2.1 Process Equipment Sizing and Design

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2.1 Process Equipment - Sizing

and Design
• Design methodology and recommended practices – safety by
design
• Preliminary sizing and mechanical design of major equipment
• Estimating costs of major equipment and piping
• Standard specifications and data sheets for process equipment
• Worked examples
Technical Foundation of Projects

• All equipment, components and systems in refineries,
petrochemical, process and power plants, and many
other industries, are designed and constructed in
accordance with sound engineering practices and
international standards.
– Consequently, all proposed projects have to be
designed and constructed in accordance with
appropriate standards compatible with their intended
service, in compliance with applicable Regulations.
– As part of this methodology, engineering materials are
selected by the designers for the intended design and
service taking into consideration future degradation
mechanisms
Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 1

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Process Equipment and Piping

Design & Installation
• The primary criteria in the design and installation
of a process equipment and piping systems (new
or modifications) include:
– Fit-for-purpose. Meeting functional requirements and
design bases.
– Operability and Maintainability
– Mechanical integrity. Safe installation
– Compliance with Regulations, Codes, Standards and
Specifications
– Business-focused. Minimum Life Cycle Cost.
• To be able to achieve a safe installation, first of
all, it must be safe by design.
Equipment Design Methodology

Functional Operational Design
Requirements Requirements Codes
Establish Operation
Design Conditions Limits
Material
Selection
Structural
Evaluation
Final Design

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1/5
The FMDI Principle
• FMDI is the abbreviation of Function, Material,
Dimension and Interface
• This principle has been developed by Red-Bag to adapt
the general project execution to the current development
of design methods by means of computers and to have a
seamless connection and data interface with the
construction site.
• FMDI Philosophy is based on the idea that each
component in a process plant needs to be defined
according the project requirements.
– If the definition is complete then the components can be
ordered and the plant can be built.
– The main ingredients and essential data for the definition of a
component according this principle are captured in the
abbreviation of FMDI
2/5
FMDI Principle: Function
• The purpose of a process plant is to bring various
process fluids together and to manufacture specific
products for the market.
• The purpose of the components in the plant is to
make sure that the process works; the components
enclose and activate the process fluids. For example,
– A pipe is needed to transport the fluid at a certain pressure
and a temperature.
– An elbow has an additional function, to change the
direction of the stream.
– A pump has the purpose to make sure there is flow of fluids
or to boost the pressure.
– An orifice plate is used to measure the flow by means of
restricting the flow and creating a pressure drop

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3/5
FMDI Principle: Material
• The plant components will be operating in a certain
environment. This environment (including the
process fluids) will define for a large part the type of
component material. As example,
– elbows in a piping system need to be of a material suitable
for the process but also for the outside environment.
• Without the proper definition of the material, the
component cannot fulfill its intended function. This
means that if the material is still on hold there is still
a fundamental part of the component definition
uncertain.
• A material change or a functional change of process
components can have serious impact on the project
progress
4/5
FMDI Principle: Dimension
• The component can be designed to determine the required
dimensions and sizes. For example,
– An orifice plate is calculated based on the function, the
function indicates the amount of flow and the allowable
pressure drop. With the applicable formulas and additional
requirements the dimensions and sizes are defined.
– The pipe needs to withstand process pressure and temperature
and other loads, these will determine the wall thickness.
– The pump needs to deliver required flow at a specified
pressure, that will determine the casing, impeller, and the
flange sizes.
• The function together with the selected material will be the
basic ingredients that will be part of the calculation input to
determine the sizes of the component. Without the proper
function definition or the selected material, the dimensions of
the component remain on hold and can be subject to change

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5/5
FMDI Principle: Interface
• The connections or interface is a also a key characteristic of
the definition of a component. The component needs to fit
and connect to the neighbor component otherwise the
process plant can not be built or fulfill its function.
– An elbow needs to be tapered if it will connect to a pipe
schedule with a smaller wall thickness.
– The pump needs to have the same type of flange as the pipe
line to connect to the pipe system.
– The electrical voltage needs to correspond with the required
voltage for a compressor motor.
• The interface aspect in the FMDI principle also includes the
space taken by the component. There is no use of placing a
component in an area where it will clash with other
components  Layout
Materials of Construction for Process

Equipment and Piping Systems
• Appropriate material selection is the cornerstone of pressure
equipment, storage tanks and piping systems design,
operation and maintenance.
• We must select materials of construction that provide
– adequate strength at operating temperatures and pressures,
– adequate toughness at minimum operating temperatures,
– in compliance with applicable construction codes
– with regard to their resistance to corrosion and other likely
degradation mechanisms
– total life cycle cost-effectiveness.
• The mechanical integrity, safety, and cost-effective
operation of plants depend on the in-service performance of
the materials of construction throughout the plant life cycle.

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Material Properties and Selection

GOAL: Select correct material at lowest life cycle cost
• There are several alternative materials available to the
engineer.
• The selection of the best material for a specific
application is a complex interdisciplinary process that
takes into consideration several factors.
• Essentially, the approach is based on striking a
compromise between:
– acceptable level of material performance for the
specified service conditions and project life,
– cost over the life cycle of the installation,
while complying with applicable code requirements.
Issues in Materials Selection

Choose the appropriate material based on the application
Code Strength
Requirements Hardness
Weight Corrosion
Fatigue
Stiffness Reactions
Material Electrical
Toughness Machinable
Life Cycle Cost Application Optical
Creep rate Weldable
Requirements Magnetic
Wear Glueable
Availability Expansion
Thermal Toxicity
Flammability
Impact Finish
Melting Pt.
Interactions with Lifetime
Other Materials Coatings

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Classification of Steels
Classification by name/application Classification by structure
Steel Alloys w/o eutectic (< 2%C)
Plain carbon steel
Low CS (<.2% C) Ferritic

Med CS (.2-.5% C) Ferritic-Pearlitic
High CS (>.5% C) Pearlitic
Low alloy steel Martensitic
(< 8% alloying elements)
Bainitic
High alloy steel
( > 8% alloying elements) Austenitic
Precip. hardened
Corrosion resistant
Heat resistant Austenitic-ferritic
Wear resistant Duplex structure
Material Selection Based on Design Temp

Design T, oF Material Plate Pipe Forgings Fittings Bolting
SA-240- 304, SA-312- 304, SA-182- 304, SA-403- 304,
-425 to -321 Stainless Steel 304L, 347, 304L, 347, 304L, 347, 304L, 347, SA-320-B8
316, 316L 316, 316L 316, 316L 316, 316L with SA-194-8
-320 to -151 9 Nickel SA-353 SA-333-8 SA-522-1 SA-420-WPL8
-150 to -76 3 ½ Nickel SA-203D SA-333-3 SA-350-LF63 SA-420-WPL3
-75 to -51 2 ½ Nickel SA-203A SA-320-L7
with SA-194-4
-50 to -21 SA-516-55, 60 SA-333-6
to SA-20 SA-350-LF2 SA-420-WPL6
-20 to 4 SA-516-All SA-333-1or 6
5 to 32 Carbon Steel SA-285C
33 to 60 SA-516-All SA-53B SA-105
SA-515-All SA-106-B SA-181-60,70 SA-234-WP8
61 to 775
SA-193-B7
SA-455-ll
with
776 to 875 C – ½ Mo SA-204B SA-335-P1 SA-182-F1 SA-234-WP1 SA-194-2H
876 to 1000 1 Cr – ½ Mo SA-387-12-1 SA-335-P12 SA-182-F12 SA-234-WP12
1¼ Cr – ½ Mo SA-387-11-2 SA-335-P11 SA-182-F11 SA-234-WP11
1001 to 1100 2¼ Cr – 1 Mo SA-387-22-1 SA-335-P22 SA-182-F22 SA-234-WP22 SA-193-B5
with SA-194-3
1101 to 1500 Stainless Steel SA-240-347H SA-312-347H SA-182-347H SA-403-347H SA-193-B8
with SA-194-8
Incoloy SB-424 SB-423 SB-425 SB-366
Above 1500 Inconel SB-443 SB-444 SB-446 SB-366

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Stainless Steel Family of Alloys

