International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management

Does culture affect the relationships among utilitarian and non-utilitarian

values, satisfaction and loyalty to shopping centres? Evidence from two Maghreb
countries
Souad Djelassi, Delphine Godefroit-Winkel, Mbaye Fall Diallo,
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Evidence from two Maghreb countries", International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management,
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Loyalty to
Does culture affect the shopping
relationships among utilitarian centres

and non-utilitarian values,

satisfaction and loyalty to
shopping centres? Evidence from Received 12 June 2017
Revised 16 August 2017

two Maghreb countries 9 July 2018

11 July 2018
24 September 2018
Accepted 14 October 2018
Souad Djelassi
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IUT C Roubaix, LSMRC Lab, University of Lille, Lille, France

Delphine Godefroit-Winkel
Department of Marketing, Toulouse Business School,
Casablanca, Morocco, and
Mbaye Fall Diallo
FFBC-IMMD, LSMRC Lab, University of Lille, Lille, France

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the factors influencing customer loyalty to shopping
centres across different emerging countries. Specifically, it seeks to determine how the cultural
context moderates the direct effects of shopping centre perceived value and customer satisfaction on
customer loyalty.
Design/methodology/approach – A shopping centre-intercept survey was conducted among 244
consumers in Morocco and 203 consumers in Tunisia. The proposed model was analysed using partial least
squares path modelling.
Findings – The results demonstrate the impacts of perceived utilitarian and non-utilitarian value on
customer satisfaction with a shopping centre, both moderated by the cultural context. Specifically, utilitarian,
hedonic and relaxation values exert stronger influences on satisfaction in Tunisia than in Morocco; but
socialisation value has a stronger impact on it in Morocco than in Tunisia. The influences of value dimensions
on customer loyalty to the shopping centre do not vary between Tunisia and Morocco.
Practical implications – With these results shopping centre developers and retailers can develop more
efficient strategies to target Maghreb emerging countries. For example, they should focus on factors that may
increase the utilitarian, hedonic and relaxation values offered by shopping centres in Tunisia but address
factors that facilitate socialisation value in Morocco.
Originality/value – By using a cross-culture perspective, this paper extends and enriches knowledge on
shopping centre patronage in Maghreb countries. Also, it considers two non-utilitarian values (socialisation
and relaxation), which are relevant in Maghreb countries.
Keywords Loyalty, Culture, Perceived value, Satisfaction, Shopping centre, Maghreb countries
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Shopping experiences are central to the lives of most consumers, enabling people to obtain
both utilitarian and hedonic value (Babin et al., 1994; El-Adly and Eid, 2017; Lucia-Palacios
et al., 2016). For example, the perceived spatial crowding affects customer satisfaction in
shopping malls ( Jones et al., 2010). Therefore, when shopping centre managers design
spaces that provide consumers with entertainment facilities, atmospheric cues, and diverse International Journal of Retail &
Distribution Management
products and prices, shoppers may increase the mall patronage (Chebat et al., 2010). © Emerald Publishing Limited
0959-0552
Shopping centres are often conceived as innovative in the sense that they induce systemic DOI 10.1108/IJRDM-06-2017-0131
 IJRDM social changes (Christensen et al., 2006), and shifts in consumer behaviours in particular.
However, while investments in shopping centres that target the growing middle class in
emerging and specifically Maghreb countries continue to grow exponentially, some
questions arise about the models used to manage shopping centres and their applications
around the world. In particular, many new shopping centres in Maghreb countries often
enjoy popular grand openings but then suffer low patronage rates over time. Such
observation raises questions about the local specificities that may affect behavioural
outcomes in malls in Maghreb and other Muslim countries. For instance, El-Adly and Eid
(2017) showed that Muslims who shop in malls assess their shopping experience through
the Islamic value of the mall among other cognitive and affective values.
Developers and investors, thus, face special challenges in their efforts to increase
consumer loyalty towards shopping centres in Maghreb countries, and the poor
performance outcomes may reflect the application of inappropriate assets or models.
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However, most studies on shopping centre shoppers take place essentially in western,
developed contexts (e.g. Chebat et al., 2014; Michon and Chebat, 2004). Previous research in
developed countries highlights the role of utilitarian and hedonic shopping values on
customer behaviour (El Hedhli et al., 2013). Jones et al. (2010) have shown that the culture of
the country moderates the effects of mall shopping values on shopper satisfaction. Both
utilitarian and hedonic shopping values have a stronger effect for Australians than for
Americans. However, prior studies do not specifically account for other values such as
relaxation and socialisation, which are important in Maghreb countries. Relaxation value
refers to that shopping may contribute to improve personal well-being by relaxing and
releasing stress (Arnold and Reynolds, 2003). Socialisation value refers to the
communication with others, interactions between consumers (Rintamaki et al., 2006).
Moreover, previous research has been essentially conducted in developed countries contexts
(e.g. El Hedhli et al., 2013; Jones et al., 2010; Rabbanee et al., 2012) and neglected the
differences in customer behaviour towards shopping centres in different developing
countries, and specially the Maghreb.
To address the above research gaps, the current paper aims to study how the cultural
context affects the relationships between shopping centre perceived value, customer
satisfaction and loyalty to the shopping centre in two Maghreb countries. Specifically, the
authors seek to determine whether the cultural context moderates the effects of perceived
value (utilitarian and non-utilitarian) offered by a shopping centre and customer satisfaction
and loyalty towards that shopping centre, across two distinct Maghreb countries: Tunisia
and Morocco.
As a first main contribution, this study offers a new cultural perspective on customer
loyalty and satisfaction framework. These two constructs remain under-researched in
cross-cultural settings (Bouzaabia et al., 2013). By testing the moderating impact of culture on
perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty in both Tunisia and Morocco, this investigation
contributes to the stream of service research in specific emerging countries. This investigation
of Maghreb markets adds richness to extant analyses as well, because research on emerging
markets often focuses on Asian (Malhotra et al., 2005) or Latin America (Rajagopal, 2010) and
rarely on Maghreb markets (Amine and Hendaoui Ben Tanfous, 2012).
Also, on practical and managerial grounds, according to a study by Kantar TNS, the rise
of the middle classes in Africa (including the Maghreb) will continue in the next ten years.
The consumption pattern of these classes changes and is of great interest to investors and
retailers, suggesting the pressing need for a better understanding of the singularity of
Maghreb consumers. Despite the vast cultural diversity within the Middle East/North
Africa region, previous research tends to assume that it is relatively homogeneous
(Mufune, 2003). The current study challenges this view by focusing on the local and cultural
specificities of Tunisia and Morocco.
 A second contribution of this research is to study shopping centre socialisation and Loyalty to
relaxation values, in relation to customer satisfaction and loyalty. Thus, this study enriches shopping
the recent results of El-Adly and Eid (2017). Prior studies usually focus broadly on centres
utilitarian and hedonic values (Rabbanee et al., 2012) and have neglected other values
derived from the shopping experience in malls. Even when researchers highlight the
socialisation and relaxation aspects of shopping centres (Csaba and Askegaard, 1999), the
studies rarely investigate the relationship of these forms of non-utilitarian value with
consumer behaviour or attitudes towards shopping centres empirically (Tsai, 2010).
Rintamaki et al. (2006) argued, for example, the importance of recognising social shopping
value as an independent construct rather than a sub-dimension of hedonic value. For their
part, Bloch et al. (1994) stated that mall shopping provides an escape and relaxation to
consumers. To provide new insights, the current research considers the weight of each of
utilitarian and non-utilitarian (hedonic, socialisation, relaxation) values on satisfaction
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and loyalty to shopping centres. The resulting findings provide a foundation for a set
of recommendations that shopping centre managers in Morocco and Tunisia can use to
enhance their customer satisfaction and loyalty.
The next section presents the theoretical framework and hypotheses. After outlining the
research methodology, this paper details the findings. Finally, the authors propose and
discuss several theoretical and managerial implications, as well as some limitations and
suggestions for future studies.

