Chapter 3

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Why Do We Need Classification?
The periodic table helps to organize information about the elements in a

concise and meaningful way.
The classification of elements based on their atomic structure and properties

allows us to predict the properties of elements that have not yet been
discovered.
Teligram/@padhleakshay
By classifying elements, we can identify trends in their physical and chemical
properties.
The classification of elements helps scientists to develop new materials and

technologies.
Periodic Table
The periodic table is a chart that organizes all known elements

according to their atomic structure, properties, and chemical behavior.
YouTube/@padhleakshay
Dobereiner’s Triads Law

1st attempt towards the classification of elements was made by Johann W.

Dobereiner in 1817.
He arranged elements in the groups of three and in such a way that the
atomic weight of middle element was equal or nearly equal to the average of
atomic weights of other two elements.
downloadedfrompadhleakshay.com
Drawback : Only limited triads were arranged in this pattern.
Dobereiner's Triads Law placed some elements in the wrong triad,

leading to inaccuracies in their classification.
isko ache se padh lena
exam me ata hai
Newland’s Law of Octaves
Newlands observed that when the elements were arranged in order of

increasing atomic weight, every eighth element had similar properties.
He called this pattern the "law of octaves" because it reminded him of the
musical scale, where every eighth note is a repetition of the first.
For example, when the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight,
the eighth element (starting with hydrogen) is sodium, which has similar properties
to lithium, the first element. Similarly, the fifteenth element is chlorine, which has
similar properties to fluorine, the first element.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law is a principle that states that the chemical and physical
properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. This law
was proposed by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, and it forms the basis
of the modern periodic table.
The periodic table is a graphical representation of the periodic law that organizes
elements into rows and columns based on their atomic number and electron
configurations.
The rows of the periodic table are called periods, and the columns are called
groups or families. Elements within the same group share similar chemical and
physical properties, while elements within the same period have the same number
of electron shells.
Mendeleev organised atoms in a table's horizontal rows and vertical columns in

order of increasing atomic weights, so that elements with comparable properties
were grouped together in the same vertical column.
Defects in Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Hydrogen has been placed in group IA along with alkali metals. But it also
resembles halogens of group VII A in many properties. Thus, its position is the
Mendeleev’s periodic table is controversial.
Although the elements in the Mendeleev’s periodic table have been arranged in
order of their atomic masses, but in some cases the element with higher atomic
mass precedes the element with lower atomic mass.
Modern Periodic Law
The modern periodic law states that the physical and chemical properties of
elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
This means that as you move across a row (period) in the periodic table, the
properties of the elements change in a predictable pattern. Additionally, as
you move down a column (group) in the periodic table, the elements have
similar properties due to their similar electron configurations.
As a result, Mendeleev's Periodic Law was altered correspondingly. The

Modern Periodic Law can be stated as follows: The physical and chemical
properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
isko yaad kane ka trick tho ap
ko pata hi hoga.....
haay lina ne ki rab se
fariyaad...and so on
Nomenclature of elements with Atomic numbers > 100
The authority of naming new elements had hitherto been reserved for the
discoverer, and the recommended name was validated by the IUPAC.
Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number above 100
Division of Elements into Blocks
Elements are divided into blocks based on the type of subshell that their
valence electrons occupy. There are four blocks in the periodic table: s, p, d,
and f.
s-block
The s-block elements are those in which the valence electrons occupy the s
subshell.
The s subshell can hold up to two electrons, so the s-block elements have a
maximum of two valence electrons. The s-block elements include the alkali
metals (group 1) and the alkaline earth metals (group 2) as well as helium
(group 18).
Characteristics of s-Block elements
Except Be and Mg, all impart characteristic colour to the flame
These have low ionisation energy.
These are highly reactive. YouTube/@padhleakshay
These are the highly electropositive elements.
They have low melting and boiling points.
*characteristic properties of s-block

elements yaad kr lena
exam me pucha jata hai

p-block
The p-block elements are those in which the valence electrons occupy the p
subshell.
The p subshell can hold up to six electrons, so the p-block elements have a
maximum of six valence electrons. The p-block elements include the noble gases
(group 18) and the nonmetals (groups 13-17).
The outermost electronic configuration varies from ns2np1 to ns2np6 in each

period. same iske bhi characteristics
yaad kar lo
Characteristics of p-Block elements
The compounds of p-block elements are generally covalent although their

ionic character increases down the group.
From left to right 13 to 18, reducing character decreases.
The p-block elements generally show more than one oxidation state.
The reactivity of elements in a group generally decreases downwards.
At the end of each period is a noble gas element with a closed valence shell
ns2 np6 configuration.
*isme se kuch elements

