Biology: Module 4: Genetics

Gregor Johann Mendel

-experimented on pea plants
-discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance
-father of genetics
Genetics
-is a branch of biology that deals with the study of genes, heredity, and variation.
Heredity
-transmission of traits from parents to offspring
*transmission-passing
Variation
-differences of the traits in a population

Chromosome
-X-shape that carries heredity
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
-an extension of the chromosome, which is made out of (histones)?
Genes
-Segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait
-carries the information that determines an individual’s trait and a molecular unit
of heredity

Where are the genes located?

Located in a specific location in a chromosome called LOCUS(singular) /
LOCI(plural)
Homologous Chromosomes
-made up of chromosome pairs of approximately the same length, centromere
position, and staining pattern, for genes with the same corresponding loci.
-can only be formed in a meiosis phase
How to do the PUNNETT SQUARE?
STEP1:
Identify the dominant and the recessive traits
STEP2:
Assign letters for the dominant and recessive traits. Note: the capital of the letter should
not be the same as the small letters.
STEP3:
Distribute the designated letters on the first column and the first row, one letter per box.
STEP4:
Combine the letters and write on the middleboxes
STEP5:
Find the phenotypic and genotypic ratio

Mendelian Laws
I. Law of Segregation
-number of unique gametes
~2^n
~n=heterozygous pairs
 Ex. AaBbCCDd
3 heterozygous pairs
2^3= 8 unique gametes
II. Law of Independent Assortment
-each allelic pair separates independently from each other
-The probability of AB, Ab, aB and ab are equal

III. Law of Complete Dominance

-Dominant alleles are always expressed when present
-Recessive alleles are expressed only on the absence of a dominant
allele

Non-Mendelian Inheritance
I. Condominance
-Two dominant alleles are equally expressed when both present
Ex. ABO Blood Group
II. Incomplete Dominance
-The phenotype of a heterozygous individual is intermediate between the parents
Ex. Petal Colors; Fur Colors

III. Sex-Linked Inheritance

Sex-Linked genes is located mostly within the X chromosome
Ex. Hemophilia, color blindness, attached earlobes (X-Linked Recessive)

IV. Sex-Limited Inheritance

Expression of certain traits in a specific sex
 V. Sex-Influenced Inheritance
Behavior of genes is different in males and females
Ex. Male-pattern baldness

Mutation
-refers to a change in a DNA sequence resulting in mistakes, which is made during cell division
i. Silent
ii. Nonsense
iii. Missense

Chromosomal Aberration
*aberration-abnormalities
TYPES OF ABNORMALITIES:
1. Euploidy
-a change that involves the whole set of chromosomes
2. Aneuploidy
-involves deviation or difference from normal chromosomes
Trisomy
-refers to a diploid organism that happened to extract chromosomes
Trisomy 21 - Down Syndrome
Trisomy 13 - Edward Syndrome
Trisomy 13 - Patau Syndrome

Karyotyping
-the process of pairing and ordering all the chromosomes of an organism, thus providing a
genome-wide snapshot of an individual's chromosomes
-can reveal changes in chromosome number associated with aneuploid conditions

Lesson 1: Biology: Module 5: Metabolism

Metabolism
-breaking down of food into more useful types of energy
Anabolism
-set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units
Catabolism
-set of metabolic pathways that breaks down molecules into smaller units that are
either oxidized to release energy or used in other anabolic reactions

Photosynthesis
-process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and
energy in the form of sugar.

Light Reaction
 -happens in the thylakoid of the chloroplast
LRT:
Light Reaction in the Thylakoid
Dark Reaction
-happens in the stroma of the chloroplast
Does it happen only during the night?
NO, because it is a LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION
DRS:
Dark Reaction in the Stroma

Photorespiration
-a respiratory process in many higher plants by which they take up oxygen in the light and
give out some carbon dioxide, contrary to the general pattern of photosynthesis
-wastes energy and steals carbon
C4 PATHWAYS:
1. C4 Photosynthesis
-in this process Carbon Dioxide will turn into a 4-Carbon molecule
-this happens in the MESOPHYLL CELL
Ex. corn, sugar cane, and grasses
2. CAM Photosynthesis
-in this process carbon dioxide will turn into organic acid
Ex. cacti, pineapple, and vanilla

Cellular Respiration
-this process oxidizes organic compounds to produce energy in the form of ATP
-occurs in both plants and animals
Sources of Energy:
1. Carbohydrate
2. Lipid (fats)
3. Protein
-building blocks of our muscles

i. Aerobic Respiration
-needs the presence of oxygen
Steps in the process of aerobic respiration:
STEP1: Glycolysis
-cutting of 6-C molecule (glucose) into 2 parts of 3-C molecule
(pyruvate)
-happens in the cytoplasm
STEP2: Intermediate step
-pyruvate will turn into acetyl coA
-happens in the mitochondrial matrix
STEP3: Krebs Cycle
-produces the reducing equivalent
 products:
-6 NADH
-2 FADH_2
-2 ATP
-4 CO_2
-happens in the mitochondrial matrix
STEP4: Electron Transport Cycle
-final electron acceptor is oxygen
product:
-6 H_2O
-28 or 34 ATP
-happens in the inner membrane of the mitochondrial

ii. Anaerobic Respiration

-does not need oxygen