2. Conceptual framework and literature review

2.1 Shopping value
Babin et al. (1994) define shopping value as a subjective evaluation of a shopping experience,
characterised by consumers’ interactions with the environment. Value comprises two main
dimensions, utilitarian and non-utilitarian, as established in early research (Babin et al., 1994).
Utilitarian value refers to overall evaluations of the utility of a product, based on a comparison
between what the consumer must give up (sacrifices) and what the customer receives
(benefits) (Zeithaml, 1988). This definition illustrates that utilitarian value is a trade-off
between a product or services “get” (e.g. benefits, quality) and “give” (e.g. time, price)
components (Sweeney and Soutar, 2001). Utilitarian value incorporates cognitive aspects of
attitude such as the economic “value for the money” (Zeithaml, 1988) and judgments of
convenience and time savings (Rintamaki et al., 2006). Non-utilitarian values comprise hedonic
value, social value and relaxation value. Hedonic value refers to recreational and experiential
benefits such as enjoyment and pleasure (Babin et al., 1994). Unlike utilitarian value, hedonic
value refers to the feelings or affective states that a product or service generates (Sweeney and
Soutar, 2001). It has largely been investigated in previous studies. On the opposite, few
scholars were interested in social and relaxation values. Social value corresponds to social
interactions and personal relationships while shopping (Arnold and Reynolds, 2003).
Shopping may also be a way to socialise with family and friends or to extend personal
relationships (Rintamaki et al., 2006; Davis and Hodges, 2012). Relaxation value is achieved
when shopping offers opportunities for escapism or therapeutic actions that help consumers
feel better (Tsai, 2010). These observations are particularity true in Maghreb countries.
El-Adly and Eid (2017) stress that research in retailing has mainly investigated shopping
values in the product/brand context and in the store context. However, while many values
from malls cannot be found at the store level or at the product level, little research so far has
investigated shopping values at the mall level. Besides, empirically, previous studies have
mainly focused on utilitarian and hedonic shopping values. Doing so, they neglected the
socialisation and relaxation values that could derive from shopping mall experience. In this
research, we focus on shopping centres as specific forms of experiential contexts (Bloch
et al., 1994), with strong potential to provide consumers with functional (utilitarian), hedonic,
 IJRDM social and relaxation (non-utilitarian) values (Csaba and Askegaard, 1999; Tsai, 2010).
We consider these values as potential drivers of both customer satisfaction and loyalty
towards the shopping centre.