yaad kar lena
Ans likhte time dika
dena
d-block
The d-block elements are those in which the valence electrons occupy the d
subshell.
The d subshell can hold up to ten electrons, so the d-block elements have a
maximum of ten valence electrons. The d-block elements are commonly
referred to as the transition metals and occupy groups 3-12.
These elements have the general outer electronic configuration (n-1)d 1-10 ns 0-2.
Characteristics of d-Block elements
They are all metals with high melting and boiling points.
The compounds of the elements are generally paramagnetic in nature.
They mostly form coloured ions, exhibit variable valence (oxidation states).
They are of tenly used as catalysts.
These elements have high melting point.
d block
f-block
The f-block elements are those in which the valence electrons occupy the f
subshell.
The f subshell can hold up to fourteen electrons, so the f-block elements have a
maximum of fourteen valence electrons.
The f-block elements are also known as the inner transition metals and are
located at the bottom of the periodic table.
General electronic configuration: (n – 2) f 1-14 (n -1) d 0-1 ns2
Characteristics of f-Block elements:
The two rows of elements at the bottom of the Periodic Table, called the
Lanthanoids Ce (Z = 58) – Lu (Z = 71) and Actinoids Th (Z = 90) – Lr (Z = 103).
These two series of elements are called Inner Transition Elements (f-Block
Elements).
They are all metals. Within each series, the properties of the elements are quite
similar.

Most of the elements pf the actinoid series are radio-active in nature.
Ques : How does the position of an element in the periodic table relate to
its physical and chemical properties?
Ques : How are elements organized into blocks, and what are the characteristics
of each block? is ques ko ache se
prepare kar lena
Metals
Metals comprise more than 78% of all known elements and appear on the
left side of the Periodic Table.
Metals are solids at room temperature.
Metal usually have high melting and boiling points. ye sari properties ap log
pehle se padhe hue ho
They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
bus ek nazar dek lena
They are malleable and ductile.
Non-metals
Non-metals are located at the top right hand side of the Periodic Table.
Non-metals are usually solids or gases at low temperature with low melting and
boiling points.
They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
The non-metallic character increases as one goes from left to right across the
Periodic
Table.
Most non-metallic solids are brittle and are neither malleable nor ductile.
Metalloids
The elements (e.g., silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium)
show the characteristic, of both metals and non-metals. These elements
are also called semimetal.
Noble Gases
These are the elements present in group 18.
Eash period ends with noble gas element.
All the members are of gaseous nature and because of the presence of all
the occupied filled orbitals, they have very little tendency to take part in
chemical combination.
These are also called inert gases.
Transition Elements
The transition elements include, all the d-block elements and they are present in
the centre of the periodic table between s and p-block elements.
Variation of Atomic Radius in the Periodic Table
The atomic radius is the distance between the nucleus of an atom and its
outermost electron.
In the periodic table, the atomic radius varies in a periodic manner.

Specifically, the atomic radius decreases from left to right across a period and
increases from top to bottom within a group.
Variation in a group: The atomic radii of the elements in every group of the
periodic table increases as we move downwards.
Ques:Atomic radious increases as you move down a group ,why?

Periodic Properties

Periodic properties refer to the regular trends in properties of elements in the
periodic table based on their position.
These properties are largely influenced by the electronic structure of the atoms
of the elements.
Some of the important periodic properties are:
Atomic radius:
The atomic radius of an element refers to the distance between the nucleus and the
outermost electron in the atom. The atomic radius increases from top to bottom
within a group and decreases from left to right across a period.
Ionic Radius:The ionic radii can be estimated by measuring the distances between
cations and anions in ionic crystals. In general, the ionic radii of elements exhibit
the same trend as the atomic radii.
Cation: The removal of an electron from an atom results in the formation of a

cation. The radius of cation is always smaller than that of the atom.
Anion: Gain of an electron leads to an anion. The radius of the anion is always
larger than that ‘ of the atom.
Ionisation energy
It is the amount of energy required to remove the outer most electron from an YouTube/@padhleakshay
isolated atom in its gaseous state. It is the measured in the unit of kJ/mole. It is
∆
denoted by ( iH).
M(g) - e- ⟶ M+(g)
Electron gain enthalpy
It is the enthalpy change when an electron is added to the gaseous neutral atom.
Electron gain enthalpy provides a measure of the ease with which an atom adds an
electron to form anion.
∆ H).
It is the measured in the unit of kJ/mole. It is denoted by (
eg
X(g) + e- ⟶ X- (g)
Electronegativity

Electronegativity is the measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a

shared pair of electrons towards itself in a covalent bond.
Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period and decreases from
top to bottom within a group.
Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties along a Period
Metallic character: It decreases across a period, maximum on the

extreme left (alkali metals).
Non-metallic character: It increases along a period, from left to right.
Atomic Size: It decreases across a period.
Ionisation energy: It increases along a period. isko ache se
samjh lena
Electron gain enthalpy: It increases along a period.
Electronegativity: It increases along a period.
Basic nature of oxides: It decreases from left to right in a period.
Acidic nature of oxides: It increases from left to right in a period.

