Python Fundamentals

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Python h B y
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Fundamentals
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Course Overviewca d
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What this course is about… e m
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à introduction to Python from /irst principles
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à you will have the knowledge and understanding to learn more on your own
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à get insights into 3rd
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party Python libraries in general
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à learn the basics of some common 3rd Party libraries
à numerical computations
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à manipulating data sets
à charting
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© MathByte Academy C 3
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Content Overview e m
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à installing and running Python
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à basic principles
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numerical types (integers, floats, booleans)
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variables
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operators (arithmetic, logical, boolean)
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à control flow
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conditional execution
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iteration (iterables, iterators, loops)
exception handling
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à advanced data types sequence types (lists, tuples, strings)
r i g dictionaries and sets
p y dates and times

decimals
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à functional programming functions
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higher-order functions
closures
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decorators
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à object-oriented programming
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custom classes
methods
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properties
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à data acquisition
g h CSV
r i JSON
p y Using REST APIs
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à 3rd party Libraries pytz
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dateutil
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(http) requests y
numpy
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pandas
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matplotlib
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Prerequisites e m
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à Windows, Mac
à needs to run Python 3.6+
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(recommend at least 3.8/3.9 or higher)
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Windows 10 Mac 10.9 and higher
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à Linux – you'll need to find/use installation instructions
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à some familiarity with Terminal (Mac/Linux) / Command Prompt (Windows)
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à will be needed to install and run Python
à just the basics
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à how to open/terminate a shell
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à change directory
à list contents of a directory
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à no prior Python knowledge needed
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à prior programming knowledge helpful, but not required
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Course Structure and Materials e m
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à each topic is organized in two parts
à lecture video
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sit back , watch, take notes if you like
à coding video
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lean in and code along – pause video, rewind, type code!
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à exercises
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à each section (except installation section) has a set of exercises
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à make sure you are con/ident before moving on to the next section
à downloadable course materials

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à all coding videos have an accompanying Jupyter Notebook / resources
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à contains all the code we do in the code video
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à contains any required extras (such as data sets)
à notebooks are fully annotated
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Installing and c a d
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Running Pythony te
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à what is Python?
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à language vs implementation
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à the canonical, or reference implementation of Python
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à installing Python
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à side by side versions of Python
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à virtual environments
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à installing 3rd party libraries
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à running Python code
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à interactive mode i
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à script mode y
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Python A c
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A bit of history… e m
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à created by Guido van Rossum in 1989 while working at CWI
(National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science, Netherlands)
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à became a community driven effort, overseen by Guido
à who became the BDFL (benevolent dictator for life) (stepped down in 2018)
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à many developers ("core" developers) have contributed over the years
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à was named after the British comedy group Monty Python
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(who says developers don't have a sense of humour!)
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à still actively developed today
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Python 2.0 released in 2000 à last release was 2.7 (end of life April 2020)
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Python 3.0 released in 2008 à 3.9 released in October 2020
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What is Python? e m
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à Python is a language, not an application
à there are many implementations of Python A c
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CPython
PyPy
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à even compilers that "translate" Python code to other languages
IronPython
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à .NET
Jython
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à Java
Cython
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à the "reference" Python implementation is CPython
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CPython e m
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à reference implementation
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à https://www.python.org
à most widely used distribution of Python A
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à open source à written in C
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à includes the standard library
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à a collection of additional functionality that goes beyond
just the Python language
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à written in C and Python
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à this implementation of Python and the standard library is the "of/icial"
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implementation
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à many platforms y Linux, Windows, Mac OS, iOS, Android, PlayStation, Xbox,…
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Installing Python A c
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Installing CPython e m
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computer
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à CPython is basically a bunch of /iles, located in some directory on your
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à one of those /iles is an executable that is used to run Python code
/iles or an interactive shell
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à entire standard library is also included in these files
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à to "install" CPython you simply copy these files into a directory
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à possible to have multiple versions of CPython on the same computer
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à just install the files in different directories
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à call the desired Python executable
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Where to @ind installation packages e m
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à https://www.python.org
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à click on Downloads à all releases
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à choose which version you want and what OS you are on e m
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à or use default (which should recognize your OS)
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à two videos included in this course
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à Windows Installation
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à Mac Installation
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(Linux installation is same as Mac, just download for Linux OS)
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à jump directly to your speci/ic platform video
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use Python 3.8.1 or higher for this course
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Virtual Environments A c
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3rd Party Libraries e m
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à many 3rd party libraries exist
à add-ons to Python for more specialized functionalityA c
à a bunch of files
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à that get added to your Python "installation"
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à 3rd party libraries often rely on other 3rd party libraries
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à or might have speci/ic releases for speci/ic Python versions
à this can create conflicts! t ©

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my_app_1 à some_lib_1.0 (breaks with some_lib_1.1 and higher)
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my_app_2 à some_lib_1.1
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(breaks with some_lib_1.0 and lower)
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Solution e m
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à since Python is just a directory of files
à create two copies of this directory A c
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/usr/user1/python3.9-ENV1/
install some_lib_1.0 in here By
install some_lib_1.1 in here
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à run your apps/shell using the appropriate Python directory
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à /Users/user1/python3.9-ENV1/bin/python my_app.py
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à /Users/user1/python3.9-ENV2/bin/python my_other_app.py
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à typing this long path is tedious
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à add to PATH environment variable (tells OS where to look for executables)
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Solution e m
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à add /usr/user1/python3.9-ENV1/ to (front of) PATH
à python my_app.py
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/usr/user1/python3.9-ENV2/ a t
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à remove /usr/user1/python3.9-ENV1/ from path
à add /usr/user1/python3.9-ENV2/ to (front of) PATH
à python my_other_app.py
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à works but can become tedious as well!
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Virtual Environments e m
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à these are used to perform the exact same steps
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à make copy of Python installation
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à provides scripts to "activate"/"deactivate" the environment
à unsets old path / sets new path
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à very efficient on Unix/Mac – uses symlinks
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à little less ef/icient on Windows – actually copies the /iles
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à provides solution to version conflicts
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à use them!!
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Creating Virtual Environments e m
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à different implementations of this have evolved over the years
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à Python now has a virtual environment manager built-in
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à we'll use that one in this course
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à first decide which Python version to use
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à Mac: python3.8, python3.9, etc a
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à Windows: specify full path to python version
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<python version/path> –m venv <your_env_name>
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Activating the Virtual Environment e m
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à activating a virtual environment essentially modifies your PATH
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à when you type python on command line after activating environment
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à you will be running version of Python located in that
environment directory
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à different for Mac/Linux vs Windows M
Mac/Linux:
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source <path_to_env>/bin/activate
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Windows:
r i <path_to_env>\Scripts\activate.bat
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Installing PackagesA c
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pip: Package Installer for Python e m
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à installing 3rd party libraries (packages) basically requires copying /iles
into the Python installation (whichever directory you want)
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à can be done manually, but again, tedious
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à instead can use another app that is installed alongside Python
à pip a
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à easily install, update and remove packages
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à uses the Python Package Index https://pypi.org
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à of/icial 3rd party repository for Python
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Installing Packages with pip e m
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à activate the virtual environment /irst (sets your PATH)
à pip install package_name A c
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à can even specify versions
pip install package_name==1.3.2
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pip install package_name<=1.2
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pip install package_name>2.0 M
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à once you have decided on a speci/ic version of a package for your
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project you should always use same version number if creating a new
environment for the same project
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à otherwise you could end up breaking your own code!
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The requirements.txt File e m
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à use a file, alongside your code, to keep track of required packages and versions
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requirements.txt
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numpy==1.18.1
pandas==1.1.4
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à /ile name can be anything
à requirements.txt is a standard
matplotlib==3.3.3
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convention
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> pip install –r requirements.txt M
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à easier (install everything with one command)
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à reproducibility / consistency
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à documentation
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à for this course a requirements.txt /ile is available in your downloads
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à de/ines (and pins) all speci/ic libraries we'll need c
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à please use it so we're all using the same library versions
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(functionality can change from version to version)
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à will install many libraries (and their dependencies)
requests
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pytz
numpy
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pandas
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Summary of Steps e m
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à create a new virtual environment
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à activate the environment
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à pip install libraries (aka packages)
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à don't forget to activate the environment before you pip install!
reference Python installt ©

à otherwise pip install will install these packages to your
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Running Python A c
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Python Compiler/Interpreter e m
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Python Python
Code
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Intermediate
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code compiler
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(bytecode)
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a t Virtual
Machine
à Python is both a compiler M (OS/Platform
and an interpreter
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Operating
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How do we "run" Python? e m
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à Python is a compiler/interpreter
à reads in a chunk of code (your program)
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à compiles and runs it
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à output is sent to your screen (console)
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à Python can do this in two ways
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à interactive mode
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à you type a Python line/block of code and execute it immediately
à any output is immediately displayed
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à continue typing/running code one line/block at a time
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à REPL (read-eval-print-loop)
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à script mode
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à write all your code in /iles /irst
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à then execute all this code using command line
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Interactive Mode e m
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à activate virtual environment
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à start Python shell (REPL) by typing python on command line
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à start typing Python commands
à non graphical interface
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à perfect when working on GUI-less servers
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à little tedious to use when you are just trying things out
à Jupyter Notebooks
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à browser based REPL (needs to be pip installed)
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à much easier/nicer to use than command line
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à can save your projects into a /ile (a notebook)
C o à usually .ipynb extension
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Script Mode e m
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à write all your code using a text editor
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à run your Python program using command line
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> python my_app.py
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à traditional programs are great for
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à running the same program over and over again
à better structure
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à complex applications (web server, prediction server, libraries, …)
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Python IDEs e m
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IDE à integrated development environment
à a text editor A c
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à with many extras for easily running code, debugging, and more
à runs code using the same command line approach for scripts
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à many popular IDEs / editors around
à PyCharm
à VSCode t ©
this is the one I personally use for development
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à Atom
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à Sublime Text 3
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à Spyder and more…
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Python Basics c a d
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à some basic Python types
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à integers à floats à booleans
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à a brief explanation of what objects are
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à basic operators
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à arithmetic operators a
à integer division and modulus M
à comparison operators t ©
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à Boolean operators
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à operator precedence
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Basic Data Types A c
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Types e m
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à Entities in a program always have an associated type
à in the real world too! A c
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John is a person
My local pharmacy is a store
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My bank balance is a (real) number th
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The number of pages in a book is an (integer) number
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The file budget.xlsx is an Excel spreadsheet
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Statements can be True or False
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they have a type à Boolean type (True, False)
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C o "My dog likes cats" is False
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Integers e m
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à the int type
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à used to represent integral numbers: 0, 1, 100, -100, etc.
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à integers can be of any magnitude
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à integers have an exact representation in Python
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(as long as you have enough memory!)
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à integer numbers can be created from a literal in the Python code
à 100
à -100 t © note how you can use underscores for
readability
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à 10_500_000
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à or, as the result of some calculation (expression)
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Floats e m
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à the float type
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à used to represent real numbers (floating point): 3.14, -1.3
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à can use Python literals to define a float
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à 3.14
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à -1.3 a
à 1_234.567_876 M
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à the decimal point differentiates a float from an int when using literals
1 à int
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1.0 à float
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Float Representations e m
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Consider the decimal system: 1.234
A c
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In the decimal (base 10) system, this is representable (exactly) using powers of 10:
1+
2
+
3
10 100 1000
+
4
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th
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But not all real numbers have a finite representation
1
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as a fraction this is exact à but not using a decimal representation
1 3
h3 t3
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= 0.333 =
g+ +
10 100 1000
+⋯
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à infinite number of fractions
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Integer Representations e m
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à computers only "know" two numbers
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à 0 and 1
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à binary system, aka base 2
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à any number in a computer is represented using powers of 2
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the binary number 1011
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can be converted to a decimal number:
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1×2! + 1×2" + 0×2# + 1×2$©
=1+2+0+8
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= 11
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Float Binary Representation e m
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powers of 2
A c
in the same way, floats are represented using powers of 2 and fractions of
1
+ +
0 1 1 0 1
= + +
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2" 2# 2$ 2 4 8
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= 0.5 + 0 + 0.125 = 0.625
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a !
à we saw that certain numbers do not have a finite decimal representation ( )
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à same happens with binary representations!
"
0 0 0 1 1
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0.1 =
2
+ + + +
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4 8 16 32 h + + + +
64 128 256 512
+ ⋯
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C o 0.099609375
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Floats are not always exact e m
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à bottom line: not all exact decimal numbers have an exact float representation
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à not a limitation of Python
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à all languages (incl. Excel) that use these binary fractions have that issue
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⚠ be careful when comparing /loats to one another
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à there is a data type that can handle exact representations of decimal fractions
à Decimal t ©
(we will look at this type later)
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⚠ calculations using Decimal are much slower than float
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Objects A c
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What are objects? e m
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à entities created by Python
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à they have state (data)
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à they have methods (functionality)
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à they often represent real world things
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Car
State (data) Functionality
• brand à Toyota
h t • accelerate()
•
•
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# doors à 4 g
model à Prius LE
• brake()
•
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model_year à 2020
•
•
set_cruise_control()
left_turn_signal_on()
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• odometer à 5_402
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Integers are Objects e m
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à an int is an object
A c
à it has state – the value of the integer
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à but it also has functionality By
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a
à knows how to add itself to another integer
(10).__add__(100) à 110
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à an integer object has the method __add__ used to implement addition
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(this is not how we typically add two integers together – but that's just syntax)
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à knows how to represent itself as a string (e.g. for visual output)
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Floats are Objects e m
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à float numbers are objects too
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state à value
functionality à __add__
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other functionality too, for example:a t
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(0.125).as_integer_ratio()
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Everything in Python is an object e m
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A
à any data type we have in Python is actually an objectc
à it has state te
à it has functionality
attributes
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attributes encompass state and functionality
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some attributes are for state
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some attributes are for functionality
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Dot Notation e m
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If an object has attributes, how do we access those attributes?
A
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à dot notation
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car.brand à accesses the brand attribute of the car object
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car.model à accesses the model attribute of the car object
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For attributes that represent functionality, we usually have to call the
attribute to perform the action
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à often supplying additional parameters
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car.accelerate(10, "mph")
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(10).__add__(100)
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Mutability and Immutability e m
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à an object is mutable if its internal state can be changed
à one or more data attributes can be changed A c
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à an object is immutable if its internal state cannot be changed
B
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à the state of the object is "set in stone"
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In Python many data types are immutable: a • integers
M • /loats
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•
booleans
strings
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While some are mutable: • lists
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•
dictionaries
sets à we'll cover all these in
C o • … this course
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Variables A c
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Naming Objects e m
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We often need to label objects with some name
A c
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à reminds us what the object is used for
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apy
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account_balance
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à allows us to use the same object in multiple parts of our code
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Assigning Names e m
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To assign a label to an object we use the assignment operator
A
=
account_balance = 1000.0
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apy = 0.25
By this is not the
mathematical
th equality
symbol
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à we are assigning the label apy to the object 0.25
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à we say apy is a reference to the float object 0.25
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à the symbol apy is just a label currently pointing to (or referencing)
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the object 0.25
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References and Variables e m
a d
Another way of looking at this:
A c some object in memory
te
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float
references
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0.25
the object
a t
apr
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a label
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apr = 0.25
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à apr is called a variable
p
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à but it is just a label (a symbol) that references some object in memory
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Variables e m
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So why the term variable?
A
à over time, which object a symbol references can change
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te
a = 100
later in the program…
B y
à a is referencing the object 100
a = True th
à a is now referencing the object True
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à the state of the object the symbol references can change (mutate)
t © list
a
g h 1, 2, 3 , 4
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à a is still referencing the same
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we append an
o p
object, but the object's state has
changed (mutated)
element to the
list
y
How Variable Assignment Happens e m
a d
apy = 0.25
A c
LHS RHS
te
à Python evaluates the RHS first By
th
a
à then it "assigns" that result to the symbol in the LHS
M
(the LHS becomes a named reference to whatever results from the RHS)
t ©
Generally, RHS could be a more complex expression than just a literal
g h
ri
balance = 1000.0 – 50.0 à in both cases, the RHS
p y
circ = 2 * 3.14 * 1.5 is fully evaluated /irst
C o
y
Using Variables e m
a d
c
Once a variable has been created, it can be used elsewhere in the program
A
pi = 3.1415
te
pi 3.1415
radius = 1
By radius 1
th
circ = 2 * pi * radius
a circ 6.283
M
©
àcirc is now a reference to the float 6.283
t
radius = 2
g h radius 2
r i
y
BUT this does not change circ
p
o
à it still points to 6.283 circ 6.283
y
Variable Naming e m
a d
à case sensitive c
apr is a different symbol than APR
A
te
à must follow certain rules
By
à should follow certain conventions
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Must-Follow Rules e m
a d
start with underscore (_) or letter (a-z A-Z)
A c
te
(unicode characters are actually OK, but stick to a-z A-Z)
By
th
followed by any number of underscores or letters, or digits (0-9)
var my_var index1 a index_1

M all legal
©
_var __var __add__
h
à cannot be reserved words t
r i g
True False if def and or
p y
and many more we'll come across in this course
C o
y
Should-Follow Conventions e m
a d
c
PEP 8 Style Guide à typical conventions followed by most Python devs
A
te
https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/
By
terminology:
th
camel case
a
àseparate words are distinguished by upper case letters
M
accountBalance BankAccount
snake case
t ©
à separate words are distinguished by underscores
g h
r i account_balance bank_account
p y
C o
y
a d
For standard variables:
A c
à snake case
te
à all lower case letters
By
account_balance ✅
th
account_Balance ❌
a
M
t ©
h
We'll see other conventions for other special types of objects throughout
g
this course
r i
p y
C o
y
a d
à Good idea to follow standard conventions
A c
e
à but sometimes you may want to break those conventions
t
y
à that's OK – just have a good reason, and be consistent
B
th
From the PEP 8 Style Guide: a
M
t ©
A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.
g h (Emerson)
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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e m
a d
Arithmetic Operators A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Terminology e m
a d
one or more values
A c
An operator is a programming language symbol that performs some operation on
Certain types of operators include:

te
à arithmetic operators
By
à comparison (or relational) operators th
a
à logical operators
M
t ©
The values an operator acts on are called operands
h
à An operator that works on a single operand is called a unary operator
g
r i
à An operator that works on two operands is called a binary operator
p y
à An operator that works on three operands is called a ternary operator
C o
y
Arithmetic Operators e m
a d
Unary Operators
- Unary Minus -10 A c
te
+ Unary Plus +10
By
Binary Operators
th
+ Addition
a
10 + 20
- Subtraction M 20 - 10
* Multiplication
t © 10 * 2
/ Division
g h 10 / 2
r i
** Power (exponentiation) 2 ** 4
p y
o
à use parentheses ( and ) to group expressions
C
y
Operand Types e m
a d
Arithmetic operators can act on any numerical type
int float A c
te
à as well as other types we'll encounter later
By
h
à what the operator does is actually determined by the type of the operands
t
a
M
à an operator may support mixed operand types
2 + 2
t ©
à returns an int
2 + 2.0
g h
à returns a float
5.5 * 2
r i
à returns a float
4 / 2
p y à also returns a float!
C o
y
The Power Operator e m
a d
c
The power operator works just like its mathematical counterpart
A
2 ** 4
te
à 2 * 2 * 2 * 2
By
à 16 (int)
th
1 a
Recall from math: 2%& =
2& M
2 ** (-4)
t ©
à 1 / (2 ** 4)
g h
à 1 / 16
r i
p y
à 0.0625 (float)
C o
y
The Power Operator e m
a d
à Python supports /loats for either operand of the ** operator
A c
e
à just like mathematical exponentiation
y t
h B
a t
à graph of / 0 = 1 '
M
à 2 ' : = 1 ' ()*(,)
t ©
g h
i
à Python also supports negative bases with real exponents
r
y
à complex numbers
p
o
à it's actually a numerical type in Python (complex)
y
How Python Implements Arithmetic Operators e m
a d
à recall: numbers are actually objects
à they have state A c
à they also have functionality
te
B y
à one of these is the __add__ method (amongst many others)
th
when we do this: a + ba where a = 10 and b = 20
M
à 10 is an int object that implements the __add__ method
t ©
h
Python actually does this to evaluate the expression:
ir g
à a.__add__(b)
p y
à this works the same way with other types
C o
y
Looking ahead… e m
a d
A c
à any type can choose to implement __add__ however it wants
à Python will then use that method to evaluate type_1 + type_2
te
B
à we will see later how to create our own typesy
th
a
à we can implement __add__ to define + for our custom type
M
à we'll look at this in code, though some of the code may not make sense (yet!)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
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t ©
g h
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C o
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e m
a d
Operator Precedence A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
When we write an expression such as this: 2 * 10 + 5
a d
à what does it mean?
A c
(2 * 10) + 5 à 25 ? or
te
2 * (10 + 5) à 30 ?
B y
th
Python chooses this
a
why? M
à operator precedence
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Operators have precedence e m
a d
à an operator with higher precedence will bind more tightly
à fancy way of saying it will be evaluated first
A c
Precedence order with arithmetic operators
te
binary + - B y
(equal precedence – since it does not actually matter)
h
lower
* /
a t
unary + - M
higher
**
t ©
except for a unary operator to the right of **
g h
ri
2 * 10 + 5
* has higher precedence than +
à 20 + 5 à 25
p y à 2 * 10 is evaluated /irst
C o
y
** has highest precedence in our previous list e m
a d
2 * 2 ** 3 à 2 * (2 ** 3) à 2 * 8
A c à 16
te
-2 ** 4 à -(2 ** 4) à -16
By
(as opposed to (-2) ** 4 à 16)
th
a
à except when unary operator is to the right of **
M
2 ** -3 à 2 ** (-3)
t © à 0.125
h
à makes sense, difficult to interpret it otherwise anyway
g
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
d
A complete list of all operator precedence in Python can be found here:
a
c
https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#operator-precedence
A
te
à my advice
B y
th
à relying on operator precedence is tricky
à very easy to introduce bugs a
M
à use parentheses
t ©
h
à it's just a few keystrokes more and will save a lot of pain later!
g
r i
p y
use (2 * 10) + 5 instead of 2 * 10 + 5
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
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t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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e m
a d
Integer Division and Mod A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Let's review long division! e m
a d
43
A c
2 is the remainder
3 131
te
12
11 B y #
9
th
131 / 3 à 43
$
2 a
M
t © 43 is the integer portion of the division
Python integer division:

g h // 131 // 3 à 43
r i
p y
Remainder: use Python mod operator % 131 % 3 à 2
C o
y
The // Operator e m
a d
a // b calculates the "integer portion" of a / b
à easy to understand when a and b are positive A c
te
Reality: a // b is the 4loor of a / b
B y
floor(x)
th
à the largest integer number <= x
a
-3.14
M 3.14
©
-4 -3 3 4
floor(-3.14) à -4
h t floor(3.14) à 3
r i g
y
12 / 5 à 2.4 12 // 5 à 2
-12 / 5 à -2.4
o p -12 // 5 à -3
y
The mod Operator e m
a d
Again negative numbers complicates things a bit!
A c
à I said you can use % to calculate the remainder of dividing a by b
te
à in this case, for positive integers, a and b
By
à a % b and the remainder of dividing a by b is the same
à intuitive for positive numbers
th
a
M
But % is de/ined for negative integers and even /loats as well
t ©
h
à what does that even mean?
g
r i
p y
C o
y
The mod Operator e m
a d
c
#
Let's go back to our /irst example 131 / 3 à 43
A
$
131 131 131 97: 3

te
y
= /6778 +
3 3 3
h B
a / b = a // b + (a % b)/b
a t
M
à a % b = b (a / b – a // b)
t ©
à a % b = a - b (a // b)
g h
i
So a % b is de4ined as the value that satis/ies the above equation
r
y
à and that's how a % b is well-de/ined for negative values
p
o
à and even for /loats!
C
y
e m
d
à this explains the "weird" (aka non-intuitive) behavior for negative numbers
a
12 % 5 à 2 12 % -5 à -3
A
-12 % 5 à 3 c -12 % -5 à -2
te
à as well as how it works for real numbers
By 12.5 % 3 à 0.5
12.5 // 3 à 4.0
th
a % b = a - b (a // b) a
M
à 12.5 % 3 = 12.5 – 3 (4.0) = 12.5 – 12.0 = 0.5
t ©
g h
à moral: be careful using "intuition" for % and // and negative values
r i
y
à fortunately most of the problems we work with involve positive integers
p
C o (more in coding video)
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
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g h
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C o
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e m
a d
Comparison Operators A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
à also know as relational operators e m
a d
à compares two things and yields a Boolean (bool) result
== equality comparison A c
à != for "not equal"
te
<, <=, >, >=
y
assumes the operands are comparable
B
10.5 < 100
h
à makes sense
t
a
M
hello > 100 à doesn't really make sense
t ©
à == between operands that are not comparable usually returns False
g h
r i
à <, <=, etc between non-comparable operands usually generates an Exception
à TypeError
p y (we'll come back to exceptions later)
C o
y
à int and float types are comparable to each other e m
10 <= 10.9 à True
a d
A c
te
Equality between integers is straightforward
By
5 == 5 à True
h
5 == 6 à False
t
a
floats are a different story!
M
©
0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 0.3 à False
t
g h
i
à in general: never use == to compare floats
r
p y
C o
y
What does it mean for two objects to be equal?e m
a d
à everything in Python is an object
A c
1 is an int object
e
1.0 is a float object
t
B y
h
are 1 and 1.0 the same object? à No!
a t
à but they are the same value
M
©
à need to differentiate what equality means
t
h
à the object itself
ir g
à the "value" (or state) of the object
p y
C o
y
Identity vs Value Equality of Objects e m
a d
To see if two objects are the same object à is
A c
te
à in most cases use == By
To see if two (compatible) objects are equal in value (in some sense) à ==
th
a
à we'll see situations where using is makes more sense
a = 1 M
a == b à True
b = 1.0
c = 1
t ©
a is b à False
g h c is c à True
d = 500
e = 500
y ri but…
d == e à True
à d and e are not
p
d is e à False
C o the same objects!