Superferritic Ni-Cr-Fe
Stainless steel Alloys 303, 303Se
Add Ni for corrosion
Add Cr, Mo resistance in high Add S or Se for
temperature applications machinability
430 Duplex
Stainless
309, 310, 314, 330 Steel
347 No Ni, Ferritic
Add Cr & Ni for Increase Cr,
Add Nb +Ta to Strength and
reduce sensitization lower Ni for
oxidation resistance higher strength
Add Ti to reduce 304 Add Cu, Ti,
Precipitation
321 sensitization Fe-19Cr-10Ni Al, lower Ni Hardening
Stainless Steel
Add Mo for
Lower C pitting resistance Add Mn & N, lower Ni
304L for higher strength
to
316L reduce 316 No Ni addition,
sensitization
201, 202
317L Add more Mo for lower Cr,
pitting resistance Martensitic
Superaustenitic Add Ni, Mo, N
Stainless steel for corrosion 317 403, 410, 420
resistance
Relative Costs of Various Alloys

ALLOY EXAMPLE CONSTITUENTS COST
CLASS RATIO
Ni Cr Mo Fe Co Ti Cu Cb Al V
Carbon Steel C10 >94 0.2
Low Alloy Steel 1.25 Cr- .5 Mo 1.25 0.25 Bal 0.25
Type 316L 13.0 17.0 2.3 Bal 1.00
Fe-Ni Cr + Mo
Alloy 800H 32.5 21 4.6 -
20Cb-3 34.0 20.0 2.5 Bal 3.5 3.8
Alloy C2 54.0 15.5 16.0 6.0
Ni-Cr-Mo Alloy C276 57.0 16.0 16.0 5.5 6.0
Alloy C4 54.0 16.0 15.5 3.0 6.0
Alloy 625 60.0 21.5 9.0 3.7 6.3
Ni-Cr-Fe Alloy G 45.0 22.2 6.5 19.5 2.0 6.4
Alloy 600 76.0 15.0 8.0 -
Ni-Mo Alloy B2 Bal 1.0 28.0 2.0 1.0 11.6
Ni-Cu Alloy 400 65.1 32.0 -
Nickel Alloy 200 99.9 -
Co-Base ULTIMET 9.0 26.0 5.0 3.0 54.0 27.2
Ti-Base Ti-6Al-4V 90 6.0 4.0 -

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Mechanical Properties
• For all alloy systems, the mechanical properties are
controlled by
– the chemical composition, and
– the microstructure of the alloy.
• With respect to the carbon and alloy steels, the
influence of microstructure is so great as to
overshadow that of chemical composition and, for
cast steels, the only practical method for changing the
microstructure is by heat treatment
Pressure Vessels
Design Considerations
• Vessel SIZE is normally established by process
engineering,
• Vessel DESIGN is determined by the MAWP and
Safety Factor,
• Vessel USE is determined by MOP, test pressure,
• Mechanical properties, fracture/embrittlement
behavior, and certification are important material
considerations,.

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Pressure Vessel Design Manual 4th Ed.

This book is a solutions-focused
guide to the many problems and
technical challenges involved in the
design of pressure vessels to match
stringent standards and codes.
Covers almost all problems that a

working pressure vessel designer can
expect to face, with 50+ step-by-step
design procedures including a wealth
of equations, explanations and data
Now revised with up-to-date ASME,

ASCE and API regulatory code
information, and dual unit coverage.
Guidebook for the Design of ASME

Section VIII Pressure Vessels
This fully revised and updated 4th ed.
covers the requirements of ASME Sec.
VIII-1 (2010) as well as the newly
published VIII-2.
This book provides a review of the
background issues, reference materials,
technology, and techniques necessary
for the safe, reliable, cost-efficient
function of pressure vessels in the
petrochemical, paper, power, and other
industries.
Solved examples throughout the volume
illustrate the application of various
equations given in both Sections VIII-1
and VIII-2.

8/17/2017
ASME
2017 BPVC
Section VIII
Division 1
Rules for
Construction of
Pressure Vessels
ASME BPVC Section VIII/Div.1

UG-22: Loadings
Following Loadings specified in UG-22 must be considered
(a) Internal and external pressure,
(b) Weight of the vessel and contents under operating conditions and
under test conditions (fluid static pressure may have to be taken
into account),
(c) Superimposed static loads from the weight of attached fittings, e.g.
motors, machinery, other vessels, tubing, thermal insulation, etc.
(d) Loadings caused by internal fittings or stays,
(e) Cyclic and dynamic loadings caused by pressure fluctuations or
temperature variations, also by mechanical vibrations,
(f) Wind, snow, earthquake, where necessary,
(g) Impulse loadings, e.g. as a result of pressure pulses,
(h) Temperature gradients and constrained thermal expansion.
(i) Abnormal pressures like deflagration.

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ASME VIII-1 Formulas for Design of

Vessels Under Internal Pressure
Item Thickness t Pressure P Stress S Notes
Cylindrical PR SEt P(R + 0.6t) t ≤ 0.25D,
Shell SE – 0.6P R + 0.6t Et P ≤ 0.385SE
Flat flanged
heads D√(0.3P/S) t2S/0.3D2 0.3D2P/t2
Torispherical 0.885PL SEt P(0.885L + 0.1t) ts/L ≥ 0.002
heads SE – 0.1P 0.885L + 0.1t Et r/L = 0.06
Torispherical PLM 2SEt P(LM + 0.2t)
heads M = [3+(L/r)1/2]/4
2SE – 0.2P LM + 0.2t 2Et
Ellipsoidal PD 2SEt P(D + 0.2t) h/D = 4
heads 2SE – 0.2P D + 0.2t 2Et
Ellipsoidal PDK 2SEt P(DK + 0.2t) K = [2 + (D/2h)2]/6,
heads 2SE – 0.2P DK + 0.2t 2Et 2 ≤ D/h ≤ 6
Hemispherical PR 2SEt P(R + 0.2t) t ≤ 0.178D,
heads or Shells 2SE – 0.2P R + 0.2t 2Et P ≤ 0.685SE
Conical heads PD 2SEt cos α P(D + 1.2t cos α) α ≤ 30o
& Sections 2cos α (SE – 0.6P) D + 1.2t cos α 2Et cos α
Allowable Stresses (Excerpt)

ASME Section VIII, Division 1
Illustrative example only – refer to the Code for appropriate specific data
Material P# UNS # 100o 200o 300o 400o 500o 600o 700o 800o
SA 516-70 1 K02700 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 19.4 18.1 12.0
Type 304 8 S30400 20.0 20.0 18.9 18.3 17.5 16.6 15.8 15.2
Type 304 L 8 S30403 16.7 16.7 16.7 15.8 14.7 14.0 13.3 13.0
Type 316 8 S31600 20.0 20.0 20.0 19.3 18.0 17.0 16.3 15.9
Type 316 L 8 S31603 16.7 16.7 16.7 15.7 14.8 14.0 13.5 12.9
Type 347 8 S34700 20.0 20.0 18.8 17.8 17.2 16.9 16.8 16.8
Alloy 600 43 N06600 22.9 22.9 22.9 22.9 22.9 22.9 22.9 22.9
Alloy 525 45 N08825 23.3 23.3 23.3 23.3 23.3 23.3 23.3 23.0
Titanium Gr2 51 R50400 14.3 12.4 10.3 8.8 7.6 6.5 NP NP
NP – Not permitted for use at this temperature

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Example – Pressure Vessel Design

Problem. Design a pressure vessel for the
following service conditions:
– Vessel dimensions: 4 ft I.D.; 18 ft S/S; with 2:1
Ellipsoidal heads
– Design pressure: 1120 psig
– Design temperature: 150oF
– Corrosion allowance: 0.25 in
– Material SA 442 Grade 55 steel
– All welds fully radiographed
• Required wall thickness for the shell:

tmin = PRi/(SE - 0.6P) + tcor
= 1120 x 24/(18300 x 1.0 - 0.6 x 1120) + 0.25
= 1.775 in
Selection: 2.000 in
• Required wall thickness for the heads
tmin = PDi/(2SE - 0.2P) + tcor
= 1120 x 48 x 1/(2x18300x1.0 – 0.2 x 1120) + 0.25
= 1.727 in
Selection: 1.750 in

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Overall dimensions
Shell L = 18 ft
4 18 20 23
Head H = Do/4 = 1ft
Skirt S = 2Do/3 = 2.68
ft = 3 ft
Overall length = 23 ft
Storage Tanks: Types and Applications

• The term storage tank generally refers to liquid
storage facilities operating at close to atmospheric
pressure and not exceeding 1.0 bar. Consequently,
they are not considered pressure vessels.
• Aboveground storage tanks are vertical or horizontal
• Types of aboveground storage tanks (AST) include:
– Fixed Roof Tanks – flat roof, cone roof, dome roof
– External Floating Roof Tanks
– Internal Floating Roof Tanks
– Domed External Floating Roof Tanks
– Variable Vapor Space Tanks
– Liquefied Gas Tanks (LNG, Ammonia, etc.)

