuously monitoring and collecting data on
errors by comparing their true position with the one
deduced from GNSS. The master control centre processes
this data, calculating correction messages that address
various errors in GNSS signals, such as satellite clock
errors, ionospheric error, and orbital variations, after that it
will send it to a SBAS satellite, who will transmit the
information to all receivers.. Additionally, SBAS will provide
FAS Datablock during approach, providing vital information
about aircraft's trajectory, position, and guidance
parameters.
One of the notable features of SBAS is its correction

capability. It broadcasts correction messages to user
receivers. These correction messages, including
adjustments for satellite clock errors, orbit corrections,
ionospheric corrections, and integrity information, enable
user receivers to refine their GNSS measurements,
significantly enhancing the accuracy of positioning
information. Ionospheric error will decrease from 2 m to 0,3
m and clock error + orbital variation error from 1 m to 0,5 m.
SBAS incorporates Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE)
within its framework. GNSS on its own are equipped with
features that enable them to identify satellite malfunctions.
However, this detection process may take up to 3 hours,
creating a period during which the reliability of navigation
integrity is in question, while SBAS will achieve this within
6 seconds.
To fully leverage SBAS capabilities, users need SBAS-

enabled receivers, which utilise correction messages from
the SBAS system to enhance the accuracy of their GNSS-
derived positions to up to 1-2 m horizontally and 3-5 m
vertically (EGNOS).
SBAS is indispensable for precision approaches and
landings. It facilitates procedures like LPV (Localizer
Performance with Vertical Guidance), offering accuracy
comparable to instrument landing systems (ILS) without
relying on ground-based infrastructure. Different regions
worldwide have implemented their own SBAS systems, such
as WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System) in North
America, EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation
Overlay Service) in Europe, MSAS (Multi-functional Satellite
Augmentation System) in Japan, and GAGAN (GPS Aided
GEO Augmented Navigation) in India.
GROUND BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (GBAS)
GBAS, or Ground-Based Augmentation System, stands as a

sophisticated navigation technology dedicated to refining
the precision of global navigation satellite system (GNSS)
signals during aircraft approach and landing. Acting as a
counterpart to satellite-based systems like GPS, GBAS
employs a comprehensive ground facility that includes
antennas, reference receivers, and data processing units.
Communication between GBAS and aircraft occurs through a

VHF Data Broadcast (VDB) link, ensuring real-time
transmission of correction data and integrity information to
participating aircraft. GBAS utilises a data link in the VHF
band of ILS-VOR systems (108-118 MHz).
This system supports various approach types, such as LPV

(Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance) and the
advanced GBAS Landing System (GLS), offering benefits like
increased navigation accuracy, flexible approach paths,
reduced reliance on ground infrastructure, and improved
airport accessibility, especially in challenging weather
conditions.
During operation, a network of strategically positioned

ground-based reference stations continuously monitors
GNSS signals. Real-time data processing calculates
correction factors, addressing errors such as satellite clock
discrepancies and atmospheric conditions. Calculated
corrections are then broadcast to aircraft through the VHF
Data Broadcast link, actively refining the GNSS-derived
position of the aircraft. As GBAS is not affected by
atmospheric errors, it is especially good in mitigating the
impact of atmospheric and ionospheric errors, ensuring
accurate correction data even in the presence of these
environmental variables.
GBAS not only enhances precision but also provides

guidance in the terminal area and three-dimensional
guidance in the final approach segment (FAS) by
transmitting the FAS data block. The minimum coverage
area is 10° on either side of the final approach path to a
distance between 15 and 20 NM, extending to 35° on either
side of the final approach path up to 15 NM and reaches
heights of 10,000 ft.
AIRCRAFT BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (ABAS)
Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS) is an

innovative aviation technology designed to enhance the
precision, reliability, and safety of onboard navigation. It
will monitor the integrity of our navigation, providing FD
and FDE capabilities. FD requires data from at least five
satellites, while FDE, offering enhanced reliability, needs
information from at least six satellites. Remember that at
least 4 satellites are needed to provide a 3D position.
There are two primary systems that offer ABAS capabilities:

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM): RAIM
relies solely on GNSS data for this function.
Aircraft autonomous Integrity Monitoring (AAIM): AAIM

employs sophisticated data fusion algorithms that integrate
information from multiple sources. These algorithms
analyse and cross-check data from GNSS, INS, air data
systems, sensors and other on-board systems to ensure the
accuracy and reliability of the navigation information.
FAS DATABLOCK
Final Approach Segment (FAS) Datablock refers to essential

data transmitted or broadcast during the final approach
phase of an aircraft's flight. This data block contains critical
information related to the aircraft's trajectory, position, and
guidance parameters, contributing to the precision and
accuracy of navigation during the final stages of approach
and landing. It is essential for LPV and LP approaches and it
is provided by SBAS and GBAS.
OPERATIONAL DIFFERENCES
In practical terms, conventional and Performance-Based

Navigation (PBN) navigation share similarities and rely on
similar flying techniques. However, subtle distinctions exist,
primarily in the need to monitor both integrity and precision
and many particularities during all phases of flight as
stated in EASA AIR OPS CAT.MPA.OP.126.
BEFORE FLYING
Always ensure your navigation database is up to date

before initiating your flight, according to the current AIRAC
cycle. Check the operability of your navigation equipment
according to your operator's procedures. If any malfunctions
occur, consider its impact on PBN capabilities, as certain
parts of the flight may become inaccessible. It is mandatory
to carry on board a list of equipment requirements for
conducting PBN approaches. Verify that the displayed
aircraft position matches the actual position before take-
off. After loading your flight plan, manually check with your
FMS and ND the runway, departure, waypoints, track
angles, distances, and any altitude and speed constraints.7.1
DEPARTURE AND CRUISE
Ensure GNSS signal availability before take-off. Confirm

that the aircraft's displayed position in your navigation
equipment is consistent at the start of the take-off roll.
Check any changes made to waypoints after introducing
them to your FMS. Verify that the GNSS sensor is used for
position computation, instead of inertial navigation.
Monitor integrity and confirm that vertical and lateral

deviation comply with route segment requirements. Cross-
track error navigation should be limited to half of the
accuracy required. Brief deviations are allowed during turns
(in case of overshooting or undershooting) but should not
exceed 1 time per flight. 7.2
Verify that the GNSS sensor is used for position

computation, instead of inertial navigation.
When possible, set your CDI scale to your current

performance requirement.
ARRIVAL AND APPROACH
Review approach procedures on your FMS and ND before

starting the approach, comparing them with charts for
accuracy. Check waypoints, altitude limits, and vertical
path. Check that your Approach mode indicator is correctly
indicating approach mode integrity and that it displays your
current performance requirement.
Monitor integrity and ensure vertical and lateral deviation

align with approach requirements. Set the correct altimeter
setting and ensure both altimeters show less than 100 ft of
difference before the final approach fix (FAF). The aircraft
should align with the final approach course and be
established no later than the Final Approach Fix (FAF)
before initiating the descent, ensuring clearance from
terrain and obstacles. 7.3
It is possible to get a “Direct to” clearance to the IF, if it is
clear that the aircraft will be established on final approach
path at least 2 NM before reaching FAF. 7.4
For LNAV/VNAV approaches, avoid starting the approach

unless the temperature is within approved limits, unless the
aircraft is equipped with an approved temperature
compensation system. Temperature corrections should be
considered for initial and intermediate approach segments.
7.5
LNAV approaches are always corrected for temperature

deviation. If vertical guidance is lost above 1000 ft, you can
continue the approach using VNAV minimums.7.5
During RNP APCH, when employing Barometric VNAV for

vertical path guidance in the final approach segment,
deviations above and below the Barometric VNAV path
should not surpass +100 ft/–50 ft, respectively. 7.5
For RNP AR approaches, vertical deviation should not

exceed 75 ft. 7.6
MISSED APPROACH
Initiate a missed approach in case of navigation equipment

loss, loss of monitoring and alerting system, or if lateral
and vertical deviation exceeds limits, unless the pilot has
sufficient visual reference to land. 7.7
Note that most aircraft will disengage autopilot and flight

directors when applying TOGA, switching to inertial
navigation, so re-engage them promptly. Follow the missed
approach indicated in your approach chart.
MANEUVERS
This section details the instrumental maneuvers such as
point-to-point and DME arcs as well as flight techniques
and some other miscellaneous information that covers the
entire instrument flight, such as the points where we will
receive authorizations.
FLIGHT TECHNIQUES
It is assumed that the reader has acquired visual flight

training and is able to fly an airplane safely.
The biggest difference in handling the aircraft in instrument

flight is the references we use. In a visual flight we look
outside the cockpit, using the actual horizon as a reference
to maintain a straight and level flight. Thanks to peripheral
vision, we can look at other instruments or inside the cabin
while we have a reference on the horizon. In visual flights,
we are not allowed to get into clouds, so we will never lose
the horizon information.
In an instrument flight, on the other hand, we will go

through clouds on countless occasions, losing sight of the
real horizon. Due to the acceleration forces, we will not be
able to trust our instincts to know the position of the
aircraft, which can lead to confusion if we believe that the
plane is in a straight and level flight, but in reality, we are
entering into a turn or a climb/descent. For this reason, all
aircraft certified for instrument flight have an artificial
horizon. The artificial horizon will be the most important
flight instrument for flights through clouds or flights with
reduced visibility.
Our eyes should be on the artificial horizon at all times. If

we want to see the indications of any other instrument we
will do so, we will return our eyes to the artificial horizon.
An essential action in instrument flight is to trim the flight
controls, although we are flying manually, the plane should
fly alone. There will be flight phases, such as takeoff or
approach, where the workload will be enormous. If we
dedicate most of our resources to flying the plane, we will
not be able to do the rest.
Think of the elevator trim as if it were a speed control. The

plane will try to maintain the same speed all the time. If
you reduce the power, the plane will lower the nose to
accelerate or raise the nose to decelerate in the case of
excess power. Once we have selected the speed, with the
power control we will select if we want to descend, ascend,
or maintain the altitude.
It is important to emphasize that this method is indicated

for airplanes that are relatively small. For big airplanes, we
should control the speed with the power and the altitude
with the nose.
POINT TO POINT
During instrumental flights, we will need to go from one

point based on a radial and distance from one station to
another point on a different radial and distance, which is
known as point to point. We will use the RMI as the main
instrument. The best way to understand it is through
examples, so we will follow the example in Figure 8.3.1.
Figure 8.3.1. Point to point on the map.
Suppose we want to go from our position (P1: radial 190, 15
NM) to the radial 070º, 10 NM (P2). Using only the
information from the RMI and the DME, we will set the
course that takes us from where we are directly to the
desired position.
We will draw a circle with the center in the VOR that passes
through our position and another circle with the center in
the VOR up to the position we want to reach. See Figure
8.3.2.
We will take this image to the RMI, with the larger circle
being the outer ring of the RMI and the station the center of
the instrument.
P1 will be our position, indicated by the arrow tail. To find

point P2, we will look for the 070º radial on the instrument,
and we will calculate the distance according to the
relationship between distances.
In this case, 10 NM is two-thirds of 15 NM, so you will be at

two-thirds of the center of the instrument, which is
illustrated in Figure 8.3.3.
Figure 8.3.2. Point to point on the map.
We will draw a line from our current point to our
destination, and we will move the line to the center of the
instrument.
Figure 8.3.3. Point to point on the RMI.
Our position is indicated by the arrow tail of the RMI. To

avoid confusion, the arrow is not drawn in these images.
Once we are on the heading, the final position will be just

above our position, as can be seen in Figure 8.3.4. The
needle will trace the displayed path. If you have crosswind,
the image will resemble the second figure.
Figure 8.3.4. Point to point on the RMI.
Go on checking your position and recalculate the point-to-

point a little every time. In this way, if the wind or any other
factor makes you leave the route, you will correct it.
With crosswind, you will have to set a wind correction angle

to the required side.
As can be seen in Figure 8.3.5, when the RMI needle is less
than 90º, the station will be in front of us, and we will move
closer until the RMI needle is 90º. When the needle is more
than 90º, we will move away. In this case, there will be a
point where we will be about 6 miles from the station, then
we will move away to mile 10. See Figure 8.3.2.
Figure 8.3.5. Inbound and outbound in RMI.
When you have to do a point to point, they will usually ask

you to fly closer to or away from the station on the selected
course/radial. Select in the HSI the course you will have to
set after the point to point. When the CDI needle starts to
move, follow the advice to push it with the lubber line to
get perfectly established in the course/radial (explained
later).
DME ARC
In a DME arc, we try to fly in circles around a station,

maintaining the same distance at all times. We will use the
RMI and the DME.
If we fly with the RMI needle at 90º, we will be flying a

course perpendicular to the VOR, making circles around it,
as can be seen in Figure 8.4.1.
Figure 8.4.1. DME arc.
To keep the RMI needle at exactly 90º all the time, we

should constantly maintain a very tiny angle of bank. Given
that this is not practical, we will instead put the RMI needle
at 85º from our heading, wait for the needle to pass 95º,
and turn to put it at 85º again.
As described in the previous section, if the needle is above