2.2 Customer satisfaction with shopping centres across countries

Customer overall satisfaction refers to an evaluation of many similar purchasing
experiences with a store or brand. It corresponds to an “overall evaluation based on the total
purchase and consumption experience with a good or service over time” (Anderson et al.,
1994, p. 54) and is a key factor for loyalty. Prior studies analyses different factors that might
relate to customer satisfaction with shopping centres. For instance, the findings of Chebat
et al. (2014) highlight the relationship between shopping centre atmosphere and satisfaction.
Wesley et al. (2006) show the influence of customer decision-making styles (e.g. brand
conscious, price conscious, confused by over choice, etc.) on customer satisfaction with
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shopping mall. These research, however, concern developed market contexts. There is very
few research on emerging and particularly on Maghreb markets.
Singh and Prashar (2014) and Singh and Sahay (2012) show that consumers in Mumbai
and Delhi, respectively, consider the shopping centre experience vital to their consumption,
and their findings suggest that customers’ satisfaction derives from factors such as
ambiance, convenience and physical. In a study of shopping centres in the UAE, El-Adly
(2007) identifies core assets of shopping centre: comfort, entertainment, diversity, shopping
centre essence, convenience and luxury. These factors influence customer satisfaction
(El-Adly and Eid, 2016).

2.3 Customer loyalty to shopping centres across countries

Customer loyalty to a shopping centre reflects a shopper’s attitudinal predisposition
consisting of intentions to continually patronise the shopping centre in terms of repeated
shopping at the shopping centre and willingness to recommend the shopping centre (Chebat
et al., 2009, p. 54). Extant literature has essentially focused on customer loyalty to shopping
centre in western contexts (El Hedhli et al., 2013; Rabbanee et al., 2012). Factors such as
shopping centre service, entertainment and promotion have an impact on sales and visit
rates growth in shopping centre (Anselmsson, 2016).
Rare studies investigate factors that might increase loyalty to the shopping centre in
developing countries. Rahman et al. (2016) show that Chinese shoppers’ perception of
shopping value has a significant influence on shopping centre patronage intentions.
Focusing on shopping centre attributes, Hinson et al. (2012) indicate that displays, store
personnel and the physical store influence shopping centre visitation rates in Ghana. Thus,
loyalty to a shopping centre may vary across cultural contexts. But the literature misses in
highlighting such specific differences across various cultural contexts, and across Maghreb
countries in particular.

3. Hypotheses development
3.1 Effects of utilitarian value on customer satisfaction and loyalty
The impact of utilitarian value on customer satisfaction and loyalty is evident in prior
retailing literature, especially in shopping centre contexts (Chebat et al., 2014; Rabbanee
et al., 2012). In India, utilitarian value influences the satisfaction (Kesari and Atulkar, 2016)
and loyalty (Majumdar, 2005) of shopping centre shoppers. In UAE, utilitarian value has
significant impact on customer satisfaction and on the will to patronise the mall (El-Adly
and Eid, 2017). Yet, the impact of utilitarian value on customer behaviour and perceptions
may differ across cultures.
 Insight from recent studies suggests that purchasing power may induce a higher level of Loyalty to
expectation towards utilitarian value. Customers in emerging countries in general, with their shopping
lower levels of economic development, actively seek to shop economically (Kesari and Atulkar, centres
2016). Therefore, the effect of utilitarian value (comparison of costs with benefits) on customer
satisfaction and loyalty should differ across Maghreb countries that vary in the level of their
purchasing power. In Morocco, the purchasing power is lower than in Tunisia. In particular,
the gross domestic product per capita in Tunisia was $11,435.60 in 2014, adjusted by
purchasing power parity; that of Morocco was $7,039.79[1]. Morocco also scores lower on the
long-term orientation scale (14) than Tunisia (26) (Hofstede, 2016; Triki et al., 2012), and as
Donthu and Yoo (1998) show, short-term-oriented consumers express high overall service
quality expectations. Thus, these consumers likely are more demanding, and their satisfaction
and loyalty may appear questionable. On the basis of these arguments, the impact of
utilitarian value on consumer behaviour may be stronger in Morocco than in Tunisia:
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H1. The impact of shopping centres’ utilitarian value on (a) customer satisfaction and (b)
customer loyalty is stronger in Morocco than in Tunisia.