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Refinery Tank Farm

Liquid storage tanks at refineries, petrochemical and process
plants are generally fixed roof tanks, external floating roof tanks,
and internal floating roof tanks
Fixed roof tank External floating Internal floating

roof tank EFRT roof tank IFRT
If the vapor pressure of the stored petroleum liquid is below 1.5 psia, open
roof tanks or fixed roof tanks are typically used. Products that have a
vapor pressure higher than 1.5 psia generally use a floating roof design.

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Classification of Tanks Based on Codes

Tanks - Codes
Atmospheric Tanks Low Pressure Tanks Pressure Vessels

≤ 18 kPa (2.5 psi) ≤ 105 kPa (15 psi) ≥ 105 kPa (15 psi)
[API 650] [API 620] [ASME BPVC Sec VIII]
Fixed-Roof Tanks
External Floating
Roof Tanks (EFRT)
Notes:
Internal Floating
This classification is mainly for
Roof Tanks (IFRT)
petroleum/products tanks
Covered Floating
Roof Tanks (CFRT)
Variable Vapour Tanks are also built to AWWA,
Space Tanks (VVST) UL, STI, and other standards.
Aboveground Storage Tanks

This reference is devoted exclusively to
aboveground storage tanks (ASTs), this
book helps owners and regulators
understand the design, operation, and
maintenance of ASTs in the face of new
industry regulations and meet the
rigorous compliance requirements.
Topics include fundamental

environmental engineering concerns;
how to select the right industrial codes
and standards for the tank; design
considerations for ASTs; construction,
fabrication, and erection of tanks;

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Tank Design vs. Vapor Pressure

1. These vapor pressures are in terms of
absolute pressure at the stored temperature
(assumed barometric pressure of 100 kPa
(14.5 psi)). CCME Environmental guidelines
stipulate 21.1oC (70oF) if stored at ambient
conditions.
2. Tank sizes greater than 4 m (13.1 ft) in
diameter.

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API AST Standards

Design & Construction - API 650 (12th Ed)
• This standard establishes minimum
requirements for material, design,
fabrication, erection, and inspection for
vertical, cylindrical, aboveground, closed-
and open-top, welded storage tanks in
various sizes and capacities for internal
pressures approximating atmospheric
pressure (internal pressures ≤ the weight of
the roof plates), but a higher internal
pressure is permitted when additional
requirements are met.
• This standard applies only to tanks
whose entire bottom is uniformly
supported and to tanks in non-
refrigerated service that have a maximum
design temperature ≤ 93 °C (200 °F)
UL-142 Steel Aboveground Tanks for

Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Covers steel primary, secondary and diked
type atmospheric storage tanks intended
for noncorrosive, stable flammable and
combustible liquids that have a specific
gravity ≤1.0 in aboveground applications.
Each tank type may be fabricated in a
combination of various shapes (cylindrical,
rectangular or obround) and orientations
(horizontal, vertical) with or w/o multiple
compartments, as covered in this Standard
Intended for installation per NFPA 30, 31,
and other related NFPA standards
Does not apply to tanks covered by API
12D and API 12F

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Aboveground UL-142 Tanks

UL-142 requirements cover steel primary, secondary and diked
type atmospheric storage tanks intended for noncorrosive, stable
flammable and combustible liquids that have a specific gravity
not exceeding 1.0 in aboveground applications.
Each tank type may be fabricated in a combination of various
shapes (cylindrical, rectangular or obround) and orientations
(horizontal, vertical) with or without multiple compartments, as
covered in this Standard.
These tanks are intended for
installation and use in accordance
with the Flammable & Combustible
Liquids Code, NFPA 30; the
Standard for Installation of Oil-
Burning Equipment, NFPA 31; and
other related NFPA standards
Cylindrical Tanks Sizes (UL-142)

Nominal Inner Tank Outer Tank Thickness Weight
Capacity (lbs.)
(Gallons) Dia. L Dia. AOH* L
500 4'0" 5'5" 4'6" 5'4" 6'0" 10 ga. 2,824
1,000 4'0" 10'9" 4'6" 5'4" 11'4" 10 ga. 4,580
1,000 5'4" 6'0" 5'10" 6'8" 6'7" 7 ga. 4,753
2,000 5'4" 12'0" 5'10" 6'8" 12'7" 7 ga. 7,917
3,000 5'4" 18'0" 5'10" 6'8" 18'7" 7 ga. 11,079
4,000 5'4" 24'0" 5'10" 6'8" 24'7" 7 ga. 14,242
4,000 8'0" 10'8" 8'6" 9'4" 11'3" 1/4" 14,327
5,000 8'0" 13'4" 8'6" 9'4" 13'11" 1/4" 16,734
6,000 8'0" 16'0" 8'6" 9'4" 16'7" 1/4" 19,058
8,000 8'0" 21'4" 8'6" 9'4" 21'11" 1/4" 24,577
10,000 8'0" 26'8" 8'6" 9'4" 27'3" 1/4" 29,272
12,000 8'0" 32'0" 8'6" 9'4" 32'7" 1/4" 34,071
15,000 10'0" 25'6" 10'6" 11'4" 27'1" 1/4" 35,079
20,000 10'0" 34'0" 10'6" 11'4" 34'7" 1/4" 45,788
25,000 10'0" 42'7" 10'6" 11'4" 43'2" 1/4" 51,793
30,000 10'0" 51'2" 10'6" 11'4" 51'9" 1/4" 60,517

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API Tank Standards

The API standards which apply to above ground storage
tanks are as follows:
API-650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage. This document governs
the construction of tanks storing products with internal
pressures up to 2.5 psig.
API-620 Design and Construction of Large Welded Low Pressure
Storage Tanks. This covers the construction of tanks with
internal pressures up to 15 psig
API-651 Cathodic Protection for Above Ground Petroleum Storage
Tanks
API-652 Lining of Above Ground Petroleum Storage Tanks
API-653 Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction
API Tank Standards
API-2000 Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

API-2517 Evaporating Losses from External Floating Roof Tanks
API-2519 Evaporating Losses from Internal Floating Roof Tanks
API-2350 Overfill Protection for Petroleum Storage Tanks
API-2015 Cleaning Petroleum Storage Tanks
API-2550 Measurements and Calibration of Petroleum Storage Tanks
API tank standards are written by sub-committees comprised of

individuals from tank operating companies and tank building
companies and consultants.

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Tank Capacity
• The Purchaser shall specify the maximum capacity
and the overfill protection level (or volume)
requirement (see API Recommended Practice 2350).
• Maximum capacity is the volume of product in a tank
when the tank is filled to its design liquid level (see
Figure 3-4 Next Slide).
• The net working capacity is the volume of available
product under normal operating conditions. The net
working capacity is equal to the maximum capacity
less the minimum operating volume remaining in the
tank, less the overfill protection level (or volume)
requirement (see Figure 3-4 – Next Slide).