90º, we are approaching the VOR, and if it is below, we are
moving away, so at first we will get a little closer, and then
we will move slightly away (maximum 0.5 NM). We will use
the same technique to counteract the effect of the wind
because sometimes it will bring us closer to the station and
other times it will move us away. It is important to know
which direction the wind is coming from before entering the
arc. Look for it while on ground or determine the wind as
described in the Cruise section.
Figure 8.4.2. DME arc.
When the wind pushes you into the arc (i.e. pushing you
closer to the station), you will have to counteract the effect
by turning until the needle is approximately at 110º. When
the wind pushes you out from the arc, you will have to put
the needle at about 60º to return to the desired distance.
When we are back at the correct distance, we will turn
again at 85º.
Figure 8.4.3. How to counteract the wind effect.
Keep in mind that the higher cutting heading you set, the
faster you will get closer to the desired distance. Pay close
attention to the DME in these cases.
The ground speed that the DME shows us is the oblique

speed to or from the station. If we want to maintain the
distance, it should be zero.
For example, let's say we're at mile 20, and we want to fly
an arc at mile 15, counterclockwise. We head towards the
station and turn right before reaching mile 15 to put the RMI
needle at 85º. If we start this turn at mile 15, we will move
and finish the turn at a different distance at 15 miles, so we
will have to anticipate entering the arc.
Then we will stay in the heading until the RMI needle is at

95º, where we will turn to the left to put the RMI needle at
85º again.
To exit the arc, we will choose a radial and leave the arc on
it. We will also enter an anticipation. Select the radial on
the HSI and follow the CDI push advice to leave the arc or
calculate the anticipation.
Figure 8.4.4. Full DME arc.
ARC ANTICIPATION
Arc entry (NM): GS ÷ 10 ÷ 2 (NM)
GS × 3
Arc exit (Radials): (º)
DME × 10
RADIAL INTERCEPTION
During instrumental flights, we will fly following radials and

courses constantly; it will be essential to know how to
intercept any radial/course from our position. To do this, we
will have to know which radial/course we are on and set a
course to intercept the next one. We will use the RMI as the
main instrument, but we can also use the OBI or HSI.
Figure 8.6.1. Example of an interception.
Using the example in Figure 8.6.1, imagine that we are

approaching a station on the 240º course, and the controller
asks us to approach the station on a 270º course. As you
can see, we will have to make a left turn, fly an interception
course, and turn right when we are approaching the desired
radial/course.
It will be important to have a clear mental picture of where

we are and where we are being directed. That is, whether
the desired radial/course is to the left or right of our
position. An image like Figure 8.6.1 should instantly pop
into our minds.
To see if the desired course/radial is to the left or right of

our position, we need to identify the desired course/radial in
the RMI and draw a line that passes through the center of
the instrument. This is how the arrow will have to stay after
we complete the interception.
Imagine that the center of the RMI is the station, the tail of
the arrow is the radial you are on, and the imaginary line is
the radial/course you have to intercept; you will have to
turn towards it.
Figure 8.6.2. Interception in RMI.
In any case, with the rules outlined below, it will not be

necessary to have a mental image, but it will be helpful to
confirm the established interception course.
It is also important to know our distance from the station: if

we are far from the station and the difference between the
desired radial/course and ours is large, we can ignore the
rules and set a higher interception course, and vice versa.
One of the most important ideas is that in RMI the

arrowhead tends to fall, and the arrow tail tends to rise.
See Figure 8.6.3.
If we intend to intercept an approach course, it will have to

be below the arrowhead. If we intend to intercept a radial, it
will have to be above the tail of the arrow.
Figure 8.6.3. Arrowhead falls; arrow tail goes up.
INBOUND INTERCEPTIONS
In the inbound interceptions, we will fly in the direction of

the station.
The first thing we will do is find our current course to the

station, indicated by the RMI arrowhead. For the HSI and
OBI, the course selector should be turned until the CDI
needle is centered and the TO/FROM indicator shows “TO”.
The following is about how to identify the approach course

that we want to intercept. If we were asked to intercept a
radial, we would have to add or subtract 180º to determine
the desired inbound course. It is a common mistake to
confuse radial with the inbound course to the station, not to
add or subtract 180º, and to make a wrong interception.
In the following example, we are on the 300º inbound course

(radial 120º), and we want to approach on the 260º course.
To figure out our interception course, we will put our eyes
at the desired course (260º). We will continue in the
direction of the arrowhead (300º), and we will add 30º in
this direction. The result will be our interception course
(330º).
Figure 8.7.1. Interception in the RMI.
If the difference between the desired course and the current

one is small, (<15º) adding 30º will be excessive and less
will be enough.
Figure 8.7.2. Example on the map.
≥ 90º
If we were asked to approach the station where the

difference between the arrowhead and the desired course is
more than 90º, we will be facing the situation in Figure
8.8.1.
In these cases we will set a course contrary to the desired

inbound course (desired inbound course +180º), we will wait
to pass abeam the station, and we will count one minute
before turning 90º towards the station (arrowhead) to
intercept the desired course.
Figure 8.8.1. Example of a passed interception.
OUTBOUND INTERCEPTIONS
In the outbound interceptions, we are going to intercept a

radial to get away from the station.
Similar to inbound interceptions, we will have to find the

radial for our location. The tail of the arrow indicates our
radial in the RMI. For the HSI and OBI, the course selector
must be turned until the CDI needle is centered and the TO/
FROM indicator shows “FROM”.
Then we will have to identify the radial that they ask us to

fly.
Once we have identified our current radial and the desired

radial, we will apply the appropriate rule. As said before,
these rules are only a suggestion to choose the course of
interception. The distance to the station, and the difference
between the desired radial and ours, will be important
elements in choosing this heading.
In the following example, we will go to the arrow tail (120º).

We will continue in the direction of the desired radial (080º),
and we will add 45º in this direction. The result will be our
interception course (035º).
Figure 8.9.1. Example in the RMI.
Figure 8.9.2. Example on the map.
> 90º
If the difference between the arrow tail and the desired

radial is more than 90º, we will do a passed interception.
In these cases, we will set the radial course and wait to
pass abeam the station. We will then count one minute
before turning 45º towards where the desired radial
(arrowhead) is to intercept it.
Figure 8.10.1. Example of the passed interception on the map.
CDI PUSH
During instrument flights, we should turn with a bank angle

that gives us a turn of 3º/s, which is known as a standard
turn. This angle will vary with our speed. The formula to
calculate the angle will be as follows:
TAS
Bank angle (º) = +7
10
That angle of turn will cause a lateral displacement from
the point where we started the turn to the point where we
are on the new heading.
Figure 8.11.1. Displacement in a turn.
As can be seen in the first image of Figure 8.11.1, if we start

the turn at the moment we pass the desired radial, we will
finish the turn on a different radial, which will force us to
continue with the turn until we are on the radial we wanted
to intercept.
Doing it that way is not going to be a big problem for us in

most cases because we will end up on the radial we had in
mind. But if we are doing that in every interception, it
means we are not anticipating what is going to happen.
There will be cases in which if we do so, we will enter
another sector where the minimum altitude to maintain may
be higher than the one we just left, putting the operation in
danger.
To prevent that, we will begin to turn in advance, as shown

in the second image of Figure 8.11.1. One way to anticipate
is to make it so that the HSI lubber line pushes the CDI.
When the CDI starts to move, we will start the turn. If we
follow this rule in the interceptions, we will come out
perfectly on the radial.
Figure 8.11.2. CDI push.
It is important to emphasize that this is a general
technique, especially suitable for interceptions in the
vicinity of the radio aid. It may not be suitable if we are too
far from the station and there are many radials to cut
through. Turns in instrumental flights must be 3º/s or 25º of
maximum bank, this rule should prevail over what the CDI
push technique indicates.
CLEARANCES
During instrument flights, we will maintain contact with the

tower at all times, and we will have to be authorized to
complete any action. Generally, we will receive the same
clearances at the same points along the route, regardless
of the country or airport in which we are flying.
Figure 8.12.1. Clearances.
1 . Start-up
It will be the first clearance that we will receive from the

tower. They authorize us to start the engine (and pushback
if necessary).
2 . Taxi
This clearance allows us to taxi to the holding point and

will come with a taxi route.
3 . ATC Clearance
The ATC departure clearance authorizes us to fly the route

to the destination. This authorization alone does not allow
us to take off, taxi, or line up on the runway.
4 . Line up / takeoff
When we are ready to depart, they will give us clearance to

enter the runway and take off.
5 . Climb
It is unlikely that with the departure clearance they will

authorize us directly to the cruising altitude that we will
maintain. We will receive this authorization during the
climb.
6 . Route changes
During the route, it is possible that the points of our route

change. They may direct us to climb/descend or to change
the speed.
7 . Descent
To descend, we will need clearance.
8 . Approach
When we are approaching the destination airport, they will

clear us to start the approach. This clearance does not
allow us to land on the runway.
9 . Landing
When we are on the final approach, they will clear us to

land.
10 . Taxi
After landing, we will vacate the runway, and we will be

directed to our parking stand.
VECTORING
It is possible that the controller will direct us to follow

headings for various reasons such as separation from other
traffic or to position ourselves for the beginning of an
approach. This technique is known as vectoring, and the
phraseology to be use will be the following:
“Continue present heading”
The pilot is directed to stay on present heading until further

notice.
“Fly heading ___”
The pilot is directed to turn to achieve the indicated

heading, in the direction that takes the least time possible.
“Turn left/right, heading ___”
Similar to the previous instruction, the pilot is informed

with the required heading and direction of the turn.
“Turn left/right ___ degrees”
Similar to the previous instruction, the pilot is directed to

turn a number of degrees in the indicated direction.
“Resume own navigation”

This instruction is used for the pilot to continue with his
flight plan.
ARRIVAL
This section details the part of the instrument flight from
when we leave the airway until we start the approach to
the destination airport.
If we cannot land at the destination airport due to weather

conditions or any other irregularity, we will go to the
alternate airport.
Before starting the new route to the alternate, we will

inform the controller of our situation and request a new
route from our position to the alternate.
Normally we will follow the standard terminal arrival

(STAR), but if there is no STAR published, following the
instructions of the controller, we will fly directly to the
station where the approach begins.
BEFORE DESCENT
Before starting the descent, you will have to find out about
the weather at the destination. Do a briefing prior to the
descent and tune into the frequencies that we will use in
the descent and approach. We will also need the
authorization of the controller.
Procedures vary from airport to airport, but we will most

likely follow the published STAR route. In any case, we will
have to communicate with the controller of the destination
airport, who will detail the route to follow and the altitudes
to maintain during arrival.
METEOROLOGY
When we are approaching the destination airport, we will

tune the arrival ATIS frequency. You can find this frequency
on the airport charts. See Figure 9.4.1.
The Paris ATIS will resemble the following transcript.
“This is Charles de Gaulle information T recorded

at 1415UTC. Expect approach ILS landing
runway 08L and 09R, takeoff runway 08R and
09L. Expect departure 1A, 1B, 1Y, transition level
050. Wind 120º 5 kt. Visibility 10 km or more.
Clouds FEW 3,500 ft. Temperature 18. Dew point
07. QNH 1026. Inform in initial contact that you
have received information T.”
If the destination airport does not have an ATIS service, we

will request the weather information from the controller.
With the information received, and the meteorological

minimums from the approach charts, we can determine
whether we can land at the destination airport or if we have
to go to the alternate airport. We will also take advantage
of any information received by ATIS to anticipate what we
have to do. In this case, the ATIS dictates that ILS
approaches are expected to runways 08L and 09R, so we
will look for the ILS approach charts to those runways and
begin to review them. The most common approach is the
ILS. It is the one we will prepare in the event that it is not
specified in the ATIS.
During planning we calculated the point of descent, but the

beginning of the descent will depend on whether control
decides to give us a lower level or keep us at an altitude.
We can also request the descent if we really require it for
any reason.
Before starting the descent, we should give an approach

briefing, where we will layout the actions we will take from
the beginning of the descent until we complete the
approach and taxi to the assigned parking stand.
APPROACH BRIEFING
In this briefing, as in the takeoff briefing, we will share the

actions that we are going to take. Generally, we will give
the information chronologically and detail any relevant
information so everyone knows what is coming next.
A good approach briefing should include these points:
Meteo + NOTAM
The weather at the destination (by ATIS), and if there are

NOTAMs that affect our operation. If we decide to go to the
alternate, we will state that in the briefing.
STAR + restrictions + radio aids + holding + Descent
The STAR or arrival that we plan to complete, the name and

date of the chart, and route with restrictions, if any. Radio
aids that we will use and where they are tuned. If we plan
to enter a holding, we will say the type of entry and
peculiarities (distance and radial on which the hold is
based). We will indicate our planned descent start.
Approach + final course + DA/H + missed app + MSA
The approach we will make and the name and date

of the chart. Radio aids we will use and where they are
tuned. The final course. The DA/H. Glide slope interception
altitude and altitude restrictions, if any. We will read the
missed approach procedure from the chart and the MSA.
Landing configuration + taxi route
The configuration with which we intend to land

(flap). And the taxiing route we will take from the runway to
the parking stand, if known. It is good practice to aim for a
exit point on a specific taxiway.
Fuel + alternative
The fuel we will have upon landing and other

relevant information (emergency situation, systems out of
service, low visibility at destination, passenger in need of
medical attention, etc.).
We will use the STAR, approach and taxi charts to guide us

in the briefing. Each chart will have the name of the
procedure it illustrates and an identification or a plate
number. It will also have a date from which that chart
became effective.
Both cockpit crew will have their chart, and it will be

necessary to make sure that the chart is the same. This is
why the identification of the chart is said aloud. We will
emphasize what we can expect and any situation that is out
of the ordinary because it is a good habit for both cabin
crew members to be aware of the situation in detail and to
know the actions that each should take.
If this is an RNAV arrival, it differs from conventional

procedures in that we do not need to use radio aids. In
conventional arrivals, if possible, we will tune all the
necessary radio aids before starting the briefing.
The briefing on this flight would resemble the following:
Meteo + NOTAM
The meteorology is OK at the destination airport, and there

are no NOTAMs that prevent us from operating. We will
continue to LFPG.
STAR + restrictions + radio aids + holding + descent
We plan to complete the STAR RNAV KOVAK 7E. Chart