3.2 Effects of non-utilitarian value on customer satisfaction and loyalty

Non-utilitarian value, in the form of hedonic value, also determines customer satisfaction
and loyalty (Lucia-Palacios et al., 2016). However, despite widespread recognition that
shopping has social, self-gratification and relaxation value (Arnold and Reynolds, 2003),
little empirical research tests the impacts of socialisation and relaxation forms of value in
particular on customer behaviour. Shopping well-being also positively influences shopping
centre loyalty (El Hedhli et al., 2013). Feinberg et al. (1989) emphasise the social image of the
shopping centre, such as whether the shopping centre supports social interactions, because
social presence and interaction influence shopping centre satisfaction. People report greater
shopping value and affect when shopping with someone else (Borges et al., 2010).
This observation suggests that the social value is important for customers. Exhilaration
(hedonic), exploration, relaxation and socialisation values impact patronage frequency and
purchase (Tsai, 2010). Culture moderates the effect of hedonic value on shopper satisfaction
( Jones et al., 2010). Especially in emerging countries, shopping centres offer escape,
entertainment and social benefits (Khare, 2011). Findings of El-Adly and Eid (2017) show
that hedonic, social-interaction and self-gratification (or relaxation) influence positively
customer satisfaction, patronage and loyalty towards the mall in UAE, though the impact of
these types of value varies across countries. In sum, the literature suggests the influence of
hedonic value on customer satisfaction (Chebat et al., 2014). However, we know little about
how culture may induce differences of impact between two emerging countries.
In this paper, we contend that individualism (vs collectivism) and masculinity
(vs femininity) dimensions might determine the relationship of non-utilitarian value with
customer satisfaction and loyalty to a shopping centre. More individualistic consumers seek to
fulfil their own personal interests through strong autonomy, but more collectivist consumers
seek mutual interdependence (Donthu and Yoo, 1998), so in more individualistic cultures,
self-gratification and relaxation might be particularly critical types of value. In collectivist
cultures, social value instead may be more important. That is, hedonic and relaxation values
are self-oriented forms of shopping value, whereas socialisation is a social-oriented shopping
value that derives from interactions with others. In addition, hedonic (entertainment,
enjoyment) and relaxation value are oriented towards quality of life. In collectivistic cultures,
the association of intrinsically enjoyable customer experiences with gratification shopping is
weaker, but the association with role shopping for others is stronger than in individualistic
cultures (Evanschitzky et al., 2014). Also, femininity stands for a society in which people are
concerned with the quality of life (Hofstede, 2016). Morocco, which scores lower on
 IJRDM individualism and femininity than Tunisia (Hofstede, 2016; Triki et al., 2012), might produce
stronger impacts of socialisation value on customer satisfaction and loyalty but weaker
influences of hedonic and relaxation value, relative to Tunisia. As Amine and Lazzaoui (2011)
highlight, social factors are critical to retailing in Morocco. Therefore:
H2. The impact of shopping centre hedonic value on (a) customer satisfaction and (b)
customer loyalty is stronger in Tunisia than in Morocco.
H3. The impact of shopping centre relaxation value on (a) customer satisfaction and (b)
customer loyalty is stronger in Tunisia than in Morocco.
H4. The impact of shopping centre socialisation value on (a) customer satisfaction and
(b) customer loyalty is stronger in Morocco than in Tunisia.
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3.3 Effect of satisfaction loyalty to shopping centres across different cultures

The relationship between customer satisfaction and loyalty also is well established (Chebat
et al., 2014), though different cultures and uncertainty avoidance may affect such a link.
Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by
unknown or ambiguous situations (Hofstede et al., 2010). Customers in high uncertainty
avoidance cultures are risk averse and engage more carefully (Donthu and Yoo, 1998). Loyal
relationships tend to be more important in high uncertainty avoidance cultures, because
customers seek stability (Samaha et al., 2014). Therefore, in high uncertainty avoidance
cultures, the impact of satisfaction on loyalty may be stronger than in low uncertainty
cultures. When they are satisfied, customers in high uncertainty avoidance cultures rely on
an existing, satisfactory alternative, rather than try new options. Tunisia scores higher on
the uncertainty avoidance dimension than Morocco (Hofstede, 2016; Triki et al., 2012):
H5. The effect of satisfaction with the shopping centre on customer loyalty is stronger in
Tunisia than in Morocco.
Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework, which summarises the research hypotheses.

4. Methodology
The design of the research methodology reflects careful consideration of various issues
related to cross-cultural research, especially in emerging countries (Lages et al., 2015).

4.1 Survey context

Africa hosted 242 shopping centres in 2013, with 179 shopping centre projects on the horizon
for 2017[2]. This research addresses the relatively less studied contexts of Maghreb countries.
Morocco and Tunisia are situated in the Middle East and North Africa region. Tunisia is
republic but Morocco is a kingdom. Even if literary Arabic is the common official language
of both countries, the local languages used vary. Each country has its Arabic dialect. Also,
in Morocco, Berber is very used. Berbers in Morocco express a particular desire to achieve
more parity and to use Berber as an official language such as Arabic. Consistent with its
lower level of individualism than Tunisia (Hofstede, 2016; Triki et al., 2012), Moroccans tend
to rely on traditional values more than do consumers from Tunisia.
Tunisia and Morocco represent incipient consumer societies with, namely, strong growth
and a rapid improvement in the living standards of the population (Amine and Lazzaoui, 2011;
Amine and Hendaoui Ben Tanfous, 2012). Both are ranked among the top ten African
countries in terms of foreign direct investment (Ernst and Young, 2017). Even as these
countries have experienced tremendous retail modernisation, including shopping centres,
traditional forms of commerce remain prevalent (http://la-grande-distribution-en-afrique.e-
monsite.com/) (e.g. informal markets, local groceries, souks: regular – often weekly – open-air
 Loyalty to
Shopping centre Cultural context shopping
value dimensions (Morocco vs Tunisia)
centres
H1a
Utilitarian H1b H2a H2b H5
value
Shopping
centre
satisfaction
Hedonic
value
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Relaxation Loyalty to
value the shopping
centre

Socialisation H3a
H4a H3b
value H4b Controls: age,
gender, income Figure 1.
Cultural context and education Conceptual framework
(Morocco vs Tunisia) and hypotheses

local markets, bazaars: permanent enclosed markets (Touzani et al., 2016). However, the rise of
purchasing power, the enlargement of middle class, the development of transport
infrastructures sustain the growth of modern commerce (Amine and Lazzaoui, 2011;
Touzani et al., 2016). For this study, a single innovative shopping centre in each country was
identified on the basis of three criteria: level of notoriety (brand awareness), consumer
frequency and international standards (presence of a hypermarket, restaurants and so on).
The innovativeness character of these shopping centres is manifest through the discrepancy
that we observed between consumer behaviours in traditional forms of retailing and in the
shopping centres. For instance, while women and children’s presence in traditional souk is an
adornment, many families like to patronise the shopping centres. In that sense, shopping
centres induce social changes and shifts in consumer behaviours (Christensen et al., 2006).