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Logic Diagram for Tank Design

Compile Basic Data
Size Tank
Select Roof Type
Select Bottom / Foundation
Y N
Select Appurtenances Ground Contact?
Evaluate Need for Evaluate Need for

Design Tank and Leak Detection
Cathodic Protection
Appurtenances
Evaluate Need for

Internal Lining
Optimize Bottom Design
Calculation of Shell Thickness –

API 650
The shell thickness can be calculated by four
different methods:
1. Alternative Method for tank shell thickness  0.5 in
2. The 1-Foot Method. This method calculates the
required thickness at design points 1 foot above the
bottom of each shell course
3. Variable-Design-Point Method. This procedure
normally provides a reduction in shell-course
thickness (material weight) and more importantly has
the potential to permit construction of larger diameter
tanks within the maximum plate thickness limitation.
4. Elastic Analysis.

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Alternative Shell Design Method

The minimum thicknesses of shell plates shall be computed
from the stress on the vertical joints, using the equation:
2.6D(H – 1)G
td = + CA
(E)(21,000)
Where
td = minimum thickness, in. (see minimum thickness table)
D = nominal diameter of tank, ft
H = liquid height
G = specific gravity of liquid to be stored, specified by purchaser
E = joint efficiency, which is either 0.85 (with spot radiography) or 0.70 if no
spot radiography is agreed to by purchaser and manufacturer
CA = corrosion allowance, in as specified by the purchase
Calculation of Shell Thickness by

the 1-Foot Method
• The required minimum thickness of shell plates shall
be the greater of the values computed by the following
formulas:
In SI units:
4.9D(H – 0.3)G
td = + CA
Sd
4.9D(H – 0.3)
tt =
St
where
td = design shell thickness, in mm,
tt = hydrostatic test shell thickness, in mm,

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Calculation of Shell Thickness by

the 1-Foot Method
where
td = design shell thickness, in mm,
tt = hydrostatic test shell thickness, in mm,
D = nominal tank diameter, in m
H = design liquid level, in m,
= height from the bottom of the course under consideration to the top of
the shell including the top angle, if any; to the bottom of any overflow that
limits the tank filling height; or to any other level specified by Purchaser,
restricted by an internal floating roof, or controlled to allow for seismic
wave action,
G = design specific gravity of the liquid to be stored, as specified by the
Purchaser,
CA = corrosion allowance, in mm, as specified by the Purchaser
Sd = allowable stress for the design condition, in MPa
St = allowable stress for the hydrostatic test condition, in MPa
Table A-2 (Excerpt) Shell Plate Thickness

For Tanks with 72-Inch Courses – API 650
Tank Tank Height (feet)/Number of Courses in Completed Tank Max
D, ft Allowable
6/1 12/2 18/3 24/4 30/5 36/6 42/7 48/8 54/9 60/10 H for D, ft
10 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 - - - - -
20 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 - - -
30 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 0.21 0.24 0.26 -
40 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 0.21 0.24 0.28 0.31 0.35 -
60 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 0.26 0.31 0.36 0.41 0.47 - 58.2
80 1/4 1/4 1/4 0.27 0.34 0.41 0.48 - - - 43.9
100 1/4 1/4 1/4 0.34 0.43 - - - - - 35.3
120 5/16 5/16 5/16 0.41 - - - - - - 29.6
140 5/16 5/16 0.35 0.47 - - - - - - 25.5
160 5/16 5/16 0.40 - - - - - - - 22.5
180 5/16 5/16 0.45 - - - - - - - 20.1
200 5/16 0.50 - - - - - - - - 18.2

8/17/2017
Table K-1(API 650) Shell-Plate Thickness

Based on the Variable Design-Point Method*
Tank Tank Shell Shell-Plate Thickness (inches) for Course Nom Tank
H, ft D, ft Wt, t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 V, barrels
40 200 272 0.871 0.659 0.487 0.317 0.313 - - - 224,000

240 388 1.025 0.807 0.574 0.375 0.375 - - - 322,600
280 521 1.17 1.004 0.653 0.427 0.375 - - - 439,000
320 671 1.310 1.189 0.731 0.482 0.375 - - - 573,000
48 180 312 0.956 0.755 0.600 0.443 0.313 0.313 - - 217,700
200 376 1.055 0.832 0.664 0.487 0.317 0.313 - - 268,800
240 543 1.243 1.064 0.776 0.579 0.375 0.375 - - 387,100
280 729 1.423 1.295 0.889 0.670 0.424 0.375 - - 526,800
56 160 332 0.995 0.817 0.678 0.523 0.398 0.313 0.313 - 200,700
200 502 1.239 1.033 0.836 0.663 0.487 0.317 0.313 - 313,600
240 723 1.462 1.313 0.982 0.790 0.577 0.375 0.375 - 451,600
64 160 423 1.139 0.957 0.820 0.677 0.537 0.398 0.313 0.313 229,400
180 527 1.282 1.079 0.918 0.759 0.599 0.443 0.313 0.313 290,300
200 646 1.423 1.242 1.008 0.841 0.662 0.487 0.317 0.313 358,400
* Using 96-in courses and 23,000 psi allowable stress for the test condition
Heat Exchanger Design Considerations

• A heat exchanger is a device where heat is transferred
from one hot fluid to another cold fluid across a
solid surface.
• Major design considerations include:
– Process and design specifications
– Thermal design
– Hydraulic design
– Materials selection
– Mechanical design
– Manufacturing considerations and cost
– Trade-off factors and system-based optimization

8/17/2017
Heat Transfer within a Heat Exchanger

Thot-in Thot-out
CONVECTION
CONDUCTION
CONVECTION
tcold-out tcold-in
Radiative transfer between the exchanger and the environment can
usually be neglected unless the exchanger is un-insulated and its
external surfaces are very hot.
Heat Exchangers – An Overview

• Heat exchangers are generally designed to ASME
BPVC, API Standard 660, Tubular Exchangers
Manufacturers Association (TEMA), Heat
Exchangers Institute (HI) and BS 5500 standards.
• Heat exchangers take several forms:
– Shell and tube
– Double pipe
– Air-cooled (Fin-fans)
– Plate-type
– Spiral tube
– Spiral plate
– Proprietary designs such as: printed circuit exchanger,
shell-and-plate, etc.

8/17/2017
Typical Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger Design Handbook

Heat Exchanger Design Handbook,
Second Edition is completely revised
and updated to reflect current advances
in heat exchanger technology.
It includes enhanced figures and thermal

effectiveness charts, tables, new chapter,
and additional topics––all while keeping
the qualities that made the first edition a
centerpiece of information for practicing
engineers, research, engineers,
academicians, designers, and
manufacturers involved in heat
exchange between two or more fluids

8/17/2017
Process Heat Transfer

Principles, applications and Rules of Thumb
Process Heat Transfer is a reference on
the design and implementation of
industrial heat exchangers. It provides
the background needed to understand and
master the commercial software packages
used by professional engineers in the
design and analysis of heat exchangers.
It focuses on types of heat exchangers
most widely used by industry: shell-
and-tube exchangers (including
condensers, reboilers and vaporizers),
air-cooled exchangers and double-pipe
(hairpin) exchangers.
It provides a substantial introduction to
the design of heat exchanger networks
using pinch technology.
Design Process for Heat Exchangers

Identify Problem Elements within this
outline may be done
Select Heat Exchanger Type by hand or computer
Select Tentative Set of
Exchanger Design Parameters
Modify
Design Parameters
Rate The Design :
Thermal Performance (Q)
Pressure Drops (P)
Evaluate the Design N

Q & P Acceptable? Iterate
Y
Y
Mechanical Design

8/17/2017
Heat Exchangers Fundamentals

Th2
1. Thermodynamic Parameters:
Capacity Rate Ch = W hCph
tc1 tc2
Q = Ch (Th1 – Th2) = Cc (tc2 – tc1)
x dx Th1
2. Heat Transfer Rate:
Th1
Q = UAΔTm
tc2 ΔT1 – ΔT2
ΔTm = LMTD =
ΔT ln(ΔT1/ΔT2)
Th2
tc1 3. Overall Heat Transfer
x dx Coefficient U (or total thermal
0 L resistance 1/U)
4. Heat Transfer Area A

(Exchanger size)
Resistances to Heat Transfer

As heat flows from the hot fluid to the cold fluid through
the tube wall, it is opposed by five resistances:
ro outside film resistance