20-2B, NOV 30, 2018, effective DEC 6. Route: over KOVAK
max 280 kt, BENAR, ROMGO, FF501 max FL150, NERKI max
250 kt max FL120, BANOX (IAF) between FL110 and FL090.
In principle, without holding. STAR RNAV: we don't need to
configure navaids. We plan to start the descent 6 NM before
NERKI.
Approach + final course + DA/H + missed app + MSA
We plan to complete the ILS 08L approach. Chart 21-0A1,

28 DEC 2018, effective 03 JAN, Route: BANOX, SUBOX and
vectors to IF. Chart 21-1, 17 APR 2020, effective 23 APR. ILS
GLE 108.7 frequency will go on NAV1, final course 085º, DA
538´ (200´). Glide slope capture at 5,000 ft. Missed
approach, runway heading climb to PG415, max 5,000 ft,
then PG416 ascending to FL070. Proceed to LORNI at FL070
to wait. MSA 3,500 ft.
Landing + taxi
We plan to land on runway 08L. We will taxi as directed.
Fuel
We expect to land with 520 lb of fuel. The minimum fuel for

the alternative is 232.5 lbs, which gives us approximately
290 lbs of extra before proceeding to the alternate.
On the following pages you can find the approach charts. At

the Paris Charles de Gaulle airport we encounter an unusual
situation in aerodromes with less traffic, where the initial
approach is on a separate chart, known as a transition,
illustrated in Figure 9.4.2.
In that chart we can see that after the BANOX point we will
go to SUBOX, and we will be vectored to the beginning of
the approach. We can also see the actions we will take if we
have a communications failure and what we should say in
the initial communication.
Figure 9.4.1. STAR chart explained.
Figure 9.4.2. Initial approach chart.
Figure 9.4.3. Approach chart with briefing flow.
DESCENT COMMUNICATIONS
During the airway, we will maintain communication with the

controller of the area control center in charge. When we
arrive at the airway exit point, we will be transferred to the
arrival airport. If we are reaching the airway exit point and
they have not yet transferred us to the approach frequency,
we will call informing them of our position so that they can
coordinate the arrival.
When we communicate with the destination airport, we will

have to report our altitude and position. We need them to
give us meteorological information if we have not received
it by ATIS, the authorization to continue with the
instrumental arrival, and the clearance to descend. Before
descending we have to know the local pressure (QNH) and
the transition level. 9.1
They will probably authorize us to continue with the

instrumental arrival if it exists. If there is no instrumental
arrival, they will direct us to the station where the approach
is based. Although we have calculated the descent in one
point, they will probably direct us to descent in relation to
the traffic in the vicinity. In any case, we should be aware at
all times of the distance we have left to descend and the
altitude to which we should descend. Whenever you
communicate with controllers, have paper and a pen ready
to write down what they tell you.
“HTF22, contact De Gaulle Approach in 125.83.”
“With De Gaulle Approach in 125.83, goodbye.”
“De Gaulle Approach. HTF22 FL140, reaching

KOVAK.”
“HTF22, bonne soirée. Continue KOVAK7E. Descend to

FL120.”
“KOVAK6E and descend to FL120. HTF22.”
In this case, they tell us to continue with the STAR

KOVAK7E and descend to FL120.
To descend, we need an authorization, either from the ACC,
in this case Paris Control, or from the airport approach
frequency.
When flying within the control area of busy airports, we

should not request descents or route changes unless it is
for an important reason.
In small uncrowded airports, we could ask for the altitude

that suits us best. For this, anticipate and start requesting
the descent clearance before reaching your top of descent.
It will take some time after you call to get authorization.
If we really needed to descend, we would request it in the

following way.
“HTF22 at 11 NM from NERKI, request descent.”
“HTF22, to what level do you want to descend?”
“We request FL120. HTF22.”
“HTF22, cleared to descend FL120.”
“Cleared FL120. HTF22.”
At airports as big as Paris Charles de Gaulle, they would

probably deny us the clearance and let us descend when it
suits them. If we had to start the descent on the airway, we
would call the controller who is coordinating us, and we will
tell her the same.
Flying above the transition altitude, we will have 1013 hPa

selected in our altimeter. If they authorize you to go below
the transition level, enter the local pressure directly. We
should enter the local pressure going below the transition,
but we may forget due to the large workload. It is safer to
enter the local pressure before passing the transition level
than to forget to enter it. If you have two altimeters in the
cockpit, select the local pressure in one and the standard
pressure in the other.
IFR CANCELLATION
Our trip may end in an uncontrolled aerodrome that does

not have IFR approaches. In those cases, we are going to
cancel our IFR flight to land following visual flight rules. We
will do so by contacting whoever is in control of our flight
and transmitting the message.
If our flight plan goes to an uncontrolled airport, control

will be aware that we are going to cancel the instrument
flight plan, and it is possible that they will call us to ask
our intentions. In those cases, we will simply have to
communicate our plan.
“HTF22, request to cancel IFR ight plan.”
“HTF22, con rm that you request to cancel your IFR

ight plan?”
“Af rmative. HTF22.”
“HTF22, your IFR ight plan has been canceled at

14:07.”
“IFR canceled. HTF22.”
MINIMUM VFR CONDITIONS
To go from IFR rules to VFR rules, we will need the

meteorological conditions (distance from clouds and
minimum visibility) to be above the minimum indicated
below.
fl
fi
fi
fl
fl
Figure 9.7.1. Minimum VFR conditions.
SPECIAL VFR (SVFR)
It is also possible that when moving to VFR rules, the

weather conditions are below what is established in Figure
9.7.1. In those cases, we will follow the special VFR rules.
The special visual flight rules (SVFR) will be operated

within a control zone when the conditions detailed below
are met:
(a) Unless otherwise permitted by the competent

authority, such SVFR flights can be performed only during
the day.
(b) The flight will remain clear of clouds and with the
surface in sight.
(c) Visibility shall not be less than 1,500.
(d) Speed will be 140 kts IAS or less to give adequate

opportunity to observe other traffic and any obstacles in
time to avoid a collision.
(e) An air traffic control unit will not issue a special

VFR clearance for the aircraft to take off or land at an
aerodrome within a control zone, or enter the aerodrome
traffic zone or circuit aerodrome traffic when weather
conditions in that aerodrome are lower than the following
minimums:
(1) Visibility on the ground is less than 1,500 m.

(2) The cloud ceiling is less than 180 m (600 ft).
HOLDING
Before any approach, there will be a defined space where

we can hold position. The holding is a procedure to maintain
position before starting the approach, either to wait until
other traffic lands before us or to drop in altitude.
The tower will tell us to enter the defined holding and to

maintain the position at X altitude. If the lower level gets
free, they will allow us to go down to the next level. We will
continue like this until it is our turn to start the approach.
Thanks to today's coordination, it is not usual to do
holdings in real operation, but we have to be able to fly
them correctly.
The holdings will be based on a radio aid or a waypoint.

There are two types of holdings, depending on the turn:
standard hold, where the turns are to the right, and non-
standard hold, where the turns will be to the left.
Figure 9.9.1. Standard hold (left) and non-standard (right).
On the holding, the route illustrated in Figure 9.9.1 is

traced, where the straight sections are limited by time or
DME distance from a station and turns are of 180º,
maintaining a maximum bank angle of 25º or the bank that
gives us a turn of 3º/second (degree coordinated turn =
TA S
+ 7) 9.2.
10
The following table indicates the maximum speeds when
flying different categories of aircraft. 9.3
Figure 9.9.2. The parts of holding.
All holdings will be based on a radial. The straight legs will

be approximately one minute, and at 3º/s it will take a
minute to complete the 180º turns. That is, it will take four
minutes per lap. For holds higher than 14,000 ft, straight
sections will be 1:30. 9.4
In the holds, it is essential to keep the speed constant at all
times. It should not vary by more than ±5 kt. The time
between sections is used to calculate the wind and apply a
correction. If the speed is not constant, it will change all
the calculations.
The wind is going to push us during the hold. The idea is to

correct for it so that we are established on the radial when
we finish the inbound turn, and so that the approach
segment lasts exactly one minute and one minute and a half
in the respective altitudes. 9.4
ENTRY IN HOLDING
The instruments we have on the plane tell us the position of

a station. To enter the holding, we will go directly to the
station. When the instruments indicate that the station
goes from being in front of us to being behind, we will know
that we are just above. In this moment, we will enter the
holding. There are three types of entry, depending on the
sector we are in: offset, teardrop, and direct.
Figure 9.9.3. Holding entry sectors.
Each entry has its characteristics, and they are flown in a

different way. It is important to be clear about your
entrance. To find out which entry you should make, the hand
rule described below is of great help.
HOLD ENTRIES
There are entries that have higher priority than others for
the security they provide. Depending on the entry you make,
you may leave the 5 NM protection area ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-2-2.
We can force one entry or the other if we are right on the
edge of two entries, to a maximum of ±5º ICAO. Doc 8168. p. I-6-1-2
(1.4.1). The order of priority will be as follows:
Teardrop, direct, and offset. The offset entry being the least
secure, where you proceed outside the holding area.
To know the entry we must make, we will use the right hand
in the standard holdings and the left in the non-standard
ones. Place the index finger on the current heading and
extend the thumb and middle fingers as illustrated. Then
find the radial on which the hold is based (outbound course).
We will assume that there is 70º between the index finger
and the middle finger and that there is 110º between the
index finger and the thumb.
Figure 9.9.4. Hand rule.
If the radial is between the index finger and the middle

finger, it will be a teardrop entry. If it is between the index
finger and the thumb, it will be an offset entry, and if it is
between the thumb and the middle finger, it will be a direct
entry. Practice with different entries and approach courses.
Knowing the entry we must make has to be automatic.
Figure 9.9.5. Hand rule on a map.
OFFSET ENTRY, SECTOR 1
If you proceed through the offset sector, but you are within
±5º of the teardrop sector, inform in the cockpit that you are
in the offset sector but that you will make an entry in
teardrop in order of priority. The same if you are within ±5º
of the direct sector.
In this entry, when you go over the station, turn to the

outbound course. After one minute, turn 180º as illustrated
in Figure 9.9.6 and intercept the inbound radial towards the
station.
Figure 9.6.6. Offset entry.
When you pass through the station, the time will be taken
depending on the heading you have maintained while
proceeding towards the station.
Figure 9.9.7. Offset entry, timer start.
If once you fly over the station you have to turn between 0º
and 30º to establish yourself on the outbound course, take
the time over the station.
If you have to turn more than 30º for the outbound heading,
start the timer when you are on the outbound heading with
the wings level. Before arriving at the station, be prepared
to take time when you pass through the station or when
you have the plane leveled.
All turns will be made with a maximum bank angle of 25º or

the bank angle that gives us a turn of 3º/s, whichever is
less.
After one minute on the outbound course, we will turn to
re-intercept the inbound course.
Figure 9.9.8. Inbound turn.
When we have turned to intercept the inbound course, we

will check the time. In this case, we will take time when we
have passed the inbound course. If we have not intercepted
the radial/approach course after thirty seconds, we will go
straight to the station.
In Figure 9.9.9, we will check the time once we have

established ourselves on the intercept course. Figure 9.9.9
details the case of crosswind conditions. Holdings with wind
will be explained later.
As you can see in Figures 9.9.8 and 9.9.9, in both cases we

will have to fly for a while to intercept the inbound course,
which means we will travel a greater distance, and it will
take longer to reach the station than it would to leave a
perfectly established inbound course.
Figure 9.9.9. Inbound turn offset entry.
OFFSET ENTRY TIPS
The sector of this entry is quite wide. Depending on where

you enter, you will have to do one thing or another to come
out better established and have fewer problems.
If you are approaching near the teardrop sector, as you can

see in Figure 9.9.10, you will be almost set on the outbound
heading, but when you turn to the inbound heading, you will
be almost on the tear drop radial, which means you’re going
to have to set a large cut-off heading if you want to
intercept the approach radial before thirty seconds.
Figure 9.9.10. Offset entry advice.
To avoid this situation, you can fly on a heading greater
than the outbound heading, as Figure 9.9.11 shows.
Remember that the holdings provide a protection of 5 NM.