y
Identity vs Value Equality of Objects e m
a d
the objects A c
The is operator is purely concerned with the memory address (identity) of
te
y
à is is called the identity comparison operator
B
h
The == operator, is, like +, actually implemented by the type itself
t
a
à recall: a + b actually executes a.__add__(b)
M
©
à == works the same way, using the __eq__ method
t
a == b à a.__eq__(b)
g h
r i
y
So we can de/ine what == means for custom types, by implementing __eq__
p
C o (we'll see this later in this course)

y
Other Comparison Operators e m
a d
A
à other comparison operators we'll cover in this course
c
te
à membership operators: in and not in
By
à works with collection types
th
a
M
à determines membership in some collection
©
s = {1, 2, 3.14, True, 5.1} (like a mathematical set)
t
h
1 in s à True
g
r i
10 in s à False
p y
10 not in s à True
C o
y
e m
a d
Coding A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
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C o 103
© MathByte Academy
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e m
a d
Boolean Operators A c
te
B y
th
a
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t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o 104
© MathByte Academy
y
e m
à in Boolean algebra we only have two values: True and False
a d
à and three basic operators: and, or, not
A c
te
à Python syntax:
By
not is a unary operator th
not True
a
not (a < b)
M
t ©
and, or are binary operators True or False
g h True and False
r i
(enabled == True) and (withdrawal <= balance)
p y
C o
y
The not Operator e m
a d
à not simply reverses the Boolean value
A c
te Truth Table
a
B
not a y
True
th
False
False a True
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
The and Operator e m
a d
à a and b is True if and only if both a and b are True
A c
e
à False otherwise
a b y ta and b
True True
h B True
True
a
False t False
False
M
True False
False
t © False False
h
notice something interesting:
g
r i
à if a is False, then a and b is always False, no matter what b is
p y
C o
y
The or Operator e m
a d
à a or b is False if and only if both a and b are False
A c
à True otherwise
te
a b
By a or b
True True
th True
True a
False True
False M
True True
False
t © False False
g h
notice something interesting:
r i
à if a is True, then a or b is always True, no matter what b is
p y
C o
y
Short-Circuited Evaluation e m
à left and right operands are not restricted to values
a d
à can be expressions too
A c
e.g. sin(a) > 0 and cos(a) < 0
given a value a calculate sin(a)
te
à evaluate sin(a) > 0
By à result_1
calculate cos(a)
th à evaluate cos(a) < 0
à result_2
a
evaluate result_1 and result_2
M
à 4 calculations plus the and operation
t ©
à but what if result_1 had been False (i.e. sin(a) was not positive)?
g h
à recall: if a is False, then a and b is always False, no matter what b is
r i
à irrespective of what cos(a) < 0 evaluates to, the result will always be False
p y
à so if the left operand evaluates to False, we don't even to
o
calculate the right operand to get an answer
C
à short-circuited evaluation

y
Short-Circuited Evaluation e m
a d
The same happens with a or b
A c
if a is True, then result is True, irrespective of what b is
à Python returns True without evaluating b te
By
And as we just saw with a and b
th
a
if a is False, then result is False, irrespective of what b is
M
à Python returns False without evaluating b
t ©
g h
à short-circuited evaluation
r i
p y
à can be very useful
à will see examples of this in section on conditional execution
C o
y
Example of Short-Circuiting Usefulness e m
a d
signal (True/False)
A c
à suppose we have some trading algorithm that can calculate some buy
e
à the catch is that the calculation is complex and resource intensive
t
y
à in addition, we only want to place an order if the exchange is open
B
we could write some code to do this:
th
a
if calc_signal(symbol) and exchange_open(symbol):
buy(symbol)
M
©
à problem: when exchange is closed we needlessly calculate the signal
t
h
à but because of short-circuiting we can write:
g
r i
if exchange_open(symbol) and calc_signal(symbol):
buy(symbol)
p y
o
à this way if exchange is closed, we don't even calculate the signal

y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
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t ©
g h
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Conditional Execution c a d
A
te
B y
th
4
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
à one of the fundamental constructs in programming is conditional execution
à if something is true A c
te
à run some code
By
à else (optionally)
th
a
M
à run some other piece of code
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
For example, for an ATM withdrawal: e m
a d
à dispense cash A c
à if amount does not exceed available funds and does not exceed daily limit
à print receipt te
à otherwise
By
à deny request th
a
M
à display some text on screen
©
à print slip containing reason
t
g h
r i
p y
à this is the primary reason we studied conditional expressions in the last chapter!
C o
y
e m
a d
if… else… A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
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C o
y
The if Statement e m
a d
note the colon!
if <expression evaluates to True>:
code line 1
A c
code line 2
te
notice how this code block is indented
…
By
à this tells Python that all these lines should
th
be executed if the condition is True
a
M
à you "exit" a code block by unindenting your code
t ©
à Python uses code indentation to group together chunks of code
à called code blocks
g h
r i
y
à if you are familiar with other languages such as Java or C/C++, this is
p
C o
equivalent to using braces {} 117
© MathByte Academy
y
Examples e m
a d
price = 200
if price < 250:
A c
make_purchase()
te
By
th
à the call to make_purchase() will only be executed if price < 250
a
evaluates to True, which in this case it is
M
price = 300
t ©
if price < 250:
g h
make_purchase()
r i
p y
à in this case make_purchase() is not executed
C o
y
Beware! e m
a d
à unindenting code from a block, "exits" the block
à the following is a common mistake A c
te
price = 150
if price < 100:
By
print('price is below 100, buying…')
th this is the
make_purchase() a code block
à price < 100 is False M

t ©
à does not run code in the if block
g h
i
(if block only contains a single statement – the print statement)
r
p y
à runs make_purchase() à bug!!
C o
y
The else Clause e m
a d
à often in conditional execution
A c
if something is True
te
à do something
otherwise By
th
à do something else
a
M
à Python's if statement supports an else clause à it is optional
if <expression is True>: t ©
[Code Block 1]
g h note how else is unindented
i
from the if block, and
else:
y r
[Code Block 2]
followed by a colon
o p indent to form the else block

y
Example e m
a d
price = 200
A c
if price < 250:
te
print('The price is right!')
else:
By
print('Too pricey!')
th
notice this line of code is unindented
print('Done.')
a
à it has nothing to do with the
M
if or else blocks
à it will always execute
à price < 250 is True
t ©
g h
r i
à the if block is executed The price is right
y
à the else block is skipped
p
o
à code resumes after the else block Done

y
Example e m
a d
price = 300
A c
if price < 250:
te
print('The price is right!')
else:
By
th
print('Done.')
a
M
à price < 250 is False
à the if block is skipped t ©
g h
r i
à the else block is executed Too pricey!
p y
à code resumes after the else block Done.
C o
y
Nested if Statements e m
a d
in the else block A c
à sometimes we need to nest conditional logic, either in the if block or
te
if price < 1000: y
à if price < 1000 is True
B
h
if price < 500: à if price < 500
volume = 50
else: à otherwise a t
à set volume to 50
volume = 10
M
à set volume to 10
make_purchase(volume)
else:
t ©
à purchase specified volume
à otherwise
g h à Too pricey
r i
p y
C o
y
Nested if Statements e m
a d
à the nesting can occur in the else block too
A c
if price < 1000:
te
make_purchase()
else:
By
if price < 2000:
th
contact_vendor()
a
else:
M
©
find_new_vendor()
h t
r i g
à can nest to any number of levels
y
à too much nesting can make code hard to read!
p
à keep it to a minimum
o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
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M
t ©
g h
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C o
y
e m
a d
elif A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Multi-Level if Statements e m
a d
c
Consider this example to calculate a grade letter given a numeric grade:
A
if grade >= 90:
te
grade_letter = 'A'
else:
By
if grade >= 80:
th
grade_letter = 'B'
else: a
à that's a lot of nesting!
if grade >= 70: M

à hard to read (for humans)
grade_letter = 'C'
else: t ©
g
if grade >= 60: h
r i
grade_letter = 'D'
else:
p y
o
grade_letter = 'F'

y
The elif Clause e m
a d
c
Instead of this nested structure, Python provides an elif clause
A
à equivalent to a nested else-if
te
à does not require this double indentation
By
à easier to read!
th once an if or elif
a clause executes (is True)
if grade >= 90:
grade_letter = 'A' M à no other if, elif or
elif grade >= 80:
t © else block executes
grade_letter = 'B'
g h
else:
r i
y
grade_letter = 'F'
else executes if no if or
o p elif statement executed

y
Grade Letter Example e m
a d
if grade >= 90:
grade_letter = 'A'
A c
if grade >= 90:
grade_letter = 'A'
e
else:
if grade >= 80:
grade_letter = 'B'
y t
elif grade >= 80:
grade_letter = 'B'
else:
h B
elif grade >= 70:
t
if grade >= 70:
grade_letter = 'C'
a
grade_letter = 'C'
else: elif grade >= 60:
if grade >= 60:
M
grade_letter = 'D'
grade_letter = 'D'
else:
t ©
grade_letter = 'F'
else:
grade_letter = 'F'
g h
yri à much more human readable!
o p
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
c
Ternary Conditional Operator
A
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Terminology e m
a d
unary operator
A c
à an operator that takes a single operand
e
à operator usually a prefix to the operand
t
à -x
By
binary operator
th
à an operator that takes two operands
a
à usually operands are on either side of the operator
àx + y M
t ©
ternary operator
h
à an operator that takes three operands
g
r i !
p y à so how do we write that?
C o
y
e m
d
à suppose we have an operator that takes three operands: a, b, c
a
à the goal is for the operator to return a + (b * c)
A c
te
à this is a thing – it's called the Multiply-Accumulate operator (MAC)
(but not available in Python!)
By
th
à maybe this? a
a accmul b, c
M
à or maybe this?
©
a acc b mul c
t
g h
r i
p y
all we've done here is split the name of the operator into two
and added the operands in between
C o
y
e m
This type of conditional code is often used
a d
if <conditional exp>:
var = value1
A c
else:
te
var = value2
By
th
à key is that each code block is a single assignment
a
M
à to the same variable
©
à Python introduces a conditional ternary operator to do this
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
The conditional ternary operator e m
a d
(calculates) some result
A c
à remember that an operator operates on operands and returns
te
var = value1
By
else:
th
var = value2
a
M
©
à in this case we want the ternary operator's operands to be:
t
à the conditional expression
h
i g
à the value to return if the expression is True
r
y
à the value to return if the expression is False
p
C o
y
The conditional ternary operator e m
a d
A c
var = value1
te
else:
var = value2
By
th
a
M
value1 if <conditional exp> else value2
t ©
à this is a single ternary operator
g h
i
à if condition is True, it returns value1
r
y
à if condition is False, it returns value2
p
C o
y
Example e m
a d
if price < 100:
volume = 10 A c
else:
te
volume = 1
By
th
a
à can be re-written using a conditional ternary operator
M
©
volume = 10 if price < 100 else 1
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
General Form e m
a d
c
à we saw examples where we used values as the return operands
A
à but it's more general than that
te
y
à the two value operands can be any expression
B
th
à the result of the expression is then used
a
<exp1> if <condition> else <exp2>
M
t ©
h
var = (a – b) if a > b else (b – a)
g
r i
p y
C o
y
Short-Circuiting e m
a d
A c
Just like we saw with Boolean operators, the ternary operator also uses
short-circuit evaluation
te
<exp1> if <condition> else <exp2> By
th
à first evaluates <condition> a
M
à if it is True, evaluates and returns <exp1>
t ©
à but does not evaluate <exp2>
g h
à if it is False, evaluates and returns <exp2>
r i
à but does not evaluate <exp1>
p y
C o
y
Example e m
a d
result = a / b if b != 0 else 'NaN'
A c
a = 10 à returns 2
te
b = 5
y
à b is 5, so b != 0 evaluates to True
B
à a / b is calculated and returned
th
a
a = 10 M
à this works just fine, and returns NaN
b = 0
©
à b is zero, so b != 0 evaluates to False
t
h
à a / b is not calculated
g
r i (thereby avoiding a division by zero exception)
p y
à NaN is returned
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Sequence Types c a d
A
te
By
th
5
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
What are Sequences? e m
à sequences are ordered collections of objects
a d
à there is a first element
A c
à there is a second element
te
à and a next one
y
à sometimes called the sequential order
B
t
à we can index those elements using integersh
a
M
à like counting them one by one
©
à but in Python (and most other programming languages)
t
h
à numbering starts at 0
g
r i
à like anything in Python, sequences are objects
p y
à they just happen to be container type objects that contain other objects
C o
y
Indexing Sequences e m
a d
n objects
c
à length of sequence
A
object, object, object, …, object
te
0 1 2
B y n-1
th
à n objects in sequence
a
M
à last element index is n-1
in this course:
t ©
g h
à first element refers to the element at index 0
r i
à second element refers to the element as index 1
p y
à last element refers to the element at index n-1 (assuming n elements in sequence)
C o
y
Sequence Length e m
a d
à sequences are usually finite
A c
à but not all sequence types are
te
By
th
a
à in this course we'll stick to /inite sequences
à first element M
à last element
t ©
g h
à finite length
r i
p y
C o
y
Homogeneous vs Heterogeneous Sequencese
m
a d
A c
certain sequence types can only contain objects that are all the same type
à homogeneous sequence types
te
B y
th
a
other types of sequences may contain objects that are of different type
M
à heterogeneous sequence types
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Sequence Types in this Chapter e m
a d
lists A c
à mutable heterogeneous sequence type
te
tuples
By
à immutable heterogeneous sequence type
th
strings a
à immutable homogeneous sequence type
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Lists A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
The list Type e m
a d
à it is a container type
c
à it contains elements
A
à it is a sequence type
te
à elements are ordered sequentially
à lists can be heterogeneous B y

à elements are indexed
th
à lists are mutable
a
à can add, replace or remove elements
à lists have unbounded growth M à can add as many elements as we want
t © à but they are still finite

à lists are objects
g h
y ri
à they have state à the elements contained in the list
o p
à they have functionality à add element, remove element, etc

y
list Literals e m
a d
à Python lists can be created using literals
A c
[10, 20, 30, 40]
te
B y
h
note the enclosing square brackets []
t
a
à this is what indicates the type is a list
à this list is homogeneous M

à all elements are integers
à but they don't have to be

t ©
[10, 3.14, True]
g h
y ri
à they can even be nested [10, 20, 30, [True, False]]
o p the last element of this list is itself a list

y
Accessing list Items by Index e m
a d
à lists are sequence types à sequential order
A c
à indexable
l = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]

te (length is 5)
index 0 1 2 3 4
By
à we can reference an element by its index
th l[i]
l[0] à 10 a
l[1] à 20 M
l[2] à 30
t ©
g h
⚠ r i
Trying to access a list by index greater than last index will cause an exception!
l[5]
p y
à IndexError
C o
y
Sequence Length e m
a d
l = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
A c
à visual inspection à length of l is 5
te
B y
h
à but we can use code to calculate this for us
t
à the len function a
M
len(l) à 5
t ©
h
len([True, False]) à 2
g
r i
p y
C o
y
Empty Lists e m
a d
sometimes we want to start with an empty list
A c
and have code that adds to the list as our program runs
te
y
à to create an empty list we can just use a literal
B
l = [] th
a
then len(l) à 0 M
t ©
⚠ l[0] à IndexError
h
r i g
p y
C o
y
Replacing a list Element e m
a d
l = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
A c
à we can retrieve elements by index
te
print(l[2]) à 30
y
B
h=
à but we can also replace an element at index i with a different element
t
à we use the assignment operator
a
l[2] = True M
l = [10, 20, True, 40, 50]
t ©
print(l[2])
g h
à True
r i
⚠ l[5] y
we are replacing elements – so the index must be valid!
p
C o= 100 à IndexError

y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Tuples A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
The tuple Type e m
a d
à very similar to the list type
A c
à it is a container type
te
By
th
à tuples can be heterogeneous
a
à BUT… M
they are an immutable container type
t ©
h
à unlike lists, once a tuple has been created
g
r i
à cannot add or remove elements
p y
à cannot replace elements
C o
y
tuple Literals e m
a d
à Python tuples can be created using literals
A c
(10, 20, 30, 40)
te
By
note the enclosing round brackets ()
à this indicates the collection is a tuple
th
a
M
à just like lists, they can can contain any object, including another tuple
(10, 20, (3, 4))

t ©
g h
i
(10, 20, (True, False), [100, 200])
r
p y
C o
y
tuple Literals e m
a d
à often we don't even need the ()
A c
à Python interprets a comma separated list of elements as a tuple
te
à so we can write (10, 20, 30)
à or just By
10, 20, 30
th
a
à both these code snippets result in t being a tuple
M
©
t = (10, 20, 30)
t = 10, 20, 30
h t
r i g
p y
C o
y
tuple Literals e m
a d
à just like lists, tuples can contain any object
à including other tuples or lists A c
te
(1, [True, False], (3, 4))
B y
list tuple
th
a
tuple
M
©
à we can omit the parentheses on the outer tuple
t
1, [True, False], (3, 4)
g h
r i
à but not (3, 4)
p y
o
1, [True, False], 3, 4
C
à not the same

y
Indexing, Length e m
a d
c
à just like lists, elements can be read back from a tuple using an index number
A
à the len() function works with tuples also
te
t = 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 By
th
a
M
len(t) à 5
t[0] à 10
t ©
t[2] à 30
g h
r i
y
t[5] à IndexError
p
C o
y
tuples are Immutable e m
a d
à unlike lists, we cannot replace an element of a tuple
A c
t = 10, 20, 30
te
t[0] = 100 à TypeError
By
th
à the container is immutable
a
M
à does not mean elements in the container are immutable
t = 10, 20, [True, True]

t © last element is a list
à which is mutable
t[2] = 100
g h
à TypeError
r i
p
t[2][1] = Falsey t à 10, 20, [True, False]
C o
y
Creating Empty tuples e m
a d
à not very useful, so not used very often
A c
à use empty parentheses
te
t = () By
th
a
à that tuple is immutable, so it will remain empty for its lifetime
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Strings A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
The str Type e m
a d
à this is also a container type
A c
te
By
à strings are homogeneous à they can only contain characters (unicode)
th
à they are immutable a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
str Literals e m
a d
à Python strings can be created using literals
A c
'this is a string'
te
y
note the enclosing quotes '…'
B
à can also use double quotes
th
"this is a string" a
M note the enclosing double quotes "…"
t ©
h
à these quotes/double-quotes are called the string delimiters
g
r i
p y
à an empty string literal can be '' or ""
C o
y
Indexing, Length e m
a d
à works the same way as any sequence type
A c
e
à use an index number to access elements of the string
t
y
à use the len() function to find the length of the string
B
s = 'Python'
th
len(s) à 6 a
M
(a string containing a single character)
©
s[0] à 'P'
s[1] à 'y'
h t
s[5] à 'n'
r i g
y
s[6] à IndexError
p
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Slicing A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
d
à slicing is a way to extract ranges of elements from a sequence
a
à start position (by index number)
A c
à stop position (by index number)
te
By
[start:stop]
th
a
M
à start index is inclusive of the element
t ©
à stop index is exclusive of the element
g h
i
à slices are the same type as the sequence being sliced
r
p y
C o
y
e m
l = [10, 20, 30, 40]
0 1 2 3
a d
l[0] à 10 l[1] à 20 l[2] à 30
A c l[3] à 40
l[0:2] à starts at 0, and includes element at 0

te
B
à ends at 2, but excludes element at 2y
th
l[0:2] à [10, 20]
a
à result is also a (new) list
l[1:3] à [20, 30]
M
t ©
t = (10, 20, 30, 40)
g h
i
0 1 2 3
y
t[0:2] à (10, 20) r à result is also a (new) tuple
o p
t[1:3] à (20, 30)

y
e m
d
à str type is a sequence type à slicing for strings works the same way
a
s = 'Isaac Newton'
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A c
te
s[0:4] à 'Isaa'
By
s[0:5] à 'Isaac'
th
a
M
s[6:9] à 'New'
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Including Last Element in Slice e m
a d
s = 'Isaac Newton'
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 c
s[6:11] à 'Newto'
A
à how do we specify including the last element ?
te
By
à it's ok to specify indexes outside the sequence bounds!
th
à Python will automatically figure it out
a
M
s[6:12] à 'Newton'
s[6:1000] à 'Newton'
t ©
h
à we can also leave the end index blank
g
r i
à Python will interpret as "up to and including the last element"
p
s[6:] à 'Newton' y
C o
y
Including First Element in a Slice e m
a d
s = 'Isaac Newton'
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A c
à just specify 0 as the start
te
s[0:5] à 'Isaac'
à can also leave the start index blank