Rfo outside fouling resistance
Fluid tw / kw tube wall resistance
inside tube
di fouling
ri inside film resistance

8/17/2017
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

These five resistances are added to obtain R, the overall
resistance to heat transfer (R = 1/Uo).
tube wall outside tube
outside fouling thickness area inside fouling
resistance resistance
1 1 Dx  Ao   1   Ao 
= + R fo +   +  R +  
Uo ho k  Am   fi hi   Ai 
overall heat inside tube

outside film thermal mean wall inside film
transfer area
coefficient conductivity heat transfer area coefficient
coefficient
of tube wall
Examples of Overall Heat Transfer

Coefficients (U)
Shell-and-tube exchangers U (W/m2°C) U (Btu/hr ft2°F)
Single phase
Gas-Gas (Low Pressure, 1 bar) 5-35 1-6
Gas-Gas (High Pressure, 250 bar) 150-500 25-90
Gas-Liquid (Low Pressure) 15-70 3-15
Gas-Liquid (High Pressure) 200-400 35-70
Liquid-Liquid 150-1200 25-210
Liquid-Condensing 300-1200 50-210
Condensation
Water 1,500-4,000 100-300
Organics 300-1200 50-160
Boiling
Water 600-1,700 250-700
Organics 300-900 50-210

8/17/2017
Calculation of Heat Duty

Sensible heat case Q = WC p (T1 - T2 ) = wc p (t 2 - t1 )
Latent heat case Q = Wl

W=mass flow rate of hot fluid T2=exit temperature of hot fluid
w=mass flow rate of cold fluid T1=inlet temperature of hot fluid
Cp=specific heat of hot fluid t2=exit temperature of cold fluid
cp=specific heat of cold fluid t1=inlet temperature of cold fluid
l=latent heat of vaporization of
evaporating stream
Calculation of Mean Temperature

Difference
For a double pipe exchanger with one tube pass in countercurrent
flow, the mean temperature difference is the log-mean temperature
difference.
(T - t )- (T - t1 )
LMTD = DTlm =
1 2 2
T -t 
ln  1 2 
 T2 - t1 

8/17/2017
Temperature Difference in STHE

150 F ΔT1 (GTTD)
150 –95 = 55
Temperature
95 F ΔT2 (LTTD)
90 F 90 – 80 = 10
80 F
Surface
ΔTlm (LMTD) = (ΔT1 – ΔT2) / ln(ΔT1/ ΔT2) ΔTlm

(LMTD) = (55 – 10) / ln(55/10) = 26.4 oF
ΔTA (AMTD) = (ΔT1 + ΔT2) /2
ΔTA (AMTD) = (55 + 10) /2 = 32.5 oF
Heat Transfer Rate

• The heat-transfer rate for a given system, Q
Q = U AS FT ∆TLM
Where:
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (J/m2.sec.K),
AS = The surface area available for heat transfer (m2),
FT = Correction factor to allow for shell and tube
configuration of exchanger
∆TLM = The logarithmic-mean temperature difference
• The logarithmic-mean temperature difference
between the inlet and outlet streams can be
determined as follows:
∆TLM = (∆T2 - ∆T1) / ln(∆T2 / ∆T1

8/17/2017
Configuration Correction Factor FT

Define a correction factor to modify LMTD
for non-countercurrent flow exchangers.
MTD
FT =
LMTD
FT is correlated with two parameters, R and P
Range of shell fluid
R=
Range of tube fluid
Range of tube fluid
P=
Maximum temperature difference
Correction Factor FT
1 Shell, 2 or More Tube Passes

8/17/2017
Codes and Standards

• The mechanical design features, fabrication, materials
of construction, and testing of shell and tube heat
exchangers is covered by applicable standards at the
intended location.
• The shell of an exchanger is normally a pressure
vessel and should be designed in accordance with the
relevant pressure vessel design code.
• Commonly used standards include ASME B&PVC,
API 660, and TEMA Standards
ANSI/API Std. 660 9th Ed. Mar. 2015

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
This International Standard
specifies requirements and
gives recommendations for
the mechanical design,
material selection,
fabrication, inspection, testing
and preparation for shipment
of shell-and-tube heat
exchangers for the petroleum,
petrochemical and natural gas
industries.

8/17/2017
Standards of The Tubular Exchanger

Manufacturers Association (TEMA)
The Standards herein are
recommended by The Tubular
Exchanger Manufacturers
Association, Inc. to assist
users, engineers, and
designers who specify, design,
and install tubular exchangers.
These standards are based

upon sound engineering
principles, research, and field
experience in the manufacture,
design, installation, and
use of tubular exchangers.
TEMA Classes
TEMA Class Application

Severe requirements of petroleum and
R related process applications
Moderate requirements of commercial and
C general process applications. 5% savings
in cost if compared with Class “R”
B Chemical process service

8/17/2017
TEMA Heat Exchanger Layouts

8/17/2017
Characteristics of Some TEMA Designations

AEM
Type of AEU AEW AEP AES AET
Design CEU NEU BEM NEN
BEU BEW BEP BES BET
AEL
Relative Cost
(1 is lowest) 3 6 7 8 9 2 1 5 4
Removable
Bundle Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No
Replaceable
Bundle Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes (1) Yes (2) No No
Removable
Bonnets/ Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No
Channel
Replaceable
Tubes No Individual Individual Individual Individual No No Individual Individual
Tubeside Chem & Chem & Chem & Chem & Chem & Chem &
Cleaning
Chem Chem Chem
Mech Mech Mech Mech Mech Mech
Shellside Chem & Chem & Chem & Chem & Chem & Chem &
Chem Chem Chem
Cleaning Mech Mech Mech Mech Mech Mech
Double
Tubesheet Available No Available No No Available Available Available Available
Design
No. Tubeside Any even Any even Any even Any even Any even
Passes number
1-2 Any number number number number
Any Any
Provision for Each tube Each tube Each tube Expansion Expansion
Floating Floating Floating Floating
Thermal expands expands expands Joint when Joint when
Expansion Tubesheet Tubesheet Head Head freely
freely freely Applicable Applicable
Outer Tube Limit (OTL)

• Outer Tube Limit: The OTL is the
diameter created by encircling the outer
most tubes
• For Square pitch
OTL = [(NT x P2)/0.71]0.5
• For triangular pitch
OTL = [(NT x P2)/0.85]0.5
N = Number of tubes
T
P = Tube pitch

8/17/2017
Standard Tube Counts

(for Specified Pairs of Tube Size and Pitch Type)
Shell ID (in) Tube Passes
1-P 2-P 4-P 6-P 8-P
8 36 32 26 24 18
10 62 56 47 42 36
¾″ OD Tubes 12 109 98 86 82 78
15/16″ Triangular pitch 13¼ 127 114 96 90 86
15¼ 170 160 40 136 128
17¼ 239 224 194 188 178
19¼ 301 282 252 244 234
21¼ 361 342 314 306 290
23¼ 442 420 386 378 364
25 532 506 468 446 434
27 637 602 550 536 524
29 721 692 640 620 594
Characteristics of Exchanger Tubing

Ao Ai Wt, lb Wt, lb Wt, lb Metal
Thick Ai, Sq ft Sq ft per ft per ft per ft ID Const OD/ area
OD BWG
in. sq in. per ft per ft length length length in. c* ID C.S.
length length brass copper steel Sq in
5/8 10 .134 .100 .1636 .0937 .76 .800 .703 .357 155 1.750 .207
5/8 11 .12 .1170 .1636 .101 .70 .735 .647 .385 182 1.62 .190
5/8 12 .109 .130 .1636 .107 .649 .683 .605 .407 202 1.53 .177
5/8 13 .095 .149 .1636 .1142 .581 .61 .54 .435 232 1.44 .158
5/8 14 .083 .165 .1636 .1205 .520 .548 .481 .458 257 1.36 .142
5/8 15 .072 .1817 .1636 .126 .460 .482 .43 .481 283 1.30 .125
5/8 16 .065 .1924 .1636 .1295 .420 .44 .39 .495 300 1.26 .114
5/8 18 .049 .2181 .1636 .1379 .326 .342 .301 .527 340 1.19 .0887
5/8 20 .035 .2419 .1636 .146 .238 .25 .22 .555 377 1.13 .0649
3/4 10 .134 .1822 .1963 .1265 .95 1.04 .882 .482 284 1.56 .260
3/4 11 .120 .2043 .1963 .1335 .87 .918 .81 .510 319 1.47 .238
3/4 12 .109 .223 .1963 .14 .807 .845 .75 .532 348 1.41 .219
3/4 13 .095 .247 .1963 .147 .718 .752 .67 .56 385 1.34 .195
3/4 14 .083 .268 .1963 .153 .640 .67 .591 .584 418 1.28 .174
3/4 15 .072 .289 .1963 .159 .563 .592 .522 .606 451 1.24 .153
3/4 16 .065 .302 .1963 .163 .514 .54 .48 .620 471 1. 21 .140
3/4 17 .058 .314 .1963 .166 .463 .494 .429 .634 490 1.18 .128
3/4 18 .049 .334 .1963 .1707 .396 .4]7 .367 .652 521 1.15 .108
3/4 20 .035 .3632 .1963 .179 .289 .306 .267 .680 567 1.10 .0786