Be careful not to leave the area if you follow the previous
advice.
If you enter close from the direct sector, wait about five
seconds to turn to the outbound heading. In this way it will
cost you much less to intercept the inbound radial, and you
will probably get it within thirty seconds. Do not take into
account the approach time in this type of entry. For the time
to be reliable, we have to be established in the inbound
radial after the turn.
If you know you have a lot of headwind before you enter the
hold, fly away longer than a minute (01:15 or 01:30) before
turning inbound.
TEARDROP ENTRY, SECTOR 2
This entrance is the highest priority because it proceeds

inside the holding, and we follow a radial.
Figure 9.9.13. Teardrop entry.
Once we go over the station, we will follow the teardrop

radial: 30º less than the outbound radial (standard) and 30º
more than the outbound radial (non-standard).
If nothing in the chart states the contrary, we will fly away

for one minute on the teardrop radial, and we will turn to
the indicated side. If the holding is more than a minute, or is
defined by a distance, after one minute we will turn to the
outbound course, and we will keep it until we reach the
distance or until the time passes.
After having flown one minute on the teardrop radial, we

will be at the point where we should turn in a normal hold.
We will assume that we are already flying the hold, and we
will turn to the corresponding side to intercept the inbound
course.
Figure 9.9.14. Teardrop entry defined by time or distance.
In the case of entering a racetrack through this sector

(explained in the Approach section), we will do a minute or a
minute and a half in the drop radial, and then we will turn to
the outbound course, and we will maintain the course until
we reach the distance or until the outbound time has
passed.
DIRECT ENTRY, SECTOR 3
The direct entry is the second highest in priority. If we could

choose between this or the entry in teardrop, we would do
the entry in teardrop. In this entry, when we fly over the
station, we will turn to the side of the holding turns, and we
will fly away on the outbound course. It is flown exactly as
if we were already in a holding.
Figure 9.9.15. Direct entry.
Both in this entry and in the rest of the laps of the holding,
you will have to take the time of the outbound leg, it will be
done when you pass through the abeam radial (when you
have leveled the wings before passing through this radial),
or when you level the wings (if you have already gone
through the abeam radial).
Figure 9.9.15. Direct entry.
If we enter through the center of the sector, there will be no

problem because it will be as if we were already flying in
the holding. The problems will arise when we enter at the
edges of the sector.
DIRECT ENTRY TIPS
There is a large sector through which we can enter. If we

enter close to the teardrop sector, the situation detailed in
Figure 9.9.16 will occur.
Figure 9.9.16. Direct entry advice.
To solve the problem detailed in Figure 9.9.16, lengthen the

time to start the turn five to ten seconds later. We will
enter the holding pattern, and we will be better established
after the turn to inbound, as Figure 9.9.17 shows.
Take into account the effect the wind will have on your
course. If before entering the hold you have an idea of the
direction and intensity of the wind, operate accordingly.
If we enter close to the offset sector, the route we are going

to trace will look like the one we can see in Figure 9.9.18.
In these cases, there is no need to alter anything because

our route will be similar to the one we will do in normal
holdings. The most important factor in this type of entry is
the beginning of the turn. We should start the turn just
after we fly over the station to be well established in the
inbound turn.
WIND CORRECTION
The objective of the hold is to come out perfectly

established on the inbound course after completing the turn
and to take exactly one minute on the inbound leg. For this
we will have to correct for the wind.
We will divide the wind into two components: the headwind

or tailwind and the crosswind. We will correct both
components in the outbound section.
ABEAM
The first wind indication will be the abeam radial.
Figure 9.9.19. Abeam indication.
On a day without wind, we will cross the abeam radial when

we are set out on the outbound course, but a tailwind or
headwind will alter the situation.
If, once we are on the outbound course, it takes us more
than five seconds to intercept the abeam radial, it means
we have a headwind. If we have passed the abeam radial
more than five seconds ago, we will have a tailwind. This
indication is highly reliable as long as we have started the
turn over the station, and we have maintained a coordinated
turn. The five seconds are a margin to make sure. We can
always have made small mistakes that alter the moment of
intercepting the radial.
We should keep on the outbound course for one minute in

the first lap after the entry, but if thanks to the abeam
indication we clearly have a headwind or a tailwind, we will
adjust the departure time accordingly.
We will stay on course for a little over a minute if we have a

headwind or for a little less than a minute if we have a
tailwind. With experience, you'll learn to adjust the
outbound time based on how long it takes to intercept the
abeam, but for now, add or subtract about ten to twenty
seconds.
It is critical to be precise when taking the time. To take the

outbound time, we are going to start the timer the moment
we go through the radial of abeam. 9.7
INBOUND TURN
When the outbound time elapses, we will turn to intercept

the inbound course, making a right turn in a standard hold
and a left turn in a non-standard hold.
As you turn, monitor the turn. Before turning, you should be

on the teardrop radial. That is, a radial 30º less than the
outbound radial (standard).
Figure 9.9.20. Inbound turn.
The arrowhead of your RMI should travel about 30º per

minute. When you have made a half turn, look at the arrow
to see if it is 15º from your inbound course. If not, adjust the
turn. If it is less than 15º from your inbound course,
accelerate the turn by setting more bank angle. If it is more
than 15º from your inbound course, turn with less bank or
stay on an intercept course.
Remember that the HSI lubber line should push the CDI
when it starts to move.
There are three possible outcomes for the turn: that we

stay inside the holding, that we stay out of the holding, or
that we stay established on the radial. The latter is the
situation we want to finally reach.
The three situations described are shown in Figure 9.9.21.
Figure 9.9.21. Possible cases after the turn to inbound.
If we are not settled on the radial after the turn, it means
that we have a crosswind component pushing us. This will
be the indication to find the crosswind component that is
affecting us, adding the crosswind quadrant and the head/
tailwind quadrant, we will establish the correction.
Figure 9.9.22. Starting timer inbound.
After completing the turn to inbound, we will start the

timer. Depending on whether you are inside or outside the
holding, you will take time at one point or another. If you
stay inside and have to set an intercept heading, take the
time when setting the intercept heading. If you are out from
the holding, take your time as you pass the inbound
heading.
Try to intercept the approach course within thirty seconds

and proceed to the station. If you do not intercept it within
thirty seconds, proceed directly to the station for the course
you are on, and do not take into account the time of that leg.
Try to intercept the approach course as soon as possible and
maintain the necessary wind correction.
OUTBOUND CORRECTION
If after the turn to inbound you were inside the holding, it

means you have wind from outside the holding.
Figure 9.9.23. Wind correction angle.
In these cases, you will have to turn towards the wind after
the turn to outbound, keep in mind that to correct the wind
of the turns in this section you will have to multiply the
wind correction angle of the inbound leg by approximately
three.
If after the turn to inbound you were outside the holding, it

means you have wind coming from inside the hold.
Figure 9.9.24. Wind correction angle.
As in the previous situation, you will have to turn towards

the wind and multiply by approximately three the wind
correction angle of the inbound leg.
We multiply the wind correction by three because it is not

practical to put a wind correction in the turns. This leaves
us with only the outbound leg to make a wind correction.
We will have to apply a correction approximately three
times greater than what we used during the approach
minute (one minute the first turn, approximately one minute
outbound, and one minute the second turn).
If you have not been able to determine a correction angle in

the approach section, but you know you have a crosswind
from one side, set an angle of 10º–15º towards the wind
side during the outbound leg. You will refine it later.
If we do not correct a strong crosswind, the effect it will

have on our route will be similar to Figure 9.9.25, where we
be established far from our desired point, and we will be
forced to try to intercept the inbound course, probably
without success.
Figure 9.9.25. Effect of a very strong crosswind.
TIPS FOR CROSSWIND CORRECTION
In calm wind conditions, before turning to intercept the

inbound radial, we will be exactly on the teardrop radial.
That is, on a radial 30º less than the departure radial
(standard) about three nautical miles from the station
(flying at 2,000 ft above the station).
If the time we calculated passes, and we are not in that

position, it means the wind correction we have set is not
correct.
This RMI indication does not tell us if the headwind/tailwind
or the crosswind pushed us, but it can help us in a couple of
situations, as illustrated in Figure 9.5.26.
Figure 9.9.26. Wind effect in a holding.
If the radial we are on is much closer to the outbound radial

than the teardrop radial, it probably means we are flying
inside the hold. We will have to turn a little more
aggressively to intercept the inbound radial.
If the radial we are on before turning is more than 30º from

the outbound radial, we have likely had a lot of headwind,
and we are still close to the station. It may also mean that
we are flying far outside the hold.
These situations do not present a big problem unless we

have an extremely strong head wind during the outbound
leg. We will have the headwind information when we make
the first turn and do the abeam check.
If you know you don't have a lot of headwind, after the turn
you will have some time to try to intercept the inbound
radial, even if you come out on the far inside or outside of
the hold.
If we have a lot of headwind, and we continue close to the
station and decide to turn, it can lead to a difficult
situation. We will have little time to intercept the course
before passing through the station. The needle will be
extremely sensitive, and the wind will push us towards the
station, further cutting down the time we have.
It is possible that instead of going over the station we will

pass by one side, which will throw us off the next lap. See
image 9.9.27.
Figure 9.9.27. Effect of a very strong wind.
It is crucial that it does not happen. If you are sure you have
a lot of headwind, lengthen the first lap’s outbound leg
without fear. If it does happen, stay calm and fly on the
outbound heading for 1:30 or 1:45.
TIME CORRECTION
To correct for the headwind or tailwind, we will use the

inbound times as a reference. Our objective will be to take
exactly one minute on the inbound section. For this, we will
modify the outbound time to counteract the effect of the
wind. It will be critical to come out perfectly established in
the radial.
Figure 9.9.28. Time correction.
The approach time will be taken when we set the

interception course or are passing the approach course,
whichever occurs first. See Figure 9.9.22.
If you fly a minute outbound, and it takes less time inbound,

it is because you have a headwind in the outbound and a
tailwind in inbound. The correction rule that is used is the
following:
“Double of what I need. Half of what I have left.”
It is a simple rule that means that if you have flown

outbound one minute, and it took you 50 seconds to fly
back, you have 10 seconds left before the minute is up. We
add “double of what I need”. Double of 10 seconds is 20
seconds. We will do 1:20 minutes outbound on the next lap.
See Figure 9.9.29.
Figure 9.9.29. Holding with headwind.
If you take longer in the inbound than in the outbound leg, it
is because you have a tailwind outbound and a headwind
inbound.
Figure 9.9.30. Holding with tailwind.
If we fly one minute outbound, and the inbound takes 1:20

minutes. That means we have 20 seconds to spare. We will
subtract “half of what I have left”. Half of 20 seconds is 10
seconds, so we will subtract 10 seconds per minute from
the outbound. We will do 50 seconds in the outbound leg.
We will continue correcting in this way until we take a

minute in inbound. If with the correction, flying outbound
takes 1:20 minutes, and it turns out that in inbound it takes
55 seconds, we have 5 seconds left to reach the minute. So
we will add “double from what is missing”, 10 seconds, to
what we were doing: 1:20 + 10s = 1:30.
If in the approach turn you are not established and you fly a
long time on an interception heading, you will fly with
headwind and cover a greater distance. Don't take time into
account in these cases.
Figure 9.9.31. Inbound with an interception heading.
REFERENCE TIME
The reference time is what you lack or have left of the

minute in the inbound leg, in the case that you make an
outbound leg of one minute.
We will use this information to correct for the wind in
approach.
If you do one minute in outbound, and it takes 50 seconds in

inbound, the 10 seconds remaining in the inbound is the
reference time. You will get the reference time when you
already know the wind correction. In this case, you would be
doing 1:20 in outbound.
Similarly, if after the correction you are doing 50 seconds in

outbound, the reference time will be 20 seconds (in the case
you had done a minute in outbound, it would take you 1:20
in inbound).
To put it a different way, to find out the reference time, we

will turn upside down the rule “Double what I need. Half of
what I have left”.
ADJUSTING THE WIND CORRECTION IN
OUTBOUND
Once you know how long you are going to fly outbound,
adjust the wind correction angle again. The more time you
spend on this leg, the more impact the correction you put
will have because you are correcting the outbound leg and
the turns, and vice versa.
In the outbound section, we will correct the two minutes of

turning plus the one minute of departure. That is three
times the approach correction. But if we fly outbound during
1:30, those extra 30 seconds with 15º correction will result
in an excessive correction, and in the opposite case, if we
fly away during 45 seconds, the 15º correction will not be
enough.
When the outbound time is different from the minute, the

correction we give will also change. We will use less of a
correction angle when the outbound leg is longer and more
correction angle when the outbound leg is shorter.
APPROACH
The approach is the final part of the flight, where we
descend until landing at the destination airport. There are
two types of approaches: 3D approaches (precision), which
have a vertical or glide slope indicator, and 2D approaches
(non-precision), which do not have vertical guidance.
Later, in the section Examples of Approaches, we look at all

the step-by-step actions a pilot should take during the
approach.
As an overview, during the approach we will lower the

landing gear and the flaps, and we will follow a horizontal
flight profile and a vertical flight profile that will bring us to
an altitude where we will look outside the cockpit. If we see
the runway, we will land on it, and if we do not see it, we
will abort the approach.
Even if we do not see the complete runway, seeing parts of

it will be enough to continue with the approach. Everything
we need to know is written on the approach chart.
APPROACH TYPES
Approaches can be divided in several categories, depending

on the DH and the type of guidance provided.
Icao Annex 6, classifies for planning purposes the

approaches depending on their DH. 10.1
Type A: Any approach that has a DH at or above 250 ft.

Type B: Any approach that has a DH below 250 ft.
We can also classify the approaches based on the type of

guidance provided:
2D
Non-precision approaches where only lateral guidance is

provided and the pilot must assess altitude independently.
They will always be Type A.
Conventional procedures
Based on radio aids on ground.
Facility MDA/MDH (ft)

LOC with or without DME 250
VOR/DME 250
SRA (terminating at ½ NM) 250
VOR 300
NDB/DME 300
SRA (terminating at 1 NM) 300
NDB 350
SRA (terminating at 2NM or more) 350
VDF 350
GNSS
Here, the lateral guidance is provided by satellite

navigation. There are 2 types, LNAV and LP (Localizer
performance). The main difference is that LP require SBAS
and the improved precision and sensitivity of the CDI.

GNSS (LNAV) 250
GNSS/SBAS (LP) 250
3D
Approaches with both lateral and vertical guidance.
Approaches with vertical guidance (APV)
refers to RNAV approach procedures where lateral

navigation is provided by GNSS and vertical navigation by
either SBAS and/or baro-altimeter. In the same way as a LP
approach, LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical
guidance) will require SBAS and will give us improved
precision and sensitivity of the CDI.