4.2 Data collection

The data were collected through shopping centre-intercept surveys, because respondents tend
to provide more meaningful responses when they are present in the environment they are
being asked to evaluate. Following the principles of data equivalence in cross-cultural studies
(Douglas and Craig, 2007), the shopping centres were similarly innovative, and the customer
samples represented metropolitan populations in each country. Furthermore, respondents
belonged to comparable social classes (middle or wealthy classes). The questionnaire was
administered by trained investigators in Casablanca and Tunis, who intercepted potential
respondents during shopping trips (at exit). The respondents had to be at least 18 years of age.
Because shopping motives vary by time of day and day of week, the data collection spanned
multiple times and weekdays.
This process produced 447 usable questionnaires (NMorocco ¼ 244; NTunisia ¼ 203) from
respondents with sufficient diversity. In the overall sample, more women are present
 IJRDM (65 per cent on average), but the gender distribution is similar between Morocco (68 per cent
women) and Tunisia (62 per cent women). All age categories also are represented in the
sample. Younger respondents (18–25 years) are somewhat more prevalent in Morocco
(52 per cent), whereas customers between 35 and 49 years of age dominate the Tunisian
sample (48 per cent). In terms of family income, on average, 10 per cent of respondents have
less than $518; 32 per cent earn between $518 and $1,722, and 58 per cent earn more than
$1,722 monthly. As for education, 15 per cent of respondents have a high school degree,
30 per cent with bachelor’s level, 46 per cent with master’s level.

4.3 Measurement scales

The survey instruments stemmed from a comprehensive review of relevant literature. In line
with previous studies of shopping centres (e.g. Chebat et al., 2009), well-established Likert
scales (1 ¼ “strongly disagree” to 5 ¼ “strongly agree”) serve to measure the variables.
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Because of the potential influence of response styles on substantive conclusions in

cross-cultural service quality research, the study procedure included a series of precautions
to ensure appropriate measurement tools. A qualitative pre-test ensured that the items were
appropriate in each context, and the measurement tools reflect customer and market
characteristics in each country. The pre-test asked respondents to comment on the meaning
of the items and their formulation, which prompted a few changes to the response format
( five- instead of seven-point Likert scales), item formulations, and instructions.
The questionnaire was translated from English to French and back, following double
back-translation methods, by native speakers within a collaborative, iterative translation
framework (Douglas and Craig, 2007). As Table I details, the measure of perceived
utilitarian value relied on three items adapted from He and Li (2011). The three dimensions
of non-utilitarian value (hedonic, relaxation and socialisation) came from Ligas and
Chaudhuri (2012) and Tsai (2010), and each dimension contains three items. The measure of
customer satisfaction towards shopping centres also features three items, adapted from
Mägi (2003). For loyalty to shopping centres, four items came from previous studies
(Rabbanee et al., 2012).

5. Analyses and results

5.1 Assessment of measurement models
We assessed the outer models (i.e. the measurement models) and the inner model (i.e. the
structural model) simultaneously using SmartPLS 3.0. In line with Henseler et al. (2014),
we consider partial least squares (PLS) appropriate for this research because it is
primarily concerned with predicting the dependent variable (Reinartz et al., 2009) and
extending existing structural theories (Hair et al., 2014), such as our attempt to analyse the
direct dependences among mall perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty to shopping
malls; and the moderation effect of culture across Maghreb countries. Furthermore, prior
studies on the African context (e.g. Beneke and Carter, 2015) relied on the same
methodological approach.
Four criteria define the appropriate convergent validity and internal consistency of the
constructs, both overall and for each country: item loading, reliability indicators (ρJöreskog),
and the average variance extracted (AVE). All item loadings between each indicator and
the underlying construct factor are on average greater than 0.7, the reliability values of the
constructs (α and ρ) exceed the 0.7 threshold, and the AVE values are above
the recommended threshold of 0.5 (Table I), in support of convergent validity (Fornell
and Larcker, 1981). Table AI contains details about the discriminant validity test.
Because the AVE for each construct is greater than the square of the interconstruct
correlations, all constructs also fulfilled the requirements for discriminant validity
(Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The variance inflation factors were far below 5, implying that
 Standardised
Loyalty to
Constructs Dimensions and measurement items loading AVE shopping
a
centres
Utilitarian value Util1. This shopping centre has good value for money for its 0.61
ρ ¼ 0.75 products and services
Util2. This shopping centre’s products and services are worth what 0.73
is given up such as time, energy and effort
Util3. Compared with major competitors, this shopping centre is a 0.83
good choice
Hedonic value Hed1. I feel good when I shop at this shopping centre 0.85 0.73
ρ ¼ 0.89
Hed2. I enjoy my visits to this shopping centre 0.88
Hed3. This shopping centre puts me in a good mood 0.82
Relaxation value Rel1. This shopping centre makes me feel ease of body and mind 0.87 0.76
ρ ¼ 0.90
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Rel2. This shopping centre relieves my stress 0.89