8/17/2017
Example: Estimating Size of Heat

Exchanger - 1
Example:
Floating Head Shell-and-Tube design
Area = 171 m2
Hot Side—Temperatures: in at 364ºC and out at 281ºC
Cold Side—Temperatures: in at 154ºC and out at 250ºC
Solution:
Choose a 2-shell pass and 4-tube pass exchanger
Area per shell = 171/2 = 85.5 m2

Exchanger - 2
Using 12 ft, 1-inch OD tubes, 293 tubes per shell
are needed
Assuming the tubes are laid out on a 1.25-inch
square pitch, a 27-inch ID shell is required.
Assume that the front and rear heads (where the
tube fluid turns at the end of the exchanger) are 30
inches in diameter and require 2 feet each
(including flanges), and that the two shells are
stacked on top of each other.

8/17/2017

Exchanger - 3
Plot plan view showing approximate size of footprint
Plate Heat Exchanger (PHE)

Flow Passage is formed between
thin high alloy plates. Hot fluid
and cold fluid flow alternately,
and heat is exchanged.
Perfect counter flow with high heat

transfer efficiency makes it
possible to utilize the difference
between hot fluid and cold fluid up
to 1oC and less.
Installation space and weight

are 1/4 and 1/3 of STHE.

8/17/2017
Types of Fired Process Heater

8/17/2017
Applicable Standards and Codes

of Practice
• API Standard 560 - Fired Heaters for General
Refinery Services
• API RP530 - Recommended Practice for
Calculation of Heater Tube thickness in
Petroleum Refineries
• API Std 665 - API Fired Heater Data Sheet
• NFC 31, 85, 86 Series (NFPA)
Maximum Average Heat Flux On Radiant Tubes

Types of Minimum Mass Maximum Average Heat Flux
Fired Duty Tubes Velocity Single Fired Tubes Double Fired Tubes
Heater Kg/s/m2 lb/s/ft2 Kw/m2 Btu/h/ft2 Kw/m2 Btu/h/ft2
Vertical 976 200 34.7 11000 52.1 16500
Crude Crude Oil 1200 250 37.9 12000 56.8 18000
Heater Horizontal 732 150 41.0 13000 61.5 19500
976 200 44.2 14000 66.2 21000
Lub. Oil Horizontal (1) (1) 28.4 9000 - -
Vacuum
Non.Lub.Oil Horizontal (1 ) (1) 31.5 10000 - -
Cat. All Gas Vertical or (2) (2) 28.4 9000 52.1 16500
Reformer Heating Horizontal ( 2.1/4% Cr 1% Mo ) ( 9% Cr 1% Mo )
Cat. Liquid Vertical or (3) (3 ) 31.5 10000 - -
Cracker Horizontal
Reboilers Liquid Vertical or 732 150 34.7 (4 ) 11000 (4 ) - -
Horizontal 732 150 41.0 (4 ) 13000 (4 ) - -
DHT Two Phase Vertical or 37.9 12000 (4 ) - -
Horizontal
Furfural Vertical or 732 150 23.7 7500 - -
Extract Horizontal
Lub. Oil Raffinate Vertical or 732 150 20.5 6500 - -
Unit Horizontal
Propane Horizontal 732 150 23.7 7500 - -
Deasphalting
Hydrofiner 732 150 37.9 12000 - -

8/17/2017
Maximum Average Heat Flux On Radiant Tubes

Notes to Table (previous slide)
1. Not specified but vendor should ensure that the flow regimes are
acceptable throughout the heater.
2. Not Specified: would expect mass velocities in the region of 200
to 250 kg/s.m2 (40 to 50 lbs/s.ft2 ), Limit is skin temperature
and flow distribution.
3. Not specified: would expect cold oil velocities of 1.2 to 2.5 m/s
(4 to 8 ft/s).
4. Not specified: would expect cold oil velocities of 3 to 3.5 m/s
(10 to 12 ft/s).
5. May be limited by tube skin temperature.
6. If process fluid is temperature-sensitive, flux should be reduced.
Note: Where possible, velocities should be maintained at 732

kg/s/m2 (150 lb/s ft2 ) at all normal operating loads.
It is essential that either an all liquid, bubble or froth, or fully
dispersed regime (as judged by the O. BAKER parameters) is
maintained at all operating conditions for two phase flows.
Types of Boilers
There are basically two types of boilers:
Fire tube boilers - water contacts hot fire tube in which fuel
is directly fired.
Steam Boilers : 1 – 25 t/h
Hot water : 1 – 18 t/h
Water tube boilers - hot combustion gases contact the
outside of heat transfer tubes that contain hot water and
steam.
Commercial 25 – 100 t/h
Industrial 50 – over 500 t/h

8/17/2017
Schematic of a Basic Boiler Plant
Basic Drum Type Boiler

8/17/2017
Boiler Design Codes and Standards

• Boilers in North America and many other countries
around the world are designed and constructed in
accordance with the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code (BPVC) – Section I.
• In the European Community and some other
countries around the world, EN Standards EN 12952
- Water Tube Boilers and Auxiliary Installations and
EN 12953 – Shell (Firetube) Boilers are used.
Scotch Marine Boiler

8/17/2017
Package Boiler
Oil and Gas Fired
Design Criteria for Industrial Boilers

Boiler designs are tailored to the fuel firing
systems involved. Some of the more
important criteria re:
– Furnace heat release rates – both Btu/(hr-ft3)
and Btu/(hr-ft2) of effective projected radiant
surface (EPRS)
– Heat release rates of grates (coal-fired boilers)
– Flue gas velocities through tube banks
– Tube spacings

8/17/2017
Typical Boiler Design Parameters

Furnace Heat Release
Furnace Btu/hr-sq ft of EPRS Btu/hr-cu ft
Natural gas 200,000 NA
Oil 175,000 – 200,000 NA
Coal – Pulverized 70,000 – 120,000 15,000 – 22,000
Coal – spreader stoker 80,000 – 130,000 25,000 – 30.000
EPRS – Effective Projected Radiant Surface. Is the total projected

area of the planes which pass through the center of all wall tubes,
plus the area of a plane which passes perpendicular to the gas flow
where the furnace gases reach the first convection superheater or
reheater surface.
Process Pump Types
(Source: Gould Pumps)

8/17/2017
Pump Types
Pump Handbook – 4th Edition

Long-established as the leading
guide to pump design and
application, the Pump Handbook
has been fully revised and updated
with the latest developments in
pump technology.
Packed with 1,150 detailed
illustrations and written by a team
of over 100 internationally
renowned pump experts, this vital
tool shows you how to select,
purchase, install, operate, maintain,
and troubleshoot cutting-edge
pumps for all types of uses.