LNAV/VNAV and LNAV/Baro Nav 250
LPV 200*
*A decision height of 200 ft may only be used if the

published FAS Datablock set a vertical alert limit of 35 m.
Otherwise, the DA should not be lower than 250 ft.
Precision Approach
The most precise types of approaches. Here we will find ILS

cat I, LPV CAT I, MLS (Microwave Landing System) and GLS
(GBAS Landing system). All these approaches can provide a
DA as low as 200 ft. We also have additional categories of
ILS providing lower DA and RVR requirements, but we will
need special approval for them. If the visibility is lower than
550 m, it will be considered a Low Visibility Operation.
It is important to note that CAT II and CAT III are LVP (Low
Visibility Procedure) and that there are additional training
and technical requirements. More information can be found
on this on AIR OPS Annex V Part-SPA Subpart E.
In some AFM you may see CAT III referred as CAT III A, CAT
III B and CAT III C. This is just the old ICAO designation.
CAT IIIA: a DH lower than 30 m (100 ft) or no DH and an RVR

not less than 175 m;
CAT IIIB: a DH lower than 15 m (50 ft) or no DH and an RVR

less than 175 m but not less than
50 m; and
CAT IIIC: no DH and no RVR limitations. This is not used in
Europe as the minimum visibility required is 75 m.
Be aware that approaches like ILS CAT I or LPV CAT I can be

both Type A and Type B, as DA may increase due to
obstacle clearance height. 10.2
Figure 10.1.1. Approach chart.
On the approach chart, we will see the horizontal profile,

which indicates the route we will take looked at from above.
It shows the headings we will take in each leg. The last leg
will be equipped with a lateral deviation indicator to keep
us aligned with the runway.
Below the horizontal profile, we will have the vertical
profile. We will see the altitudes where we should be in
each section. Glide slopes will be indicated on 3D approach
charts. For 2D approaches, we will follow a calculated
descent.
Above in the chart we will have the steps to follow in the

event that we proceed with a missed approach.
Once the approach begins, we will descend at will,

maintaining the minimum altitudes of each section, as
indicated on the approach chart.
Figure 10.1.2. Altitudes for each distance in a non-precision

approach.
We will also have a chart like the one indicated in Figure

10.1.2 that shows the altitude we should be at during each
point of the final descent. The numbers above refer to the
distance to the approach station/fix, and the numbers below
refer to the altitude we should be at. If we did not have a
glide slope, we would compare our altitude to the ones in
the chart to ensure we were on the correct descent path.
We should keep a calculated vertical speed and check/
correct our altitude during the descent with the chart.
Before beginning the approach, there will be a defined space

where we can do holdings. If we are going to hold, we will
be notified / we will send a notification before reaching the
point so that the tower can coordinate it. Holdings will be
based on a radio aid or waypoint. That point will coincide
with the initial approach fix (IAF), which is where the
approach will begin. It is also the Clearance Limit after
which we will not be able to start the approach without
being authorized to it and we should continue/enter a
holding.
On the following pages are two instrument approach charts

with a brief explanation of the information they contain.
Figure 10.1.3. Non-precision chart explained.
Figure 10.1.4. Precision chart explained.
AIRCRAFT CATEGORIZATION
The aircraft categorization system is based on the speed

the aircraft flies at during the short final phase. Five
categories are assigned from A to E.
Figure 10.2.1. Aircraft categorization.
TURNS
Turns will be 25º of bank or the angle of bank that results in

a rate of turn of 3º/s, whichever is less.
SPEEDS
As a general rule, below FL100 we will maintain a speed

lower than 250 kt. Procedures that require speed limitations
will be indicated on the charts.
Each plane is different, and the speeds change. The flaps

and the landing gear will also have structural speed limits
that we need to know by heart so that we never exceed
them. Each flap setting will have a minimum speed below
which we will stall. In short final we will decelerate to a
speed close to the stall speed (VAT) and maintain it until we
flare and land.
VAT Speed that we will maintain in the short final, is

obtained as follows: 1,3 x VS0 / 1,23 x VS1G
VS0 Stall speed
VS1G Stall speed in landing configuration with MTOM
VLE Maximum speed with landing gear extended
VLO Maximum landing gear extension speed
VFE Maximum speed with flaps / slats extended
VMO Maximum operating speed
REVERSAL PROCEDURES
It is probable that the approach will be done in the form of

an outbound-inbound. These procedures will leave us, in
most cases, facing the runway. We will follow predefined
procedures that are used in approaches around the world:
45-180, 80-260, base turn, and racetrack. The profiles will
be defined by time or by distance from the station that we
will use during the approach. 10.3
Figure 10.6.1. 45-180.
Figure 10.6.2. 80-260.
Figure 10.6.3. Base turn.
Figure 10.6.4. Racetrack.
RNAV T/Y ARRIVAL
In RNAV approaches, the reversal procedure will not be

necessary. In most airports it is the controller who will
vectorize us until we are aligned with the runway, and we
will be authorized for the approach later.
Sometimes, RNAV approaches will be made following a “T”

or “Y” profile. These approaches are known as
omnidirectional, which means we will go to one IAF or
another, depending on the course we are coming from.
Figure 10.7.1. RNAV “Y” and “T”.
Figure 10.7.2. “T” Procedure.
Using Figure 10.7.2 as a reference, we will go to IAF GJ4Ø1

when we arrive from the north. We will go to IAF GJ4Ø3
when we arrive between GJ4Ø1 and GJ4Ø2, and we will go
to IAF GJ4Ø2 when we arrive from the south. The symbol
“Ø” is used to avoid confusion between the number zero and
the letter O.
DEAD RECKONING (DR) SEGMENT
An approach may include a dead reckoning segment on the

way to a localizer. The DR route will be flown following a
course that will intercept the localizer. We will manually
correct the effect of the wind. The point of interception of
the locator will be the beginning of the intermediate
approach segment.
Figure 10.4.1. Dead reckoning.
RADAR GUIDANCE TO IAF
Some procedures are published without any defined route

after a fix or waypoint. These procedures are mostly linked
to air traffic controllers who are responsible for providing
radar vectors during the approach in busy areas.
Figure 10.5.1. Radar vectorized approach chart.
In Figure 10.5.1, we can see that after SUBOX we will be

vectorized by the controller.
MINIMUM CONDITIONS
COURSE
When we do not need to do a holding, we will start the

approach directly as long as we arrive with a maximum
deviation of +/-30º of the initial approach segment.
The starting point of the approach (IAF) will have a hold

based on that same point. When we arrive with a deflection
of more than +/- 30º from the initial segment of the
approach, we will make an entry in the hold to face the
segment of the initial approach and begin the procedure.
See Figure 10.8.1. 10.4
Figure 10.8.1. ±30º.
The controller will assume that we will take the most

appropriate actions in each case, which means if we proceed
with less than a 30º difference, and we have the
authorization, we will start the approximation directly. If for
any reason we want to do holdings, we will have to notify
them.
METEOROLOGY
An instrument approach can be initiated regardless of the

reported RVR/VIS. But if the reported RVR/VIS is less than
the applicable minimum, we will not continue the approach:
• Below 1,000 feet above the airfield
• Through the final approach segment in the event
that the DA/H or MDA/H is more than 1,000 feet
above the aerodrome
When RVR is not available, RVR values can be achieved by

converting visibility.
If, after passing 1,000 feet above the airfield, suddenly the
reported RVR/VIS falls below the applicable minimum, the
approach may be continued to DA/H or MDA/H.
The approach can be continued below DA/H or MDA/H, and

the landing can be completed as long as the appropriate
visual reference for the type of approach operation and for
the intended runway is achieved at or before DA/H or MDA/
H and maintained. 10. 6
If we do not have the runway visual range (RVR) value but

we have the visibility, we can apply the following table to
convert the visibility into RVR.
Figure 3.3.4. Conversion of visibility to RVR.
A visibility conversion to RVR/CMV should not be used to

calculate the takeoff minima, for CAT II/III approaches, when
there is a reported RVR or for RVR less than 800 m.
APPROACH SEGMENTS
The approaches are divided into segments, where each of

them has certain limitations and safety margins. This
section details the different segments and the actions that
should be taken in each segment. The regulations that
affect each one are also included.
When we have authorization from the controller to begin

the approach, we will follow the route indicated on the
approach charts. You can descend at will while maintaining
the minimum altitude dictated on the chart unless the
controller directs you to do otherwise.
INITIAL APPROACH SEGMENT
The initial approach segment is between the initial

approach fix and the intermediate approach fix (IF). This
segment provides an obstacle separation of at least 1,000
ft in the primary area. The point defined for the holding will
use the IAF point as a station. In this way, we can start the
approach directly at the end of the last turn of the holding.
To follow a stabilized approach, the wind must be corrected

for both heading and timing. An explanation for this is found
later in this manual.
An aircraft is considered to be on the outbound/inbound leg

when it is at:
- Half scale deflection for ILS/VOR

- ±5º of deflection for NDB
During the approach we will descend through levels

indicated on the charts. We can select the vertical speed we
want, but we will be subject to a maximum and minimum
vertical speed limitation, indicated in Figure 10.10.2.. These
descent limitations will apply throughout the approach.
Figure 10.10.2. Maximum/minimum descent.10.9
Figure 10.10.1. Initial approach segment in LESO.
INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT
Figure 10.11.1. Intermediate approach segment in LESO.
In this segment, the speed and configuration should be
configured to prepare the aircraft for the final approach. For
this reason, the descent gradient is kept as low as possible.
If the final approach fix (FAF) or final approach point (FAP)

is specified, the intermediate approach segment will be
from the start of the inbound segment to the FAF or FAP.
If there is no FAF specified, the inbound segment will be

directly the final approach segment. If we did not have an IF
specified, the intermediate approximation segment does not
exist.
Obstacle separation is reduced from 1,000 ft to 500 ft in the

intermediate segment.
FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT
In the final approach segment, we will line up with

the runway and complete the final descent to the landing or
start the missed approach.
This segment is between the FAF (non-precision approach)

or FAP (precision approach) and the final landing, or missed
approach point (MAPt). The start of the final segment will
be indicated on the vertical profile with a Maltese cross, or
on the horizontal profile with the FAF or FAP indicator. It is
also possible that the FAF is not specified on the chart.
FAF
A point specified in a non-precision approach that

indicates the beginning of the final segment.
FAP
A point specified in a precision approach that indicates

the beginning of the final segment.
DA/H
The decision altitude/height is an altitude/height in a

precision approach where the approach should be aborted
if the required visual references to continue the approach
have not been obtained.
MDA/H
The minimum descent altitude/height is an altitude/height

in a non-precision approach where one should not
descend if the required visual references have not been
obtained.
MAPt
Missed approach point is a predefined point, in both

precision and non-precision approaches, where the missed
approach should begin.
Figure 10.12.1. Final Approach Segment in LESO (non-precision).
We have several final approach options, depending on the
guidance we have. The types of guidance are described
below.
2D
A 2D approach has lateral guidance but not vertical

guidance. The descent must be configured manually by
making descent calculations or by following the altitude
indications described on the approach chart until the MDA/
H.
The optimal descent gradient will be 3º (5.2%), the

maximum gradient being 6.5% for category A and B aircraft,
and 6.1% for category C, D, and E aircraft.
Within these approaches, the most common will be the

following: VOR, NDB, LOC, and LNAV.
3D
A 3D approach has lateral and vertical guidance.

The descent path is normally captured between 1,000 ft and
3,000 ft above ground and is followed to the DA/H point.
Figure 10.12.2. Glide slope indication in an HSI.
With the ILS frequency selected in the NAV1, we will have
the indication of the descent path (vertical guidance) in the
vertical scale (GS) of the HSI, and the indication of the
horizontal profile in the CDI.
The optimal descent gradient for a non-precision descent is

3º. The minimum gradient is 2.5º, and the maximum is 3.5º.
If the glide slope stops working, the procedure becomes a
non-precision approximation. These procedures provide
obstacle protection, assuming the pilot does not deviate
more than half a deflection on the instrument scale. If the
pilot deviates more than half a deflection, he/she should
abort the approach.
During the glide slope, there will be a glide slope check

indicated on the chart. The glide slope check indicates the
altitude at which we should be at while maintaining the
glide slope. It is used to avoid interception of false glide
slopes. As we go through that point, we will say, “Glide
Slope check, 3927 ft.”
Figure 10.12.3. Glide slope check.
Within these approaches, the most common are the

following: ILS, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV.
Depending on the weather conditions, there is more

than one category of precision final approaches for which
the crew and aircraft must be certified.
Figure 10.12.4. Different approach categories.
PERFORMANCE-BASED NAVIGATION
PBN approaches fall within both 2D approaches (LNAV) and

