Influence Laws for Hydraulic Sealing

Capacity in Shale Gas Well Cementing

Jin Li1,2, Jian Liu1,2, Zaoyuan Li1,2*, Yang Liu3, Xuning Wu1,2, and Weitao Song1,2

1
State Key Laboratory of Oil and Gas Reservoir Geology and Exploitation, Southwest Petroleum University
2
Petroleum Engineering School, Southwest Petroleum University
3
CCDC Downhole Operation Company

Summary
Ensuring the sealing integrity of cement sheaths used for shale gas wells during hydraulic fracturing processes has become a major
challenge. The sustained casing pressure, strong temperature difference stress, and cyclic loading and unloading affect the safe long-­term
production of shale gas wells. In this paper, we propose a new hydraulic sealing capacity (HSC) evaluation system for cementing inter-

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faces. Specifically, this study aimed at understanding the influence law and failure mechanism of the interface sealing of shale gas wells
before hydraulic fracturing. The results showed that the HSC improved with an increase in the flushing time and velocity. The HSC of the
cement-­formation interface was likely to be compromised if the cement slurry was contaminated with a spacer and oil-­based mud (OBM).
When the cement slurry was mixed with more than 10% OBM, channels formed easily in the cement sheath body. Moreover, the preflush
injection sequence of “flushing fluid + spacer + flushing fluid” significantly improved the HSC of the cement-­formation interface. Based
on the experimental results and field operation experience, we determined that the optimal flushing time and flushing displacement were
15–20 minutes and 1.8 m3/min, respectively. Finally, the microstructure and distribution characteristics of the cement-­formation interface
under different conditions were obtained by computed tomography (CT) analysis, which explains the formation and failure mechanism
of the cement-­formation interface HSC. The development of harmful pores (R > 1 mm) was the main factor affecting the HSC of the
cement-­formation interface. The number of harmful pores in cement-­formation interface increased significantly after being polluted by
OBM. Combined with the field operation experience, the prefluid injection sequence of “6 m3 flushing fluid + 25 m3 spacer fluid + 6 m3
fresh water” is adopted, and the displacement volume is 1.4–1.6 m3/min, and the cement slurry is injected 10–15 m3 more, which can
greatly improve the HSC of the cement-­formation interface. Our findings highlight the need for more explicit considerations regarding
the impact of cementing technology and actual operation on the HSC of an interface under the requirements of efficient production and
extended well life.

Introduction
Hydraulic fracturing is widely used in shale gas development. However, it is not conducive to the efficient and safe production of shale
gas. Particularly, it can cause annular pressure buildup (APB) problems (Liu et al. 2021). According to statistical data, the number of wells
with APB problems constitutes more than 25% of the shale gas wells in the Marcellus Shale region in the US and the southwestern shale
region in Sichuan, China (Williams et al. 2011; Yan et al. 2018). For instance, by the end of 2015, more than half of the producing wells
in the Fu-­Ling and Wei-­Yuan gas fields experienced APB problems (Yan et al. 2018). The sealing failure of cement sheaths is the main
reason for APB problems (Liu et al. 2020).
In China, the shale gas exploration and development time is short, and the related technology is not sufficiently mature. In the process
of exploration and development, cementing quality cannot be easily guaranteed owing to deep reservoir burial, high bottomhole tempera-
tures, complex formation pressure systems, and stage and multistage fracturing. Wellbore integrity is one of the important conditions for
ensuring cementing quality. Notably, wellbore failure is very likely to result in accidents such as blowout, interlayer channeling, APB, and
casing corrosion damage (Yousuf et al. 2021). Moreover, it can affect the improvement of the oil and gas recovery coefficient and reduce
the benefits of exploration and development. More seriously, it can cause interlayer channeling, shale gas leakages, high acid corrosion
gas leakages (CO2, H2S), and environmental pollution problems (Roy et al. 2018). In recent years, the frequent occurrence of wellbore
integrity problems has brought new technical challenges to the safe development of shale gas. Cement annulus integrity failures mainly
include cement annulus plastic deformations, tensile failures, interface stripping, and section stratifications (Jian 2013; Zhen 2011). Thus
far, most research has focused mainly on the sealing integrity of cement sheath bodies. By establishing a casing-­cement-­formation com-
bination model, the characteristics of the cement sheath under the influence of various factors were determined based on a failure criterion
(Jun et al. 2005; Liu et al. 2021). In addition, some scholars have simulated the loading-­unloading process of cement annuli by establish-
ing cement annulus integrity evaluation devices and using numerical analysis software to conduct numerical simulations and analyses of
cement annulus integrity (Lin et al. 2020; Xi et al. 2020). The sealing integrity of cement sheath interfaces must be ensured to prevent
APB. Currently, the analysis of the sealing failure of cement sheath interfaces is based on the ideal cementation condition; however,
cement sheath interface cementation is also affected by formation factors, borehole conditions, mudcakes, and cement properties (Yang
et al. 2021). Furthermore, the bonding performances corresponding to the first interface (cement-­casing interface) and the second inter-
face (cement-­formation interface) are key to ensuring the long-­term sealing ability of a cement sheath (Yijin et al. 2021). After cementing,
the risk of sealing failure for a cement-­formation interface is considerable because of complex geological and operational conditions (such
as the unstable mudcakes and mudcakes of different thicknesses formed in boreholes, the unstable physical and chemical properties of
borehole rocks, and the high temperature and high pressure of the oil/gas/water layer).
However, few papers have reported quantitative evaluation systems for the HSC of cementing interfaces. Bosma et al. (1999) proposed
a finite element model to study the effects of various loads on the sealing integrity of a cement sheath under different initial stress condi-
tions. Xinyang et al. (2020) designed an interface bonding strength tester to characterize the sealing ability of a cement sheath interface