By
th
s[:5] à 'Isaac'
a
M
àthis is actually valid:
t ©
s[:] à 'Isaac Newton'
g h
i
à this made a shallow copy of the sequence
y r
à we'll come back to that in a bit
o p
y
Slicing with Steps e m
a d
à a step is a way to specify an interval when slicing a sequence
A c
s[start:stop:step]
te
[2:10:2] à start at (and include) index 2
B y
th
à end at (but exclude) index 10
à move in steps of 2
a
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 M 9 à indexes: 2 4 6 8
t ©
g h
l = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100]
0 1
y ri
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
p
l[2:10:2] à [30 ,50 ,70 ,90]
o
y
Negative Steps e m
a d
à possible to use negative step values
A c
à starts at index start (inclusive)
te
à stops at index end (exclusive)
B y
à moves backwards
h
à so start should be greater than end
t
l = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100] a
0 1 2 3 4
M 5 6 7 8 9
l[9:6:-1] à [100, 90, 80]

t ©
l[:6:-1]
g h
à [100, 90, 80]
r i
l[3::-1]
y
à [40, 30, 20, 10]
p
l[::-1]
C o à [100, 80, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10]

y
à strings are sequence types à also works for strings e m
a d
s = 'Isaac Newton'
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A c
te
s[11:5:-1] à 'notweN'
By
s[:5:-1] à 'notweN'
th
s[::-1] à 'notweN caasI' a
M
s[10::-2] à 'owNcaI'
t ©
s[::-2]
h
à 'nte as'
g
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Manipulating Sequences A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
àmutable sequences can be modi/ied
a d
à replace elements
A c
à delete elements
te
à add elements
By
à often appended (to the end)
th
a
à can also specify where in the sequence to insert
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Replacing Single Elements e m
a d
A c
Replace an element at index i by assigning a new element to that index
te
l = [10, 20, 30]
By
l[1] = 'hello'
th
a
l à [10, 'hello', 30]
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Replacing an entire Slice e m
a d
à can also replace an entire slice
A c
t
à just assign a new collection to the slice
e
y
à slice will be replaced with elements in RHS
B
th
my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
a
my_list [0:3] = ['a', 'b'] M
my_list [0:3] = ('a', 'b')
t © my_list à ['a', 'b', 4, 5]
my_list [0:3] = 'ab'
g h
r i
y
à Python uses the elements of the sequence in RHS when assigning to a slice
p
o
(but not when assigning using a single index)
C
y
Deleting Elements e m
a d
à can delete an element by index
my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] A c
te
del my_list[1]
By
my_list à [1, 3, 4, 5]
th
a
à can delete an entire slice M
my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
t ©
g h
i
del my_list[1:3]
y r
my_list à [1, 4, 5]
o p
y
Appending Elements e m
a d
à we can append one element
my_list = [1, 2, 3] A c
te
y
my_list.append(4)
my_list à [1, 2, 3, 4]
h B
a t
à to append multiple elements, we extend the sequence
my_list = [1, 2, 3]
M
t
my_list.extend(['a', 'b', 'c'])©
h
my_list.extend(('a', 'b', 'c'))
g
does the same thing
i
my_list.extend('abc')
r
p y
my_list à [1, 2, 3, 'a', 'b', 'c']
C o
y
Inserting an Element e m
a d
à instead of appending, we can insert at some index
A c
à use sparingly – this is much slower than appending or extending
te
my_list = [2, 3, 4, 5]
By
my_list.insert(0, 100)
th
my_list à [100, 2, 3, 4, 5]
a
M
my_list = [2, 3, 4, 5]
t ©
my_list.insert(2, 100)
g h
r i
my_list à [2, 3, 100, 4, 5]
p y
à element is inserted so its position is the index - remaining elements are shifted right
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Copying SequencesA c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Shallow vs Deep Copies e m
a d
à two types of copies
A c
e
à shallow copies
à new sequence is created
y t
(not same sequence object as original)
h B
à elements in new sequence reference the same elements as original
a t
à deep copies
M
à new sequence is created
t © (not same sequence object as original)
g h
à each element in new sequence is a deep copy of the original
r i
y
à totally new and independent objects
p
C o
y
Shallow Copy e m
a d
A c
obj 1
te
y
index 0 index 0
B
index 1 obj 2 index 1
index 2
obj 3
thindex 2
a
original
M shallow_copy
t ©
original is shallow_copy à False
g h
i
à original and shallow_copy are not the same containers
r
à but the elements are referencing the same objects
y
o p
y
Shallow Copy e m
a d
index 0
index 1
obj 1
obj 2 A
index 0
index 1
c
index 2
te
index 2
obj 3
By
original
th
shallow_copy
a
à add/remove/replace element in one does not affect the other
M
index 0
t ©
obj 1 index 0
index 1
index 1
index 2
g h obj 2
index 2
ri obj 3 index 3
p
original y obj 4
shallow_copy
C o
y
Shallow Copy e m
a d
c
à but mutating an element will affect both (since it is a shared reference)
A
te
index 0
index 1
obj 1
obj 2
B y index 0
index 1
index 2
th index 2
a
obj 3
original M
(modi0ied)
shallow_copy
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Creating Shallow Copies e m
a d
à use slicing to slice the entire sequence
A c
à my_list[:]
te
à use the copy method
By à my_list.copy()
my_list = [1, 2, 3] th
a
my_copy = my_list[:]
my_copy = my_list.copy() M my_copy à [1, 2, 3]
t ©
del my_copy[0]
g h my_copy à [2, 3]
r i
p y my_list à [1, 2, 3]
C o
y
Mutable Elements e m
a d
my_list = [['a', 'b'], 2, 3]
A c
my_copy = my_list.copy()
te
By
à my_list[0] and my_copy[0] are both referencing the same list ['a', 'b']
th
my_list[0] is my_copy[0] à True a
M
©
so if we modify that element (from either sequence):
t
my_copy[0].append('c')
g h
r i
my_copy[0] à ['a', 'b', 'c']
p y
my_list[0] à ['a', 'b', 'c']
C o
y
Creating Deep Copies e m
a d
à uses deepcopy function in the copy module
A c
from copy import deepcopy
te
my_list = [['a', 'b'], 2, 3]
By
my_copy = deepcopy(my_list)
th
a
my_list[0] is my_copy[0] à False M à element has been copied too!
t ©
my_copy[0].append('c')
g h
r i
my_copy[0] à ['a', 'b', 'c']
p y
my_list[0] à ['a', 'b']
C o
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e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
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g h
r i
p y
C o
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e m
a d
Unpacking Sequences A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
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consider a sequence e m
data = (1, 2, 3)
a
à this is a tuple with three elements d
A c
we want to assign those values 1, 2 and 3 to some symbols a, b and c resp.
te
à could do it this way: a = data[0]
b = data[1]
By
c = data[2]
th
a
M
but Python has a better way of doing this! unpacking
a, b, c = (1, 2, 3)
t ©
h
Since tuples don't actually need the parentheses in this case, we can write:
g
r i
a, b, c = 1, 2, 3
p y
C o
y
e m
à this works with any sequence in general
a d
a, b = [10, 20] a à 10
b à 20
A c
te
a, b, c = 'XYZ' a à 'X'
By
b à 'Y'
th
c à 'Z'
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à beware!
a d
à number of elements in sequence on RHS must match number of symbols on LHS
A c
a, b = 1, 2, 3
te
à ValueError (too many values to unpack)
By
th
a, b, c = 1, 2
a
M
à ValueError (not enough values to unpack)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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Swapping Two Variable Values e m
a d
à this is a common problem
A
given two variables a and b, swap the value of a and b
c
Initial State: a à 10
te
End State: a à 20
b à 20
Byb à 10
th
a
à typical solution uses a temporary variable
M
©
temp = a
a = b
b = temp
h t
r i g
y
à 3 lines of code and an unnecessary variable
p
C o
y
Swapping Two Variable Values e m
a d
à can use unpacking to our advantage
A c
à remember: in an assignment, the RHS expression is evaluated completely /irst
à then the assignment takes places
te
a, b = b, a By
th
à RHS is evaluated /irst a
b, a is the tuple 20, 10
M
©
à then the assignment is made a, b = 20, 10
h t
à values of a and b have been swapped!
r i g
p y
C o
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e m
a d
A c
te
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Codingth
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g h
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e m
Strings c a d
A
te
By
th
6
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
à strings are sequence types
A c
e
à but they are more specialized than generic sequences
t
à they are homogeneous
By
th
à each element is a single character
a
M
à we have additional functionality available
t ©
g h
r i
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e m
a d
Unicode A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
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C o
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In the beginning… e m
a d
c
… there was ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
à addressed the problem of a standard for assigning A
te
à numeric codes
y
à to characters
B
à printable and non-printable
th
a
à and encoding the value into binary à using sequences of 7 bits
M
à given a data stream filled with 0's and 1's
t ©
à carve up in 7 bits and decode character
g h
i
à fonts handle displaying the character
r
y
à a bunch of pixels
p
o
à a glyph

y
à supported character set was limited e m
à 128 characters
a d
à 95 printable characters
A c
(a-z, A-Z, 0-9, * / etc)
e
à 33 non-printable characters (control codes, e.g. esc, newline, tab, etc)
t
B y
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à attempts were made to extend the ASCII set e m
a d
à still far too limited
à standard was poorly followed
A c
te
à Unicode was developed
B y
th
à focused on assigning a code to a character (code point)
a
à does not specify how to encode the code points into a binary format
M
à other standards for doing that appeared
à UTF-8
t ©
ß very popular, default in Python
à UTF-16
g h
ri
à UTF-32
y
(utf à Unicode Transformation Format)
p
à > 100,000 code points de/ined so far
o
y
Code Points e m
a d
à backward compatible with ASCII
A c
e
ASCII character code for A à 65 (decimal), 41 (hexadecimal)
t
y
Unicode code point for A à 65 (decimal), 41 (hexadecimal)
B
th
decimal à base 10 (0 – 9)
ahexadecimal à base 16 (0-9, A-F)
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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What is hex anyway? e m
a d
Decimal system – uses powers of 10
c
à 10 digits, 0-9
A
e
103 102 101 100
9 0 3 4
t
9034 = 4 ×10! + 3 ×10" + 0 ×10# + 9 ×10$
y
h B
Binary – uses powers of 2
t
à 2 digits, 0-1
a
M
(1011)# = 1×2! + 1×2" + 0×2# + 1×2$ = 11"!
23 22 21 20
©
1 0 1 1
Hexadecimal – uses powers of 16

h t à 16 digits, 0-9, A-F
r i g A à 10, Bà 11, …, F à 15
y
163 162 161 160
>?15 = 5×16! + 1×16" + 12×16# + 15×16$

F C
o
1
p 5
= 64533"!

y
Unicode Character A e m
https://www.compart.com/en/unicode/U+0041
a d
A c
the character (hex) code
te
By
th
a the character name
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y corresponding lowercase letter
C o
y
à ord() function e m
a d
c
à returns code point for a single character (in decimal)
ord('A') à 65 A
te
à hex()
By
à converts decimal to hex string
th
a
M
hex(65) à '0x41' (0x pre/ix indicates the number after that is in hex)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
d
https://www.compart.com/en/unicode/U+03B1
c a
A
te
By
th
a
M
hex(ord("α")) à '0x3b1'
t ©
g h
r i copy/paste the glyph from that page
p y straight into your Python code
C o
y
e
Other ways to specify the character in a string
m
a d
à use escape codes
à by hex code à by name A c
te
"\N{Greek Small Letter Alpha}"
B y à "α"
th
a
"The letter \N{Greek Small Letter Alpha} is the first letter of the Greek alphabet."
à 'The
M
letter α is the first letter of the Greek alphabet.'
"\u03b1" "\u03B1"
t © \u must be followed by exactly 4 hex digits (0-F)
h
ir g
"The letter \u03B1 is the first letter of the Greek alphabet."
à'The
p y
letter α is the first letter of the Greek alphabet.'
C o
y
e m
d
https://www.compart.com/en/unicode/U+1F40D
c a
A
te
By
th
à ' "' a
M
"\N{snake}"
©
ànote how character code 1F40D has 5 digits
t
g h
à must use \U followed by exactly 8 digits (\u is limited to 4 digits)
"\U0001F40D"
r i à ' "'
p y
o
pad with zeroes to make 8 digits

y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
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Common String Methods A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
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e m
à Python has a ton of string methods
a d
c
https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#string-methods
A
e
In this video we are going to look at some in these categories
t
à case conversions
By
à stripping start and end characters
th
à concatenating strings
a
à splitting and joining strings
M
à finding substrings
t ©
g h
r i
à methods, called using dot notation my_string.method()
p y
à remember that strings are immutable
C o
à operations never modify a string à just return a new string

y
Case Mappings e m
a d
lower()
A c
'Hello World'.lower() à 'hello world'
te
upper()
y
'python'.upper() à 'PYTHON'
B
title()
h
'one two three'.title() à 'One Two Three'
t
a
à returns a new string M
t ©
h
à primarily used for visual display
g
r i
y
à BEWARE: may not work for caseless comparisons
p
C o
y
Case Folding e m
a d
casefold()
A
à used for caseless comparisonsc
te
s1 = 'hello'
By
s2 = 'HeLlo'
th
a
s1.casefold() == s2.casefold()
M à True
t ©
h
à we'll explore this vs using case mappings in the code section
r i g
p y
C o
y
Stripping e m
a d
à trailing commas A c
sometimes we want to remove leading and trailing characters
te
à whitespace around a string
B y
.lstrip()
th
à strips all whitespace on left of string
.rstrip()
a
à strips all whitespace on right of string
.strip()
M
à strips all whitespace on both ends of string
t ©
à can specify what characters to strip
g h
.strip(' ')
r i
à strip space characters from both ends
p y
.lstrip('abc') à strip the characters 'a', 'b', 'c' from left end
à returns a new string
C o
y
Concatenation e m
a d
c
combining two or more strings to form a single string is called concatenation
A
te
'Hello' + ' ' + 'World!'
y
à 'Hello World!'
B
th
a
M
t
à again, this creates a new string©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Splitting Strings e m
a d
à useful for parsing data from a text file
A c
data = '100, 200, 300, 400'
te
ß a string containing comma
y
delimited values
à can easily split this on the comma
h B
data.split(',')
a t
à returns a list of strings M
['100', ' 200', ' 300', ' 400']
t ©
g h note the spaces
r i
p y à we can strip them later
C o
y
Joining Strings e m
a d
à this is the opposite of splitting strings
A c
e
suppose we want to join these strings with `, ` characters between each:
t
'a' 'b' 'c' 'd'
By
we could write:
th
a
'a' + ', ' + 'b' + ', ' + 'c' + ', ' + 'd'
à tedious to type out M

t ©
à "hardcoded"
g h
r i
à what if we have a sequence of strings we want to concatenate
p y
à this approach is not general enough
C o
y
Joining Strings e m
a d
data = ('ab', 'cd', 'ef')
A c
à data is a sequence of strings
'--'.join(data)
te
à join the strings in data with -- in between
à 'ab--cd--ef'
B y
th
','.join(['10', '20', '30']) à '10,20,30'
a
M
à remember that a string is a sequence of single characters
t ©
g h
i
'='.join('python') à 'p=y=t=h=o=n'
y r
o p
y
Finding Substrings e m
a d
c
à often just want to know if a sequence of characters is contained inside another
A
à use the in operator
te
'x' in 'xyz' à True By
th
'a' in 'xyz' à False
a
'pyt' in 'python'
M
à True
'pyt' in 'Python'
t ©
à False
g h
à tests containment
r i
p y
à but gives no indication of where the substring is
C o
y
e m
à slight variation
a d
c
à does the string start (or end) with the speci/ied characters
A
à still a containment test
te
.startswith('…')
By
.endswith('…')
th
a
'python'.startswith('py') à True
M
'python'.startswith('hon') à False
t ©
h
'python'.endswith('py') à False
g
r i
'python'.endswith('hon') à True
p y
C o
y
Finding the Index of a Substring e m
a d
c
à used when we need to know the index of the start position of a substring
A
e
data = 'This is a grammatically correct sentence.'
t
y
à at what index does the string 'correct' occur?
B
data.index('correct') thà 24
a
M
©
à what if substring is not found?
t
g h
à Python raises a ValueError
r i
y
à potentially useful once we learn how to handle exceptions
p
C o
y
Finding the Index of a Substring e m
a d
à what if we don't want an exception?
A c
à find
te
à returns -1 if substring is not found
By
h
data = 'This is a grammatically correct sentence.'
t
a
M
data.find('correct') à 24
data.find('DOW')
t © à -1
g h
r i
à once we know how to handle exceptions, this method is a bit redundant
p y
à personally, I prefer using index and using exception handling
C o
y
Important Note e m
a d
A c
à only interested in whether or not a substring is contained in another string
à use in
te
By
th
à only use index or find when you need to know the index
a
à in is much faster! M
t ©
g h
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A c
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Codingth
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String InterpolationA c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
c
à often we want to build strings that contain values from some variable
A
à can use concatenation
te
à + works with two strings
By
th
à cannot mix string and numeric for example
'test' + 100 à TypeError a
M
'test' + str(100) à 'test100'
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Example e m
a d
Suppose we have four variables: open_ = 98
high = 100 A c
low = 95
te
close=99
B y
th
a
We want to build a string that looks like this for display purposes:
M
'open: 98, high: 100, low: 95, close: 99'
à using concatenation: t ©
g h
i
'open: ' + str(open_) + ', high: ' + str(high) + ', low: ' + str(low) + ', close:' + str(close)
y r
o p
à tedious and error prone! à in fact there is an error, can you spot it?!

y
String Interpolation e m
a d
à multiple variants à two most common techniques
A c
à the format method
te
à use {} as placeholders in our string
By
th
à pass variables to format method in same order as we want them in the string
a
à number of {} in string and arguments in format should match
M
à format can have more arguments, they'll just be ignored
©
à IndexError exception if not enough arguments
t
g h
r i
y
'open: {}, high: {}, low: {}, close: {}'.format(open_, high, low, close)
p
o
à note how we did not have to convert the values to strings!
C
y
f Strings e m
a d
à new to Python 3.6
A c
à prefix the string with f
te
à use {expr} directly inside the string
By
h
à Python evaluates expr and interpolates the result directly inside the string
t
a
f'1 + 1 = {1 + 1}'
M
à '1 + 1 = 2'
value = 3.14
t ©
h
f'pi is approximately {value}' à 'pi is approximately 3.14'
g
r i
y
f'open: {open_}, high: {high}, low: {low}, close: {close}'
p
o
à 'open: 98, high: 100, low: 95, close:99'
C
y
f Strings e m
a d
à could use do this as well
open_ = 98 A c
high = 100
te
low = 95
By
h
close=99
a t
M
f'open: {open_}, close: {close}, delta:{close – open_}'
t ©
h
à 'open: 98, close: 99, delta: 1'
g
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Codingth
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Iteration c a d
A
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By
th
7
a
M
t ©
g h
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C o
y
à fundamental aspect of writing programs is repetition e m
à want to repeat the same process (code) multiple times
a d
à how many times?
A c
à known in advance
te
à load /ile with 10,000 rows
By
à process each row
th
à repeat the same process 10,000 times
à deterministic
a
à not known in advance M
t ©
à get commodity tick data
h
à analyze data until ask price falls below some level
g
r i
à then do something else and stop processing
y
à process may repeat 10 times, or 100 times, we don't know in advance
p
C o
à non deterministic

y
e m
à this repetition is called iteration
a d
deterministic iteration
A c
e
à we iterate over the elements of some container
t
à e.g. sequences
By
à more generally over objects that are iterable
th
a
à not all iterables are sequences
M
àa bag of marbles is iterable, but it is not a sequence!
à for loop
t ©
g h
i
non-deterministic iteration
r
y
à we iterate while some condition is True
p
o
à while loop
C
y
e m
a d
The range Function A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
The range Object e m
a d
à range object is an iterable object
A c
e
à it serves up integers one by one as they are requested
t
y
à but the full list of integers does not exist all at once in memory
B
à memory efficient
th
à it has a /inite number of integers a
M
©
à we can iterate over that range object
t
g h
à since it exists and has a finite number of integers à deterministic iteration
r i
y
à we can use the range() function to create range objects
p
C o
y
The range() Function e m
a d
c
à three flavors depending on how many arguments are specified
A
range(end) (one argument)
te
By
à generates integers from 0 (inclusive) to end (exclusive)
th
a
range(start, end) (two arguments)
M
à generates integers from start (inclusive) to end (exclusive)
range(start, end, step)