Variation in Chemical Properties along a a Group

Reactivity: Elements in a group have the same number of valence
electrons, and thus have similar chemical reactivity. For example, the
alkali metals in Group 1 (such as lithium, sodium, and potassium) all have
one valence electron and react similarly with water and oxygen.
Electronegativity: Electronegativity generally decreases down a group.

This is because the outermost electrons are increasingly farther from the
nucleus, which reduces the attractive force that the nucleus exerts on
these electrons. As a result, atoms within a group tend to form cations
(positively charged ions) more readily than anions (negatively charged
ions).
Ionization Energy: Ionization energy tends to decrease down a group.
This is because the valence electrons are increasingly farther from the
nucleus, which reduces the energy required to remove them from the
atom. As a result, elements within a group are more likely to lose their
valence electrons and form cations.
Atomic radius: Atomic radius generally increases down a group. This is

because the valence electrons are increasingly farther from the nucleus,
and are shielded by inner electrons from the positive charge of the
nucleus. As a result, the electrons are held less tightly, and the atomic
radius increases.
Metallic character: The metallic character of elements generally
increases down a group. This is because the valence electrons are
increasingly farther from the nucleus, and are held less tightly. This
makes the atoms more likely to lose electrons and form cations, which
are characteristic of metallic behavior.
Important Question
Ques:How would you react to the statement that the electronegativity of N on
the Pauling scale is 3.0 in all the nitrogen compounds?
Electronegativity of an element is a variable property. It is different in different

compounds. Hence, the statement which says that the electronegativity of N on the
Pauling scale is 3.0 in all nitrogen compounds is incorrect. For example, the
electronegativity of N is different in NH3 and NO2
Ques:Describe the theory associated with the radius of an atom as it
(a) gains an electron
(b) loses an electron
(a) By gaining an electron, an anion is formed.

𝐴+𝑒−⟶𝐴−
When an atom gains an electron, its size increases. When an electron is added,
the number of electrons goes up by one. This results in an increase in repulsion
among the electrons. However, the number of protons remains the same. As a
result, the effective nuclear charge of the atom decreases and the radius of
the atom increases.
(b) By the loss of an electron, a cation is formed

𝐵⟶𝐵++𝑒−
When an atom loses an electron, the number of electrons decreases by one

while the nuclear charge remains the same. Therefore, the interelectronic
repulsions in the atom decreases. As a result, the effective nuclear charge
increases. Hence, the radius of the atom decreases.
Ques:Would you expect the first ionization enthalpies for two isotopes of the same
element to be the same or different? Justify your answer
The ionization enthalpy of an atom depends on the number of electrons and

protons (nuclear charge) of that atom. Now, the isotopes of an element have the
same number of protons and electrons. Therefore, the first ionization enthalpy
for two isotopes of the same element should be the same
Ques:Use the periodic table to answer the following questions.

(a) Identify an element with five electrons in the outer subshell.
(b) Identify an element that would tend to lose two electrons.
(c) Identify an element that would tend to gain two electrons.
(d) Identify the group having metal, non‐metal, liquid as well as gas at the room
temperature.
(a) The element has 5 electrons in its outermost subshell means that the electronic
configuration should be ns 2np 5 . This represents the electronic configuration of
the halogen group. Thus, the element can be F, Cl, Br, I, or At.
(b) An element that has two valence electrons will tend to lose two
electrons easily to attain the nearest stable noble gas configuration. The
general electronic configuration of such an element thus will be ns 2 . This
represents the electronic configuration of group 2 elements. Therefore the
element can be Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, or Ba
(c) An element tends to gain two electrons if it needs only two electrons to attain
the nearest stable noble gas configuration. The general electronic configuration of
such an element should be ns 2np 4 . This represents the electronic configuration
of the oxygen family. Therefore the element can be O, S, Se, Te, or Po.
(d) The group having metal, non‐metal, liquid as well as gas at the room
temperature is group 17.
Ques:The increasing order of reactivity among group 1 elements is Li < Na < K < Rb
whereas that among group 17 elements is CI > Br > I. Explain.
The Group 1 elements have only one valence electron, which they tend to lose.
Whereas, Group 17 elements need only one electron to attain the nearest noble gas
configuration. On moving down group 1, the ionisation enthalpies decrease which
means that the energy required to lose the valence electron decreases. Thus,
reactivity increases on moving down a group. Thus, the increasing order of
reactivity among group 1 elements is as follows:
Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs
In group 17, on moving down the group from Cl to I, the electron gain enthalpy
becomes less negative. Thus, the tendency to gain electrons decreases down group YouTube/@padhleakshay
17. So, reactivity decreases down a group. Thus, F is the most reactive halogen. The
decreasing order of reactivity among group 17 elements is as follows:
F > Cl > Br > I
group 17 me electron gain