*Corresponding author; email: swpilzy@swpu.edu.cn

Copyright © 2023 Society of Petroleum Engineers
Original SPE manuscript received for review 23 May 2022. Revised manuscript received for review 5 August 2022. Paper (SPE 212291) peer approved 24 August 2022.

120 March 2023 SPE Drilling & Completion

based on shear bonding strength. Jun et al. (2008) developed a simulation-­based evaluation device for the isolation ability of a cement-­
formation interface by calculating the equivalent permeability of the interface through water and gas invasion; however, this device is
only suitable for sandstone formation. Some researchers have proposed an interface bonding strength tester device to evaluate the inter-
face sealing ability under complex temperature and pressure conditions (Xinyang et al. 2010). Moreover, some researchers tested gas
interflow using a cement sheath under different casing pressures (Zhou et al. 2019). Several researchers observed the process of cement
sheath sealing failure by physical simulation experiments and pointed out that the failure modes can be divided into three types: radial
cracking, plastic deformation, and debonding (Gray et al. 2009; Ravi et al. 2002). Most researchers have studied interface sealing based
on qualitative analysis, but none of them considered the influence of complex formation factors and actual working conditions on inter-
face sealing ability. Besides, rheological design can only solve the problem of cement slurry filling, and good filling does not mean good
cementing sealing. It is of great significance to study the influence of cementing process parameters on the hydraulic seal capacity of
cement-­formation interface. Moreover, the bonding strength, displacement efficiency, and equivalent permeability cannot accurately
reflect the HSC of a cement-­formation interface.
Based on displacement rheology, the controllable process parameters in field construction are further adjusted, a test system and an
evaluation method were established for the HSC evaluation of a cementing interface. It mainly includes simulating mudcake formation,
flushing, curing, and HSC testing under complex formation factors, such as various temperature and pressure conditions. First, the effects
of different formation conditions, borehole conditions, working fluid properties, and cementing process on the HSC of the cement-­
formation interface were analyzed using these devices. Then, the distribution characteristics and diameters of pores in the cement-­

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formation interface were analyzed quantitatively via CT. Finally, the failure mechanism of the HSC of the cement-­formation interface was
established. Furthermore, this research proposes a technical strategy to improve the HSC of the cement-­formation interface. This paper is
expected to provide guidelines and serve as a reference for further improving cementing quality, increasing shale gas production, and
prolonging shale gas well life.

Materials and Methods

Raw Material. The G-­grade oilwell cement used was purchased from Jiahua Special Cement Co. Ltd., Sichuan, China. The chemical
composition and the properties of the cement are as per Chinese standard GB175-­2007. The expansion agent, fluid loss additive, retarder,
dispersing agent, defoaming agent, flushing fluid, suspending agent, barite, and microsilicon are all available from CNPC Chuanqing
Drilling Engineering Co. Ltd. The flushing fluid is a chemical flushing agent for cementing, which is mainly composed of fatty alcohol
polyoxyethylene ether sulfate anionic surfactants. The cement slurry and spacer formula are shown in Table 1. The properties of the OBM
used are shown in Table 2. Experimental conditions adopted the field construction design data of a shale gas field in southeast Sichuan,
as shown in Table 3.