3D approaches (LPV, LNAV/VNAV).
Unlike conventional ground station approaches, these

approaches are based on information received through GPS
systems and ABAS, GBAS, or SBAS augmentation systems
for horizontal navigation. Vertical navigation is achieved
through baro-VNAV in the cases of LNAV/VNAV and through
GPS (augmented by satellite: SBAS) in the cases of LPV.
CONFIGURATION
Before landing, we will have to configure the plane by

extending the landing gear and flaps. In order to
standardize the operation as much as possible, we will
always configure them at the same point.
As a general rule, we are going to extend the flaps first, the

landing gear second, and lastly the final flap configuration.
The extension of the flaps will make the aircraft rise
momentarily due to the increase in lift force. You will need
to counteract the effect by lowering the nose of the aircraft.
In normal operation, we will first do the flap extension

approximately one minute (2–3 NM) before the start of the
final descent or about 8–10 NM from the runway threshold.
We will set the landing gear approximately 5–6 NM from the
landing point, and at 4 NM we are going to extend the flaps
for landing.
Figure 10.14.1. Landing configuration.
We can also do it as follows:
In a precision approximation, the glide slope indicator will

move on the scale. When we have the glide slope 1½ points
above on the HSI, we will extend the flaps and reduce our
speed. When the glide slope is 1 point above, we will extend
the landing gear, turn on the landing lights, and slow down
again.
Figure 10.14.2. Landing configuration.
The authorities do not require a precise way of

configuration of the aircraft. We just have to make sure that
the aircraft has the final configuration before the stabilized
approach check, which is explained in the next section.
Depending on the operator and the plane, we will do the
configuration at different points. It should be noted that the
landing gear and the extended flaps create an increase in
the plane’s resistance, increasing fuel consumption. For this
reason, the later we configure the plane, the more fuel we
will save.
The flaps have a structural speed limit. Above that speed,

the extension could cause structural damage. If at the
moment we need to extend our flaps, our speed is above the
limit, we could first extend the landing gear, which usually
has a higher structural limit, to use the resistance to
decelerate to a speed where flaps can safely be extended.
The aircraft should be configured for landing at the latest

1,000 ft above the elevation of the touchdown point, which
in a 3º descent would be approximately 3 NM from the
touchdown point. If for any reason we have to speed up the
process, we will delay the configuration, but we will have to
be configured at 3 NM/1,000 ft from the touchdown point.
STABILIZED APPROACH
During the final segment of the approach we will check that

we are flying a stabilized approach, which means that the
aircraft configuration is correct and that the engine and
pitch / roll parameters are within limits.
Each operator should establish the stabilized approach

criteria as described in Document 8168. 10.5
As an example, in this manual the stabilized approach will

be checked at 1,000 ft above aerodrome level (AAL).
In our case, being stabilized will mean the following:
• Landing gear down and locked with three green

lights
• Final flaps configured
• Landing checklist completed
• Proper power, not idling
• Pitch between 0 and +5º
• Bank angle less than 10º
• Speed between Vref + 10 kt and Vref.
• Vertical Speed less than 1,000 ft/min
• Precision approach: LOC deviation < Half scale, GS
deviation < half scale
• Non-precision approach: NDB deviation < +/-5º,
VOR deviation < half scale
If below 1,000 ft any parameter is no longer within the

limits, we will have to abort the approach.
There are operators that make up the so-called “gates”,

which require certain parameters or actions to be completed
to continue. An example of this is having the flaps
configured before 2,000 ft AAL. This means that no matter
how much we want to speed up the process, we will not be
able to go below 2,000 ft AAL if we don’t have the flaps
configured.
VISUAL REFERENCES TO LAND
To descend below MDA/H or DA/H, you need to have at

least one of the following visual references:
a) The runway
b) Runway threshold
c) Touchdown point markings
d) VASI or PAPI system
e) Approach lighting system
f) Runway lights
g) Threshold lights
h) Touchdown point lights
i) Other references accepted by the authority
LANDING
Normally, the final approach will be made straight-in, where

we will line up to the runway and land, or circling, where we
will complete the full approach to the DA/H or MDA/H point
and make a turn to complete visual traffic and land on the
opposite runway. If we are going to do a circling, we will
have to communicate it to the tower.
Figure 10.12.5. Straight-in and circling approaches.
In non-precision approaches, a final segment that deflects

less than 30º to the runway is considered straight-in. In
precision approaches, the runway must be centered with the
final segment.
MISSED APPROACH
Lastly, we have the missed approach profile. If for any

reason the approach cannot be continued, we would follow
this profile. We should start this procedure above DA/H or
MDA/H, following what is dictated in the chart.
Figure 10.18.1. Missed approach profile.
In this phase, the pilot will apply the maximum power and
raise the flaps and landing gear with the intention of
starting a climb as quickly as possible.
The missed approach begins at the missed approach point

(MAPt). If we decide to miss the approach before this point,
the approach must be continued until overflying the MAPt
point before starting any turn.
By default, the gradient of climb in a missed approach will

be 2.5%. Due to the orography, it is possible for procedures
with higher ascent gradients to be designed, but in those
cases this information will be highlighted on the approach
chart.
The missed approach consists of three phases: initial,

intermediate, and final.
The initial phase begins at MAPt and ends at the beginning

of the climb. There are no turns in this phase.
The intermediate phase of a missed approach begins at the
beginning of the climb. Normally, the ascent continues
without turns. This phase extends to the first point where
an obstacle-free space of 50 m (164 ft) is obtained. The
maximum turn in this phase is 15º.
The final phase begins at the point where an obstacle-free

space of 50 m (164 ft) is obtained and extends to the point
where a new approach, hold, or return to the route begins.
DESCENT CALCULATIONS
When we are authorized to initiate an approach, we are

directly authorized to descend to the altitude MDA/H or DA/
H, provided that we comply with the minimum altitudes of
the approach.
The descents will be made differently for precision

approaches versus non-precision approaches. But we have
to maintain the maximum and minimum vertical velocities of
Figure 10.16.1 in all approaches.
Figure 10.16.1. Maximum/minimum descent.
PRECISION
In precision approaches, we will have to descend from our

current altitude to the glide slope capture altitude to
intercept the glide slope from below.
In the case of Figure 10.16.2, we will assume we are going
to descend from 5,500 ft to 4,500 ft. We will have to reach
4,500 ft a little before the glide slope interception point (5.8
IALR). We can select the vertical speed we want for this
descent as long as we stay within the limits of Figure
10.16.1. In this case, we are going to calculate a descent at
500 ft/min. It will take us two minutes to descend 1,000 ft,
and if our speed is 120 kt (2 NM/min), we will travel 4 NM
on the descent. If we begin the descent just before the turn
to inbound, we will reach the glide slope interception
altitude at approximately 7.2 NM from IALR.
Figure 10.16.2. Precision approach.
If we started the descent from 7,500 ft, we would advance

the beginning of the descent as required, in this case, 8 NM.
NON-PRECISION
In non-precision approaches, we will have to descend from

our altitude to the minimum descent altitude/height (MDA/
H), complying with the minimums on the chart and with the
maximum and minimum vertical speed regulations in Figure
10.16.1.
In the beginnings of instrumental aviation, descents were

made in steps, going from minimum to minimum, but this
technique requires serious changes in power and pitch at
each level of descent, which causes an increase in stress
and use of resources. This technique has been the cause of
many accidents into the ground (controlled flight into
terrain), so the use of the continuous descent final approach
(CDFA) technique is now recommended, where a continuous
descent to MDA/H is calculated. Some countries require a
safety margin to be added above the MDA/H in cases of a
CDFA descent.
Figure 10.16.3. Step-by-step descent.
The stepped descent is a relatively easy technique to carry

out. We will stay at the minimum altitude at all times. In
the case of Figure 10.16.3, as soon as we pass through the
VOR, we will descend to 3,300 ft. When we are at 5.0 NM of
SSN, we will descend to 1,500 ft, and when we are in the
inbound leg, at 8.0 NM of SSN we will begin the final
descent. The vertical speed that we will maintain in the
final descent will vary depending on our speed on the
ground, which we can read in the lower left table (in ft/min).
On the other hand, if we are going to make the approach

following the continuous descent final approach technique,
we will stay at 5,200 ft and descend at a constant vertical
speed, starting the descent at a point that we will have to
calculate.
Figure 10.16.4. CDFA.
In this case, we have to descend from 5,200 ft to 50 ft,

which is almost 5,200 ft. We are going to maintain a
constant 500 ft/min descent, so we will need approximately
10:30 minutes to descend. Let's assume that we will
maintain 120 kt of ground speed (GS) during the approach
and 90 kt once we configure the landing gear and flaps.
At 120 kt, we will travel 2 NM per minute, and at 90 kt, 1.5

NM per minute. With this information, we can calculate that
we will have to start descending 3:30 minutes before the
turn to approach, as can be seen in the upper part of Figure
10.16.4.
After calculating the descent, we will have to check that we

comply with the minimums. In this case, we have a minimum

of 1,500 ft until we are 8.0 NM from SSN and another
minimum of 3,300 ft until we are 5.0 NM from SSN. We
perfectly comply with those limitations. If we do not comply
with the limitations, we would have to delay the descent
and apply a higher vertical speed, always staying within the
limits of Figure 10.16.1.
Remember that on the approach chart we will have the

indication of the altitude at which we should be in reference
to the DME distance to the station.
Figure 10.16.5. Final altitudes chart.
WIND CORRECTION ON APPROACHES
Approaches are usually designed so we have a space to

hold just before the approach. The inbound leg of the
holding will have the initial heading of the approach (+/-
30º).
During the holds the wind will push us during the approach.
In an approximation by time, we will have to correct so that
the approach time is the same as the one designed. For this,
we will use the holding reference time. The reference time is
explained in the descent section.
In procedures 45–180, base turn, and 80–260, the inbound

heading of the hold will be the outbound heading of the
approach, and the the outbound heading in the hold will be
the inbound heading in the approach. For this reason, we
will put the opposite correction that we put on holding. If
the approximation had more than one minute, we will
multiply the time by the minutes of the approach.
In racetrack procedures, the correction will be the same as

in the holding.
Figure 10.17.1. Outbound and inbound in holdings and approach.
To explain it in detail, we will use case 1 (tailwind during

the inbound approach) and case 2 (headwind during the
inbound approach).
Figure 10.17.2. Case 1, tailwind during the approach inbound.
If during the hold for case 1 we are flying outbound 1:20,

the reference time will be -10 seconds. In the approach we
will subtract 10 seconds from each minute of distance. In
this way, the inbound of the approximation will last exactly
as calculated. If, for example, the original outbound of the
approach lasted 3 minutes, we will do 2:30 in outbound
(0:50 x 3 = 2:30).
Figure 10.17.3. Case 2, headwind during the approach inbound.
If in the holding for case 2, we are flying outbound for 0:50,

the reference time will be +20 seconds, in the approach we
will add 20 seconds to each minute. If, for example, the
outbound of the approach lasted three minutes, we will
multiply 1:20x3 and make a four-minute outbound. In this
way, the inbound approach will last exactly as calculated.
With regard to descent calculations, we will begin to

descend in reference to the point where we have to be at
the minimum altitude, i.e. the end of the approach.
Let's imagine an approach where the outbound takes two

minutes, plus the turn and the inbound. It will last five
minutes in total. We have calculated that it will take us four
minutes to descend to the missed approach point (MAPT).
On a day without wind, the approach will resemble Figure

10.17.4.
Figure 10.17.4. Wind correction.
With today's wind, in the holding we are flying outbound
for1:15. The reference time is -7 seconds. Subtracting the 7
seconds from each minute, we decide to fly the approach
outbound for 1:45.
If we start the descent in reference to the beginning of the

approach, for example, thinking, “I have to start the descent
one minute after starting the approach”, we will make a
correct descent on a day with calm wind, but as can be seen
in Figure 10.17.7, we would fall short in the descent with
today's wind.
But if we start the descent in reference to the end of the

approach, thinking, “I have to start the descent four
minutes before the end of the approach”, the wind
correction will leave the approach time intact, and we will
reach the minimum at the calculated point. You can also
think of the start of the descent as the time before the turn.
In this case, you will begin the descent one minute before
the turn begins, 45 seconds after the approach begins.
Most approaches are limited by distance. In those cases the

corrections described in this chapter do not apply; we must
configure the vertical speed and establish a wind correction
angle. Although it is possible to make exact calculations,
due to the complexity of the calculations, it will be
sufficient to increase the vertical speed when we have a
tailwind in the inbound leg of the approach and to reduce
the vertical speed when we have a headwind in the inbound
leg of the approach.
EXAMPLES
The previous sections presented the theoretical part of an

approach, taking into account the established limitations,
the descent calculations, the segments of an approach, etc.
This section will explain the actions we will take as pilots
when completing an approach.
CONVENTIONAL 3D
The most commonly used conventional 3D approaches are