8/17/2017
Pump Station Design

This book assists those who need
to apply the fundamentals of
various disciplines and subjects in
order to produce a well-integrated
pumping station that is reliable,
easy to operate and maintain, and
free from design mistakes.
The depth of experience and
expertise of the authors,
contributors, and peers reviewing
the content as well as the breadth
of information in this book is
unparalleled, making this the only
book of its kind.
Practical Centrifugal Pumps

This book is a comprehensive guide to
pump construction, application,
operation, maintenance and
management issues.
Coverage includes pump classifications,
types and criteria for selection, as well
as practical information on the use of
pumps, such as how to read pump
curves and cross reference.
Throughout the book the focus is on
best practice and developing the skills
and knowledge required to recognise
and solve pump problems in a
structured and confident manner

8/17/2017
Pump User’s Handbook

This text explains just how and why the
best-of-class pump users are consistently
achieving superior run lengths, low
maintenance expenditures and unexcelled
safety and reliability.
Written by practicing engineers whose

working career was marked by
involvement in pump specification,
installation, reliability assessment,
component upgrading, maintenance cost
reduction, operation, troubleshooting and
all conceivable facets of pumping
technology, this text describes in detail
how to accomplish best-of-class
performance and low life cycle cost.
Pump Coverage Chart

8/17/2017
Head Capacity Range Chart*
*Dean Horizontal Process Pumps pH2110, pH2140 & pH340

(ANSI/ASME B73.1)
Centrifugal Pump Performance

Characteristics

8/17/2017
System Curve – With Static Head

System curves describe how the system head varies with flow.
Systems where there is 50

zero differential pressure 45
between pump suction 40
and discharge when the 35
pumps are in an idle
Head (m)
30
condition have purely 35
frictional system curves. 20
Thus the change in 15
system head as a result 10
of change in flow is the 5
result of only frictional Static Head
resistance 0 5 10 15 20 25
Flow (litre / sec)
Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve
50
45
40
35
Head (m)
30
35
20
15
10
5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Flow (litre / sec)

8/17/2017
Pumping Energy Costs vs. Pipe Diameter

Pumping costs for sustaining a flow rate of 600 gpm through 1,000
feet of clean schedule-40 iron pipe for water at 70° F . Electricity
rate of $0.05/kilowatt-hour, 8,760 hours of operation per year, and
combined pump and motor efficiency of 70%.
Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve

50
45
40
35 Varying ΔP
30 absorbed by CV
Head (m)
25
20
15
10
5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Flow (litre / sec)

8/17/2017
Cost Estimating – An Overview

• Cost estimating is one of the most important steps in
project management.
– A cost estimate establishes the baseline of the project cost
at different stages of development of the project.
– A cost estimate at a given stage of project development
represents a prediction provided by the cost engineer or
estimator on the basis of available data.
• According to the American Association of Cost
Engineers, cost engineering is defined as “that area
of engineering practice where engineering judgment
and experience are utilized in the application of
scientific principles and techniques to the problem of
cost estimation, cost control and profitability.”
Cost Estimate Classification Matrix

for Process Industries
Preliminary
Characteristic Secondary Characteristics
LEVEL OF METHODOLOGY EXPECTED PREPARATION
ESTIMATE END USAGE
PROJECT Typical estimating ACCURACY EFFORT
CLASS Typical
DEFINITION method RANGE Typical degree of
purpose of
Expressed as Typical variation in effort relative to
estimate
% of complete low and high least costs index
definition ranges [a] of 1 [b]
Capacity Factored,
Concept L: -20% to - 50%
Class 5 0% to 2% Screening
Parametric Models,
H: +30% to +100% 1
Judgment, or Analogy
Study or Equipment Factored L: -15% to -30% 2 to 4
Class 4 1% to 15% Feasibility or Parametric Models H: +20% to +50%
Budget, Semi-Detailed Unit

Costs with Assembly L: -10% to -20%
Class 3 10% to 40% Authorization,
H: +10% to +30% 3 to 10
or Control Level Line Items
Detailed Unit Cost
Control or L: -5% to -15%
Class 2 30% to 70% Bid / Tender
with Forced Detailed
H +5% to +20% 4 to 20
Take-off
50% to 100% Check Estimate Detailed Unit Cost L: -3% to -10% 5 to 100
Class 1 or Bid / Tender with Detailed Take Off H: +3% to +15%
Notes: [a] The state of process technology and availability of applicable reference cost data affect the range markedly.
The +/- value represents typical percentage variation of actual costs from the cost estimate after application of contingency
(typically at a 50% level of confidence) for given scope.
[b] If the range index value of “1” represents 0.005% of project costs, then an index value of 100 represents 0.5%. Estimate
preparation effort is highly dependent upon the size of the project and the quality of estimating data and tools

8/17/2017
Contingency
• Contingency is an integral part of the total estimated
costs of a project.
• The definition adopted by the American Association
of Cost Engineers (AACE) is:
“Specific provision for unforeseeable elements of
cost within the defined project scope. [Contingency
is] particularly important where previous experience
relating estimates and actual costs has shown that
unforeseeable events which will increase costs are
likely to occur.”
• The application of contingency for various types of
cost estimates covers the entire life cycle of a project
from feasibility studies through execution to closeout.
Contingency by Estimate Type

60
Upper Limit
50 Lower Limit
40
Contingency, %
30
20
10
0
Preliminary
Estimate
Estimate
Budget
Actual
Definitive
Estimate

8/17/2017
Escalation
• Escalation is the provision in a cost estimate for
increases in the cost of equipment, material, labor,
etc., due to continuing price changes over time.
• Escalation is used to estimate the future cost of a
project or to bring historical costs to the present.
• Most cost estimating is done in “current” dollars and
then escalated to the time when the project will be
accomplished.
Escalation
• To properly apply escalation indices for a
particular project, the following data is
required:
– escalation index (including issue date & index)
used to prepare the estimate;
– current performance schedule, with start and
completion dates of scheduled activities; and
– reference date the estimate was prepared.

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Equipment Costing
Size
Cost Correlation
Cost
Cost Index
Purchase Price
Installation Factor
Installation Cost
Sum all Equipment
Total Equipment Cost

(Fixed Capital)
Equipment Purchased Cost

First step: sizing calculations
1. Do material and energy balance (or PFD
simulation)
2. Design equipment
3. Do equipment sizing
1. Generally easy with heat changers, pumps, etc.
because we can extract the data directly from the PFD
simulation.
2. Vessel and tower sizes is carried out manually
3. Heuristics may be used for preliminary sizing

8/17/2017
Preliminary Cost Estimates

• When preparing preliminary estimates, two methods
for estimating the cost of equipment are
– The Rule of Six-tenths, and
– Use of cost indices to adjust historic costs to current prices.
• The Six-tenths Rule - A rule of thumb that gives
approximate (± 30%) costs if the cost of a similar
item of different size or capacity is known.
CB = CA (SB/SA)0.6
CB = the approximate cost ($) of equipment having size SB
CA = is the known cost ($) of equipment having
corresponding size SA (same units as SB).
SB/SA is the ratio known as the size factor, dimensionless.
Scope Estimates – Lang Factor

• This method was proposed by J.J. Lang. is also known as
“back-of-the-envelope,” and it is a preliminary estimate
that is developed during the preliminary design phase.
• Total installed cost (TIC) of plant is estimated by
multiplying the cost of major equipment (TME) by the
appropriate “Lang Factor” which varies between 3 to 5
based on type of process plant to be estimated.
TIC = TME x 3.10 for solids plant
TIC = TME x 3.63 for solids-and-fluids plant
TIC = TME x 4.74 for fluids plant
TME = Total Major Equipment cost

8/17/2017
Scope Estimates – Hand Factor

This method, developed by W.E. Hand, is an extension of the Lang method
and uses different factors for each type of equipment (columns, vessels,
heat exchangers and other units) rather than per process type.
Equipment Cost $ Factor Installed $
Columns 95,000 3.5 332,500
Trays 50,000 2.0 100,000
Exchangers 95,000 3.0 285,000
Vessels 15,000 3.0 45,000
Pumps 35,000 3.5 122,500
Furnace 150,000 2.0 300,000
Instruments 60,000 3.0 180,000
Tanks 60,000 2.5 150,000
TOTAL 560,000 2.71 1,515,000
Cost Indices
Cost indices are useful when basing the approximated cost on
other than current prices. If the known cost of a piece of
equipment is based on, for instance 1998 prices, this cost must be
multiplied by the ratio of the present day index to the 1998 base
index in order to proportion the value to present day dollars.
Mathematically, this looks like,
I
C = Co
Io
Where
C = current cost, dollars
Co = base cost, dollars
I = current index, dimensionless
Io = base index, dimensionless