Number Description Formula

1 Cement slurry
2 Spacer fluid
350 g G-­grade oilwell cement + 150 g barite + 3.5 g
microsilicon + 2.8 g dispersing agent + 4.9 g fluid
loss additive + 0.46 g retarders, water/cement ratio =
0.33, density = 2.10 g/cm3
1200 g barite + 40 g flushing fluid + 1.2 g suspending
agent + 400 g water, density = 2.10 g/cm3

Table 1—Working fluid formula.

Apparent Plastic
Viscosity Viscosity
3
‍ ‍(g/cm ) T (s) HTHP (B) Yield Value (Pa) Shearing Force (Pa) (mPa·s) (mPa·s)
1.97 80 2.0 10 3/5.5 72 62
‍ ‍600
ˆ ‍ ‍300
ˆ ‍ ‍200
ˆ ‍ ‍100
ˆ ‍ ‍6
ˆ ‍ ‍3
ˆ Oil/water ratio
145 83 60 35 6 5 85:15

Table 2—Properties of the OBM.

Type Value Type Value

Geological stratification Longmaxi formation  Temperature estimation coefficient 0.85
Well depth (vertical depth) (m) 2639 Bottomhole circulating temperature 194
(°F)
Formation pressure equivalent 1.97 Formation fracture pressure 2.42
mud density (g/cm3) equivalent mud density (g/cm3)
Spacer density (g/cm3) 2.10 Cement slurry density (g/cm3) 2.10
3
Flushing fluid density (g/cm ) 1.0 Flushing fluid dosage (m3) 6.0–8.0
Spacer dosage (m3) 20–30 Displacement volume (m·s−1) 1.20–1.80

Table 3—Field operation conditions and parameters.

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Experimental Approach. This research has developed a nonfull-­size HSC test system for cementing a cement-­formation interface,
which includes mudcake formation, mudcake flushing, interface curing, and hydraulic sealing-­integrity testing. The mudcake formation
device, which is mainly composed of a high-­temperature, high-­pressure autoclave, heating system, pressurizing system, and plugging
cover, mainly simulates fluid loss to form a filter cake on the borehole wall. The mudcake flushing device, which is primarily composed
of a wellbore circulation flushing simulation system, heating system, central processing system, and shear stress control system, simulates
a displacement circulation process. The interface curing device simulates the formation of the cement-­formation combination. The HSC
test device simulates the interface sealing failure process.
Preparation of Cement Slurry. The preparation of the cement slurry was adapted from API RP 10B-­2 (2013). First, all the additives
in the powder were dry-­blended with cement. Then, all the additives in the liquid were wet-­blended with water. Finally, a blade-­type lab-
oratory blender was used to mix the cement slurry at a water/cement ratio of 0.33. The dry mixture must be added to the water in the cup
of the blade blender and mixed at a speed of 4,000 rev/min for 15 seconds and then mixed at a speed of 12,000 rev/min for 35 seconds.
Finally, the cement slurry should be placed in a normal pressure consistometer at a temperature of 194°F for 20 minutes.
Mudcake Formation. The mudcake was formed using a modified high-­temperature and high-­pressure filter press. Its schematic for the
mudcake formation mechanism is shown in Fig. 1. First, the core and drilling fluid are placed in the modified kettle body. Then, a heating
jacket is wrapped around the kettle body. Third, the mudcake formation system was adjusted at 194°F and 508 psi differential pressure for
1 hour. The diameter and height of the autoclave body of the mudcake formation device are 63 and 270 mm, respectively, and the diameter
and height of the shale core are 25 and 50 mm, respectively.

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Fig. 1—Physical image and schematic for mudcake formation mechanism.

Mudcake Flushing. To simulate the actual mudcake cleaning and scouring process of the well wall, we made appropriate improve-
ments based on the principle of a conventional viscometer. Only the effect of temperature was considered in the flushing process. The
working principle of the equipment is shown in Fig. 2. The diameter and height of the slurry cup are 10 and 10 cm, respectively. The
equipment includes the following modules:
• Cores with mudcakes are fixed and kept in a simulated circulation system by a removable fixture.
• A variable-­speed stirrer provides the scouring dynamic for the borehole wall.
• The rotation of the outer cylinder drives the preflushing liquid to scour the mudcake on the borehole wall. The flushing efficiency
is calculated by the formula:

M1  M2
A=  100%, (1)
‍ M1  M0 ‍

where ‍A‍is the mudcake flushing efficiency; M0 is the quality of rock core, which is drilled from a block of shale (g); M1 is
the quality of core that the mudcake is formed (g); M2 is the quality of core that the mudcake is removed (g).
• A suitable preflushing liquid system is used to simulate the hydrodynamic effect.
• The heating jacket keeps the circulation system at a predefined temperature.
Interface Curing. (1) The self-­developed cement sheath interface forming curing mold was assembled, and the mold structure is
shown in Fig. 3. (2) The core after the mudcake washing is placed in the center of the curing mold, and the configured cement slurry is
poured and filled in the annulus. (3) The mold was placed in a pressurized curing kettle after covering the top cover for curing for 7 days.
According to the formation static temperature and pressure curing, curing temperature is 194°F, curing pressure is 20.7 MPa, respectively.
The diameter and height of the simulated cement-­formation interface specimens are 50 and 50 mm, respectively, the photo of the physical
object is shown in Fig. 3.
HSC Test. The wellbore simulator is shown in Fig. 4. First, the formed cement-­formation interface specimen was placed into a well-
bore simulator. The composite specimen is sealed by wrapping rubber sleeve and applying annular pressure. Subsequently, considering
the actual shallow and deep downhole temperature environment, the annular pressure outside the cement annulus only acts as a seal,
allowing the fluid only to pass through the interface. Finally, by injecting water or inert gas (N2) into one end of the specimen, the break-
through pressure value was gradually increased, and water/gas migration was quantitatively detected. If there is any such migration, it
indicates damage to the structure of the cement-­formation interface. The HSC of the cement sheath interface is comprehensively eval-
uated by three indexes: breakthrough pressure (the pressure value corresponding to the end face liquid outlet time), maximum sealing
pressure (the maximum pressure value that the end face can stabilize), and channeling pressure (the pressure value that the end face can
maintain after forming the crossflow channel).

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Fig. 2—Physical image and structural diagram of mudcake flushing equipment.

Fig. 3—Maintenance molds and the simulated cement-­formation interface specimens.

Fig. 4—Physical image and structural diagram of HSC test device.

Evaluation of HSC of Cement-Formation Interface

Effects of Flushing Time on HSC of Interface. Based on the field construction design data of a shale gas field in southwest Sichuan,
we investigated the impact of the flushing time on the HSC of the cement-­formation interface, and the experimental results are shown in
Fig. 5. We carried out flushing experiments at 300 rev/min for 5 minutes (300 rev/min—5 minutes), 10 minutes (300 rev/min—10 minutes),
15 minutes (300 rev/min—15 minutes), 20 minutes (300 rev/min—20 minutes), 25 minutes (300 rev/min—25 minutes), and 30 minutes
(300 rev/min—30 minutes). When the flushing time was less than 5 minutes, the cement-­formation interface of the cementing had no HSC,
and the maximum hydraulic sealing pressure was only 2.6 psi (Fig. 5a). Herein, when the flushing time is short, the prefluid cannot effectively
destroy the structure of the mudcake, weakening the cohesive bond between the cement and the mudcake particles at the cement-­formation
interface. Therefore, natural cementation cracks led to the lack of HSC. When the flushing time was increased to 10 minutes, the interparticle

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Fig. 5—Effects of flushing time on HSC: (a) 300 rev/min—5 minutes; (b) 300 rev/min—10 minutes; (c) 300 rev/min—15 minutes; (d)
300 rev/min—20 minutes; (e) 300 rev/min—25 minutes; and (f) 300 rev/min—30 minutes.

cohesive bonds of the cement-­formation interface improved, and the breakthrough pressure increased to 26.8 psi (Fig. 5b). When the flushing
time was increased to 15 minutes, the HSC of the cement-­formation interface improved further, with a breakthrough pressure of 164.6 psi and
a maximum sealing pressure of 181.5 psi (Fig. 5c). When the flushing time was increased to 20 minutes, the interface breakthrough pressure
reached 388.5 psi (i.e., 136% higher than that of the 15-­minute flushing sample) and the maximum sealing pressure reached 404.5 psi (i.e.,
123% higher than that of the 15-­minute flushing sample). After 150  seconds, the channeling pressure of the cement-­formation interface
stabilized at 95.9 psi (Fig. 5d). As shown, a fixed time is needed for the prefluid to destroy the dense mudcake grid structure. Fig. 5e shows
that the cement-­formation interface breakthrough pressure increased to 618.6 psi after 25 minutes of flushing (i.e., 59% higher than that of the
sample with 20-­minute flushing) and the maximum sealing pressure increased to 1,061.8 psi (i.e., 162% higher than that of the sample with
20-­minute flushing). When the flushing time increased to 30 minutes, the pressure at the water inlet increased to 2,029.8 psi, while the HSC of
the cement-­formation interface did not fail (Fig. 5f). The corresponding relationship between the interface breakthrough pressure, maximum
sealing pressure, channeling pressure, flushing efficiency, and flushing time is summarized herein; the influence laws of the flushing time on
the HSC of the cementing cement-­formation interface are shown in Fig. 5. There is a positive correlation between the HSC of the cementing
cement-­formation interface and the flushing time. For example, when the flushing time is 15–20 minutes, the HSC of the cementing cement-­
formation interface significantly improved, and the effect was enhanced when the flushing time was 25 minutes (Fig. 6). Overall, there was a
positive correlation between the flushing efficiency and flushing time. When the flushing time exceeded 15 minutes, the flushing efficiency of
the cement-­formation interface mudcake significantly improved (Fig. 6).