enthalpy or negative ho jati hai
Assign the position of the element having the outer electronic configuration
(i) ns 2np 4 for n = 3
(ii) (n − 1)d 2ns 2 for n = 4, and
(iii) (n − 2)f 7 (n − 1)d 1ns 2 for n = 6, in the periodic table.
(i) n = 3 means that the element belongs to the 3rd period. It is a p-block element
because the last electron occupies the p‐ orbital.
There are four electrons in the p‐orbital. So, the corresponding group of the
element = Number of s‐block groups + the number of d ‐block groups + the number
of p‐electrons = 2 + 10 + 4 = 16.
Hence, the element belongs to the 3rd period and the 16th group of the periodic
table. Therefore, the element is Sulphur.
(ii) The element belongs to the 4th period since n = 4. It is a d-block element as d
− orbitals are not completely filled.
There are 2 electrons in the d- orbital. So, the corresponding group of the element
= Number of s‐block groups + the number of d‐block groups = 2 + 2 = 4. ` Hence, the
element belongs to the 4th period and the 4th group.
(iii) The element belongs to the 6th period since n = 6. It is an f‐ block element as the
last electron occupies the f‐ orbital. It belongs to group 3 of the periodic table
because all f‐block elements belong to group 3. Its electronic configuration is [Xe] 4f
75d 16s 2 . Thus, its atomic number is 54 + 7 + 1 + 2 = 64 . Therefore, the element is
Gadolinium.
*after studying from

this notes
NOTE : Worksheet (Important questions of all typology with

answers) is provided as a seperate PDF on website padhleakshay.com

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downloadedfrompadhleakshay.

The periodic table helps to organize information about the elements in a

The classification of elements based on their atomic structure and properties

The classification of elements helps scientists to develop new materials and

The periodic table is a chart that organizes all known elements

1st attempt towards the classification of elements was made by Johann W.

Dobereiner's Triads Law placed some elements in the wrong triad,

isko ache se padh lena

Newland’s Law of Octaves

Newlands observed that when the elements were arranged in order of

Mendeleev organised atoms in a table's horizontal rows and vertical columns in

As a result, Mendeleev's Periodic Law was altered correspondingly. The

Nomenclature of elements with Atomic numbers > 100

Characteristics of s-Block elements

Except Be and Mg, all impart characteristic colour to the flame

These have low ionisation energy.

These are highly reactive. YouTube/@padhleakshay

These are the highly electropositive elements.

They have low melting and boiling points.

*characteristic properties of s-block

The outermost electronic configuration varies from ns2np1 to ns2np6 in each

The compounds of p-block elements are generally covalent although their

The reactivity of elements in a group generally decreases downwards.

*isme se kuch elements

Characteristics of d-Block elements

The compounds of the elements are generally paramagnetic in nature.

They are of tenly used as catalysts.

These elements have high melting point.

General electronic configuration: (n – 2) f 1-14 (n -1) d 0-1 ns2

Characteristics of f-Block elements:

Most of the elements pf the actinoid series are radio-active in nature.

In the periodic table, the atomic radius varies in a periodic manner.

Ques:Atomic radious increases as you move down a group ,why?

Cation: The removal of an electron from an atom results in the formation of a

Electron gain enthalpy

Electronegativity is the measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a

Metallic character: It decreases across a period, maximum on the

Non-metallic character: It increases along a period, from left to right.

Atomic Size: It decreases across a period.

Electronegativity: It increases along a period.

Basic nature of oxides: It decreases from left to right in a period.

Acidic nature of oxides: It increases from left to right in a period.

Electronegativity: Electronegativity generally decreases down a group.

Atomic radius: Atomic radius generally increases down a group. This is

Electronegativity of an element is a variable property. It is different in different

(a) By gaining an electron, an anion is formed.

(b) By the loss of an electron, a cation is formed

When an atom loses an electron, the number of electrons decreases by one

The ionization enthalpy of an atom depends on the number of electrons and

Ques:Use the periodic table to answer the following questions.

Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs

F > Cl > Br > I

group 17 me electron gain

*after studying from

NOTE : Worksheet (Important questions of all typology with

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