ILS. For each ILS approach, we will have a chart like the one
in Figure 10.20.1. Let us assume that we come from the
230º course of the VOR BBI and proceed from an altitude of
6,500 ft.
We assume that the approach briefing is completed.
The first thing we will do is calculate the descent.
In this approach, we estimate reaching 4,500 ft, which is the

glide slope interception height, at approximately 7 nm from
IALR. Flying at 120 kt and at a vertical speed of 500 ft/min.
It will take us four minutes and 8 NM to descend 2,000 ft.
From end to beginning, traveling the section between D7.0
IALR and D9.2 IALR will take one minute, in the 180º turn
another minute, and in the outbound section approximately
another two and a half minutes. We will start descending
two minutes before the approach turn, 30 seconds after we
establish ourselves on the outbound leg.
With the descent calculated, we are going to configure the
radio aids we will use. In the LESA ILS Z rwy 21 approach,
two radio aids are used. BBI is used at the beginning of the
approach, and once we are aligned with the approach
course, IALR is used. This is an ILS frequency that has
horizontal indication (locator) and vertical (glide scope).
There are several ways to have the indication of the two

stations in the cockpit, the first would be to have BBI on
NAV1 and NAV2 at the beginning and tune IALR on NAV1
during the turn on approach. The advantage to choosing this
mode is we can use the indications of the HSI at all times,
which is the most accurate instrument and the one that is
best located in our field of sight. The downside is that we
will have to change the navaid during the turn to inbound,
which will increase our already high workload.
The other way to have the indication of the two stations is

to select from beginning to end IALR on the NAV1 and BBI
on the NAV2 equipment. The negative side is that we will
have to use the equipment linked to the NAV2 at the
beginning of the approach, but the advantage is that we will
not have to change the radio aid during the approach.
If there was wind, we would also need to know how to

correct for it. In this example, we will assume that there is a
calm wind.
Once we have everything described above, and the approach

checklist completed, we will communicate with the
controller to inform them we are ready for the approach.
The controller may also contact us to ask and thus
authorize us to make the approximation.
“Salamanca A pproach, HTF22 ready for

approach.”
“HTF22, cleared for ILS Z runway 21 approach.”
“Cleared ILS Z runway 21. HTF22.”
With this clearance they allow us to start the approach, but

we still do not have authorization to land on the runway.
For this, we need another authorization.
Figure 10.20.1. Precision approach chart.
Once we are cleared to complete the approach, we will go
to the point where the approach begins, in this case BBI.
The entry to the racetrack approaches will be identical to

the holding entry. We suppose that we are approaching the
230º course of the VOR BBI, so we will make a direct entry,
turning to the right to be on the 030º course. If we had wind,
we would correct it by entering a wind correction angle.
The steps we will follow during the approach are illustrated

in the following figures and described in the following
paragraphs. There are two ways to configure the flaps and
landing gear on a precision approach: a configuration based
on GS deflection and a configuration based on distance to
landing point. In commercial aviation, it is usually
configured according to the distance to the landing point.
Each approach will have its peculiarities, but in the vast

majority of ILS approaches we will follow the same steps.
Figure 10.20.2. Precision approach configured based on distance.
Figure 10.20.3. Precision approach based on glide slope
deflection.
As we have calculated, we will begin the descent 30

seconds after we settle on the 030º course. We are going to
monitor the distance to BBI, and when we get to mile 5.5,
we will turn right to the 210º course.
If we have BBI in NAV1, we will change the IALR frequency

from standby to active during the turn. If we have IALR in
NAV1, we will not change the frequency of NAV1, but we
will have to change the DME reading to have IALR.
The IALR frequency is an ILS frequency, so the maximum

deflection on the instrument scale will be 2.5º. We are going
to configure the final course (210º) in the HSI. During the
turn, the locator will begin to move in the HSI instrument.
At that moment, we will make the callout, “LOC ALIVE”.
When we are established in the approach course, we will
say, “LOC CAPTURED”.
Being set on the approach course in an ILS means that the

deflection of the localizer is less than half scale 10.7.
Once we are established in the approach course, we can

descend below the minimum, in this case 5,000 ft.
It is critical to check that the DME reading we have is that

of the IALR.
If we configure according to distance, at 2 NM from the

beginning of the descent, we will check the speed. If it is
lower than the maximum speed of the first flap extension,
we will extend them. We will say, “Speed check” to
emphasize that we have checked speed. Before extending
the flaps, we will say, “Flap 1”.
When the glide slope indicator starts to move, we will say,

“Glide slope alive”. Then when the descent path indicator is
centered, we will say, “Glide slope captured” and begin the
descent, keeping the path indicator centered.
Upon reaching approximately 5–6 NM from the landing

point, we will say, “Speed check” as we check that the
speed is lower than the structural limit of the landing gear
and then extend the landing gear. We will say, “Landing
gear down” then check the light that indicates the landing
gear is down and locked.
Approximately 4 NM from the touchdown point, we are

going to extend the final flaps, first checking the speed
while saying, “Speed check” and highlighting the action by
saying, “Flaps full”.
If we configure according to glide slope, when the GS is at

1.5 points of deflection, we will extend the first flap
configuration. Then, when the GS is at 1 point of deflection,
we will extend the landing gear, and finally, when we are
approximately 4 NM from the touchdown point, we will
extend the final flap setting.
Then, we will complete the landing checklist. On the landing

checklist, the most important things will be to check that
the landing gear is down, the flap settings are correct, and
that the lights are set.
It is usual that at some point during the approach we will

be transferred from the approach controller to the tower
controller, who will authorize our landing.
“HTF22, contact Salamanca Tower in 118.1.”
“With Salamanca Tower in 118.1. HTF22.”
“Salamanca Tower, HTF22 short nal.”
“HTF22, cleared to land, runway 21.”
“Cleared to land runway 21. HTF22.”
The closer we get to the runway, the more sensitive the

indications will become, which means that our corrections
will have to be lower for an X deflection the closer we are
to the ground.
During the descent, there will be a point where, staying on

the descent path, we should be at a predefined altitude on
fi
the chart. At that point, we will check that the altitude is
correct, and we will say it out loud. In the case of the LESA
approach, it will be checked at D4.0 IALR, and we will have
to be at 3,927 ft. If that is correct, we will say it as follows,
“Glide slope check, 3927 ft”.
When we are 1,000 ft above the landing point, we will check

that we are on a stabilized approach by calling out, “1000
ft, stabilized”. From this point on, if we stop being
stabilized, we must abort the landing.
When we are about 500 ft above the minimum, we will

review the immediate actions in the case of an aborted
landing.
When we get to DA/H, we will say, “Minimum” and look

outside. If we see the runway, we will continue the landing
visually.
Before descending below 1000ft from the runway elevation,

we will slow down to be at VREF.
When we are on the runway, we will flare to land.
CONVENTIONAL 2D
The most common non-precision, or 2D approaches, are

VOR, NDB, or LOC based approaches. As in precision
a p p r o x i m a t i o n s , w e w i l l h a v e a c h a r t fo r e a c h
approximation. In the case of the VOR rwy 22 approach, we
will assume we are coming from the 010º inbound course
and proceeding from an altitude of 5,200 ft.
We assume that the approach briefing is completed.
The first thing we will do is calculate the descent.
Non-precision approximations are based on minimum MDA/

H. In some countries, the final descent based on MDA/H can
be converted to continuous descent (CDFA), and among
these regulations, part of them will require adding a margin
called add-on to ensure that there is no descent below
MDA/H, generally +50ft.
Figure 10.21.1. Non-precision chart.
In this case, we have to descend from 5,200 ft to 50 ft. That
is a descent of almost 5,200 ft. We are going to maintain a
constant 500 ft/min descent, so we will need approximately
ten and a half minutes to descend. Let's assume that we
will maintain 120 kt of ground speed (GS) during the
approach and 90 kt once we configure the landing gear and
the flaps. We will suppose that we will go at approximately
90 kt from 8 NM to the threshold of the track.
At 120 kt, we will travel 2 NM per minute, and at 90 kt 1.5

NM per minute. Calculating from the end to beginning of the
approach, it will take us 3 minutes from the threshold of the
runway to be at 8 NM (at 90 kt). From mile 8 to the turn, it
will take 2:30 minutes. Then it will take a minute to turn,
and finally, the outbound leg will take 6:30 minutes.
With this data, we can calculate that we will need to start

descending four and a half minutes before the turn to
approach.
With the descent calculated, we are going to configure the

radio aids that we will use during the approach. In this
approach, we will only use the VOR SSN. We will have it
configured in NAV1 and NAV2, and we will have BTZ in
standby, which is the closest station that is not SSN.
If there were wind, we would also need to know how to

correct for it. In this example, we will assume that there is a
calm wind.
Once we have everything described above and the approach

checklist completed, we will communicate with the
controller to inform them we are ready for the approach.
The controller may also contact us and thus authorize us to
make the approach.
“San Sebastián Tower, HTF22 ready for approach.”
“HTF22, cleared for VOR runway 22 approach.”
“Cleared for VOR runway 22 approach. HTF22.”
With this clearance, they allow us to start the approach,

but we still do not have clearance to land on the runway, for

this we need another authorization.
Once we are cleared to complete the approach, we will go

to the point where the approach begins, in this case the
VOR SSN.
Figure 10.21.2. Non-precision approach.
We are going to fly outbound on the 027º course, and we

will begin the descent at the calculated point: 4:30 minutes
before starting the turn. At mile 13 SSN, we will begin the
turn to the right. During the turn, we will set the final
course (214º) in the HSI. The CDI of the HSI will begin to
move during the turn, and at that moment, we will say, “CDI
alive”. When the CDI is at a deflection lower than half scale,
we will say, “CDI captured”. We will continue with the
descent until we are approximately at 8 NM from the
touchdown point, where we will check our speed, and if it is
less than the flap extension speed, we will extend them. We
will say, “Speed check” and then “Flap 1” before extending
them.
When we arrive approximately 5–6 NM from the landing

point, we will check that the speed is lower than the
structural limit of the landing gear, saying, “Speed check”,
and extend the landing gear as we say, “Landing gear
down”. We will then check the light that indicates the
landing gear is down and locked.
During the approach, we will usually be transferred from the

approach controller to the tower controller, who will
authorize our landing. In the case of San Sebastián, the
complete approach is carried out by San Sebastián Tower,
so we will not transfer controllers.
“HTF22, cleared to land, runway 21.”
“Cleared to land runway 22. HTF22.”
At approximately 4 NM from the touchdown point, we will

extend the final flaps after checking the speed. We will say,
“Speed check” and the selected flap configuration, “Full
flaps” in this case, and complete the landing checklist.
On the landing checklist, the most important things will be

to check that the landing gear is down, the flap settings are
correct, and that the lights are set.
When we are 1,000 ft above the landing point, we will check

that we are on a stabilzed approach by calling out, “1000 ft,
stabilized”. From this point on, if we stop being stabilized,
we must abort the landing.
When we are about 500 ft above the minimum, we will

review the immediate actions in the case of an aborted
landing.
When we get to MDA/H, we will say, “Minimum” and look

outside. If we see the runway, we will continue the landing
visually.
Before descending below 1000ft from the runway elevation,

we will slow down to be at VREF.
When we are on the runway, we will flare to land.
PBN APPROACHES
Flying PBN-type approaches is almost identical to flying

conventional approaches, although there are several
aspects that change depending on the approach. The crew,
the aircraft, and the operator will have to be certified to fly
PBN approaches. Capabilities will be indicated in the flight
plan.
Procedures of this type will have to be configured in the
FMS, which vary greatly from system to system.
PBN approaches are subject to enhanced RNAV: required
navigation performance (RNP). It is assumed that GNSS will
be the navigation sensor and, for greater precision, there
will be some type of augmentation system:
Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS)

Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS)
Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS)
For aircraft-based augmentation (ABAS) approaches, such

as LNAV and LNAV/VNAV, the satellite alert functionality,
called RAIM (which requires at least five satellites), must
be available. RAIM will verify integrity and signal. Before
each approach of this type, we will have to check that RAIM
will be available during the approach.
Within the PBN approaches, we will have the following

types of approaches:
• LNAV
• LNAV/VNAV
• LPV
• GLS
• RNP AR APCH
In Figure 10.22.1, we can see an RNP approach chart that

brings together LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV approaches.
The chart for PBN approaches is similar to conventional
approach charts, but in the descent minima section, we can
see the different minimas for each approach type.
Figure 10.22.1. RNP approach chart.
LNAV
LNAV approaches are the first type of RNAV approach. It is

a type of 2D approach, which means it gives us only lateral
guidance, with a requirement of RNP 1 for the initial and
intermediate segments, and a precision requirement that
increases to 0.3 NM in the final segment.
Instrument deviation is linear, which means that

unlike conventional approaches, where accuracy increases
as we approach a station, in LNAV approaches the
instrument deviation will indicate a distance deviation from
our ideal course, creating a kind of corridor.
Figure 10.22.2. LNAV.
As it is a non-precision approach, we will follow the steps

of a conventional non-precision approach, configuring the
aircraft at the points defined in the configuration section.
For an LNAV approach with ABAS augmentation system,

RAIM must be available during the entire approach, so we
have to check before the approach that RAIM will be
available.
As it is a non-precision approach, the minima will be based

on MDA/H, and we should do a calculated CDFA descent.
Depending on the country's regulations, we will have to add
a margin of safety to the MDA/H to make sure we don't go
below it.
LNAV/VNAV
LNAV/VNAV approaches are the second type of RNAV

approach. It is a type of 3D approach, which means that we
have both lateral guidance and vertical guidance. Lateral
guidance has a requirement of RNP 1 for the initial and
intermediate sections and an accuracy requirement that
increases to 0.3 NM in the final section.
Instrument deviation in the horizontal and vertical profile,

as in an LNAV approach, is linear. The distance indicated by
the instrument deviation remains constant during the
approach.
Figure 10.22.3. LNAV/VNAV.
As it is a precision approach, the minimums will be based on

DA/H and we will follow the steps of a conventional
precision approach, configuring the aircraft at the points
defined in the Configuration section.
For an LNAV/VNAV approach with ABAS augmentation

system, RAIM must be available during the entire approach,
so we have to check before the approach that RAIM will be
available.
The baro-VNAV system receives the information through the

airplane's barometric systems and will compute them with
the on-board computers to provide vertical guidance. Due to
the error of indication caused by low temperatures in the
barometric system, the approaches that use the baro-VNAV
system will have a temperature limitation, indicated on the
chart. Below these temperatures, an approach using baro-
VNAV guidance is not allowed.
Figure 10.22.4 is an example of an approach that does not

allow the use of baro-VNAV below -20ºC.
Figure 10.22.4. LNAV/VNAV.
LPV
LPV approaches are the third type of RNAV approach. It is a

type of 3D approach, which means that we have both lateral
and vertical guidance. Lateral guidance has a requirement
of RNP 1 for the initial and intermediate sections and an
accuracy requirement that increases to 0.3 NM in the final
section.
LPV was intentionally designed to be similar to ILS

approaches, with an instrument indication that becomes
increasingly sensitive as you approach the runway. It has
angular deviation from both the localizer and the glide
slope, while the deviation of instrument in an LNAV/VNAV is
horizontal.