Effects of Flushing Velocity on HSC of Interface. Based on the field construction design data of the shale gas field in southwest Sichuan,
we investigated the impact of the flushing velocity on the HSC of the cementing cement-­formation interface; the experimental results
are shown in Fig. 7. We conducted a flushing experiment at 458 rev/min [458 rev/min (0.6 m/s)—10 minutes], 611 rev/min [611 rev/
min (0.8 m/s)—10 minutes], 764 rev/min [764 rev/min (1.0 m/s)—10 minutes], 917 rev/min [917 rev/min (1.2 m/s)—10 minutes], and
1,146  rev/min [1,146  rev/min (1.5  m/s)—10  minutes] for 10  minutes. Fig. 7a shows that when the flushing velocity was less than
0.6 m/s, the breakthrough pressure of the cementing cement-­formation interface was only 10.1 psi, and the maximum sealing pressure
and channeling pressure were only 12.2 psi. When the flushing velocity was too low, the cutting pressure of the preflush on the borehole
wall was insufficient to destroy the mudcake structure, leading to the existence of natural cementation cracks between the cement and
the borehole wall. Therefore, the HSC of the cement-­formation interface was weak. When the flushing velocity was increased to 0.8 m/s,
the HSC of the cement-­formation interface was significantly improved, and the breakthrough pressure was 415.9 psi. In addition, the
maximum sealing pressure was 498.7  psi, and the channeling pressure was 397.8  psi (Fig. 7b). When the flushing velocity reached
1.0 m/s, the HSC of the cement-­formation interface was almost unchanged, and the breakthrough pressure became 324 psi. Moreover,
the maximum sealing pressure was 476.3 psi, and the channeling pressure was 420.8 psi (Fig. 7c). Fig. 7d shows that with a flushing
velocity of 1.2 m/s, the cement-­formation interface breakthrough pressure increased to 467.2 psi, which is 12% higher than that of the
sample with a 0.8 m/s flushing velocity; moreover, the maximum sealing pressure increased to 564.4 psi, which is 13% higher than that of
the sample with the 0.8 m/s flushing velocity. In addition, the channeling pressure increased to 511.6 psi, which is 29% higher than that
of the sample with the 0.8 m/s flushing velocity. When the flushing velocity increased to 1.5 m/s, the pressure at the water inlet increased
to 2,322 psi, while the HSC of the cement-­formation interface did not fail (Fig. 7e). The influence laws of flushing velocity on the HSC
of the cementing cement-­formation interface are shown in Fig. 8. When the flushing velocity was less than 600 rev/min (0.8 m/s), the
cement-­formation interface was almost unable to form an effective HSC. When the flushing velocity was 600–900 rev/min (0.8–1.2
m/s), the maximum sealing pressure at the cement-­formation interface was almost constant, at approximately 500 psi. When the flushing
velocity exceeded 900 rev/min (1.2 m/s), the HSC of the cement-­formation interface was significantly improved. Generally, a positive

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Fig. 6—Influence laws of flushing time on HSC.

Fig. 7—Effects of flushing velocity on HSC: (a) 458 rev/min—10 minutes; (b) 611 rev/min—10 minutes; (c) 764 rev/min—10 minutes;
(d) 917 rev/min—10 minutes; and (e) 1,146 rev/min—10 minutes.

correlation was observed between the flushing efficiency of the cement-­formation interface mudcake and the flushing velocity. When the
displacement exceeded 0.8 m/s, the flushing efficiency of the cement-­formation interface mudcake exceeded 70% (Fig. 8).