t © (three arguments)
h
à generates integers from start (inclusive) to end (exclusive)
g
r i
à in steps of step
p y
o
à should remind you of slicing
C
y
Viewing Contents of range Object e m
a d
r = range(5)
A c
print(r) à 'range(5)'
te
à not what we wanted
By
th
a
à can convert range object to a list or tuple
print(tuple(r)) M
à (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)
t ©
h
print(list(r)) à [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
r i g
p y
C o
y
Iteration e m
a d
à range object is iterable
A c
te
à we can use a for loop to iterate over the elements of this iterable
(next lecture) By
th
a
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A c
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Codingth
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for Loops A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à for loops are used to iterate over elements of any iterable
a d
A c
à the loop mechanism retrieves elements from the iterable one at a time
te
à the body of the for loop is executed for each element retrieved
By
à the loop terminates when all elements have been iterated
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
for x in ['a', 'b']:
e m
y = x + x
note how the body is indented
a d
print(y)
print('done') c
à just like if…else… code blocks
A
e
unindented à not in loop body
1st iteration:
y t
h B
'a' is retrieved and assigned to the symbol x
y is the concatenation of x and x à 'aa'
'aa' is printed to the console
a t
2nd iteration:
M
t ©
'b' is retrieved and assigned to the symbol x
y is the concatenation of x and x à 'bb'
g h
'bb' is printed to the console
r i
p y
3rd iteration: à no more elements à loop terminates
à code after loop executes
C o à 'done'
y
Iterating over range Objects e m
a d
à range objects are iterable
A c
for i in range(4):
e
range(4) à 0, 1, 2, 3
t
y
sq = i * i
print(sq)
h B
output: 0
1 a t
4 M
9
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Loop Bodies (Blocks) e m
a d
à block can contain any valid Python code
à if…else… A c
à another loop (nested loop)
te
for i in range(1, 4):
B y
for j in range(1, i+1):
th i = 1
print(i, j, i*j)
a j in range(1, 1+1)
print('')
1 1 1 M
t © 2 1 2
i = 2
j in range(1, 2+1)
g h 2 2 4
r i i = 3
p y 3 1 3
3 2 6
j in range(1, 3+1)
C o 3 3 9
y
data = [10, 20, 30, -10, 40, -5] e m
a d
suppose we want to replace any negative value with 0
A c
te
à we can iterate over the data and test for negative numbers:
B y
for number in data:
th
10
if number < 0:
number = 0 a 20
30
print(number) M 0
t © 40
0
g h
i
à but how do we replace -10 and -5 with 0 ?
r
p y
à easy if we know the index number data[3] = 0
data[5] = 0
o
à but we don't know that!!
C
y
The enumerate Function e m
a d
enumerate is a function that
A c
à takes an iterable argument
te
By
à returns a new iterable whose elements are a tuple consisting of:
à the index number of the original element
à the original element itself
th
a
data = [10, 20, 30, -10, 40, -5] M (0, 10)
for t in enumerate(data):
t © (1, 20)
print(t)
g h (2, 30)
r i (3, -10)
p y
à at each iteration t is a tuple (index, element)
à it can be unpacked!
(4,
(5,
40)
-5)
C o
y
data = [10, 20, 30, -10, 40, -5] e m
for t in enumerate(data):
a d
index, element = t
if element < 0:
A c
data[index] = 0
te
B y
data à [10, 20, 30, 0, 40, 0]
th
a
à but we can do one better M
à we can unpack in the for clause itself
t ©
h
for index, element in enumerate(data):
g
if element < 0:
r i
y
data[index] = 0
p
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
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while Loops A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à different than for e m
a d
à here we want to repeat some code as long as some condition is True
A c
à non-deterministic à we don't necessarily know when condition becomes True
à maybe never!
te
à in/inite loop
B y
while expr:
<code block>
th
a
M
à expr is evaluated at the start of each iteration
t ©
à if it is True, execute <code block>
h
à if it is False, terminate loop immediately
g
r i
y
à may never execute (if expr is False on /irst iteration)
p
o
à may never terminate (if expr never becomes False)
C
y
e m
value = 10
a d
while value < 15:
A c
increments value by 1
print(value)
te
value = value + 1
By
output: 10 th
11 a
12 M
13
14
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
value = 100 e m
a d
while value < 15:
print(value)
A c
value = value + 1
te
output: By
h
no output
a t
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
value = 10 e m
a d
while value < 15:
print(value) c
decrements value by 1
A
value = value - 1
te
output: By
10
9 th
8 a
7 M
6
…
t ©
in/inite loop!!
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
continue, break, else A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Skipping an Iteration e m
a d
à continue A c
à sometimes we want to skip an iteration, but without terminating the loop
à immediately jumps to the next iteration

te
By
my_list = [1, 2, 3, 100, 4, 5]
th
for i in my_list: a1
if i > 50: M 2
continue
print(i)
t © 3
4
à when i is 100
print('done')
g h 5
à continue is executed
y ri 'done' à loop jumps to next iteration
o p
y
à continue is not used too often e m
à can sometimes make code difficult to read/understand
a d
for i in my_list: A c
if i > 50:
te
continue
print(i) By
print('done')
th
a
à equivalently: M
for i in my_list:
t ©
if i <= 50:
print(i)
g h
print('done')
r i
p y à less code, easier to read/understand
C o
y
Early Termination e m
a d
A c
à loops can be exited early (before all elements have been iterated)
à break
te
my_list = [1, 2, 3, 100, 4, 5]
By
th
for i in my_list: 1
a
if i > 50:
break M
2
3
print(i)
t © 'done'
print('done')
g h
r i à when i is 100
p y à break is executed
C o à loop is terminated immediately

y
Early Termination e m
a d
à loop terminating early using break
A c
te
y
à sometimes called abnormal or early termination
B
th
a
à sometimes want to execute some code if loop terminated normally
M
à and different code otherwise (early/abnormal termination)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Example e m
a d
We are scanning through an iterable,
looking for an element equal to
A c
'Python'
te
If we /ind the value, we want to y
found = False
B
terminate our scan immediately, and
print 'found', otherwise we want th for el in my_list:
to print 'not found' a if el == 'Python':
M found = True
t © print('found')
break
g h
y ri if not found:
print('not found')
o p
y
The else Clause e m
a d
à Python is really confusing here…
A c
for loops can have an else clause
te
y
à but it has nothing to do with the else clause of an if statement
B
th
à the else clause of a for loop executes if and only if no break was encountered
a in my mind I read it as "else if no break"
M
for i in range(5):
<code block 1>
t ©
else: # if no break
g h
r
<code block 2>
i
p y
à <code block 2> executes if loop terminated normally
C o (i.e. no break encountered)

y
Back to our Example e m
a d
found = False
A c
for el in my_list:
te
if el == 'Python':
found = True
By
print('found')
thequivalently:
break
a for el in my_list:
if not found: M if el == 'Python':
print('not found')
t © print('found')
break
g h else: # if no break
r i print('not found')
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Dictionaries c a d
A
te
By
th
8
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
d
Dictionaries are one of the most important data structures in Python
a
à we don't always see them
A c
à but they're lurking in the shadows! !
te
By
th
à we saw that variables are symbols pointing to objects
a
à some string (variable name) is associated with some object
M
objects are also dictionaries
t ©
h
à properties are symbols associated to some value (object)
g
r i
p y
à methods are names associated to some function
s.upper() l.append()
C o
y
e m
a d
à associating two things together is extremely useful
a phone book à associates a number to a name A c
te
DNS à associates a URL with a numeric IP address
By
book index à associates a chunk of text with a page number
th
a
à associative arrays
M
à sometimes called a map
à abstract concept
t ©
à can be implemented in different ways
g h
i
à Dictionaries (or hash maps) are one concrete implementation
r
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
c
Associative Arrays and Dictionaries
A
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Associating Things e m
a d
à ASCII table
c
à associates a numeric value to certain characters
A
A à 65 a à 97
e
space à 32
t
B à 66
…
b à 98
…
By
< à 60
@ à 64
Z à 90 z à 122
th…
We could try this: a

M
keys = [' ', '<', '@', 'A', 'B', …, 'Z', 'a', 'b', …, 'z']
t ©
values = [32, 60, 64, 65, 66, …, 90, 97, 98, …, 122]
g h
r i
à to find the numerical value of 'A'
y
à scan keys to /ind index of 'A'
p
o
à lookup the value for that index in the values list (array)
C
y
Another Approach e m
a d
à each tuple has two elements A
à (key, value)
c
instead of storing the data in separate lists, use a list of tuples
te
By
items = [('A', 65), … , ('Z', 90), ('a', 97), … , ('z', 122)]
th
a
M
à to find value associated with 'a'
©
à scan items looking at /irst item of tuple until we /ind 'a'
t
à the value we want is the second element of that tuple we just found
h
r i g
à both approaches have one major drawback
y
à must scan an array until we /ind the correct element
p
o
à the longer the array, the longer time this will take (worst case is last element)
C
y
Hash Maps (aka Dictionaries) e m
a d
à better implementation is the hash map (or dictionary)
A c
à similar to the last approach we saw
te
y
à but a special mechanism is used to quickly find a key
B
th
à lookup speed is not affected by size of dictionary
a
M
IMPORTANT à keys must be hashable (hence the term hash map)
t ©
à what that means exactly is not important now
à strings are hashable
g h à numerics are hashable
r i
p y
à tuples may be hashable (if all the elements are themselves hashable)
à lists are not hashable (in general, mutable objects are not hashable)
C o
y
Python Dictionaries e m
a d
à both value and key are Python objects
A c
à a dictionary is a data structure that associates a value to a key
te
à key must be hashable type (e.g. str, int, bool, float, …) and unique
à value can be any type
By
à type is dict
th
a
M
à it is a collection of key: value pairs
à it is iterable
t ©
à but it is not a sequence type
g h
i
à values are looked up by key, not by index
r
à technically there is no ordering in a dictionary
y
o p
à it is a mutable collection
(we'll come back to this point!)

y
Dictionary Literals e m
a d
à dictionaries can be created using literals
A c
e
d = {'a': 97, 'b': 98, 'A': 65, 'B': 66, 'z': 122, 'Z': 90}
t
By
à we can use a single line, but often we structure it over multiple lines to
make it more readable
th
a
à readability matters!
d = {
'a': 97, M
'b': 98,
t ©
'A': 65,
g h
'B':
'z':
66,
r i
122,
'Z':
p y90
C
}
o
y
Looking up values in a Dictionary e m
a d
à use [] just like for sequence types
A c
e
à but instead of an index value we specify the key
t
By
d = {
th
'a': 97,
a
d['a'] à 97
M
'b': 98,
'A': 65,
'B':
'z':
66,
122, t ©
d['Z'] à 90
'Z': 90
g h
}
r i
p y
C o
y
Replacing the Value of an existing Key e m
a d
d = {
'symbol': 'AAPL', A c
'date': '2020-03-10',
te
'close': 285
By
h
}
a t
To change the value associated to the key 'close':
M
©
d['close'] = 285.34
h t
à dictionary now looks like this: d = {
r i g 'symbol': 'AAPL',
y
'date': '2020-03-10',
o p }
'close': 285.34

y
Adding a New key:value Pair e m
a d
à simply assign a value to a new key
A
à if key exists, it will be updated as we just saw
c
te
By
à if key does not exist, a new entry is inserted with key and value
(and this explains why keys in a dictionary are necessarily unique!)
d = {
th
'symbol': 'AAPL', a
'date': '2020-03-10',
M
}
'close': 285.34
t © d = {
g h 'symbol': 'AAPL',
r i 'date': '2020-03-10',
p y
d['open'] = 277.14 à
'close': 285.34,
'open': 277.14
C o }
y
Deleting a key:value Pair e m
a d
à we can remove key:value pairs from a dict
A c
à use the del keyword
te
d = {
By
'symbol': 'AAPL',
th
a
'date': '2020-03-10',
'close': 285.34,
'open': 277.14 M
} d = {
t ©
'symbol': 'AAPL',
del d['open'] à
g h
'date': '2020-03-10',
r i 'close': 285.34}
p y
C o
y
Common Exceptions e m
a d
A c
certain operations on dictionaries can lead to KeyError exceptions
à trying to read a non-existent key

te
à trying to delete a non-existent key
By
th
a
M
trying to use a non-hashable object as a key leads to a TypeError exception
d[[10, 20]] = 100

t ©
g h
i
à TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'
r
p y
à [10, 20] is a list, and lists are not hashable
C o à cannot be used as a key

y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Iterating Dictionaries A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Dictionaries are Iterable e m
a d
à means we can use a for loop to iterate over… what?
A c
keys? values?
e
key:value pairs?
t
B y
à turns out, any of the above
th
a
M
à default iteration is over the dictionary keys
t ©
data = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
g h
for k in data:
y ri a
à b
print(k)
o p c

y
Iterating over values e m
a d
à dictionaries have a method called values()
A c
e
à values() returns an iterable containing just the values of the dictionary
t
data = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3} By
th
for v in data.values(): a 1
print(v) M à 2
©
3
h t
r i g
p y
C o
y
Iterating over key:value Pairs e m
a d
à dictionaries have a method called items()
A c
à items() returns an iterable containing the keys and values in a tuple
te
data = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
By('a', 1)
for t in data.items():
th à ('b', 2)
print(t)
a ('c', 3)
M
à remember unpacking?
t ©
g h a = 1
r i
for k, v in data.items()
à b = 2
y
print(f'{k} = {v}')
c = 3
o p
y
The keys() Method e m
a d
Technically there is also a keys() method
A c
à behaves like values() or items()
te
y
à but it is an iterable over the keys of the dictionary
B
data = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3} th
a
for k in data.keys(): M a
©
à b
print(k)
h t c
i g
à but default iteration is over the keys anyway
r
y
à so keys() is not particularly useful for iteration
p
C o
y
Insertion Order e m
a d
à not every iterable has positional order A c
à we saw in sequence types that elements have positional order
te
à we can pull marbles out of a bag, but there is no particular order
By
h
à for a long time Python dictionaries were the same
a t
à a "bag" of key:value pairs that could be looked up by key
M
à iteration order was not guaranteed to be anything speci/ic
à changed in Python 3.6

t ©
g h
à the iteration order re/lects the insertion order
r i
p y
C o
y
Insertion Order e m
a d
what does insertion order mean?
A c
d = {'z': 100, 'a': 1, 'b': 2}
te
y
à literal: insertion order is the order in which the key:value pairs are listed out
B
à 'z': 100, 'a': 1, 'b': 2
th
a
à adding a new element
M
d['x'] = 98
©
à 'x': 98 was added last, so right now it's the "last" element
t
h
à 'z': 100, 'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'x': 98
g
r i
y
à but we still cannot retrieve elements by index
p
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Working With Dictionaries A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Membership Testing e m
a d
à can test if a key exists in a dictionary using in
A c
d = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
te
'a' in d à True
By
'x' in d à False
th
a
M
©
à not in can be used to test if a key is not present
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Useful Methods and Functions e m
a d
d.clear() à removes all elements from d
A c
te
d.copy() à creates a shallow copy of d
By
à same as sequences
th
a
à use copy.deepcopy() to create a deep copy
M
len(d)
t ©
à returns number of elements in d
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Other Methods to Create Dictionaries e m
a d
d = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
A c
e
d = dict(a = 1, b = 2)
y t
à symbols must be valid variable names and will be used, in string
form, as the keys
h B
a t
à can create a dictionary with several keys all initialized to the same value
M
d = dict.fromkeys(['cnt_1', 'cnt_2', 'cnt_3'], 0)
t ©
d à {'cnt_1': 0, 'cnt_2': 0, 'cnt_3': 0}
g h
i
à /irst argument of fromkeys() should be an iterable (list, tuple, string, etc)
r
y
d = dict.fromkeys('abc', 100)
p
o
d à {'a': 100, 'b': 100, 'c': 100}
C
y
Creating Empty Dictionaries e m
a d
à often we create dictionaries that start empty
à and get mutated (modi/ied) as our code runs A c
te
à can use a literal d = {}
By
th
a
M
à can use the dict() function d = dict()
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
The get() Method e m
a d
c
à trying to retrieve a non-existent key results in a KeyError exception
A
e
à sometimes we want to have a "default" value if a key does not exist
t
By
à could use if statements and test is key exists using in
à could try to retrieve the key and handle the exception
th
à or, use the get() method
a
get() can take two arguments M
t ©
à the key for which we want the corresponding value
g h
à the default value we want to use if key does not exist
r i
y
à get() can take a single argument, the key
p
o
à default value is None (special object to indicate "nothing")
C
y
a d
d = {'length': 10, 'width': 20}
A c
te
d.get('length', 0) à 10
By
h
the key exists, so the corresponding value (10) is returned
t
a
d.get('height', 0) à 0
M
©
the key does not exist, so the default (0) is returned
t
g h
i
d.get('height') à None
r
y
the key does not exist, so the default default-value (None) is returned
p
C o
y
a d
à data in Python is often handled using dictionaries
A c
te
when we work with data we often have missing values
y
sometimes, not only is the value missing, but the key as well
B
th
à using get() allows us to simplify our code to assign a default for missing keys
a
if 'ssn' in person_dict: M
social = person_dict['ssn']
else:
t ©
social = ''
g h
r i
à
p y
social = person_dict.get('ssn', '')
C o
y
Merging one Dictionary into Another e m
a d
à the update() method
à takes a single argument: another dictionary A c
te
d1.update(d2)
By
th
the key:value pairs of d2 will be merged into d1
a
M
à keys in d2 not in d1 will be added to d1 (with the value)
©
à keys in d2 that are present in d1 will overwrite the value
t
h
in d1 with that of d2
g
r i
à Important: d1 is mutated
p y
C o
y
Merging one Dictionary into Another e m
a d
d1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
A c
d2 = {'b': 30, 'c': 40}
te
By
d1.update(d2)
th
d1 à {'a': 1, 'b': 30, 'c': 40}
a
M
d2.update(d1)
t ©
d2 à {'b': 2, 'c': 40, 'a': 1}
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Sets c a d
A
te
By
th
9
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
What are Python sets? e m
a d
à just like a mathematical set
à a collection of elements A c
te
à no ordering to the elements
à each element is unique By
th
à it is an iterable a
M
à but no guarantee on what the iteration order will be
t ©
think of it like a bag of marbles (a collection of marbles)
g h
i
to iterate you reach in the bag and grab a marble (any marble)
r
y
continue doing so until the bag is empty
p
C o à no order guaranteed! à each marble is unique!

y
e m
a d
à union A c
Just like mathematical sets, Python supports set operations
te
à intersection
By
à difference
th
a
à membership (is some object an element of a set or not)
M
à containment (subset, strict subset, superset, strict superset)
t ©
g h
r i
à if you're a little rusty on sets, you should brush up before proceeding
with this section
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Python Sets A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
think back to keys in a dictionary
a d
à they are unique
à they are iterable A c
te
y
à they have no particular order (well, Python 3.6 maintains insertion order)
B
h
à keys can be added or removed (dictionary is mutable)
t
a
à they are hashable too - but leave that aside for a moment
M
does that remind you of a set?
t ©
à we can think of the keys in a dictionary as a set
g h
r i
à Python's implementation of sets is essentially like a dictionary
y
à but no values, only keys
p
o
à because of this, set elements must be hashable too
C
y
Python Sets e m
a d
à type is set
A c
à sets are iterable
te
y
à iteration order is not guaranteed (at least not yet)
B
à set elements must be hashable
th
a
à sets are mutable
M
à sets are not hashable
t ©
h
à a set cannot be an element of another set, or a key in a dictionary
i g
à if you really want nested sets, use frozenset
r
y
à immutable equivalent of sets – those are hashable
p
C o (if all the elements are, themselves, hashable)

y
De@ining Sets e m
a d
à literal form {1, 'a', True}
A c
te
à note the {} – just like for dictionaries
By
à but no key:value pairs, just the "keys"
th
à can also use the set() function a
M
©
set([1, 'a', True])
à empty set
h t
à cannot use {}
r i g
à that would be an empty dictionary
p yà set()
C o
y
Defining Sets e m
a d
c
à can also make a set from any iterable (of hashable elements)
A
l = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
te
s = set(l) s à {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
By
th
l = [1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5]
a
s = set(l)
M
s à {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
t ©
s = set('python')
g h s à {'p', 'y', 't', 'h', 'o', 'n'}
r i
y
s = set('parrot')
p
s à {'p', 'a', 'r', 'o', 't'}
C o
y
e m
a d
à use a for loop for iteration
A c
à use in for membership testing
te
By
à len(s) returns the number of elements in the set
th
a
à s.clear() removes all the elements of the set
à s.copy() creates a shallow copy M

t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Common Set Operations A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Disjointedness e m
a d
A c
à two sets are disjoint if they have no elements in common
te
s1.isdisjoint(s2)
By
à True if no common elements exist
th
a
à False if one or more common elements exist
M
©
(two elements a and b are considered the same if a == b is True)
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Adding and Removing Elements e m
a d
s = {10, 'b', True}
A c
s.add(4) s à {10, 'b', True, 4}
te
s.add('b')
B
s à {10, 'b', True, 4}y à no duplicates
th in a set
s.remove('b') a
s à {10, True, 4}
s.remove(100) à KeyError M
t ©
s.discard(4)
g h
s à {10, True}
r i
p y
s.discard(100) à no exception s à {10, True}
C o
y
Subsets and Supersets e m
a d
s1 < s2 à True if s1 is a strict subset of s2
A c
e
s1 <= s2 à True if s1 is a subset of s2
s1 > s2
y t
à True if s1 is a strict superset of s2
h B
t
s1 >= s2 à True if s1 is a superset of s2
a
{1, 2} < {1, 2, 3} à True M {1, 2} < {1, 2} à False
t
{1, 2} <= {1, 2, 3} à True © {1, 2} <= {1, 2} à True
g h
yri
{1, 2, 3} > {1, 2} à True {1, 2} > {1, 2} à False
o p
{1, 2, 3} >= {1, 2} à True {1, 2} >= {1, 2} à True

y
Unions and Intersections e m
a d
s1 | s2 à returns the union of s1 and s2
A c !! !"
te
By
th
s1 & s2 à returns the intersection of s1 and s2
!! !"
a
s1 = {1, 2, 3} M
s2 = {3, 4, 5}
t ©
g h
i
s1 | s2 à {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
r
s1 & s2 à {3}
p y (again, set elements are unique)
C o
y
Set Difference e m
a d
the difference s1 – s2 of two sets is
all the elements of one set minus the !! A c !"
elements of the other set
te
By
th
a
à caution: set difference is not commutative s1 – s2 ≠ s2 – s1
M
s1 = {1, 2, 3}
s2 = {3, 4, 5}
t ©
g h
s1 - s2 à {1, 2}
r i
s2 - s1 à {4, 5}
p y
C o
y
e m
à always keep sets in mind when coding
a d
c
à membership testing with sets is much faster than lists or tuples
A
te
à easy to eliminate duplicate values from a collection
By
à easy to /ind common values between two collections
th
a
à easy to /ind values in one collection but not in another
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Comprehensionsca d
A
te
B y
th
10
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
d
à comprehensions are an easy way to create new iterables from other iterables
a
à like using a loop, but easier and more concise syntax
A c
à works well for simple cases
te
à can quickly become unreadable!
By
à readability matters!!
th
Example a
given a list of 2D vectors M
t ©
[(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 5)]
g h
i
create a new list containing the magnitude of each vector
r
y
à [02 + 02, 12 + 12, 12 + 22, 32 + 52]
p
C o
à [0, 2, 5, 34]

y
e m
a d
List Comprehensions A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à a comprehension is a way to use one iterable to create another
a d
à more concise than using regular for loops
A c
à use for simple computations
te
y
à comprehensions can quickly become confusing
B
th
à different types of comprehensions
a
à lists M
à dictionaries
t ©
à sets
g h
à generators
r i
p y
C o
y
List Comprehensions e m
a d
a list comprehensions is used to generate a list object
A c
Example
te
we start with an iterable of numbers:
B y
num = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
th
or num = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
a
M
want to create a new list containing the square of each element
sq = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à can do this without comprehensions
a d
numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) c
this is the new list we want
A
to create
sq = []
te
for number in numbers:
By loop through every element
of the numbers iterable
sq.append(number ** 2)
th
a calculate the square of the
M number and append it to
©
the new list
sq à [1, 4, 9, 16, 25) h t

r i g
p y
C o
y
e m
à or we can use a comprehension
a d
numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
A c
te
[] indicates we are creating a list
B y
sq = [number ** 2 for number in numbers]
th
a
an expression used to
M iteration over existing iterable
calculate each element
of the new list
t © - note how the loop variable is
available in the expression to the
g h right
r i
à in general
p y[expression for item in iterable]
C o
y
e m
a d
à comprehensions offer a more concise (and more efficient!) way of
creating one iterable from another
A c
t
à in terms of result, these two things do the same
e
sq = []
By
th
sq.append(number ** 2)
a
M
t ©
sq = [number ** 2 for number in numbers]
g h
r i
à comprehensions are actually functions
p y
à builds up and returns the calculated iterable
C o
y
what about something like this? e m
a d
given an iterable of integers
A c
e
à generate a new list that only contains the even integers
t
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
By
th
a
à generate evens = [2, 4, 6, 8]
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à can use a "standard" approach
a d
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
evens = [] A c
te
if number % 2 == 0:
evens.append(number) By
th
a
à comprehension syntax supports an if clause
M
©
evens = [number for number in numbers if number % 2 == 0]
t
à in general
g h
r i
[expression1 for item in items if expression2]
p y
C o optional – acts like a filter

