MC/RN 358

(Heat Transfer)
Lecture # 2
Fundamentals
By:
Ernest Adaze
Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Tel: +233 20 770 62 35 | +233 54 368 33 13
Email: eadaze@umat.edu.gh
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 Objectives for the day…

 Understand the concept of Heat Transfer and its

applications

 Explain what is meant by temperature

 Distinguish between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
 Understand the Fundamental Laws and Properties
 Briefly explain the various modes of Heat Transfer
 Explain the Concept of Conduction Heat Transfer
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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Heat Transfer and Its Applications

What is Heat Transfer?

Heat Transfer (HT) refers to the transfer of energy across a system
boundary caused solely by a temperature difference.

What is Temperature?
Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy possessed by the
particles (molecules, atoms, electrons) of a substance. The
greater the agitation the higher the temperature.

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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Heat Transfer and Its Applications

Real Life Applications of Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer (HT) has a major significance in energy related
application. These include:
 Power plants (electric from fossil, nuclear, etc)
 Refrigeration and air conditioning (A/C) of confined
spaces and buildings
 Environmental applications
 Electronic cooling
 Human comfort
 Powering of space vehicles
 Food storage, drying and treatment
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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Heat Transfer and Its Applications
Heating, Ventilation and Air
Conditioning (HVAC) Ductwork Mixing of fuel and air in
a pre-mixed gas burner
A/C and used for residential
Comfort heating. Courtesy of
at Home Vaillant GmbH

A/C and
Comfort in a
Car, Van or
Truck

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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Heat Transfer and Its Applications

Car Engine Cooling

Power Generation
Electronic Cooling
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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Thermodynamics vs. Heat Transfer
 In thermodynamics, we study the heat and work of systems in
equilibrium, evaluate total quantities of heat transferred during a
process between two equilibrium states.

 The time taken during the process can not usually be

determined by thermodynamics.

 In HT, we consider the mechanics (process) of the Heat Transfer

and we not restricted to equilibrium states.

 We, therefore, need fundamental laws (conservation laws) and

phenomenological laws or particular laws (conduction,
convection, radiation, boiling, condensation, evaporation) in our
analyses. 7
Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Fundamental Laws and Properties
1. Conservation of Energy:
Fig. 1.1 Conservation of Energy:
(a) a closed system over a
time interval and (b) a control
volume at an instant

Given a system with well defined Control Volume (CV) (or open system) with
Control Surface (CS) as its boundary, we have:
Rate of Energy In – Rate of Energy Out + Rate of Energy Generated = Rate of Energy Stored
   Est
Ein  Eout  E gen  (1.1)
t
In eq. 1.1, the energy generated is counted as energy in.
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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Fundamental Laws and Properties
2. Conservation of Mass:

In general, the conservation of mass can be expressed as follows:

Rate of Mass Flow In – Rate of Mass Flow Out = Rate of Mass Stored
mst (1.2)
m in  m out 
t
In addition, we have:
3. The Second Law of Thermodynamics; and
4. The Principle of Dimensional Continuity which requires that all equations be
dimensionally consistent.
5. Thermodynamic Properties
 Extensive (system properties) U: internal energy; H=U+PV: enthalpy.
 Intensive (specific properties) e=U/m; i = H/m, where m is the system mass.
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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Fundamental Laws and Properties
Specific Heat (c)

The constant volume specific cv and constant pressure specific heat cp are defined as:
e i
cv  and cp 
T v
T p
For ideal gases, it can be shown that
de  cv dT and di  c p dT

And for a system,

dE  mcv dT and dH  mc p dT

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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Basic Heat Transport Particular
(Phenomenological) Laws
 The two (2) fundamental heat transfer mechanisms are conduction
(heat diffusion) and thermal radiation. They occur in both fluids and
solids or mixtures.

 Transfer of heat from a moving fluid over a solid surface by

conduction in the boundary layer of the fluid flow is called
convection.

 In addition, the term advection is the transfer of heat inside a fluid

due to the bulk motion of the fluid.

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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Conduction Heat Transfer

 Conduction is the transfer of energy by physical interaction

between the particles of the substance.
 In gases, conduction occurs by means of collisions between
molecules and random motion
 In liquids, it is by molecular interaction and augmented by motion
of free electrons
 In solids, it is by the movement of free electrons and vibrational
energy in the atomic lattice.

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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Fourier’s Law of Conduction
 It has been observed (by Fourier) that the rate of heat transferred by conduction
in the x direction of a wall with a finite area Ax normal to x, and thermal
conductivity kx at the location x can be written as:

dT
q x  k x Ax Heat Transfer Rate (1.3)
dx

dT
qx  k x Heat Flux (1.4)
dx
NB:
Heat transfer rate is the thermal energy transfer per unit time.
Heat flux refers to thermal energy transfer per unit time and surface area.

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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Thermal Conductivity (k)

 The thermal conductivity (k) is a thermo-physical material property of a

conducting medium which represents the rate of conduction heat
transfer per unit area for a temperature gradient of 1 K/m hence the units
of k are:
k   2 W

W W
 o
m K / m mK m C
As a rule of thumb, ksolid-ph > kliquids > kgases (except bismuth where ksolid-ph < kliquid-ph)

Also, good electrical conductors are good thermal conductors (except for dielectric crystals
as diamond, sapphires, quartz and electric semi-conductors)

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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Thermal Conductivity (k)

 Thermal conductivity (k) do vary with temperature.

 For isotropic materials k is independent of direction, for non-isotropic

materials (wood, crystalline substances, laminates plastics, composites
etc) k changes with direction.

 To enhance heat transfer, we use copper, aluminium.

 To insulate, we use rock, wool, fiber glass, etc.

 With high k and low electrical conductivity, silicon and diamond are
largely used in electronics to allow good heat transfer but maintain
electrical insulation (silicon greases, pastes and gaskets)
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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Analysis of Conduction Heat Transfer

Medium: Solids and Stationary Fluids

Analysis Steps:

1. Apply the energy conservation to a differential control volume

2. Use the particular law of conduction

3. Solve for the temperature distribution using boundary condition

4. Derive the heat transfer rate q.

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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa
 Conduction Shape Factor (S)

 For one dimensional (1D), steady state (SS), with uniform k, the
conduction shape factor S(m) is defined as:
q
S
kT
 Since S is a pure function of geometry, it was named a shape
factor. See page 236 in reference textbook for more information on
shape factor.

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Heat Transfer Lecture Notes Prepared By E. Adaze, Lecturer, Dept. of Mech. Eng., UMaT, Tarkwa