Effects of Annulus Cement Contamination on HSC of Interface. To study the influence of the spacer, OBM, and cement slurry
contamination on the HSC of the cement-­formation interface, we selected the classic ratio (the recommended ratios are 7:2:1, 7:3, and 1:1:1
for each fluid combination mixture of cement slurry/spacer/OBM) of a cement slurry contamination experiment; the experimental results
are shown in Fig. 9. When the cement slurry contamination ratio was 7:2:1, the breakthrough pressure of the cement-­formation interface
was 155.2 psi, the maximum sealing pressure was 328.9 psi, and the channeling pressure was stabilized at 277.6 psi after approximately
6 minutes (Fig. 9a). When the cement slurry contamination ratio was 7:3, the breakthrough pressure of the cement-­formation interface
was 64.4 psi, and the maximum sealing pressure was 69.2 psi. Moreover, the channeling pressure stabilized at 54.1 psi after approximately
3 minutes (Fig. 9b). Comparing Fig. 9a with Fig. 9b, when the cement slurry was mixed with a 30 vol% spacer, the breakthrough pressure
decreased by 58.5%, the maximum sealing pressure decreased by 79.0%, and the channeling pressure decreased by 80.5%. When the
cement slurry was mixed with more than 20 vol% of the spacer, the HSC of the cement-­formation interface decreased sharply. When the
cement slurry contamination ratio was 1:1:1, the breakthrough pressure of the cement-­formation interface was 724.7 psi, but the hydraulic
sealing pressure of the cement-­formation interface could always be increased (Fig. 9c). The cement sheath body structure was dissolved,
and the volume was reduced significantly. Moreover, the liquid did not flow through the cement-­formation interface after the sample
was cut (Fig. 9d). When the cement slurry was mixed with >10 vol% OBM, the cement sheath structure became loose, its strength was
reduced, and its permeability increased; therefore, the liquid was easily channeled from the cement sheath body (weak channel), while
the cement sheath body structure was dissolved continuously. As the confining pressure increased, the structure of the cement sheath

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Fig. 8—Influence laws of flushing velocity on HSC.

Fig. 9—Effects of cement slurry contamination on HSC: (a) 7:2:1; (b) 7:3; (c) 1:1:1; and (d) physical photography.

became more compact; therefore, the hydraulic sealing pressure of the cement-­formation interface could always increase. The influence
laws of the cement slurry contamination on the HSC of the cementing cement-­formation interface are shown in Fig. 10. When the cement
slurry was mixed with a spacer with >20 vol%, or with an OBM with >10 vol%, the cement stone and the cement-­formation interface
became loose and porous; hence, the fluid flowed directly from the cement sheath body, which inhibited effective sealing. The greater the
proportion of the cement slurry mixed with other slurries, the worse the sealing performance.

Effects of Preflush Injection Sequence on HSC of Interface. According to the injection sequence and flushing time of the shale gas
field preflush, four types of preflush injection sequences (10-­minute spacer; 10-­minute spacer + 2-­minute flushing fluid; 2-­minute flushing
fluid + 10-­minute spacer; and 2-­minute flushing fluid + 10-­minute flushing fluid + 2-­minute flushing fluid) were selected for the flushing
experiment. All the experiments were conducted with a return speed of 0.6 m/s; the experimental results are shown in Fig. 11. Fig. 11a
shows that the HSC of the cement-­formation interface was extremely weak after only 10 minutes of flushing with a spacer fluid, and the
maximum sealing pressure was only 10.1 psi. When the preflush injection sequence was “10-­minute spacer + 2-­minute flushing fluid,”
the HSC of the cement-­formation interface was considerably improved (Fig. 11b). Fig. 11b shows that the breakthrough pressure of the
cement-­formation interface was 225 psi, and the maximum sealing pressure was 233.2 psi. Moreover, the channeling pressure became
stabilized at 151.9 psi after approximately 2 minutes. When the injection sequence of the spacer and flushing fluid was switched, the
HSC of the cement-­formation interface was further improved (Fig. 11c). Fig. 11c shows that the breakthrough pressure of the cement-­
formation interface was 569.4 psi and that the maximum sealing pressure was 603.4 psi. Moreover, the channeling pressure stabilized
at 552.1 psi after approximately 4 minutes. When the preflush injection sequence was “2-­minute flushing fluid + 10-­minute spacer +
2-­minute flushing fluid,” the HSC of the cement-­formation interface was significantly improved (Fig. 11d). Fig. 11d shows that the
breakthrough pressure of the cement-­formation interface was 1,850 psi and that the maximum sealing pressure was 2,968.5 psi. Moreover,
the channeling pressure stabilized at 2,458.4 psi. The HSC was the best when the same amount of flushing fluid was used before and after
the spacer flushing. However, the cement slurry was at risk of being contaminated; the flushing fluid could dilute the cement slurry and
considerably reduce its density. When the preflush injection sequence of “flushing fluid + spacer” was adopted, the HSC of the cement-­
formation interface was significantly improved. Several researchers have demonstrated that the surfactant can penetrate, adsorb, wet,
and emulsify the mudcake of the OBM, making it loose, such that it can be easily stripped and removed (Van Zanten and Ezzat 2010;
Zhou et al. 2018). The experimental results of this study corroborate the aforementioned reports. The influence laws of the preflush slurry
column structure on the HSC of the cementing cement-­formation interface are shown in Fig. 12. A positive correlation existed between