Rel3. This shopping centre stretches me out 0.84
Socialisation Soc1. Visiting this shopping centre is an experience I share with 0.81 0.59
value ρ ¼ 0.81 family
Soc2. Visiting this shopping centre is an opportunity to hang out 0.78
with friends
Soc3. Visiting this shopping centre allows me to mingle with 0.70
interesting people
Satisfaction Sat1. How satisfied are you with this shopping centre? 0.82 0.68
ρ ¼ 0.86
Sat2. How well does this shopping centre match your expectations? 0.84
Sat3. Imagine a perfect shopping centre. How close to this ideal is 0.81
this shopping centre?
Loyalty ρ ¼ 0.82 Loy1. I speak favourably about this shopping centre to others 0.82 0.60
Loy2. I can’t see me ending my relationship with this shopping 0.79
centre
Loy3. I consider myself loyal to this shopping centre 0.70
a
Loy4. I would pay more for products or services to buy them from Table I.
this shopping centre Measurement items
Notes: All coefficients significant at p o0.01. aItem deleted after the purification process and properties

collinearity does not present an issue regarding the estimation of the PLS–SEM model
(Hair et al., 2014).
The check for potential common method bias, which might arise from the use of single
key respondents, we used two approaches. First, post hoc tests showed no evidence that a
single factor accounted for all or most of the covariance among the variables. Second, we
applied of the marker variable technique (Malhotra et al., 2006), based on the smallest
correlation in the correlation matrix[3] (Malhotra et al., 2006). The results revealed small, not
significant differences between the original and corrected correlations (Δr o0.05). Thus,
common method bias does not appear to influence the parameter estimates. Measurement
invariance also was assessed as we use a cross-cultural setting. On the one hand, the
questionnaire (items) and language were the same across countries. On the other hand,
statistical methods (PLS model fit indices) confirm that the same model structure holds
across countries (configural invariance satisfied), and the t-tests indicate no significant
differences between item loadings across countries (metric invariance achieved).

5.2 Structural model and hypotheses

Unlike covariance-based SEM methods, PLS relies on three main criteria to assess model fit:
variance explained (R2) in the endogenous latent variable, the goodness-of-fit (GoF) index,
 IJRDM and the standardised root mean square residual (SRMR) index (i.e. difference between the
observed and predicted correlations). The R2 value of the dependent variable is good and in
accordance with established standards, for the entire sample (0.57), Morocco (0.52) and
Tunisia (0.64). The GoF values range from medium to substantial (0.50 or more) and suggest
good model fit overall (0.52), as well as for both Morocco (0.47) and Tunisia (0.62). Finally,
the SRMR values are less than 0.08, indicating the good model fit overall (0.04) and for both
Morocco (0.06) and Tunisia (0.05).
The assessment of the moderating effects of the cultural context relied on a multiple-
group analysis (Henseler and Fassott, 2010) that began by estimating the model in each
group using bootstrapping, then determined model quality in each group. The t-tests for the
structural paths were based on the sample sizes, path loadings and standard errors. Finally,
the analysis checked the significance of the difference in each structural link. Table II
contains the results, based on the bootstrapping estimates. Contrary to expectations, the
effect of utilitarian value on satisfaction was stronger in Tunisia (γ ¼ 0.15, p o0.05) than in
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Morocco (γ ¼ 0.12, p W0.05), and its effect on loyalty did not differ between countries. These
results contradict both H1a and H1b. As expected, the effect of hedonic value on satisfaction
was stronger in Tunisia (γ ¼ 0.35, po 0.01) than in Morocco (γ ¼ 0.07, p W0.05), but the
effect on loyalty did not differ, in support of H2a but not H2b. The effect of relaxation value
on satisfaction was stronger in Tunisia (γ ¼ 0.28, p o0.01) than in Morocco (γ ¼ 0.20,
p W0.05), but again, the effect of relaxation value on loyalty did not vary between Tunisia
and Morocco, in support of H3a but not H3b. Similarly, socialisation value had a stronger
effect on satisfaction in Morocco (γ ¼ 0.17, p o0.05) than in Tunisia (γ ¼ −0.04, p W0.05), but
its effect on loyalty did not vary, confirming H4a but not H4b. Finally, in accordance with
expectations, the effect of satisfaction on loyalty was stronger in Tunisia (γ ¼ 0.12, po 0.05)
than in Morocco (γ ¼ 0.00, p W0.05), in support of H5.

6. Conclusion, discussion and implications

6.1 Discussion and theoretical implications
This cross-cultural research contributes to research into emerging markets and shopping
centres, by identifying the specific perceived value dimensions that affect customer
satisfaction and loyalty towards a shopping centre in two emerging Maghreb countries,
Morocco and Tunisia that have undergone dramatic economic growth and the
transformation of their retail industries. It adds new insights by showing how culture
specifically moderates the effects of utilitarian, hedonic, relaxation and socialisation
shopping centre value on satisfaction and loyalty in the countries analysed. By taking a
cross-cultural approach, the authors also extend prior research on shopping malls.