y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
c
Dictionary/Set Comprehensions
A
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à similar to list comprehensions
a d
à use {} instead of []
A c
te
y
à remember literals for dictionaries and sets use {}
B
à dictionary elements are pairs
th à key:value
a
M
à set elements are single values
t ©
h
d = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
g
r i
y
s = {'a', 'b', 'c'}
p
C o
y
Dictionary Comprehension e m
a d
{key: value for item in items if expr}
A c
te
B y
can be any valid Python expression that
calculates some value
th
a
can be any Python expressions that
calculates a valid key
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Example e m
a d
Given two lists one of which contains widget names, the other containing
c
the sales number for each of those widgets – ordered the same
A
e
widgets = ['widget 1', 'widget 2', 'widget 3', 'widget 4']
sales = [10, 5, 15, 0]
y t
h B
à create a dictionary whose keys are the widget names, and the value
t
the number of sales, but only include widgets that had sales.
a
à "traditional" approach M
d = {}
t ©
h
for i in range(len(widgets)):
g
if sales[i] > 0:
r i
y
d[widgets[i]] = sales[i]
p
C o
y
Example e m
a d
à or, we can use a comprehension instead
A c
e
widgets = ['widget 1', 'widget 2', 'widget 3', 'widget 4']
sales = [10, 5, 15, 0]
y t
d = {
h B
widgets[i]: sales[i]
for i in range(len(widgets) a t à later we'll see an
M
even easier way to do
if sales[i] > 0) this
}
t ©
h
à compare to "traditional" approach
g
d = {}
r i
for i in range(len(widgets)):
p y
if sales[i] > 0:
C o
d[widgets[i]] = sales[i]

y
Set Comprehensions e m
a d
à similar to a dictionary comprehension
A c
à but elements are not key: value pairs
te
à just the "key" portion
B y
th
a
M
{expr1 for item in items if expr2}
t ©
h
can be any valid Python expression that
g
r i calculates some value
p y
C o
y
Example e m
a d
squares of just the even integers
A c
Given a list of integers, create a set that contains a unique collection of the
numbers = [1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6]
te
By
th
s = {number ** 2
a
M
for number in numbers
if number % 2 == 0
}
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Exceptions c a d
A
te
By
th
11
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
What are exceptions? e m
a d
A c
à exceptions are special events that happen when something out of the
ordinary happens while our code is running
te
à an exception is generally unexpected behavior
By
th
à but not always
a
M
à it may be something we expect to happen from time to time
t ©
à we can deal with it and continue running our code
g h
i
à so an exception is not necessarily an error
r
p y
à but unhandled exceptions will cause our program to terminate
C o
y
Terminology e m
a d
exception
A c
à a special type of object in Python
te
raising
By
à starting an exception event /low
th
a
exception handling
M
à interacting with an exception /low in some manner
t ©
h
unhandled exception à an exception flow that is not handled by our code
ri g à generally results in our program terminating abruptly
p y
C o
y
Exception Hierarchy e m
a d
à Python exceptions form a hierarchy
A c
(we'll cover what that means precisely when we look at
Object Oriented Programming - OOP)
te
By
https://docs.python.org/3/library/exceptions.html#exception-hierarchy
th
a
à basically means that exceptions can be classes sub-divided into sub-
exceptions that are more specific
M
t ©
à for example a broad exception might be LookupError
h
à more speci/ically it could be an IndexError or a KeyError
g
r i
à both of these are categorized more broadly as a LookupError
y
à can choose to handle IndexError specifically
p
C o
à or LookupError more broadly

y
a d
à it is also a LookupError exception A c
this means that if an exception object is an IndexError exception
te
à and it is also an Exception exception
By
(most exceptions we work with are classi/ied as Exception types)
th
à confused? think of it this way… a
M
©
Say we have these classes of objects:
t
College Person
g h
i
à a Teacher is also Staff Member
r
Student Staff Member
p y Administrator
à a Staff Member is also a College Person
C o Teacher

y
à similarly we have an exception hierarchy
a d
Exception
A c
…
te
y
LookupError
B
IndexError
à can even write custom exception types
KeyError
OSError
th
à later
FileNotFoundError a
NotADirectoryError
M
…
t ©
h
à so to handle an IndexError, we could choose to
g
r i
à handle IndexError exceptions very speci;ic
p y
à handle LookupError exceptions
à handle Exception exceptions very broad
C o
y
Python Built-In Exceptions e m
a d
à Python has many built-in exception types
A c
e
https://docs.python.org/3/library/exceptions.html
y t
Common exceptions include:
h B
à SyntaxError
à ZeroDivisionError a t
à IndexError M
à KeyError
t ©
à ValueError
g h
r i
à TypeError
p y
o
à FileNotFoundError à and many more…

y
EAFP vs LBYL e m
a d
c
à when we think something unexpected may go wrong in our code
A
te
à /igure out if something is going to wrong before we do it
à LBYL y
Look Before You Leap
B
th
a
à just do it, and handle the exception if it occurs
à EAFP M
Easier to Ask Forgiveness than Permission
t ©
generally in Python
g h
à follow EAFP
r i
y
à exception handling
o p
y
Why EAFP? e m
a d
Something that is exceptional should be infrequent
A c
te
à if we are dividing two integers in a loop that repeats 1,000 times
By
à out of every 1,000 times we run, we expect division by zero to occur 5 times
th
LBYL à test that divisor is non-zero 1,000 times
a
M
EAFP à just do it, and handle the division by zero error 5 times
t ©
à often more efficient
g h
i
à also trying to fully determine if something is going to go wrong is
r
wrong
p y
a lot harder to write than just handling things when they do go
C o
y
Exception Handling Flow e m
a d
à an exception occurs
A c
à an exception object is created
te
y
à an exception Clow is started
à we do nothing about it
h B
à program terminates
a t
à we intercept the exception /lowM
t ©
à try to handle the exception in some sense, if possible
à then
g h
r i
à resume running program uninterrupted
p y
à or, let the exception resume
à or, start a new exception /low
C o
y
e m
a d
Raising ExceptionsA c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à often we want to start an exception /low ourselves
a d
à called raising an exception
A c
te
y
à an exception object is associated with an exception /low
B
à we create a new exception object
th
à we raise the exception object a
M
©
à doing this is most useful when we create functions
t
à we'll see this later
g h
r i
y
à for now, we'll just learn how to raise an exception
p
C o
y
Example e m
a d
c
à create an exception object using one of Python's built-in exceptions
A
ex = ValueError()
te
y
à usually we include a custom exception message
B
th
ex = ValueError('Name must be at least 5 characters long.')
a
M
à we raise the exception, starting an exception flow
raise ex
t ©
g h
r i
à often do both in one step
p y
raise ValueError('custom message')
C o
y
e m
a d
à raising an exception ourselves results in the same exception flow that
Python does when it raises some exception
A c
à we can choose to handle the exception
te
By
à if we don't handle the exception, program terminates
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Handling Exceptions A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
General Suggestions for Exception Handlinge
m
a d
à too much work A c
à in general we do not want to just handle any exception anywhere in our code
te
B y
à cannot anticipate every point of failure
à it's OK for program to terminate - we can figure out what went
th
wrong and attempt to fix it later – possibly handling that case
specifically
a
M
à if we don't know exactly why or where the problem occurs in our
©
code, there's not much we can do to recover from the exception
t
h
ir g
à we handle exceptions that are raised by small chunks of code
à we try to handle very specific exceptions, not broad ones
p y
à usually handle exceptions that we can do something about
C o
y
try…except… e m
a d
inside a try block
A c
à wrap the code we want to implement an exception handler for
e
à we handle possible exception(s), using except blocks (one or more)
t
a = 1
By this gives us the exception
object that was raised – we can
b = 0
try: th assign it to any symbol we want
result = a / b a – here I just chose ex
except ZeroDivisionError as ex: M

result = 0
t ©
print(f'Exception occurred: {ex}') do something to handle
the exception
g h
print(result)
y ri because we handled the exception, the flow

was interrupted and our code continues to
o p run normally

y
Handling and re-raising an exception e m
a d
exception or a different exception A c
à sometimes we want to handle an exception, but then re-raise the same
à often because there's nothing we can do te

By
à sometimes to create a more explicit exception
th
to raise an exception in an except block:
a
M
raise à re-raises the same exception that caused the except block to be entered
t ©
raise SomeException('…') à raises a new exception
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Application e m
a d
c
à one very common case for re-raising exceptions is for error logging
A
te
à we can view the logs after our program has terminated abnormally
try:
By
…
th
except Exception as ex:
log(ex) a
raise M
t ©
à we intercept a broad range of exceptions by handling Exception
g h
i
à we log the exception somewhere (console, /ile, database, etc)
r
p y
à we re-raise the exception and let something else either handle it
or terminate the program
C o
y
à what do I mean "something else handles it"? e m
à we'll see this more when we cover functions
a d
à try…except… can be nested
A c
à usually indirectly
te
à but directly too
try:
try:
B y
th
raise ValueError('something happened')
except ValueError as ex:
a
log(ex)
raise M
except Exception as ex:
t ©
h
print(f'ignoring: {ex}')
g
r i
y
à here our ValueError gets handled twice!
o p
y
Handling Multiple Exception Types e m
a d
à not limited to a single except block
A c
try:
te
…
except IndexError as ex:
By
…
th
a
…
except Exception as ex: M
…
t ©
h
à Python will match the exception to the /irst type that matches in
g
i
sequence of except blocks
r
p y
à so write except blocks from most specific to least specific exception types
o
à remember that exception hierarchy we looked at!
C
y
The finally Clause e m
a d
A c
à sometimes we want some code to run after a try…except… whether
an exception occurred or not, and whether it was handled or not
à use the finally clause
te
By
try:
th
… a
M
…
except IndexError as ex:
t ©
…
g h
finally:
r i
p y
# always runs no matter what, before exception flow resumes
C o
y
Application e m
a d
à useful when we want a piece of code to always run
à whether an exception has occurred or not
A c
à whether the exception was handled or not
te
y
à whether exception was re-raised or a new one raised
B
try:
th
open_database_connection()
a
start_transaction()
write_data() M
commit_transaction()
t ©
h
except WriteException as ex:
g
raise
r i
rollback_transaction()
finally:
p y
o
close_database_connection()
C
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Iterables and Iterators c a d
A
te
B y
th
12
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
à an iterable is something that can be iterated over
e m
a d
à i.e. we can take one element, then the next, then the next, until
we've covered all elements
à no speci/ic iteration order is mandated A c
te
y
à obviously a sequence type is iterable (positional ordering)
B
th
à we saw dictionaries can be iterated over (insert order)
a
à but we also so sets: iterable, but no guaranteed order of any kind
M
à general idea behind iteration is then:
t ©
à start somewhere in the collection (at the beginning if that means something)
g h
i
à keep requesting the next element
r
y
à until there's nothing left (exhausted)
p
C o
y
à so we have two concepts here e m
a d
à a collection of objects that we can iterate over
à an iterable
A c
te
y
à something that is able to give us the next element when we request it
B
h
à an iterator
a t
M
©
à we are going to look at those in this section
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Iterables and Iterators A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à an iterable is something that can be iterated over
a d
à but we still need something that can
A c
à give us the next item
te
By
à keep track of what it's given us so far (so it does not give us the same
element twice)
th
a
M
à informs us when there's nothing left for it to give us
t ©
à this is called an iterator
g h
i
à used by Python to iterate over an iterable
r
p y
C o
y
à an iterable is just a collection of objects e m
à it doesn't know anything about how to iterate
a d
A c
à however it knows how to create and give us an iterator when we need it
te
By
à iterables implement a special method __iter__() that returns a new iterator
à can also be called by using the iter() function
th
a
à the iterator has a special method called __next__() that can be called
to get the next element
M
à can also use the next() function
t ©
h
à it keeps track of what it has already handed out
g
r i (so iterators are kind of one time use!)
p y
à it raises a StopIteration exception when next() is called if
there's nothing left
C o
y
The Internal Mechanics of a for Loop e m
a d
doing this:
A c
When we write a for loop that iterates over an iterable, what Python is actually
te
l = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
By
iterator = iter(l)
th
try:
a
while True:
M
# return next(iterator) – here we'll just print it
print(next(iterator))
t ©
except StopIteration:
g h
i
# expected when we reach the end
r
y
# so silence this exception
pass
o p
y
e m
d
à the key thing here is that we can see the iterator has some state
a
à it has a __next__() method
A c
à but there's no going back, or starting from the beginning again
à to do that we have to request a new iterator
te
By
à and that's what a for loop does – it requests a new iterator from the iterable
before it starts looping
th
a
M
à objects such as lists, tuples, string, dictionaries, sets, range objects are iterables
t ©
à but some objects in Python are iterators – not iterables
à iterators actually implement an __iter__ method
g h
i
à but they just return themselves (with their current state), not a new iterator
r
y
à they allows us to iterate over them
p
o
à but only once
C
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Generators A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à we've seen list, dictionary and set comprehensions
a d
à but no tuple comprehensions…
A c
result = [i ** 2 for i in range(5)]
te
By
result = []
th
a
for i in range(5):
result.append(i ** 2) M
t ©
h
à works because list is mutable
g
r i
à tuples are not mutable
p y
C oà no tuple comprehension

y
so what does this (valid) expression do? e m
a d
c
(i ** 2 for i in range(5))
A
à creates a generator object
te
à generators are iterators
By
à next()
th
à they calculate and hand out elements one at a time as requested
a
M
à unlike [i ** 2 for i in range(5)]
©
à calculates all the elements and creates the list immediately
t
g h
i
à generators use lazy iteration
r
y
à a lazy property is one that is not calculated until it is requested
p
C o
y
Why use generators? e m
a d
à memory ef/iciency
A c
à e.g. take all the rows from a /ile, and write them out, transformed
to some other /ile
te
By
à read the entire file in memory, iterate through that and save rows
th
à entire file in memory!
a
M
à you may not have enough memory!
©
à read lines one at a time from file
t
h
à read a row, process it, save it, discard it, request next row, …
g
r i
à only one line in memory at any point
p y
C o
y
Why use generators? e m
a d
à performance (possibly)
A c
e
à if you only need to read the /irst few elements of the iterable
t
y
à why go through the computations to calculate all of them?
B
th
à plus unnecessary memory usage on top of that
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
What's the downside of generators? e m
a d
à generators are lazy iterators
A c
à one-time use
te
By
th
à not good if you need to iterate through the same iterable many times
a
M
à or even just a few times if the calculations are computationally
expensive or take a long time (maybe IO bound)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Creating Generators e m
a d
à use generator comprehension
A c
te
à use the yield keyword in functions instead of return
à beyond scope of this course
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Functions c a d
A
te
By
th
13
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à we have used functions a lot so far
a d
print()
A c
iter()
te
next()
By
th
list()
a
math.sqrt() M
and many more…
t ©
g h
r i
y
à we can create our own, custom, functions
p
C o
y
Why? e m
a d
à easy code re-use
A c
à much easier to code the sqrt() function once
te
à and then call it multiple times
By
th
a
à breaking up complex code into easier to understand chunks
à problem decomposition M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à when we create a function, we may also want values to be passed into
it when it is called
a d
à arguments or parameters
A c
te
à technically not the same thing, but almost
everyone uses them interchangeably
By à as do I L
th
when we define a function we may
a
define symbols for the values that
will be passed to the function M à these symbols are called parameters
t ©
g h
when we call a function we specify
à these values are called arguments
i
values for these parameters
r
y
à so a parameter is when we de/ine the function
p
o
à an argument is when we call the function 389
© MathByte Academy C
y
Functions are Python Objects e m
a d
à just like everything in Python, functions are objects
A c
à they have state
te
à name (maybe!)
By
à code
th
à parameters
a
à they are callable M
à and always return something when called
t ©
h
à they can be assigned to a symbol
g
r i
à can be passed as a parameter to another function
p y
à can be returned from a function call
C o
y
Callables e m
a d
à an object is callable if it can be called – using ()
A c
à functions are run by calling them
e
print('hello')
t
y
math.sqrt(4)
B
th
à but other types of objects are also callable
a
M
à not necessarily a function object
my_list.copy()
t ©
à calling a method on the my_list object
range(100)
g h à creating a new range object
r i
y
à more general term is a callable
p
C o
y
e m
a d
Custom Functions A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
à functions can be de/ined using the def keyword e m
a d
A c
def keyword indicates a function is being defined
function's name can be any valid
t
Python name
e (just like variables)
def function_name():
# indented block
B y
…
th
this block is called the function body
return <value>
a
M functions always return some value
t ©
à function body contains any valid Python code
h
à this creates a function object
g
r i
à the function object is associated with the symbol function_name
p y
(in the same way a = 10 associates the integer object 10 with the symbol a)
C o
y
Example e m
a d
def say_hello():
print('Hello!')
A c
te
say_hello() à Hello!
By
say_hello() à Hello!
th
a
but no return?
M
t ©
à if a return value is not speci/ied, function will return None
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Example e m
a d
def one():
return 1
A c
function returns the value 1 when it is called
te
result = one()
B y
à assigns the return value of calling one() to the
symbol result
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à usually functions contain a little more complex code e m
a d
from datetime import datetime
A c
te
def current_time_utc():
return datetime.utcnow().isoformat()
By
th
a
M
result = current_time_utc()
©
result à "2020-03-31T02:44:38.490923"
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à functions are usually more helpful when we can pass values to them
len(my_iter)
a d
A c
we are passing an argument to the len function
te
y
à every time we call the len function we can pass a different value
B
th
à the function body (implementation) of the len function starts running
a
à it is aware of the value that was passed to it
M
©
à same with custom functions
h t
à need to specify the parameters, by name, that will be used when we call it
ri
def add(a, b): g add(2, 3) à 5
p y
return a + b add(10, 1) à 11
C o
y
e m
d
def subtract(a, b):
return a - b
c a
A
subtract(10, 7) à 3
te
y
à when we call subtract(10, 7), how does Python assign 10 to
B
the symbol a, and 7 to b?
th
a
M
à it does this by position
t ©
def my_func(a, b, c, d):
g h my_func(10, 20, 30, 40)
i
…
y r
p
à positional arguments
o
y
Namespaces e m
a d
à when a function is called
à it knows nothing about how it was called before A c
te
à every time a function is called
By
à an empty dictionary is created
th
a
à populated with any arguments passed in
M
à key = param name, value=argument
©
à nothing else
t
h
à then the function code runs
g
r i
à this dictionary is called the (local) namespace
p y
C o
y
e m
abs_max(1, -2)
a d
def abs_max(a, b):
abs_a = abs(a) A c
{'a': 1, 'b': -2}
e
{'a': 1, 'b': -2, 'abs_a': 1}
abs_b = abs(b)
if abs_a > abs_b: t
{'a': 1, 'b': -2, 'abs_a': 1, 'abs_b': 2}
y
max_val = abs_a
h B
else:
max_val = abs_b a t
{'a': 1, 'b': -2, 'abs_a': 1, 'abs_b': 2,
M
'max_val': 2}
return max_val
t ©
à after function return, dictionary is wiped out
g h
r i
à consecutive calls to the same function are independent of each other
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
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a d
* Arguments A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à saw how to specify positional parameters in a function
a d
def average(a, b, c, d):
return (a + b + c + d)/4 A c
te
By
à but what if we wanted to specify an arbitrary number of parameters?
th
a
à we'd like to call our function with different number of args
M
average(1)
t ©
h
average(1, 2, 3)
i g
average(1, 2, 3, 4)
r
p y
C o
y
e m
d
à could write a function to use an iterable as a single argument
a
def average(iterable):
return sum(iterable) / len(iterable)
A c
te
y
à but this makes the calling syntax a little weird
B
average([1, 2, 3])
th
average([1]) a
M
©
à would be nicer if we had a mechanism to accept a variable number of args
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à Python supports a special parameter type for this
a d
à uses a * prefix on a parameter name
A c
def average(*values):
te
# return average
By
h
à this means we can call average with any number of arguments
t
average(1)
a
average(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
M
t ©
àhow do we access these values inside the function
g h
i
à use the parameter name à values in this case
y r
à it will be a tuple containing all the argument values
o p
y
e m
def average(*values):
print(type(values))
a d
print(values)
A c
te
average(1, 2, 3)
y
à values will be a tuple
B
à (1, 2, 3)
th
a
def average(*values): M
t ©
return sum(values) / len(values)
g h
i
à we may want to do something if someone calls this
r
y
function with no arguments
p
C o
y
e m
à often you will see code that uses *args
a d
à the * is the important part
A c
à there is nothing special about the name args
te
à as we just saw, we can use any valid name
B y
à use a meaningful name
th
à args is often too generic
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
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g h
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p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Default Values A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à possible to specify optional parameters
a d
A c
à means function can be called without passing in the argument
te
à but we still have that parameter
By
à it needs a value
th
a
à we can specify a default value to use if the argument is not supplied
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
d
def func(a=1):
print(a)
c a
a default value to use if a is not supplied
A
when function is called
te
func() à 1
B y
th
a
func(10) à 10
M
à once you specify a positional parameter with a default value
t ©
h
à all positional parameters after that must specify a default value too
g
r i
à with the exception of a starred parameter
p y
C o
y
e m
à how would you interpret this?
a d
def func(a=1, b):
pass A c
te
func(10)
By
th
a
à is 10 supposed to go into a? à in which case we're short one argument
M
à or use default for a and assign 10 to b?
à don't know!
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
à so once we have default arguments we need to specify default for all
parameters after it
A c
def func(a, b, c=1, d=2):
te
…
By
th
but this is still ok:
a
def func(a, b=1, *args)
func(10) M
a à 10 b à 1 args à (,)
func(10, 2) t ©
a à 10 b à 2 args à (,)
g h
func(10, 2, 3, 4)
y ri a à 10 b à 2 args à (3, 4)
o p
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
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a d
Keyword-Only Arguments A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à we saw how positional parameters can be passed
a d
à positionally
à as a named argument A c
e
à also called a keyword argument
y t
def func(a, b, c):
h B
…
a t
M
©
func(1, 2, 3)
func(c=3, b=2, a=1)

h t
r i g
y
à passing argument as a keyword argument is optional
p
C o
y
e m
à can also make passing an argument by name mandatory
a d
à these are called keyword-only arguments
A c
te
y
à keyword-only parameters must come after all positional parameters
B
th
def func(a, b, c)
a
M
à we want c to always be passed as a named argument
t ©
h
à somehow we have to tell Python that after a and b there are no
g
i
more positional arguments
y r
o p
y
e m
à one way is to use a * parameter
a d
def func(a, b, *args, c)
A c
te
à since *args will scoop up every remaining positional argument
à c must be a keyword-only argument
By
th
func(10, 20, 30, c=100) a
a à 10 b à 20 M args à (30, ) c à 100
t ©
func(10, 20, c=100)
g h
r i
a à 10
p y b à 20 args à (, ) c à 100
C o
y
e m
d
à but this allows someone to pass in as many positional arguments as they want
a
à what if we don't want that?
A c
want to make this allowed:
te
func(10, 20, c=100)
but not this:
By
func(10, 20, 30, 40, c=100)
th
a
à we still have to tell Python that there are no more positional arguments
à we use a * without a parameter name M

t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
def func(a, b, *, c):
a d
…
A c
à a and b are positional parameters
te
y
à there are no more positional parameters after that
B
à so c is a keyword-only argument
th
a
func(10, 20, c=100) M
t ©
func(10, 20, 30, c=100)
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
d
def func(a, b, *, c):
…
c a
A
à using this technique c must be passed as a named argument
te
y
à a and b can be passed as positional arguments
à or as named arguments
h B
a t
func(b=2, a=1, c=3)
M
func(a, c=3, b=2)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Default Values e m
a d
c
à can also assign default values to keyword-only arguments
A
def func(a, b, *, c=100):
te
…
B y
th
à c is optional, and will default to 100
a
M
à if c is passed, it must still be passed as a named argument
t ©
func(10, 20)
g h c à 100
y ri
func(10, 20, c=30) c à 30
o p
à can mix default values for both positional and keyword-only arguments

y
Arbitrary Number of Keyword-only Parameters e m
a d
c
à saw * for arbitrary number of positional arguments
A
te
à use ** for arbitrary number of keyword-only arguments
B y
h
func(a, b, *args, c, d, **kwargs)
t
à a and b are positional a
M
à c and d are keyword-only
t ©
à extra positional arguments are scooped up into args
h
ir g
à extra named arguments are scooped up into kwargs
p y
C o
y
e m
à ** keyword-only arguments are scooped up into a dictionary
a d
à key is the argument name
à value is the argument value A c
te
def func(a, *, d, **others):
By à others is a dict
…
th
a a à 10
func(10, d=2, x=10, y=20) M
©
d à 2
func(a=10, d=2, x=10, y=20)
h t others à {
r i g
func(x=10, y=20, d=2, a=10)
'x': 10,
'y': 20
p y }
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Lambda Functions A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à lambda functions are just functions
a d
A
à they are not de/ined using a def and block of code c
te
à it is an expression that returns a function object
By
à Python does not create a symbol or a name for the function
th
a
à just returns the function object
M
©
à we can assign it to a variable or pass it as an argument
t
g h
à also called anonymous functions
r i
y
à they are very simple functions (no code block)
p
C o
y
e m
lambda a, b: a + b
a d
function parameters
A c
what the function should return
te
à must be a single expression
B y
à no code block
th
à so no loops, try…except…, if…else…, etc
a
M
à this expression returns a function object
t ©
h
à we need to assign it to a symbol if we want to use it
g
r i
f = lambda a, b: a + b
p y
f(10, 20) à 30
C o
y
e m
d
à can always use a function de/ined using def instead of these lambdas
a
A c
à generally used to write shorter code in some simple cases
t
à we'll see example of this in the next sectionse
à but you don't have to use them By
th
a
M
à however they do get used often, so you should be aware of them
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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Some Built-In c a d
A
Functions yte
h B
t
14
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
d
à in this section we are going to look at some more of Python's built-in functions
à there are many more! c a