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Fig. 10—Influence laws of cement slurry contamination on HSC.

Fig. 11—Effects of preflush injection sequence on HSC: (a) 10-­minute spacer (SF); (b) 10-­minute SF + 2-­minute flushing fluid (FF);
(c) 2-­minute FF + 10-­minute SF; and (d) 2-­minute FF + 10-­minute SF + 2-­minute FF.

Fig. 12—Influence laws of preflush injection sequence on HSC.

the HSC of the cementing cement-­formation interface and the flushing efficiency. Preflushing with flushing fluids in advance could
notably improve the flushing efficiency of the cement-­formation interface mudcake (Fig. 12). The HSC of the cement-­formation interface
could be significantly improved using a surfactant to emulsify and dissolve the mudcake of the OBM in advance.

March 2023 SPE Drilling & Completion 127

Microstructure Evolution Mechanism of HSC of Cement-Formation Interface
CT scanning can accurately reconstruct the 3D volume of a sample and determine the exact locations and sizes of the defects (pores,
cracks, and debonding zones). The pore characteristics of the cement-­formation interface were analyzed via CT scanning for the blank
control group and oil-­contaminated control group, with different flushing times and different flushing velocities, based on the testing
device (MICROXCT-­400); the results are shown in Fig. 13.

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Fig. 13—3D CT visualizations of debonded zones at cement-­formation interface: (a) blank control group; (b) oil-­contaminated
control group; and (c) the interface was cemented after flushing with preflush solution.

Based on the CT scan results in Fig. 13, the pores of the weak interface between the cement sheath and the clean formation were uni-
formly distributed and loosened (Fig. 13a). The number of pores and gaps at the oil-­contaminated cement-­formation interface were sig-
nificantly increased, and several natural channels are visible (Fig. 13b). Therefore, the HSC of the cement-­formation interface was
severely affected by the OBM (Huang et al. 2021). Before the initial cementing operation, the borehole was cleaned with the flushing and
spacer fluids, and the cement-­formation interface was significantly improved. Moreover, the number and size of pores significantly
decreased, and numerous micropores were visible (Fig. 13c). Furthermore, we quantitatively analyzed the relationship between the pore
distribution, pore size, pore connectivity, flushing time, flushing speed, and preflush injection sequence and conducted a 3D reconstruc-
tion analysis of the CT images, as shown in Fig. 14. The clean cement-­formation interface exhibited a few uniformly distributed pores
with a radius of approximately 0.65 mm (Fig. 14a). Approximately 84% of the pores in the clean cement-­formation interface had radii of
300–700 μm (Fig. 14f). When the interface was polluted by the OBM, the number of pores increased; specifically, the number of large
pores (R > 1 mm) ncreased significantly (Fig. 14b). The pore radius of the oil-­contaminated cement-­formation interface was 600–900 μm,
and the radius of 8.2% of the pores exceeded 1 mm (Fig. 14g). Figs. 14c and 14d show that increasing the flushing time (300 rev/20 min)
and flushing speed (917 rev/10 min) of the spacer appropriately can significantly reduce the number and diameter of pores at the oil-­
contaminated cement-­formation interface. More than 75% of the pores had radii less than 600 μm (Figs. 14h and 14i). When the preflush
injection sequence was “2-­minute flushing fluid + 10-­minute spacer + 2-­minute flushing fluid,” the number of oil-­contaminated cement-­
formation interfacial pores were further reduced (Fig. 14e). The radii of more than 90% of the pores were less than 500 μm, and almost
no pores had radii exceeding 900 μm (Fig. 14j).