Relationships
Coefficients
Morocco (γ1) Tunisia (γ2) Differences

H1a. Utilitarian value → satisfaction 0.12 ns 0.15* Yes (reverse)

H1b. Utilitarian value → loyalty 0.39** 0.44** No
H2a. Hedonic value → satisfaction 0.07 ns 0.35** Yes
H2b. Hedonic value → loyalty 0.36** 0.32** No
H3a. Relaxation value → satisfaction 0.20 ns 0.28** Yes
H3b. Relaxation value → loyalty 0.03 ns 0.08 ns No
Table II. H4a. Socialisation value → satisfaction 0.17* −0.04 ns Yes
Moderating effects H4b. Socialisation value → loyalty 0.12 ns −0.00 ns No
of culture in H5. Satisfaction → loyalty 0.00 ns 0.12* Yes
shopping centres Notes: ns, not significant. *p o 0.05; **p o 0.01
 The findings lead to three main theoretical contributions, as well as managerial implications Loyalty to
for shopping centre developers and retailers operating in emerging countries. shopping
First, this research shows how culture moderates the relations between perceived value, centres
both utilitarian and non-utilitarian, and customer satisfaction across two Maghreb
countries. Moreover, we shed light on the socialisation and relaxation values. Our findings
complement previous research about the impact of culture on customer satisfaction. On the
one hand, the moderating role of culture is in line with previous cross-cultural research
(Bouzaabia et al., 2013), and shows the importance of cultural differences on customer
satisfaction across Maghreb shopping centres. On the other hand, our findings are
consistent with the Davis and Hodges (2012), Rintamaki et al. (2006) research, which
underline the relevance to consider socialisation and relaxation values in relation with
customers’ behaviours. However, our research enriches these previous woks by
demonstrating that the influence of socialisation and relaxation values on customer
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satisfaction significantly differs across cultural contexts.

Indeed, we show that the impact of utilitarian value is stronger in Tunisia than in Morocco,
in contrast with the study predictions. This may be explained by the fact that despite their
greater purchasing power, Tunisians may tend to prefer to avoid more uncertainty than
Moroccans. In turn, they adopt rational shopping tactics and seek to obtain products for
competitive prices. Alternatively, the increase of prices and lack of price control in Tunisia
since the Arab Spring may have encouraged Tunisian consumers to be more attentive to the
quality/price ratio. As hypothesised, the effect of hedonic and relaxation value on customer
satisfaction is stronger in Tunisia than in Morocco; the effect of socialisation value on
customer satisfaction is stronger in Morocco than in Tunisia. The results are in line with
previous studies about the effectiveness of hedonic and utilitarian value for producing
satisfaction (Chebat et al., 2014) and confirm the additional importance of socialisation and
relaxation values for determining mall consumers’ behaviours (Babin et al., 1994; Tsai, 2010).
They also clearly demonstrate the differences between Morocco and Tunisia.
Second, the impact of the different value perceptions on loyalty does not vary between
Tunisia and Morocco. This finding highlights the significant impact of utilitarian and
hedonic types of value on customer loyalty towards shopping centres in each country.
In this sense, the results enrich prior studies on the role of perceived value for loyalty
behaviour (Tsai, 2010). They enrich the studies of Majumdar (2005), El-Adly and Eid
(2017), conducted in emerging countries contexts, showing the impact of utilitarian and
hedonic values on loyalty towards shopping centres. We further extend previous
scholarship as we show that relaxation and socialisation forms of value do not influence
loyalty. Even if relaxation and socialisation increase satisfaction, they are not enough to
drive customer loyalty.
Third, the impact of satisfaction on loyalty towards the shopping centre is stronger in
Tunisia than in Morocco. This result enriches prior studies on culture in shopping malls
(Ladhari et al., 2011) while showing the impact of the cultural context within the Maghreb
region. Tunisian consumers seem more demanding than their Moroccan counterparts.
Tunisian customers’ satisfaction also seems uncertain, for it depends on different values
(utilitarian, hedonic and relaxation) and determines loyalty towards the shopping centre.
Although Morocco and Tunisia are geographically close, they differ significantly in their
shopping centre satisfaction patterns.

6.2 Managerial implications

Shopping centre managers cannot target all Maghreb countries similarly. Rather, they
should focus specifically on factors that may increase the utilitarian, hedonic and relaxation
value in Tunisia, but address factors that facilitate socialisation value in Morocco.
Meanwhile managers should not neglect other dimensions; each value is important for
 IJRDM building customer satisfaction, and increasing customer satisfaction will improve customer
loyalty, especially in Tunisia. However, the importance of each form of value varies.
To improve shopping centres’ utilitarian value, managers in Tunisia should adapt their
price strategy to meet customers’ purchasing power, this is particularly pertinent in the
aftermath of the Arab Spring. Managers may also offer shopping centre-based loyalty
programs, rather than being limited to specific shops. Accordingly, shopping centre
managers should offer specific incentives, such as price deals and local products/brands, or
specific service provision (interactions with shopping centre personnel, group recognition
and deals for families).
Regarding the relaxation value, managers could encourage customers to consume
services that relieve stress, (e.g. space for family–friendly dance and music performances or
karaoke sessions). To improve the hedonic values, they may work on atmospherics such as
music or odour. These environment factors may both increase customers’ overall
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satisfaction and, thus, influence customers’ product decisions (Lin and Liang, 2011).
In Morocco, customers exhibit more satisfaction with the shopping centre when
perceived socialisation value is high. Shopping centre managers might dedicate more
resources to organising social events (e.g. driving experiences, cooking classes, playful
activities for children) and providing spaces to foster social interactions in Morocco. In
particular, cooking and shopping experiences have the potential to enhance
intergenerational bonds (Amine and Lazzaoui, 2011). Since, the food court experiences a
great success in the Morocco mall, we believe that cooking may be particularly relevant to
foster social relations within families. Public seats and armchairs, where families sit for a
while in the shopping centre, offer an appealing option too. On the other hand, managers
willing to improve customer loyalty in Morocco should pay attention to the utilitarian and
hedonic values of the shopping centre. For instance, managers could engage in low price
strategies, or invest in a more hedonistic decoration of the shopping centre. This could
include more Instagram spots for instance.