A
te
à https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html
By
th
à and that does not even include the thousands of functions available
in Python's standard library
a
M
à we'll study some of them later in this course
t ©
à math and stats
g h
à time and datetime
r i
p y à csv
à random and more…
C o
y
e m
a d
Rounding A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
d
à round() is a built-in function that can be used to round floats
a
à uses banker's rounding
A c
à also called round half to even
te
By
à rounds away from zero
h
1.8 à 2
t
a-1.8 à -2
M
t ©
à ties round to closest even digit 1.5 à 2
g h
i
2.5 à 2
y r
p
à good choice to eliminate various biases
o
y
e m
à use round() to round to an integer
a d
round(1.8) à2 A c
te
round(-1.8) à -2
By
th
round(1.5) à2
a
M
round(2.5) à2
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
1 e m
à can also use round() to round to closest multiple of
10
a d
round(value, exponent)
A c
exponent is used to specify what power of
1
te
to round to
B y
10
th
à let's look at it mathematically first (i.e. without worrying about float representations)
a
round(x, 1) M
à rounds to nearest 0.1 (10%" )
round(x, 2)
t ©
à rounds to nearest 0.01 (10%# )
g h
round(x, -1)
r i à rounds to nearest 10 (10" )
p
round(x, -2) y à rounds to nearest 100 (10# )
C o
y
e m
round to closest
multiple of: a d
round(127.1892, 3) 10-3 à 0.001 A c
à 127.189
te
round(127.1892, 2) 10-2
y
à 0.01
B
à 127.19
round(127.1892, 1) 10-1
th
à 0.1 à 127.2
a
round(127.1892, 0)
M
100 à 1 à 127.0
round(127.1892, -1)
t © 101 à 10 à 130.0
g h
yri
round(127.1892, -2) 102 à 100 à 100.0
o p
round(127.1892, -3) 103 à 1000 à 0.0

y
Rounding Ties in Floats e m
a d
c
à technically rounds to closest number that ends with an even digit
A
round(0.125, 2) à 0.12
te
à so why this?
By
th
round(0.325, 2) à 0.33
a why not 0.32?
M
©
à remember /loats do not have (in general) an exact representation!
t
h
0.325 à 0.325000000000000011102230246252
g
r i
à so this is not a tie!
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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a d
sorted, min and max A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Sorting Numbers e m
a d
à numbers have a natural sort order
A c
à they can be sorted ascending or descending by that sort order
te
B y
à sorted is a built-in function that can be used to sort a collection of numbers
à single positional argument: an iterable containing the numbers
th
a
à by default, it sorts in ascending order
M
à keyword-only argument to reverse the sort order
à default is False
t © à sorts ascending
g h
à specify reverse=True à sorts descending
r i
à always returns a new list
p y
à original iterable is not mutated
C o
y
e m
t = (1, 10, 2, 9, 3, 8)
a d
sorted(t)
A c
te
y
à [1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10]
h B
sorted(t, reverse=True)
a t
à [10, 9, 8, 3, 2, 1] M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Sorting Strings e m
a d
Numbers have a natural sort order
A c
Strings also have a natural sort order in Python
te
à lexicographic order
By
t
à dictionary order, alphabetical order
h
a
M
BEWARE The characters a and A are not the same
t ©
à Python assigns a numerical character code (the unicode character
g h
code) to each character in a string
r i
A à 65
p y
Z à 90
z à 122
à'A' < 'Z' < 'a' < 'z'
o
a à 97

y
e m
d
à so Python will use "alphabetical" sorting, but upper case letters will be
a
c
sorted before their equivalent lower case versions
à natural sort order of string is case sensitive A

te
sorted(['Boy', 'baby'])
B y
th
à ['Boy', 'baby'] a(ascending sort)
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Sorting Other Types e m
a d
à we can "visually" sort other types of objects
A c
à list of Persons
te
By
à we can sort this list
th
à by name
a
à by age M
à by profession
t ©
g h
r i
à we always sort by some property of the objects we are sorting
p y
à we'll come back to this in a later section
C o
y
min and max e m
a d
à closely related to sorting
A c
à to find the minimum of a collection
te
By
à sort the collection (by something) in ascending order
à pick the first element
th
a
M
à to find the maximum of a collection
t ©
à sort the collection (by something) in descending order
g h
à pick the /irst element
r i
p y
(or you could sort in the other direction in both cases and pick the last element)
C o
y
e m
a d
min([1, 10, 2, 9, 8]) à 1
A c
max([1, 10, 2, 9, 8]) à 10
te
By
min([]) à ValueError exception
th
a
M
à can specify a default value to return if the iterable is empty
à keyword-only argument
t ©
g h
i
min([], default=0) à 0
r
p y
C o
y
e m
d
à can also use an arbitrary number of positional arguments instead
a
min(1, 10, 2, 9, 3, 8) à 1 A c
te
max(1, 10, 2, 9, 3, 8) à 10
By
th
a
M
this course
t ©
à we'll come back to min and max when we look at sorting again later in
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
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a d
The zip() Function A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à the zip() function is a very useful and often used function
a d
A c
à consider these two lists that contain related information
te
l1 = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f']
l2 = [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102] By
th
a
à we want to create a list of tuples that contain the corresponding
elements from l1 and l2
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à could do this: e m
a d
c
combo = [(l1[i], l2[i]) for i in range(len(l1))]
combo à [('a', 97), ('b', 98), ('c', 99), A

('d', 100), ('e', 101), ('f', 102)]
te
By
but, we may have an issue if the two lists are not of the same length
th
a
àhave to stop at the shortest of the two lengths
l1 = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'] M

l2 = [97, 98, 99]
t ©
h
combo = [(l1[i], l2[i]) for i in range(min(len(l1), len(l2)))]
g
r i
y
combo à [('a', 97), ('b', 98), ('c', 99)]
p
C o
y
e m
à that's what the zip() function does!
a d
l1 = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
A c
l2 = [97, 98, 99]
te
combo = zip(l1, l2)
By
th
BEWARE zip() returns an iterator
a
à remember those? M
à can only iterate through them once
t ©
h
list(combo) à [('a', 97), ('b', 98), ('c', 99)]
g
r
list(combo) à []i
p y
C o
y
e m
d
à if you want to iterate multiple times over the same zipped collection
a
à store it into a list
A c
combo = list(zip(l1, l2))
te
à often don't need to
By
th
zip() does not actually create anything other than an iterator
a
à no physical space has been used for the tuples
M
©
à iterating over zip() result, just iterates over the iterables simultaneously
t
g h
i
à costs almost nothing calling zip(l1, l2) multiple times
r
p y
C o
y
e m
à zip is extensible
a d
à not limited to two iterables
A c
à any number of iterables (positional args)
te
By
h
l1 = [1, 2, 3]
l2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
l3 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7] a t
M
zip(l1, l2, l3)
t
à
© (1, 1, 1)
(2, 2, 2)
g h (3, 3, 3)
r i
y
à always returns an iterator that produces tuples
o p
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Higher Order c a d
A
Functions yte
h B
t
15
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
in Python any object can:
a d
A c
à be passed to a function as an argument (or callable in general)
te
à be returned from a function (or callable in general)
By
à functions are objects
th
a
à functions can be passed to and/or returned from functions
M
©
à these are called higher order functions
t
h
it's a math concept too – often referred to as operators or functionals
g
r i
(functions that do not allow passing a function to or returning a
y
function are called /irst order functions)
p
C o
y
e m
amongst other things:
a d
A c
à a function de/inition can itself contain another function de/inition
à and can return it
te
By
th
This means we can call a function that builds another function and runs
it, or even returns it
a
M
©
à what becomes interesting is that variables in the outer function
t
become available to the inner function
h
r i g
p y
C o
y
e m
def say_hello(first_name, last_name):
a d
def assemble_name():
return ' '.join([first_name, last_name])
A c
te
y
return ' '.join(['Hello, ', assemble_name(), '!'])
B
th
a
M
say_hello('Eric', 'Idle') à Hello, Eric Idle
t ©
g h
à we are going to study this in this chapter, along with higher order
functions
r i
p y
à in subsequent chapters we'll look at some important fundamental applications
C o
y
e m
a d
c
Passing and Returning Functions
A
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Passing Functions as Arguments e m
a d
à function arguments can be functions
à the object is passed, not called
A c
te
à so don't use () to pass a function, that would pass the result of the function!
B y
def add(a, b):
th
this argument is going to receive a function object
return a + b
a
M
©
def apply(func, a, b): we now call func
result = func(a, b)
return result
h t which is whatever function was passed in
r i g
apply(add, 2, 3)
p y à pass the add function to apply
C o à5

y
Nested Functions e m
a d
à function bodies can contain any valid Python code
A c
à including defining functions
te
By we are creating a new
def say_hello(name):
def prefix(): th function prefix
return 'Hello, ' a

M calling prefix()
msg = prefix() + name
return msg
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Returning Functions e m
a d
à a function can also return a function
c
passing in a function
A
def identity(func):
te
returning the same function
return func
B y
def add(a, b):
th
return a + b a
M
f is now a symbol pointing to add
f = identity(add)
t ©
f(2, 3) à 5
g h
r i
y
à silly example!
p
C o
y
Returning Functions e m
a d
à often we return a nested function
A c
def generate_func(name):
te
y
def add(a, b):
B
return a + b
th
a
def mult(a, b):
return a * b f = generate_func('sum')
M f(2, 3) à 5
if name == 'sum':
return add
t ©
else:
g h à still a silly example!
y ri
return mult à we'll see real examples soon!
o p
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
The map() Function A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
d
à the map() function calls a specified function for every element of some iterable
a
à very similar to doing something like this:
A c
te
def my_map(func, iterable):
By
result = [func(element) for element in iterable]
return result
th
a
M
à here we are creating a list that contains the function func applied
to every element of iterable
t ©
h
à but it creates a list
g
r i
à can take a lot of space if iterable is large
p y
à especially wasteful if we don't iterate over all the values
C o
y
e m
à map() returns an iterator
a d
iterator = map(func, iterable)
as we iterate over that iterator: A c
te
à Python moves to the next item in iterable
By
à calls func(element)
th
à returns the result a
à less wasted space M
t ©
à saves computations if we don't iterate over the whole list
g h
r i
à equivalently we could also just use a generator expression
p y
(func(el) for el in iterable)
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
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a d
Closures A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
in the last videos we saw that function de/initions can be nested within
another function
A c
def outer():
te
def inner():
…
By
th
a
and we saw that we can return the inner function from the outer function
M
def outer():
t ©
def inner():
…
g h
r i
p
return inner y
C o
y
e m
d
but we can create variables in the outer function also, or pass arguments
when we call it
c a
def outer(a, b):
A
c = 100
te
def inner():
By
…
th
a
return inner
M
à inner can "see" those variables
t ©
g h
à it even retains these values when it is returned
r i
y
à the inner function can "capture" those variables
p
C o
à this is called a closure

y
e m
def outer(a):
def inner():
a d
return a * 10
A c
return inner
te
By
f = outer(2)
th
a
M
à f is now the inner function that closes over a with a value of 2
©
à a is called a free variable of the closure f
h t
à we can call f
r i gf() à 20
p y
C o
y
e m
à but there are some rules!
a d
A
à you can always "read" a variable from the outer scope
c
te
def outer():
By reading c automatically uses
the one in the outer scope
c = 100
def inner(): th
outer scope d = c * 10 a
return d M inner scope
f = outer()
return inner
t ©
g h
r i
outer à {'c': 100, 'inner': <function>}
p y
inner à closure inner, with c=100
C o
y
e m
a d
à but things change if we set that symbol to a value in the inner scope
def outer(): A c
c = 100
te
here we are setting c to some value
B y
def inner():
c = 20 h
à Python ignores c from outer scope
t
return c * 10 aà creates a new symbol c in the inner scope
M (there are ways around this, but beyond

f = outer()
t © scope of this course)
g h
i
outer à {'c': 100, 'inner': <function>}
y
inner à {'c': 20}r
o p
y
Example e m
def power(n):
a d
def inner(x):
return x ** n A c
te
return inner
By
squares = power(2)
th
à call power(2)
a
à power runs with n = 2 M
t ©
à inner is a function that "captures" n = 2 à a closure
h
à the closure is returned
g
r i
à squares is the closure: function inner with n=2 that takes one argument (x)
p y
o
squares(3) à 9
C
y
à we can re-use power multiple times: e m
a d
def power(n):
def inner(x):
A c
return x ** n
te
return inner
By
squares = power(2)
th
[inner with n = 2]
cubes = power(3) a
[inner with n = 3]
M
squares(3) à 9
t ©
g h
cubes(3) à 27
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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Sorting and Filtering c a d
A
te
B y
th
16
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
In this chapter we are going to focus on:
a d
à /iltering iterables
A c
à sorting iterables
te
à revisit min and max By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Filtering A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e
filtering is the selection of a subset of items based on whether some m
condition is true or not
a d
A c
à given a list of numbers from 1 to 100, filter this list to contain even numbers only
te
à can think of it this way:
By
th
a
[1, 2, 3, 4, …, 98, 99, 100]
is_even? F, T, F, T, …, T,
M F, T
t ©
h
àapply a function (is_even) to every item in the list
g
r i
à only keep items for which function returns True
p y
C o
y
Predicate Functions e m
a d
A c
a predicate function is simply a function of one or more arguments that
returns True or False
te
By
for filtering in general:
th
a
à given an iterable and a predicate function
M
©
à only keep the items for which predicate function evaluates to True
h t
r i g
p y
C o
y
iterable
e m
l = [1, 2, -5, 6, -1, 0]
a d
A c
predicate function
def is_positive(x):
te
return x > 0
By
th
a
l = [1, 2, -5, 6, -1, 0] M
/ilter
pred = is_positive
t ©
g h
r i
1, 2, 6
p y
C o
y
e m
à Python has a filter function that works exactly that way
a d
filter(pred, iterable)
A c
data = [1, 2, 3, -1, -2, 0]
te
B y
def is_positive(x):
th
filter(is_positive, data)
return x > 0
a à lazy iterator
M à can only iterate through this once
t © à 1, 2, 3
g h
def is_even(x):
r i filter(is_even, data)
p y
return x % 2 == 0
à 2, -2, 0
C o
y
e m
à can also use a predicate function created via a lambda
a d
is_positive = lambda x: x > 0
A c
filter(is_positive, data)
te
By
th
à and often, directly inline with the call to filter:
a
M
filter(lambda x: x > 0, data)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Sorting A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à looked at the sorted function before e m
a d
à given an iterable
A c
à return a list, that has been sorted
te
y
à but by what?
B
th
sorted([10, 9, 3, 1, 2, 8]) a à 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10
à sorting numbers is very intuitive M

t ©
à numbers have a natural sort order, and we can sort the elements
based on their values
g h
r i
y
à sorting strings was a bit more complicated
p
o
à assign an integer value to each character, and use that to sort strings
C
y
à we can sort the same data in different ways e m
a d
data = [3, 1, -6, -2, -4, 5]
A c
à sort based on value
e
à [-6, -4, -2, 1, 3, 5]
t
à sort based on absolute value y
à [1, -2, 3, -4, 5, -6]
B
th
à sort based on the second digit in the square root of the absolute
value a
M
©
à maybe something more practical
t
h
à sort a collection of objects (symbol, open, high, low, close)
g
i
à by symbol
r
p y
à by open
à by high - low
C o etc…

y
e m
à how do we sort by a different criteria
a d
c
à how do we sort arbitrary objects that may not even have a natural sort order
A
à approach is similar to how /ilter worked
te
à iterable
By
th
à to each element in iterable, assign a value that is used to sort
a
M
data = [3, 1, -6, -2, -4, 5]
t ©
sort by
absolute 3, 1,
g h
6, 2, 4, 5
value:
y ri 1, -2, 3, -4, 5, -6
o p 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

y
e m
à just like filter used a predicate function to calculate True/False for each element
a d
à sorted can take a key function as a named argument
A c
e
à key function returns a value for each element
t
à those values have a natural sort order
By
h
à usually numbers, but does not have to be
t
data = [3, 1, -6, -2, -4, 5] a
M
def sort_key(x):
return abs(x)
t ©
g h
r i
sorted(data, key=sort_key)
y
sorted(data, key=lambda x: abs(x))
p
o
sorted(data, key=abs)
C
y
e m
each element of the iterable
a d
à the main point is that key is just a function that returns a value for
A c
à sorted() then uses that value to sort the items in the iterable
te
data = {'a': 300, 'b': 100, 'c': 200}
By
th
à sort the keys of the dictionary based on the corresponding value
a
M
key_func(dict_key) à corresponding value
t ©
sorted(data.keys(), key=lambda k: data[k])
à ['b', 'c', 'a']
g h
r i
y
sorted(data.keys(), key=lambda k: data[k], reverse=True)
p
o
à ['a', 'c', 'b']
C
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
min and max A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à previously we saw that to get the minimum of an iterable
a d
à sort iterable from low to high
A c
à take /irst element
te
By
à similarly with maximums
th
a
M
à but we just saw that sorting always uses an associated key
t ©
à so when we talk of min and max
g h
r i
à we really have the same thing - a sort key is used
p y
C o
y
e m
à min(iterable, key=<func>)
a d
à max(iterable, key=<func>) A c
te
data = [-1, 2, -3, 4, -5]
By
th
min(data) à -5
a
but this assumes a natural sort order
max(data) à 4
M (i.e. key func is an identity function – returns
t © the iterable value as-is)
h
à let's say we want the sort to be based on the absolute value
g
r i
p y
min(data, key=abs) à -1
max(data, key=abs) à -5
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Decorators c a d
A
te
By
th
17
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à decorators are a form of metaprogramming
a d
A c
à they allows us to wrap functionality around an already defined function
te
y
à without having to modify the code of the original function
B
th
leverages: a
à closures M
t ©
h
à functions as /irst class citizens (aka higher order functions)
g
r i
à re-assign any object to an existing symbol
p y
C o
y
Why are decorators useful? e m
a d
à let's use an example to understand this
A c
te
à suppose we have a program with some functions called over and over again
à fun1, fun2, fun3, etc By

th
a
à every time one of those functions is called, we want to produce a log
M
à maybe just print to the console that the function was called
t ©
h
à we could certainly put the "logging" functionality into each function
g
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
def fun1():
print('Called fun1.')
def fun2():
a d
… …
A c
def fun3(): def fun4():
te
… …
By
th
à repeating the same code multiple times a
M
à what if we want to include date/time call was made
t ©
à go back and edit logging code inside each function
g h
i
à 3 weeks later, oh yeah, add some timing to it too
y r
à go back and edit logging code inside each function
o p
à too much typing! à error-prone à easy to be inconsistent

y
e m
à instead want to write the logging code once
a d
à and "apply" it to each function we want to log
A c
te
By
à basically we want to build a second function that will:
th
à run some code
a
M
à execute the original function with the arguments that were passed in
à run some code

t ©
g h
à return the result of the call
r i
p y
C o
y
à when we call fun1, fun2, etc
e m
a d
fun1(10, 20) à start timing
à result = fun1(10, 20) A c
te
à stop timing
By
à log call, date/time and timing
th
à return result
a à using some common code
à start timing M
©
fun2(10)
t
à result = fun2(10)
h
r i g
à stop timing
p y à log call, date/time and timing
C o à return result

y
e m
a d
Decorators A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à recall nested functions e m
a d
def outer():
def inner():
A c
…
te
return inner
By
calling outer()
th
à returns the function inner
a
f = outer()
M
f()
©
à this called inner returned by outer
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à using closures, we can do this: e m
a d
def outer(fn):
def inner():
A c
def hello():
return 'Hello!'
print(f'Calling {fn}…')
te
result = fn()
return result
B y fn is a free variable, from outer scope
return inner
th
f = outer(hello) a
à inner function is created
M
à it is a closure with fn pointing to hello
t ©
h
f() à calls inner, with fn pointing to hello
g
i
à this calls hello()
r
y
à and returns the result of that call
p
C o
y
e m
function is passed as an argument to outer a d
à so outer can create and return a function that will execute whatever
def outer(fn):
A c
def inner():
te
result = fn()
By
return result
th
return inner
a
M
f = outer(fun1)
f = outer(fun2) t ©
f() à will call fun1 (and maybe do some extra things)
f() à will call fun2 (and maybe do some extra things)
g h
i
f = outer(fun3) f() à will call fun3 (and maybe do some extra things)
y r
à but we also want to be able to pass arguments to fun1, fun2, fun3
o p
à so pass them to inner and use those args to call fn

y
def outer(fn): e m
def inner(*args, **kwargs):
a d
result = fn(*args, **kwargs)
A c
return result
te
return inner
By
f = outer(add)
th
à f is now the inner function closure with fn à add
a
M
à notice that inner can receive any number of positional and keyword-only args
©
à whatever we pass in as arguments (when we call f())
t
h
à will be passed as-is to whatever function fn points to (add in this case)
g
r i
y
f(10, 20) à calls inner(10, 20), where fn à add
p
C o à calls add(10, 20)

y
e m
def outer(fn):
a d
A c
te
return result
return inner
By
th
à can think of this as a wrapper for fn
a
M
à we call outer(fn) to create a new function that wraps fn
t ©
à we can call that new function with arguments
g h
à it does it's own thing (like print in this example)
r i
y
à but it also executes fn, with whatever arguments we pass in
o p
à and returns the result of that call

y
def log(fn):
e m
a d
c
return result
A
return inner
te
à we actually have a very simple logger here
à suppose we have some functions