Fig. 14—3D reconstruction of CT images of cement-­formation interface specimens after 7 days of curing: (a, f) blank control group;
(b, g) oil-­contaminated control group; (c, h) 300 rev/20 min; (d, i) 917 rev/10 min; (e, j) 2-­minute FF + 10-­minute SF + 2-­minute FF.

Technical Strategies to Improve HSC of Cement-Formation Interface of Cementing

Throughout the drilling process, a mudcake is formed on the borehole wall, which improves the stability of the borehole wall and prevents
drilling fluid from leaking into and contaminating the formation. The removal of the mudcake during cementing is a critical factor con-
trolling the annulus cement-­formation interface sealing ability. The residual mudcake in the borehole wall makes the cement-­formation
interface loose and porous, causing microcracks and microholes to be embedded in this interface. According to the experimental results,
a series of technical strategies was proposed to improve the sealing ability of the cement-­formation interface of cementing. First,

128 March 2023 SPE Drilling & Completion

optimizing the flushing time (15–20 minutes) and displacement volume (1.8 m3/min) can improve the cement-­formation interface sealing
ability of the shale gas well. During the cementing process, cement annulus mixing contamination should be avoided as much as possible.
After the contamination, the cement stone and the interface become loose and porous, and the number of microcracks and microholes
increase. The fluid is channeled not only from the cement-­formation interface but also from the cement sheath body, which hinders effec-
tive sealing challenging. Finally, the preflush slurry column adopts a “rinse with flushing fluid in advance” structure, which can signifi-
cantly improve the cement-­formation interface sealing ability of the shale gas well. The flushing fluid can effectively change the wettability
of the mudcake. In particular, the cement-­formation interface sealing ability can be significantly improved by employing a “flushing
fluid + spacer + flushing fluid” preliquid slurry column structure and the same amount of flushing fluid.

Conclusions and Discussion

A nonfull-­size testing system for evaluating the HSC of the cementing cement-­formation interface was developed. The testing system can
analyze the formation and failure mechanism of the cement-­formation interfacial HSC under various conditions, such as dynamic forma-
tion water, high temperature, high pressure, real core interface, and different cementing technologies. Moreover, we established the test
method to evaluate the cement-­formation interface HSC of a shale gas well. From the experimental analysis mentioned above, the follow-
ing conclusions were drawn.
For this research, we conducted several experiments to understand the influence law of the cement-­formation interface sealing ability,

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and found that increasing the flushing time and velocity can improve the sealing performance of the cement-­formation interface. Based
on the experimental results, the optimal flushing time and flushing displacement were determined as 15–20 minutes and 1.6–1.8 m3/min,
respectively. In addition, if the cement annulus is contaminated with other fluids, the cement stone and the cement-­formation interface
become loose and porous, and the number of microcracks and microholes increase (Fig. 13b). Therefore, the cement displacement effi-
ciency should be improved as much as possible to improve the cement-­formation interface sealing ability during the cementing process.
Finally, the preflush slurry column adopts the “flushing fluid + spacer + flushing fluid” structure. Through CT scanning, the microstructure
evolution mechanism of the cement-­formation interface under different conditions was determined. The main reason for the failure of the
cement-­formation interface sealing of the shale gas wells is that the pores are concentrated at the oil-­contaminated interface, which results
in insufficient interfacial bonding strength. Combined with the field operation experience, the prefluid injection sequence of “6 m3 flush-
ing fluid + 25 m3 spacer fluid + 6 m3 freshwater” is adopted, the displacement volume is 1.4–1.6 m3/min, and the cement slurry is injected
10–15 m3 more, which can greatly improve the HSC of the cement-­formation interface. No gas channeling occurred after the cementing
technology was applied in the field. The cement bond logging method was used after cementing, and the results show that the good
cementing quality rate is more than 90%, which is much higher than that of adjacent wells, and the interface cementation quality is good
after cementing.
The further studies will analyze the failure mechanisms of the cement-­formation interface sealing ability under different conditions,
such as the formation mechanism of interface microcracks and micropores, changes in the interface microstructure, and initial stress
formation and failure. Such efforts are necessary to understand the key factors controlling the cement-­formation interface sealing ability
and help plan cementing tasks for enhancing cementing quality and ensuring efficient and safe production of shale gas.

Acknowledgments
This work has been supported by the Science and Technology Cooperation Project of the CNPC-­SWPU Joint Research Institute (CQXN-­
2020-­03), the Science and Technology Cooperation Project of the CNPC-­SWPU Innovation Alliance (2020CX040000). This support is
gratefully acknowledged.

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