6.3 Limitations and further research

This study has limitations, which constitute research avenues. First, the two countries in this
study have general characteristics that are roughly comparable. Investigations in additional,
distinct contexts might offer a clearer assessment of the potential differences in the
moderating impacts of culture on perceived value. For example, an interesting approach
might compare countries with a French colonial background and those with historical links to
Great Britain (e.g. Egypt) or with the United Arab Emirates following El-Adly and Eid (2017).
Second, this investigation centres on the relations among perceived value, satisfaction
and loyalty to a shopping centre. Drastic changes in the Maghreb retail industry suggest the
need to extend these considerations to traditional retailing sectors too (e.g. local shops, food
markets). Innovative retail forms, such as shopping centres, offer new marketing assets that
may induce changes in customers’ evaluations of traditional retailers’ value. Accordingly,
the relationships between customer loyalty and satisfaction might shift in the broader retail
environment. Accordingly, integrating religious beliefs in the measurement of shopping
centres perceived value (as in El-Adly and Eid, 2017) might be interesting.

Notes
1. Source: http://donnees.banquemondiale.org/indicateur/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD
2. Source: Sagaci Research, www.afriqueexpansion.com/centre-commerciaux-en-afrique.html
(accessed 28 June 2016).
3. We rely on the correlation between mall utilitarian value and mall socialisation value (r ¼ 0.31) as
the reference for the marker variable.
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Appendix
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Descriptive
statistics Discriminant validity
Construct Means (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Shopping centre 3.46 (0.90) √0.61 ¼ 0.78

utilitarian value
2. Shopping centre 3.70 (0.87) 0.433 √0.73 ¼ 0.85
hedonic value
3. Shopping centre 3.42 (0.97) 0.348 0.669 √0.76 ¼ 0.87
relaxation value
4. Shopping centre 3.40 (0.89) 0.310 0.539 0.555 √0.59 ¼ 0.76
socialisation value
5. Satisfaction 3.46 (0.88) 0.341 0.462 0.439 0.329 √0.68 ¼ 0.82
towards the
shopping centre
6. Loyalty towards 3.53 (0.89) 0.621 0.627 0.502 0.413 0.396 √0.60
the shopping ¼ 0.77
Table AI. centre
Means, correlation and Notes: SD, standard deviation. For discriminant validity, the squared root of average variance extracted (AVE) values,
discriminant validity which appear in italic on the diagonal, must be greater than the correlations between constructs, as was the case for all
assessment constructs. The discriminant validity in each country sample also was satisfactory

About the authors

Souad Djelassi is Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Lille (Marketing Techniques
Department, IUT C) and Member of the LSMRC Lab (EA 4112, University of Lille). Her current
research, in service and retailing sectors, includes customers’ participation in value co-creation through
crowdsourcing, use of SSTs and retail in African emerging countries. Her research has been published
in several international peer reviewed journals, including Journal of International Marketing, Decision
Support Systems, Industrial Marketing Management, International Journal of Retail & Distribution
Management, Recherche et Applications en Marketing, Revue Française de Gestion, Revue Française de
Marketing and Décisions Marketing, as well as in various congress proceedings. She is member of the
French Marketing Association. Souad Djelassi is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
souad.djelassi@univ-lille.fr
Delphine Godefroit-Winkel is Associate Professor of Marketing at Toulouse Business School
Casablanca. Her academic research is mainly centred on the socio-cultural aspects of consumption.
Her work has been published in the Journal of International Marketing, Journal of Macromarketing,
European Journal of Marketing, Revue de Gestion des Ressources Humaines, and in book chapters.
She has presented her research at several international conferences, such as the Academy of Marketing
Science Conference, Association for Consumer Research, Association Française du Marketing,
Consumer Culture Theory Conference.
 Mbaye Fall Diallo is Professor at the University of Lille (IMMD) and Member of the LSMRC Lab Loyalty to
(EA 4112, University of Lille). His research interests lie in the field of retailing and services, brand shopping
management and retail internationalisation in emerging and less developed countries. He mainly uses
quantitative data analysis (structural equation modelling and econometrics of panel data) in his work, centres
which has been published in academic journals such as Journal of International Marketing, Decision
Support Systems, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Business Ethics, International Marketing
Review, Psychology & Marketing, Service Industries Journal, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services,
Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, European Business Review, International Journal of Retail
and Distribution Management and Recherche et Applications en Marketing. He is the author or co-author
of three books and ten book chapters on retailing and service management.
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