By
th
def add(x, y):
return x + y a
def greet(name):
return f'Hello {name}!'
M
run the logging code t ©
à we can create new functions that will perform the same task and also
g h
r
add_logged = log(add)i
p y
greet_logged = log(greet)
C o
y
à so now, instead of calling add
e m
à call add_logged
a d
à if we need to change logging format
c
à do it in just one place!
A
e
à but we must change all calls to add to now be add_logged
t
à yikes!
By
th
a
à remember that Python is a dynamic language
M
à we can re-assign any object to any symbol
t ©
à instead of: add_logged = log(add)
g h
à how about: add = log(add)
r i
y
à the symbol add now points to the new function (not the original add)
p
o
à which will call the original function object
C
y
à that's the basic decorator pattern e m
a d
def wrapper(func):
A c
# some code here
te
result = func(*args, **kwargs)
# some code here
B y
return result
th
return inner
a
M
def func(a, b):
t ©
…
g h
r i
y
func = wrapper(func)
p
C o à wrapper is called a decorator

y
e m
à this is so common
a d
def func(a, b):
… A c
te
func = wrapper(func)
B y
th
à there is a shorthand notation!
a @wrapper
M def func(a, b):

…
t © à exactly same as above
g h
i
def func(a, b):
y r …
o p func = wrapper(func)

y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
LRU Caching A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à this is a really interesting application of decorators
e m
a d
à it solves the following problem
you have some function that gets called often A c
te
y
à the same set of arguments are used often
B
à the function is deterministic
th
a
à calls with the same arguments should produce the same result
M
à re-calculating the function is fairly costly
t ©
h
à we could use a caching mechanism
g
r i
à /irst time a set of arguments is encountered, calculate result
y
à store result in a cache
p
o
à subsequent calls with same arguments, recovers result from cache
C
y
à basic idea is this: e m
cache = {}
a d
def func(a, b, c):
A c
e
key = (a, b, c)
if key in cache:
return cache[key] y t
# calculations here
h B
return result a t
cache[key] = result # add result to cache
M
à result is calculated t ©
à first time we call func with func(1, 2, 3)
g h
i
à result is inserted into cache dictionary using the key (1, 2, 3)
r
y
à next time func(1, 2, 3) is called, result is returned directly from cache dictionary
p
o
à I will show you in code how we could try to do this ourselves using decorators
C
y
e m
d
à Python has such a decorator – the lru_cache decorator
LRU àLeast Recently Used

c a
A
à caches should not grow inde/initely
te
à so keep the n most recent
By
th
a
M
à works well when most recent calls are good predictors of upcoming calls
©
à can specify the cache size we want
t
h
à maxsize positional argument
g
r i
p y
à None means unbounded
à otherwise specify an int to set max cache size
C o
y
e m
from functools import lru_cache
a d
@lru_cache(maxsize=20)
def my_func(a, b): A c
…
te
By
à uses a decorator
th
a
à this decorator can also take arguments
M
à there is a restriction
t ©
h
à the arguments passed to the function must be hashable values
g
r i
à that's because they are used as a key in the cache dictionary
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Text Files c a d
A
te
By
th
18
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à opening text /iles
a d
à read data from them
A c
à write data to them
te
By
h
à remembering to close the /ile when we're done!
t
a
à a mechanism to make sure we never forget
M
à context managers
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
What are contexts and context managers? e m
a d
à not going to cover how to create our own
c
à but will use some
A
te
à a context is an area of code that is entered and exited
By
à it is entered by "calling" a context manager using a with statement
th
a
à it is exited when the with code block is exited
M
the context manager is responsible for
©
à running some code on entry
t
h
à running some on exit
g
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
starts a context
A c
using this context manager
with open_database_connection(…) as conn:

te
# work with open conn
By context manager's job is to
h
…
a t open a connection upon

entry
# once the with block is exited,
# M
the connection is automatically closed
t ©
g h and to close the connection
r i upon exit
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Reading Text Files A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Opening Files e m
a d
c
à to read or write a text /ile, we /irst need to open the /ile
A
open(file_path)
te
path to /ile you want to open
By
can be absolute, or relative to
where the Python app is running
th
a
à need to tell Python how we want to interact with the file, the mode of operation
open(file_path, mode) M
t ©
à r: read-only (default)
g h
à w: write-only, create new /ile, or overwrite if it exists
r i
y
à a: write-only, create new /ile, or append if it exists
p
C o
y
à what is returned by open()? e m
a d
à an object that has many methods and properties
A c
e
à readlines()
à closed à is /ile closed?
y t
à close()
B
à this allows us to close the /ile after we're done with it
h
à but it is also an iterator a t
M
à provides iteration over the individual lines in the text file
à next
t ©
à for loop etc…
g h
i
à technically we can reset the "play head", but beyond scope
r
of this course
y
o p
à just think of it as an iterator

y
Closing Files e m
a d
à always close a /ile after you're done with it
A c
te
à releases the resource (not unlimited number of open files)
By
à writes are often buffered until the /ile is closed
th
a
M
f = open('file path', 'w')
# write to file
f.close()
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Closing Files e m
a d
c
à but what if an exception occurs while the file is open?
A
e
à use a try…finally… to always close the file, no matter what
t
By
f = open('file path', 'w')
try: th
# write to file a
finally: M
f.close()
t ©
g h
r i
à that's one approach
p y
C o
y
open() as a Context Manager e m
a d
à open() is also a context manager
A c
te
with open('file_path', 'w') as f:
# write to file
B y
th
a
à as soon as the context exits, /ile is closed
M
à even if an unhandled exception occurs in context block
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Writing Text Files A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à same principle as reading text /iles
a d
à open /ile (in write mode)
A c
à write to file
te
à close file
By
th
à especially important for writes, since changes may be lost otherwise
a
M
à best is to use a context manager
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Write modes e m
a d
àw open('<file_path>', 'w')
A c
à creates /ile if it does not exist
te
By
à overwrites (clears out) /ile if it already exists
th
a
àa open('<file_path>', 'a') M
t ©
à creates file if it does not exist
g h
i
à appends to end of file if it already exists
r
p y
C o
y
Writing Text To File e m
a d
à f.write(<some string>)
A c
à writes speci/ied string to /ile
te
y
à it does not add a \n character automatically
B
th
à have to do that ourselves if we need it
a
M
©
à f.writelines(<iterable of strings>)
h t
à writes each string in iterable to /ile
r i g
à it does not add a \n character automatically after each string
p y
à have to do that ourselves if we need it
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Modules and Imports c a d
A
te
B y
th
19
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
What happens when amount of code becomes very large?
e m
(e.g. lots of functions)
a d
à sometimes our code needs to grow beyond a single /ile or a Jupyter notebook
à need to break up code into multiple /iles A c

te
y
à each /ile can group similar or related functionality together
B
h
à code in one file (like a function) should be available to the other files
t
a
M
à in Python these code files are called modules
©
à modules can be nested within other modules
h t
à modules that contain other modules are called packages
r i g
à creating packages is beyond scope of this course
p y
à but we should know what they are and how to use existing ones
C o
y
Built-Ins e m
a d
à Python has many built-in object types and functions
A c
à bool, int, float, str, list, tuple, dict
te
By
à print(), filter(), sorted(), zip(), len(), etc
th
à these are baked right into Python a
à they're always available M
t ©
à we don't have to do anything special to use them
g h
r i
y
https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html
p
C o
y
Standard Library e m
a d
A c
à Python has a lot of libraries (modules and packages) that come
standard with base Python installation
te
y
à we have to speci/ically tell Python we want to use them
B
t
à we "load" them using an import statement
h
a
M
why not just load (import) everything always?
à there is a ton of libraries
t ©
h
à do you really want to load up thousands of libraries into memory
g
i
for things you don't even need?
r
y
à other reasons too, which we'll see as we work with packages
p
o
during the remainder of this course

y
Standard Library e m
a d
that cover things like:
A c
Python provides a huge selection of libraries (modules and packages)
à numerical and math

te
à math functions
à stats functions
B y
à random numbers
th
a
à Decimal objects (alternative to /loats)
à date and time M
à CSV files
t ©
à cryptography
g h
yri
à networking, internet and many, many more…
o p https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html

y
a d
c
à sometimes the standard library is insuf/icient or too cumbersome
à standard library has to be as generic as possible
A
te
à it may provide the basic building blocks to do something
y
à but you may need to write a lot of functions/code to tie them together
B
th
à many developers create libraries that leverage the standard library (or
a
other 3rd party libraries), but provide a higher level, easier to use interface to
more specialized functionality
M
à sometimes 3rd
t ©
party libraries have a very narrow and speci/ic focus
à performance or advanced functionality might be one reason
g h
i
à NumPy à SciPy à QuantLib
y r
à Pandas à Matplotlib à scikit-learn
o p
y
a d
A c
à we can install those libraries, and import them like any package
te
y
à where do you /ind a list of available 3rd party libraries
B
th
à most exhaustive source is PyPI (Python Package Index)
a https://pypi.org/
M
©
à they can be installed using pip install that we saw in the beginning
t
g h
à more than 220,000 libraries
!
y ri
o p
y
a d
à how to /ind the "good" ones?
A c
e
à read blogs, posts, books, web sites and see what other people are using
t
à does it have good documentation?
By
à is it still actively developed?
th
à is it widely used?
a
M
à but maybe your need is extremely speci/ic and very niche
t ©
à maybe something not so great is there that will work as a starting point
g h
i
But don't just look for a 3rd party library for everything you write!
r
à if 3rd
y
party library is full of bugs and unsupported, life will be painful!
p
o
à write your own code – often it is far simpler!
C
y
e m
à this course cannot cover all these specialized libraries
a d
à we will look at some
A c
te
à by the end of this course you will have a solid foundation
y
to easily understand and use these specialized libraries
B
th
a
à Official Python docs and library docs are you best source of information
M
à blog posts and similar online resources can be very helpful (unless they're
just plain wrong!)
t ©
à stackover/low is a fantastic resource for getting questions answered
g h
i
https://stackoverClow.com/
y r
à but at some point you will need to look into the of/icial docs
o p
à start now!

y
e m
a d
Basic Imports A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
à Python has quite a few built-in functions and data types (classes)
c
https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html
A
à built-ins are always available
te
à they are essentially "pre-loaded"
By
th
à but there's a lot more in Python's standard library
a
à way too much to load everything all the time
M
à even more so with third party libraries
t ©
à so we need to load those as needed
g h
r i
à all this functionality is split up into separate modules or packages
p y
à think of a module as a code /ile
o
à we then load just the modules we need
C
y
Loading a Module e m
a d
à modules are just objects
A c
à we need to "create" the object
te
y
à we need to assign a symbol (variable) to that object
B
th
à we can then use the variable to reference the module object
a
à which has properties, functions, other objects
the import statement is used to both M

t ©
à load the module (create the module object)
g h
à assign a symbol to the object
r i
p y
C o
y
Example e m
a d
import math
A c
math is a module in the standard library for
math related functionality
te
y
à the math module has been loaded (from file)
B
h
à and the variable (symbol) math is a reference to that module object
t
a
M
à math contains many functions, such as sqrt
à like with any object, we use dot notation to reach inside the object
t ©
math.sqrt(2) à 1.414…
g h
y ri access the sqrt function inside that object using .
p
this symbol points to the math module object
o
y
Aliasing e m
a d
import some_module
A c
à loads some_module
te
y
à creates a variable of the same name that references that module
B
th
what if we want to name that symbol something else?
a
import some_module as sm
M
à loads some_module
t ©
h
à creates a variable sm that references the some_module object
g
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Import Variants A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
so far we have seen two variants of the import statement e m
a d
import some_module
A c
e
import some_module as alias
y t
à if we want to use something inside the module, we have to use dot notation
h B
fractions.Fraction(1, 2)
a t
M
fractions.Fraction(1, 4)
©
à what if we just want to use Fraction inside fractions
t
h
à can we avoid using fractions.Fraction all the time?
g
à yes!
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à we can import symbols from a module directly into the corresponding
symbols in our code
a d
from fractions import Fraction
A c
à the fractions module is loaded
te
By
à but the symbol fractions is NOT added to our local variables
th
a
à instead the Fraction symbol is added to our local variables
M
à references the Fraction property inside the fractions module
f1 = Fraction(1, 2) t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à can do the same with any module e m
a d
from math import sqrt
sqrt(2) A c
te
y
à what if we want more than one attribute from the module?
B
th
from math import sqrt, pi, factorial
a
M
à sqrt, pi, and factorial are now available as symbols in our local scope
sqrt(2)
t ©
g h
2 * pi
r i
p
factorial(5) y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
Dates and Timesca d
A
te
B y
th
20
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Fundamental Concepts e m
a d
à time zones and UTC
A c
à epoch times
te
à times without dates By
th
à dates without times a
M
à dates with times
t ©
à ISO 8601 Standard
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Coordinated Universal Time e m
a d
à UTC
A c
e
à sometimes still referred to as GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)
t
à world standard
By
à no adjustments for daylight saving time
th
a
M
à easiest is to always use UTC internally in our programs
©
à convert incoming times to UTC
t
g h
à work exclusively in UTC internally
r i
y
à display to user using their preferred time zone
p
C o
y
e m
a d
program
A c
incoming
te
datetime data
(string)
parser
y
UTC converter
B
th
d = <datetime object in UTC>
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Challenges with external sources of time data e m
a d
c
à Python has special data types, for time, date and datetime
A
te
à external sources of time data usually given as strings
B y
à it is a visual (string) representation of a date/time
th
à but what format?
a
M
3/1/2020 2:35:01 pm à is this March 1, or January 3?
©
March 1, 2020 14:35:01
t
h
03-01-2020 02:35:01 PM
ir g
à what time zones? à may or may not be specified, using different "standards"
y
à how do we convert these to UTC based date/times in our apps?
p
C o
à what formatting should we use?

y
ISO Format e m
a d
c
à ISO 8601 defines standards for string representations of dates and times
A
te
time zone
date
YYYY-MM-DD T hh:mm:ss[.nnnn]
time
By
(offset from UTC)
±hh:mm
th sometimes : is omitted
separator a
24-hour clock M offset, in hours and
t ©
optional fractional seconds
minutes (positive or
negative) from UTC
g h
i
2-digit months: 01, 02, 12
r
optional!
y
2-digit days: 01, 02, 28, 29
p
Z is often used instead of 00:00
C o à so Z means UTC time zone

y
May 1, 2020, 10:23:35am in Eastern Time e m
à daylight savings time in effect (EDT)
a d
2020-05-01T10:23:35-04:00
December 1, 2020, 10:23:35am in Eastern Time A c

te
y
à daylight savings time NOT in effect (EST) 2020-12-01T10:23:35-05:00
B
th
à keeping track of all this in calculations is dif/icult!
a
à convert to UTC first
M
2020-05-01T10:23:35-04:00
t © à 2020-05-01T14:23:35Z
g
2020-12-01T10:23:35-05:00 h à 2020-12-01T15:23:35Z
r i
y
à then convert to whatever time zone for display purposes to user (if necessary)
p
C o
y
e m
d
à Python has a lot of functionality for calculations with dates and times
a
c
à to minimize introducing bugs, always use UTC based times
A
e
à but converting these "input" times to UTC is dif/icult!
t
y
à can be done using Python and the standard library
B
th
à much easier to leverage 3rd party libraries for this
a
M
easier way to deal with:
à dateutil
- parsing string
à pytz
t © - time zones
g h
i
à we'll look at these later in this course
y r
o p
y
Epoch Time e m
a d
à we saw that dealing with date/times involves time zones (whether
UTC or something else)
A c
te
à introduced by Unix as a way to de/ine a datetime without using timezones
à start with a base datetime
By
à the epoch
th
à given a datetime, calculate it as the difference in seconds from the epoch
a
M
à also called Unix or POSIX time
à epoch is system dependent
t ©
h
à Usually: January 1, 1970 00:00:00 UTC
g
r i
2020-05-01T10:23:35-04:00 à 1588343015.0
p y
à but if ingesting datetime information that use epoch times,
C o
you need to know the epoch!

y
The time Module e m
a d
à used for time manipulations
A c
à mostly uses epoch times
te
à we won't use this much
By
th
a
à but it also includes some useful functions
à sleep M
à perf_counter
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
The datetime Module e m
a d
c
à used for date (only), time (only) and datetime (date with time) objects
A
à can handle time zones
te
à provides formatting and parsing capabilities
By
à de/ines a timedelta data type (class)
th
a
M
à used to represent time difference between two date/time objects
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
The time Module A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
perf_counter e m
a d
A c
à perf_counter is used to measure elapsed time in (float) seconds
à from some undefined start (0)
te
(usually when program starts running)
By
à always look at difference between calls to perf_counter
th
à uses a clock with highest available precision
a
from time import perf_counter M
t1 = perf_counter()
t ©
g h
i
t2 = perf_counter()
y r
elapsed = t2 – t1
o p
y
sleep e m
a d
A c
à sleep(n) is used to pause execution for (/loat) n seconds
t
à why would you want to slow your program down??e
By
h
à give time for something else to finish
à usually some external resource

a t
M
à maybe a network connection is temporarily down
t ©
h
à retry connecting a few times, but wait in-between retries
r i g
p y
C o
y
Getting the epoch e m
a d
à Unix systems use January 1, 1970, 00:00:00 (UTC)
A c
time.gmtime(n)
te
à returns a time object (struct_time)
y
à based on n seconds elapsed from epoch
B
h
à has the following properties:
t
a
tm_year, tm_mon, tm_day
M
tm_hour, tm_min, tm_sec + a few more…
©
à ignores fractional seconds (if /loat)
t
h
à to /ind the epoch on your system
time.gmtime(0)
ri gà struct_time(tm_year=1970, tm_mon=1,
p y tm_mday=1, tm_hour=0, tm_min=0,

tm_sec=0, …)
C o
y
Getting the current epoch time e m
a d
c
time.time() à returns the current time (in seconds) since the epoch
A
te
à get UTC time_struct from that
By
time.gmtime(time.time())
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Converting from time_struct to epoch time e m
a d
c
à gmtime(n) converts an epoch time n to a time_struct
A
te
y
à can also convert a time_struct back to an epoch time
B
calendar.timegm(time_struct)
th
a
M
à timegm is the inverse of gmtime
©
à it is located in the calendar module
t
from calendar import timegm
h
ir g
n = 1_000_000_000
y
t = gmtime(n) struct_time(tm_year=2001, tm_mon=9, …)
o p
timegm(t) à 1_000_000_000

y
Formatting epoch time to human readable stringe m
a d
A c
à if we show someone an epoch time (a /loat), that does not mean much to them
à as humans we are used to certain formats for the date and time
te
à use the strftime(format, time_struct) function (string format time)
B y
à format is a string that contains special formatting directives
th
a
à for example, suppose we have an epoch time: 1587253022
M (which is actually 2020-04-18 23:37:02)
t ©
à we can format this time into April 18, 2020 as follows:
h
t_struct = gmtime(1587253022)
ir g
strftime("%B %d, %Y", gmtime(t_struct))
p y à "April 18, 2020"
C o
y
here are a few more format directives:
e m
a d
https://docs.python.org/3/library/datetime.html#strftime-and-strptime-format-codes
%Y à four digit year

A c
%y à two digit year
%m à month number
te
%B à month full name
%d à day of the month number