DA/H, and we will follow the steps of a conventional
defined in the configuration section.
The horizontal and vertical guidance is obtained thanks to

the RNP system and the SBAS satellite augmentation
system. For that reason, it is not necessary to do the RAIM
check.
GLS
GLS approaches are the fourth and final type of RNAV

approach. It is a type of 3D approach, which means that we
have both lateral guidance and vertical guidance. Lateral
guidance has a requirement of RNP 1 for the initial and
intermediate sections and an accuracy requirement that
increases to 0.3 NM in the final section.
The instrument deviation in the horizontal and vertical

profile simulates an ILS, where the deviation of both the
locator and the glide slope is angular. The indications of the
instruments will become increasingly sensitive as we
approach the landing point.

DA/H, and we will follow the steps of a conventional
defined in the Configuration section.
The horizontal and vertical guidance is obtained thanks to

the RNP system and the GBAS ground augmentation
system. For that reason, it is not necessary to do the RAIM
check.
RNP AR APCH
RNP AR APCH operations are approaches used in demanding

environments. They require a special authorization for the
aircrew, the operator, and the aircraft.
This restriction allows you to fly with a level of precision as

low as 0.1NM.
Figure 10.22.6 shows us an RNAV AR approach at the

BISHOP airport.
Figure 10.22.6. RNP AR approach chart.
OVERLAY METHOD
An aircraft is said to fly an overlay approach when

it performs a conventional procedure, such as a non-
precision NDB approach, with the help of RNAV systems.
In the FMS we can select the available airport

approaches, whether they are conventional approaches or
RNAV approaches. If we select a conventional approach, the
RNAV system can guide us thanks to the flight directors. As
it would be a conventional approach, it will also be
necessary to configure the conventional instruments for the
approach.
Apart from the visualization of the reference points,

we will have the possibility of transforming practically any
final descent into a continuous final descent (CDFA) by
means of RNAV system calculations.
In some countries, converting a descent to MDA/H

in the form of CDFA requires a margin of safety to be added
to the MDA/H, which is generally of +50 ft.
MISSED APPROACH
If the approach does not go according to plan, we will have

to abort the approach.
Depending on when we abort the approach, we will have to

act more or less quickly, because it is much more dangerous
to miss the approach at 50 ft from the ground, than it is to
miss the approach at 500 ft.
If we find ourselves in the most critical situation of aborting

and approach near the ground, we need to return to a climb
as quickly and safely as possible. For this, we need to do
the following steps:
• Go to maximum power
• Pitch up
• Flaps 1 (if we have full flaps)
• Landing gear up (with positive climb)
If the flaps configuration was Flaps 1, which will be the next

configuration to Flaps 0, we will keep that configuration,
since removing the flaps will reduce the lift coefficient and
cause an immediate slight loss of altitude.
We're going to follow the normal takeoff procedures,

accelerating to VX, raising the flaps, and reducing power at
400 ft AGL. If we abort above 400 ft AGL, we can do the
described when it suits us best, which will be approximately
400 ft above the minimum descent / decision altitude.
Once we are in a controlled climb, we will follow the route

indicated in the chart and communicate with the same
frequency, which will probably be the tower:
“San Sebastián Tower, HTF22 missed approach.”
“HTF22, continue with the published missed approach

procedure.”
“Continue with the published procedure. HTF22.”
If you have to make a turn, never do it before the point

published in the chart. This is a common error that can lead
us to fly-over areas of complicated orography while in
clouds, which could cause an accident with the ground.
Figure 10.22.7. Missed approach profile.
FINAL TAXI
After landing at the destination airport, you will be given
instructions to taxi. You need to be familiar with the
taxiways of the destination airport. In the case of Paris, the
airport is so large the taxi areas are divided into several
charts; you will have to have all the charts you are going to
use at hand.
In this case, we are going to land on runway 08L. When we

land, we will leave the runway as soon as possible. If we
don't already have any indication to follow, we will
communicate with the frequency in which we are talking,
saying we have cleared the runway. If we know where we
have cleared the runway from, we will also communicate it.
“Paris Tower, HTF22. Runway vacated via T9.”
“HTF22, continue until GE10. Then left through TL6 to

stand L71.”
“Continue until GE10. Then left through TL6 to

stand L71.”
Taxi communications usually have many instructions that

we will have to write down so as not to forget them, so be
prepared with a paper and pen before making contact.
If you do not understand the communication, do not

hesitate to ask them to repeat the information.
When you get to the parking lot assigned to you, stop the
plane, and follow the engine and equipment shutdown
procedure.
Figure 11.1.1. Taxi route at LFPG.
Figure 11.1.2. Taxi route at LFPG.
When you finish the flight, your flight plan should be closed.
In controlled airports, the controller will close the flight
plan for you without being prompted, but in most
uncontrolled airports, you will have to communicate the
finalization of the flight plan with the responsible unit. 11.1
We may have to call by phone or go in person to

communicate it. This is very important if you don’t want
search and rescue services to be deployed looking for you.
With the engine off and the flight plan closed, we will exit
the plane to complete the corresponding actions, such as
covering the sensors or putting the chocks on.
Finally, we will collect our belongings and leave the airport

to celebrate the success of a well-executed flight. After
years of flying, I found out that the best way to know the
destination where you have landed is on a terrace of a local
bar with a cold beer.
If you want to learn more or confirm any of the information

described in the book, you can go to the documents
referenced throughout the chapters and read the
information from official sources.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EQUIPMENT
2.1
ICAO. Annex 10 to the Convention on International Civil

Aviation, Aeronautical Telecommunications. Volume I, Radio
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2.2

2.3

Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-33. (3.4.1).
2.4

Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-29. (3.3.2).
2.5

Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-40. (3.5.3.1.2).
2.6
2.7

2.8

Navigational Aids. (Eighth, July 2023). pg. 3-6 (3.1.3.3.1).
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3. FLIGHT PLAN
3.1

Aviation, Operation of Aircraft. Part I – International
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3.2
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https://notampib.enaire.es/icaro [Accessed 6 Feb. 2019].
3.3
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3.4
EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex IV –

Part-CAT pg.879. ( AMC 1 CAT.OP.MPA.110)
3.5

Part-SPA pg.1399. (AMC1 SPA.LVO.100(a))
3.6

July 2022). pg. 4-11. (4.3.5.2)
3.7

Part-CAT pg.954. (CAT.OP.MPA.182)
3.8

Part-CAT pág.960. (AMC5 CA38 T.OP.MPA.182)
3.9

July 2022). pg. 4-10. (4.3.4.3.1)
3.10

Part-CAT pg.954. (AMC1 CAT.OP.MPA.182 )
3.11

July 2022). pg. 4-10. (4.3.4.3.2)
3.12
EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023). Annex VI –

Part-NCC pág.1754. (NCC.OP.112)
3.13
EASA. AIR OPS Annex IV. p. 956 (AMC2 CAT.OP.MPA.182)
3.14

Part-CAT pg.961. (AMC6 CAT.OP.MPA.182)
3.15

Part-CAT pg.964. (AMC9 CAT.OP.MPA.182)
3.16
https://ais.enaire.es/AIP/AIPS/AMDT_327_2020_AIRAC_04_
2020/ AIP.html [Accessed 17 May. 2020].
3.17

July 2022). pg. 4-11. (4.3.5.5)
3.18

July 2022). pg. 4-10. (4.3.6.3)
3.20
EASA. AIR OPS. (Revision 21, September 2023).

CAT.OP.MPA.180
3.21

July 2022). pg. 4-12 – 4-14. (4.3.6.3)
3.22
ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. I, Flight

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-2-2-1 (2.4)
3.23

Part-CAT pg.1053. (CAT.POL.A.305)
3.24

Part-CAT pg.1094. (CAT.POL.A.330)
3.25

Aviation, Rules of the Air. (Tenth Edition, July 2005). pg.
3-7. (3.3.1.3)
3.26

3-7. (3.3.1.4).
3.27
ICAO. Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Air

Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 4-4.
(4.4.2.1.1).
3.28

(4.4.2.1.3).
3.29

Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. A2-3 –
A2-16.
4. GROUND OPERATION
4.1
ICAO. Doc 8168, Aircraft Operations, Vol. III, Flight

Procedures. (First Edition, 2018). pg. 6-3-2. (3.4.2).
4.2

Procedures. (First Edition, 2018). pg. 6-3-3. (3.6).
4.3

Procedures. (First Edition, 2018). pg. III-5-3-3. (3.5.3).
4.4

Traffic Management. (Sixteenth Edition, 2016). pg. 7-3. (7.3).
4.5

(4.5.7.2).
4.6

(7.4.1.2).
4.7

(4.5.7.5).
4.8

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-3-2. (3.2).
5. DEPARTURE
5.1

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-2-2-1. (2.4)
5.2

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-2-2-1 (2.2.1)
5.3
Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-2-2-1. (2.4.1)
5.4

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg.II-2-2-2 (2.4.4)
6. AIRWAY
6.1
ICAO. Doc 4444. p. 4-8 (4.5.7.5).
7. PBN
7.1
EASA AIR OPS Page 904 (AMC2 CAT.OP.MPA.126)
7.2
7.2.1 ICAO DOC 9613 Page II-C-1-12 (1.3.4.3.4)
7.3
7.4
EASA AIR OPS AMC5 CAT.OP.MPA.126
7.5
ICAO DOC 9613 Page II-C-5-12 (5.3.4.4.7)
7.6
ICAO DOC 9613 Page II-C-6-17 (6.4.2.6.8)
7.7
8. MANEUVERS
8.1

(4.11.2)
8.2

(4.5.7.5).
9. DESCENT
9.1

(4.10.4)
9.2

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-1. (2.1.2).
9.3

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-6.
9.4

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-4. (2.2.9.1).
9.5

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg.II-6-2-6 .
9.6

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. I-6-2-2.
9.7

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-5 (2.3.2)
9.8

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-1. (2.1.4).
9.9

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-6-2-2.
10. APPROACH
10.1
ICAO ANNEX 6 Part I 4-6 (4.2.8.3.)
10.2
EASA AIR OPS Page 966 (GM3 CAT.OP.MPA.182 (C))
10.3

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-5-3-2 (3.2.2.)
10.4

Procedures. (Sixth edition, 2018). pg. II-5-1-1 (1.2.4.2)
10.5

Procedures. (First Edition, 2018). pg. 5-3-1 (Section 5
Chapter 3.3)
10.6

Part-CAT pg.1033. (CAT.OP.MPA.305).
10.7

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-5-3-4. (3.3.4 a).
10.9

Procedures. (Sixth Edition, 2018). pg. II-5-3-5 . (Table
II-5-3-1)
11. FINAL TAXI
11.1

3-9. (3.3.5).

How To Fly Ifr 2024

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How to fly IFR

Original title: How To Fly: Una completa gu a para vuelos IFR.

Third edition (December 2023)

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ON THE GROUND 105

FINAL TAXI 297

Figure 1.1.1. Representation of a visual flight.

A line drawn on the map showed the pilot the route to

Radio stations (also known as radio aids) replaced visual

In this way, instrumental flight was born, and from that

Figure 1.1.2. Radio Station.

Figure 1.1.3. Representation of an instrumental flight.

Conventional navigation systems such as LORAN, ADF, VOR,

This type of navigation is impractical and limits resources

Figure 1.1.4. Route of a conventional instrument flight.

Random navigation (RNAV), commonly called area

Figure 1.1.5. Route of a RNAV flight.

Area navigation was first launched using sensors such as

The biggest advance in area navigation came with the

This allowed for a new area navigation system and the

In modern aircrafts, all conventional procedures such as

Flying a conventional procedure does not require an on-

Required navigation performance (RNP) is a series of

Future developments will likely include 4D navigation,

Figure 1.1.7. Flight management system.

Instrumental flights are divided into phases: departure,

Figure 1.1.8. shows the planning of a flight from Madrid to

The cockpit of a conventional instrument aircraft will look

Figure 2.1.1. Cockpit of a conventional instrumental aircraft.

Figure 2.1.2 illustrates a cockpit with electronic flight

The screen on the right is the electronic horizontal situation

Figure 2.1.2. PFD (left) and EHSI/ND (right).

As in Figure 2.1.1, we will have a space to select the

All airplanes are different, and each manufacturer organizes

Figure 2.1.3. Flight management system.

Here we will insert the route we are going to fly, entering

The main characteristics of the navigation display are that

NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB)

An NDB radio station sends radio signals in all directions.

The charts illustrate an NDB station as in Figure 2.2.1.

Figure 2.2.1. Illustration of a NDB on the charts.

Figure 2.2.2. ADF.

When the frequency is active and identified, we will see the

Figure 2.2.3. RBI (left) and RMI (right).

Normally, the NDBs used operate between the frequencies

For practical purposes, this manual will illustrate the RMI

Figure 2.2.4. Operation of a RMI.

As we can see in the first image, the aircraft is on heading

The RMI indications are relatively easy to decipher. If we

In Figure 2.2.5, the five upper representations express how

Figure 2.2.5. Operation of a RMI on a map.

In the vertical direction to the NDB there is the so-called

When we lose the signal, the only warning will be the

The ADF mode is used to monitor conventional NDBs.

Figure 2.2.6. Cone of silence.

The range of route NDBs, which are the most powerful

VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR)

A VOR station sends out radio signals that aircrafts receive

Unlike an NDB station, a VOR produces 360 radials/courses

VOR stations operate in a frequency range between 108 to

Most of the radio aids used to define airways and

When the frequency is active in the NAV equipment (Figure