8/17/2017
Cost Indices
• The most common indexes are
– Engineering News-Record Construction Cost
Index (published in the Engineering News-
Record),
– Marshall and Swift Equipment Cost Indexes,
(published in Chemical Engineering),
– Nelson-Farrar Refinery Construction Cost Index
(published in the Oil and Gas Journal) and
– the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index
(published in Chemical Engineering).
Chemical Engineering
Plant Cost Index (CEPCI)

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Nelson-Farrar Cost Index

Refinery construction (1946 Basis)
Some Common Cost Indices

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1/3
Estimated Piping Cost
(ISBL – US $/100 Ft)
2-inch Pipe Material Man- Labor TOTAL
Pipe Material Cost hours Cost Cost
Sch 40 A-53 Carbon Steel 3,025 130.0 6,498 9,523
Sch 10S 304L Stainless Steel 12,971 155.7 7,783 20,754
Sch 40S 304L Stainless Steel 13,125 188 9,400 22,525
Sch 40 Aluminum 6061-T6 3,926 178.8 8,938 12,864
150-lb flanged PP-lined Steel 10,563 62.8 3,142 13,704
150-lb Flanged PTEF-lined Steel 18,960 62.8 3,142 22,101
The materials include: 100 ft of pipe, five 90º elbows, 10 tees,
4 reducers, 24 flanges, 5 valves, 5 check valves, and all the
hardware to install and support the pipeline.
2/3
Sch 40 Aluminum 6061-T6 16,809 451.4 22,570 39,379
150-lb flanged PP-lined Steel 37,073 136.4 6,819 43,892
150-lb Flanged PTEF-lined Steel 68,466 136.4 6,819 75,285
The materials include: 100 ft of pipe, five 90º elbows, 10 tees, 4

reducers, 24 flanges, 5 valves, 5 check valves, and all the

8/17/2017
3/3
Sch 40 Aluminum 6061-T6 69,170 812.2 40,610 109,780
The materials include: 100 ft of pipe, five 90º elbows, 10 tees,

4 reducers, 24 flanges, 5 valves, 5 check valves, and all the
Liquid Storage Tanks

Purchased Equipment Cost
1st Quarter 1998 Dollars

8/17/2017
Vertical Pressure Vessel

Includes lugs, nozzles, manholes, legs or skirt, base ring, davits
Shell Material: A515

Design Temperature: 650 °F
Design Pressure: 15 psig and 150 psig
Diameter: 2.5 – 8 feet
Length: 2.7 – 13.3 feet
Total Weight: 1,000 –7,100 pounds
Horizontal Pressure Vessel

Includes saddles/lugs, nozzles and manholes
Shell Material: A515

Design Pressure: 15 psig and 150 psig
Diameter: 2 – 14 feet
Length: 4.3 – 81 feet
Total Weight: 1100 –59,400 pounds

8/17/2017
Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger

Type: Floating Head (BES) / Fixed Head (BEM)
Shell Material: A285C

Shell Temperature: 650 °F
Shell Pressure: 150 psig
Tube Material: A214
Tube Temperature: 650 °F
Tube Pressure: 150 psig
Tube Length: 10– 20 Feet
Tube Diameter: 1 Inch
Relative Costs of Heat Exchangers

Exchanger Type Relative Cost
Plate: stainless steel; rubber gasket 1
Spiral pate: all carbon steel 1.25
Shell-and-tube: all carbon steel 0.93
Plate: SS: compressed asbestos fibre gasket 1.3
Shell-and-tube: CS shell, SS tubes 1.5
Spiral plate: all SS 2.5
Shell-and-tube: all SS 2
Plate: Titanium plates 2
Plate: Hastelloy plates 8

8/17/2017
Pressure Factor for Purchased Cost of

Heat Exchangers, $
Purchased Cost of Heat Exchangers, $

100,000
Bayonet
Scraped Wall
Purchased Cost of Heat Exchanger, $
Teflon Tube
Fixed Tube Sheet

or U-Tube
10,000
Kettle Reboiler
Floating Head
Multiple Pipe
CEPC = 387 Mid 1996

1000
Double Pipe
1 10 100 1000
Heat Transfer Area, m2

8/17/2017
Air Cooled Heat Exchanger

Tube Material: A214

Tube Length: 6 – 60 Feet
Number of Bays: 1 – 3
Power/ Fan: 2 – 25 Horsepower
Bay Width: 4 – 12 Feet
Design Pressure: 150 psig
Inlet Temperature: 300 °F
Tube Diameter: 1 Inch

Plenum Type: Transition shaped
Louver Type: Face louvers only
Fin Type: L-footed tension
wound Aluminum
Furnace / Process Heater

Tube Material: A214


8/17/2017
Package Steam Boilers

Material: A285C
Pressure: 250 psig
Superheat: 100 °F
Centrifugal Pump
Single & multistage centrifugal pumps for process/general service - Split Casing
Material: Carbon Steel

Liquid Specific Gravity:1
Efficiency: <50 GPM = 60%
50 – 199 GPM = 65%
100 – 500 GPM = 75%
> 500 GPM = 82%
Driver Type: Standard motor
Seal Type: Single mechanical seal

8/17/2017
Reciprocating Pump
Duplex with steam driver. Triplex (plunger) with pumpmotor driver

Liquid Specific Gravity:1
Efficiency: 82%
Centrifugal Compressor
Description: Axial (inline) centrifugal gas compressor with motor driver.
Excludes intercoolers and knock-out drums.

Inlet Pressures: 14.7/ 14.7/ 190 psia
Pressure Ratios: 3:1/ 10:1/ 10:1
Molecular Weight: 29
Specific Heat Ratio: 1.4 1st Quarter 1998 Dollars

8/17/2017
Reciprocating Compressor
Includes gear reducer, couplings, guards, base plate, compressor unit, fittings,
interconnecting piping, vendor-supplied instruments, lube/seal system

Inlet Pressures: 14.7/14.7/165 psia
Pressure Ratios: 4:1/ 30:1/ 30:1
Molecular Weight: 30
Specific Heat Ratio: 1.22 1st Quarter 1998 Dollars

2.1 Process Equipment Sizing and Design

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2.1 Process Equipment Sizing and Design

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8/17/2017

2.1 Process Equipment - Sizing

Technical Foundation of Projects

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 1

Process Equipment and Piping

Equipment Design Methodology

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 2

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 3

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 4

Materials of Construction for Process

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 5

Material Properties and Selection

Issues in Materials Selection

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 6

Low CS (<.2% C) Ferritic

Material Selection Based on Design Temp

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 7

Stainless Steel Family of Alloys

Relative Costs of Various Alloys

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 8

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 9

Pressure Vessel Design Manual 4th Ed.

Covers almost all problems that a

Now revised with up-to-date ASME,

Guidebook for the Design of ASME

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 10

ASME BPVC Section VIII/Div.1

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 11

ASME VIII-1 Formulas for Design of

Allowable Stresses (Excerpt)

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 12

Example – Pressure Vessel Design

Example – Pressure Vessel Design

• Required wall thickness for the shell:

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 13

Example – Pressure Vessel Design

Storage Tanks: Types and Applications

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 14

Storage Tanks: Types and Applications

Refinery Tank Farm

Storage Tanks: Types and Applications

Fixed roof tank External floating Internal floating

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 15

Classification of Tanks Based on Codes

Atmospheric Tanks Low Pressure Tanks Pressure Vessels

Aboveground Storage Tanks

Topics include fundamental

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 16

Tank Design vs. Vapor Pressure

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 17

API AST Standards

UL-142 Steel Aboveground Tanks for

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 18

Aboveground UL-142 Tanks

Cylindrical Tanks Sizes (UL-142)

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 19

API Tank Standards

API Tank Standards

API-2000 Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

API tank standards are written by sub-committees comprised of

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 20

Nabil Al-Khirdaji, M.Eng., P.Eng. 21