B y
%b à month abbreviated name
th
%H à hour in 24-hour clock
a%I à hour in 12-hour clock
%M à minute number M %p à AM or PM
%S à second number
t ©
g
%z à time zone offset ±HHMM h %Z à time zone name
r i
y
%w à weekday number (Sunday=0) %A à weekday full name
p
C o %a à weekday abbreviated name

y
à epoch time t = 1587253022 (2020-04-18T23:37:02) e m
a d
from time import strftime, gmtime
t_struct = gmtime(t) A c
te
By
h
strftime("%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%Sz", t_struct)
a t
à '2020-04-18T23:37:02z'
M
©
strftime("Today is %A, %B %d, %Y", t_struct)
t
g h
à 'Today is Saturday, April 18, 2020'
r i
y
strftime('Time: %I:%M %p %Z', t_struct)
p
C o à 'Time: 11:37 PM UTC'

y
Parsing Date/Time Strings e m
a d
à this is the reverse of the formatting we just saw
A c
given a string such as: "04/18/2020 11:37:02 PM"
te
y
à "convert" it to an epoch time
B
h
à we'll assume the time was given in UTC (since no indication was given)
t
a
à also assume format is Month/Day/Year (not Day/Month/Year)
M
à in this case we can safely assume this, since there is no month 18
à not always that lucky!
t ©
g h
i
à we need to tell Python what to expect in the string, using same directives as before
r
p y
time.strptime(date_string, format) (string parse time)
C o
y
from time import strptime e m
a d
c
s = "04/18/2020 11:37:02 PM"
strptime(s, "%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p") A

te
à time.struct_time(
tm_year=2020, By
tm_mon=4,
th
tm_mday=18, a
tm_hour=23,
M
tm_min=37,
tm_sec=2,
t ©
tm_wday=5,
g h
i
tm_yday=109,
r
)
p y
tm_isdst=-1
C o
y
e m
a d
c
à for every date/time formatting variant, we have to specify the format to parse it
A
4/18/20 23:45:34
e
"%m/%d/%y %H:%M:%S"
t
18/04/2020 11:45:34 PM
y
"%d/%m/%Y %I:%M:%S %p"
B
20/4/18 11:45:34 PM
th "%y/%m/%d %I:%M:%S %p"
a
à this can get difficult M
©
à especially if our various data sources use a mixture of formats
t
h
à this is where 3rd party libraries, such as dateutil can help
g
r i
à we'll come back to that later…
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
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t ©
g h
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C o
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e m
a d
The datetime Module A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
à the time module is a low-level library e m
à good for working with epoch times
a d
à but a bit cumbersome
A c
à not a ton of functionality
te
By
à instead use the datetime module
th
a
à isolates us from epoch times (used internally)
M
àprovides handy data types (classes)
à date
t ©
à time
g h
à datetime
r i
y
à timedelta
p
C o
à timezone

y
datetime.date e m
a d
c
à date is a data type (class) for working with pure dates (no times)
A
from datetime import date
te
date(year, month, day)
By
th
(or import datetime module, and use fully quali/ied names)
a
M
import datetime
datetime.date(year, month, day)
t ©
à properties:
g h
.year
r i
.month
.day
p y
C o
y
datetime.date e m
a d
date.today()
A c
à returns local date as a date object
te
By
<date_obj>.toisoformat()
th
a
à returns an ISO 8601 string for the date object
M
©
date.fromisoformat("iso formatted date string")
t
h
à parses and creates a date object from an ISO formatted date string
g
r i
p y
C o
y
datetime.time e m
a d
à it can be time zone naı̈ve, or aware A c
à time is a data type (class) used to work with pure times (no date)
te
y
à time(hour, minute, second, microsecond, tzinfo)
B
th
à properties: hour, minute, second, microsecond
tzinfo a
à None for naı̈ve times
M
à time.fromisoformat(s)
t ©
h
à <time_obj>.toisoformat()
g
r i
p y
C o
y
datetime.datetime e m
a d
à class that supports both date and time
A c
datetime(year, month, day,
te
hour, minute, second, microsecond,
tzinfo)
By
th
à properties for year, month, …
a
à datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(s) M
t ©
h
à <datetime_obj>.toisoformat()
g
r i
à datetime.datetime.utcnow()
p y
à returns naı̈ve local date/time in UTC
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
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Codingth
a
M
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g h
r i
p y
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a d
Date Arithmetic A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à date arithmetic mostly involves working with
a d
à dates, times, datetimes
A c
e
à time durations (e.g. 1 day and 2 hours and 30 minutes and 15 seconds)
t
By
datetime module has a special class for durations
th
à timedelta
a
M
©
à subtracting one date/time from another results in a timedelta
t
h
à can add or subtract a timedelta from a date/time
g
r i
p y
C o
y
datetime.timedelta e m
a d
timedelta(days,
seconds, microseconds, milliseconds,
A c
minutes,
te
hours,
weeks)
By
th
à arguments are optional and default to 0a
à argument values are additive M
t ©
timedelta(days=1, hours=1) à duration of 1 day and 1 hour
g h à 25 hours
r i
p y
C o
y
a d
timedelta(days,
seconds, microseconds, milliseconds,
A c
minutes,
te
hours,
weeks)
By
th
à notice there is no month argument a
M
à what does it mean to add a month to a date???
t ©
à 31 days, 30 days, 29 days, 28 days???
g h
r i
1/15/2020 + 1 month à 2/15/2020?
y
1/31/2020 + 1 month
p
à 2/31/2020???
C o
y
a d
à most arguments in timedelta() are for convenience
A c
à internally timedelta objects store the values in days, seconds, and microseconds
te
à properties .days .seconds
By
.microseconds
th
a
<timedelta_obj>.total_seconds()
M
à returns the total number of seconds (fractional /loat) in duration
t ©
g h
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Codingth
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Naı̈ve and Aware Times A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à aware time à time has a time zone attached to it
a d
à naı̈ve time à no time zone info
A c
te
y
to simplify our coding life, we made two decisions:
B
à all times we create/work with will be
th
a
M
à naïve
à in UTC
t ©
h
à the idea is that any datetime we ingest, immediately gets transformed
g
r i
into a naïve UTC datetime
p y
à convert to aware non-UTC for display or output purposes only
C o
y
timezone De@inition e m
a d
datetime.timezone
A c
à class to de/ine a time zone
à name (optional)
te
à UTC offset
B y à de/ined as a timedelta object
how is that offset defined exactly? th

a
M
à time zone offset de/ines the number of hours and minutes that should
be added to or subtracted from the corresponding UTC time
t ©
if a time zone is 4 hours "behind" UTC, then the offset is -4 hours
g h
r i
tz_EDT = timezone(timedelta(hours=-4), 'EDT')
p y
à pre-de/ined UTC timezone: timezone.utc
C o
y
Aware datetimes e m
a d
from datetime import datetime, timezone, timedelta
A c
te
y
d1 = datetime.fromisoformat('2020-05-15T13:30:00-05:00')
B
th
tz_EDT = timezone(timedelta(hours=-4), 'EDT')
a
d2 = datetime(year=2020, month=5, day=13,
M
hour=13, minute=30, second=0,
tzinfo=tz_EDT)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Converting from one Time Zone to Another e
m
a d
c
if we have an aware datetime, we can easily change it to another time zone
A
te
à use the .astimezone(target_tz) method of the datetime object
B y
d1 = datetime.fromisoformat('2020-05-15T13:30:00-04:00')
th
a
tz_CDT = timezone(timedelta(hours=-5), 'CDT')
d1.astimezone(tz_CDT) M
t ©
à datetime(2020, 05, 15, 12, 30, 00, tzinfo=tz_CDT)
h
ir g
d1.astimezone(timezone.utc)
y
à datetime(2020, 05, 15, 17, 30, 00, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
o p
à notice that the datetime objects remain aware

y
Adding or Removing Time Zone e m
a d
A c
à careful! Do not remove time zone from a non-UTC timestamp!
à unless you know what you are doing and this is intentional
te
everything is UTC By
à ok to remove from a UTC aware timestamp – since we assume
th
a
M
à to make a UTC aware timestamp naı̈ve, just replace the tzinfo value
with None
t ©
à to add a time zone to a naı̈ve timestamp, replace tzinfo with appropriate
timezone
g h
r i
y
à use the .replace() method on datetime objects
p
C o
y
The replace() method e m
a d
if dt is some datetime object
A c
e
à create a new datetime object with the exact same values:
t
dt_copy = dt.replace()
By
th
a
à or replace one or more values while we do the copy
M
dt_copy = dt.replace(year=2021, hour=0)
t ©
h
à in particular, we can do that with the tzinfo value
g
r i
dt.replace(tzinfo=None)
p y
dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc)
C o
y
Daylight Savings Time e m
a d
à not everyone does A c
à many places change their clock twice a year – daylight savings time
à Most parts of Arizona do not, but some do!

te
à not everyone does it at the same time
By
à not everyone changes by the same amount
th
a
à when and how much has changed over the years for the same places
M
t ©
so, how do we convert a UTC datetime into some specific time zone?
à it must take all these things into account à dif/icult!
g h
i
à Olson Database (or IANA time zone database)
r
p y
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tz_database
à the pytz 3rd party library à covered later
C o
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Custom Representations A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à recall the time module
a d
à strftime()
A c
te
à format a time struct using formatting directives
By
strftime('Time: %I:%M %p %Z', t_struct)
th
a
M
à strptime()
©
à parse a datetime into a struct using formatting directives
t
h
strptime(s, "%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p")
g
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
strftime is available for:
a d
à datetime.time
à datetime.date A c
te
à datetime.datetime
By
th
strptime is available for:
a
à datetime.datetime M
t ©
g h
à uses the same special formatting directives
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Codingth
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g h
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The csv Module c a d
A
te
By
th
21
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à earlier we saw how to read and write text /iles
a d
c
à we even parsed some data from a simple CSV file
A
e
à but CSV formats vary, so more complicated than that simple example
t
à often called CSV dialects
By
th
à would require a lot of manual work on our part to deal with all these variants
a
M
à csv module provides functionality to read and write a wide variety of CSV formats
©
à including tab delimited, pipe (|) delimited
t
h
à can deal with different line separators
g
r i
à Unix and Windows line separators are different
p y
à \n in Unix à \r\n in Windows
C o
y
e m
a d
Reading CSV Files A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
What is CSV Data? e m
CSV is a format for tabular data a d
c
à rows and columns
basic idea:
A
à each row in a /ile is a row of data
te
By
à rows in /ile are separated by a newline (OS speci/ic)
à each field in the row is separated by a separator aka delimiter
th
but that brings up a few things…
a
à what /ield separator to use?
M comma? à yes, but not necessarily
©
à how to deal with a field containing a comma (or whatever separator)?
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
FULL_NAME,DOB,SSN e m
Smith, John,3/1/1985,123-456-789
a d
A c
actually a single /ield, but the , inside is going to cause problems
te
à use some delimiter
à maybe double quotes By
à but doesn't have to be!
th
"Smith, John","3/1/1985","123-456-789" a
M
à but we don't need the delimiters around the DOB or SSN
t ©
"Smith, John",3/1/1985,123-456-789
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à what if /ield contains the /ield delimiter character?
a d
c
"Doyle, Conan","First Holmes book was the "Scarlet Letter""
A
à double up the quotes
te
y
"Doyle, Conan","First Holmes book was the ""Scarlet Letter"""
B
th
à or use a pre/ix character to "escape" the next character
à e.g. \ like Python (\n, \t, etc) a à but doesn't have to be!
M
"Doyle, Conan","First Holmes book was the \"Scarlet Letter\""
t ©
g h
à as you can see there can be many different ways of approaching this
r i
p y
C o
y
CSV is not a standard format e m
a d
à unfortunately CSV is not exactly a standard
à a variety of flavors exist à dialects A c
te
à most common one is Excel
delimiter (/ield separator) à ,
B y
quotechar (/ield delimiter) à "
th
a
doubles quotechar if found inside a field
M
only uses quotechar if delimiter is found inside a field
t ©
h
à but these are other valid CSV formats too
g
ri
field1|field2|field3
y
à pipe (|) delimited
field1
o p field2
tab character
field3 à tab delimited

y
Parsing CSV Data e m
a d
à default parser dialect is excel
A c
à but we can specify custom settings for delimiter, quotechar, etc
te
csv.reader(f, delimiter=',', quotechar='"')
B y
th optional – defaults to "
a
optional – defaults to ,
an open /ile to read from
M
t ©
à returns an iterator of parsed rows over the /ile
g
with open('some_file') as f:h
r i
reader = csv.reader(f) # default uses , and "
p y
for row in reader:
o
# row is a list containing parsed fields
C
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Dialects A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
to specify CSV format
a d
à in the previous lecture we saw that we can define all kinds of settings
A c
e
à works, but if we need to repeat the same settings often
t
y
à tedious typing the same code over and over again
B
h
à error prone – might forget or mis-type one of the settings
a t
M
à instead we can bundle up all the settings into a custom dialect
©
à basically just a way to package the settings once in our program
t
h
à and re-use elsewhere in the same program multiple times
g
r i
p y
C o
y
Listing Available Dialects e m
a d
à csv module comes with some pre-de/ined dialects
A c
à excel à excel-tab
te
à we can add our own to that list
By
th
à register a dialect with
a
à a name for the dialect M
t ©
à values for delimiter, quotechar, etc
g h
r i
csv.register_dialect("<name>", delimiter=…, quotechar=…, …)
p y
C o
y
Using a defined Dialect e m
a d
c
à we can specify a dialect instead of individual values for csv.reader
A
te
By
csv.reader(f, dialect='excel') à excel is the default for dialect
à same as csv.reader(f)
th
a
M
à or we can specify our custom dialect we registered
©
csv.reader(f, dialect='my-custom-dialect')
t
g h
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A c
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More Examples A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
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C o
y
e m
a d
c
à in this lecture we are going to process two more CSV /iles
A
à one with some NASDAQ data (nicely formatted)
te
y
à an older file from the US Census Bureau (oddly formatted)
B
th
a
M
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g h
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A c
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Codingth
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Writing CSV Files A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à reverse of reading and parsing a CSV /ile
a d
à given some data, write it out to a CSV /ile
A c
à an iterable of rows
te
y
à each row is itself an iterable of fields (columns)
B
th
a
à just like reading a CSV /ile, we can specify formatting options
M
à either using individual values (delimiter, quotechar, etc)
t ©
à or using a dialect (built-in or custom)
g h
r i
à unless there are some reasons not to, just use the standard excel dialect
p y
C o
y
Writing a CSV File e m
a d
à use csv.writer
A c
à then use the writerow method to write out each row in your data
te
with open('<file_name>', 'w') as f:
By
h
writer = csv.writer(f, dialect='…')
for row in data:
writer.writerow(row) a t
M
à where data is an iterable containing iterables of fields
data = [
t ©
[row1_col1, row1_col2, …],
g h
[row2_col1, row2_col2, …],
…
r i
]
p y
o
à if you want a header row, write that out too using writerow and an iterable of headers
C
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g h
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The random Module c a d
A
te
B y
th
22
a
M
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h
ir g
p y
C o
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e m
random module
a d
à random number generators
à pseudo random
(integer, /loats)
A c
te
à actually generated by an algorithm
By
à gives the appearance of random number generation
(uniform distribution)
th
a
M
à Mersenne Twister algorithm
©
à PRNG (pseudo random number generator)
t
h
à deterministic generator
g
r i
à we know ahead of time what the sequence will be
y
à not suitable for security/cryptography for example
p
C o
à but suitable for most other purposes

y
e m
d
à doesn't deterministic algo defeat purpose of generating random numbers?
a
à goal is to generate a sequence of numbers that
à is uniformly distributed A c
te
à appears random to user
By
t
à but if the sequence is the same every time?h
a
à that's a good thing when testing code
M
à testing and debugging random things is difficult
t ©
h
à we can make it so the generated sequence is not the same every time program runs
g
à seed value
r i à every different seed results in a different sequence
p y à use a different seed every time the program starts
C o à Python does that for us (uses the epoch time)

y
e m
à beyond uniformly distributed PRN
a d
A c
à random number generator using various distributions
(normal, lognormal, triangular, beta, gamma, and more)
te
à shuf/le a sequence of elements
B y
th
à random sampling
a
à without replacement M à choose 5 cards from a deck of 52
t ©
g h
à with replacement à roll two die (each of which can be 1-6)
yri à pick two elements with

replacement from {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
o p
y
Interval Notation e m
a d
[a, b] a <= x <= b
A c
te
(a, b) a < x < b
By
(a, b] a < x <= b
th
a
[a, b) a <= x < b M
t ©
g h
à [ includes endpoint
r i
p y
à ( excludes endpoint
C o
y
e m
a d
Random Numbers A c
te
B y
th
a
M
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h
ir g
p y
C o
y
Random seed e m
a d
c
à seed is used as a "primer" for different random number sequences
A
te
à Python automatically sets one based on system time
B y
à so every time our program restarts we get different sequences of
random numbers
th
a
M
à we can override the seed value
©
à useful to guarantee repeatability of "random" sequence
t
h
à testing, debugging
g
r i
random.seed()
p y à uses system time
o
random.seed(a) à uses value a (system time if a is None)

y
The base PRNG e m
a d
à there is a single pseudo random number generator
random.random() A c
à generates and returns the next PRN
te
B y
à float in [0.0, 1.0)
à uniformly distributed
th
à call it repeatedly to get the next number, and the next…
a
à other random related functions
M à all use this one at their base
à random integer generator
t ©
h
à random numbers that will display certain distributions (e.g. normal)
g
i
à shuffling, sampling
r
à all use random()
p y
o
à all display same repeatability for same seed
C
y
Generating Random Integers e m
a d
randrange(stop)
A c
generates an integer number in
range(stop)
randrange(start, stop, step)
te
range(start, stop, step)
By
randint(a, b) th
à generates random int in [a, b]
a
M
à equivalent to randrange(a, b+1)
à syntax convenience
t ©
à uniform distribution
g h
r i
à call repeatedly to produce a sequence of random integers
p y
C o
y
Generating Random Floats e m
a d
à random() à random float in [0.0, 1.0)
A c
te
B y
à uniform(a, b) à random float in [a, b]
th
a
M
©
à gauss(mu, sigma) à random /loat
h t à normal distribution
r i g à mean = mu, std deviation = sigma
p y
… and more - see the online docs
C o https://docs.python.org/3/library/random.html

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Sampling and ShufVling A c
te
B y
th
a
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h
ir g
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C o
y
Shuf@ling e m
a d
à in-place shuf/le of items in a mutable sequence
A c
te
l = [1, 2, 3]
By
shuffle(l)
th
a
l à [3, 1, 2]
M
à l was mutated
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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Choosing a single random element e m
a d
à choice(seq)
A c
à chooses a single random element from seq
te
By
à seq can be any sequence type (even immutable)
à does not modify seq in any way th
a
l = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] M
t ©
choice(l) à3
g h
choice(l)
r
à5
i uniform distribution
choice(l)
p yà3
o
…

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Choosing multiple random elements at a time e m
a d
à choices(seq, k=…)
A c
à choose k random elements from some sequence seq (uniform distribution)
te
à with replacements
B y
à the same element may get picked more than once in each set of k elements
th
a
à returns result as a list of k elements
l = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 M l.choices(l, k=2) à [6, 5]
t © l.choices(l, k=2) à [1, 3]
h l.choices(l, k=2) à [2, 2]
ir g
p y
à k can be larger than sequence length
(guaranteed to have repeated elements!)
C o
y
Sampling a Population e m
a d
à sample(population, k)
A c
e
à population can be a sequence or a set, and even a range object
t
y
à choose k random elements from some population (uniform distribution)
B
à without replacements
th
a
à the same element cannot be picked twice in each set of k elements
à random sampling M
à k is the sample size
t ©
g h
à returns result as a list of k elements
r i
p y
à k cannot exceed len(seq) à ValueError otherwise
C o
y
Weighted Choices e m
a d
l = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
keyword-only argument A c
choices(seq, k=3)
te
à a list of k random elements from l
By
à with replacement
th
a
M
à for each pick of an element to include in the k choices
©
à every element has the same probability of being picked
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Weighted Choices e m
a d
à but we can change those probabilities
A c
à by specifying a sequence of weights to assign to each element of the sequence
te
y
à if specified, len(weights) must equal len(sequence)
l = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
h B
weights = [1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1]
a t
choices(l, weights=weights, k=3) M
t
à at every pick of the k elements ©
g h
i
à 5 has two times chances of being picked than all other elements
y r
à weights can be /loats too
o p
à no longer a uniform distribution

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Codingth
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Math and Staticstics c a d
A
Modules y te
h B
t
23
a
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h
ir g
p y
C o
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e m
à already seen math module
a d
à look at a few more functions in that module
A c
te
à statistics module
By
à variety of simple stats
th
à means, variances a
à normal distributions M
t ©
g h
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p y
C o
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a d
math Module A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
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C o
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e m
a d
factorial(n) à factorial function
A c
perm(n, k) à permutations
te
comb(n, k) à combinations
B y
gcd(a, b)
th
à greatest common divisor of integers a and b
a
fsum(iterable)
M
à /loating point sum, more accurate than sum()
prod(iterable, *, start=1)
t © à product of all elements in iterable
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
dist(p, q)
a d
à Euclidean distance between p and q (iterables)
A c
hypot(*coords) à Euclidean norm of vector with specified coordinates
te
sqrt à square root
By
th
exp(x) à exponent (e ** x)
a
log(x) M
à natural log (base e)
log10(x) à log base 10 t ©

g h
r i
e
p y
à Euler's constant
C o
y
e m
a d
c
degrees(x), radians(x) à degree/radian conversions
A
sin(x), cos(x), tan(x)
te
à trig functions
asin(x), acos(x), atan(x)

By
à arc functions
th
sinh(x), cosh(x), tanh(x) a à hyperbolic functions
M
asinh(x), acosh(x), atanh(x) à arc hyperbolic functions
t ©
pi
g h
r i
p y
C o
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e m
For full list of functions in math module:
a d
https://docs.python.org/3/library/math.html
A c
te
B
For complex number math, see cmath module y
th
https://docs.python.org/3/library/cmath.html
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Codingth
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a d
statistics Module A c
te
B y
th
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t ©
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ir g
p y
C o
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Measures of Central Location e m
a d
à statistics module
A c
à s is a non-empty sequence or iterable
te
mean(s) y
à arithmetic average of an iterable
B
fmean(s)
th
à converts everything to float, then calculates mean (faster than mean)
a
median(s)
M
à median (may not be an element of the iterable)
median_low(s)
t ©
ensures median is member of the iterable
median_high(s)
g h
r i
mode(s)
p y
à applies to numeric or nominal data
C o
y
Measures of Spread e m
a d
pstdev(s) à population standard deviation
A c
pvariance(s) à population variance
te
stdev(s)
By
à sample standard edviation
th
variance(s) à sample variance
a
M
©
quantiles(s, *, n=4, method='exclusive')
t
h
à n=4 for quartiles, n=100 for percentiles
g
r i
à method='exclusive' / 'inclusive'
y
à indicates if s is a sample that does/does not include most extreme
p
C o
population values

y
Normal Distribution e m
a d
à NormalDist data type (class)
A c
à used to create and manipulate normal distributions of a random variable
te
d = NormalDist(mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)
B y
th
a
d.mean, d.median, d.mode, d.stdev, d.variance
d.pdf(x) M
à probability density function
t ©
h
d.cdf(x) à cumulative distribution function
r i g
d.inv_cdf(p) à inverse CDF (aka quantile function)
p
d.quantiles(n=4)
y à returns a list of n-1 cut points for the quantiles
C o
y
a d
distributions
A c
d.overlap(other_normal_dist) à calculates area overlap of two
te
y
d.samples(n) à returns list of n random samples
h B
à supports arithmetic operations
+ or – with constants
a t
à translate distribution
* or / with constants M
à scales distribution
t ©
d = NormalDist(0, 1)
g h
d * 5 + 20
r i à NormalDist(20, 5)
p y
C o
y
a d
à can also combine two normal distributions (+)
A c
te
y
d1 = NormalDist(1, 3) variance à 9.0
d2 = NormalDist(2, 4)
h B
variance à 16.0
a t
M
d1 + d2 à NormalDist(3, 5)
mean = sum of two means

t ©
1 + 2à3
g h
r i
variance = sum of two variances
p y
9 + 16 à 25 à std dev = 5
C o
y
More functionality… e m
a d
à statistics module has more functionality
A c
te
By
h
https://docs.python.org/3/library/statistics.html#module-statistics
a t
M
t ©
g h
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A c
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Codingth
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The decimal Module c a d
A
te
B y
th
24
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
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e m
à we have seen that /loats do not have exact representations
a d
à most of the time that's not an issue
A c
à often deal with transforming data
te
y
à slight loss of precision, rounding errors, matter
B
h
à but level of /loat precision is suf/icient
a t
M
à you may have cases where the loss of precision is unacceptable
©
à you have to store decimal numbers exactly
t
h
à addition, subtraction, multiplication have to be exact
g
i
à division is going to suffer from rounding errors
r
y
1 / 3 = 0.333… à cannot store in/inite decimal numbers
p
C o à but what precision?

y
e m
à Decimal objects can store decimal numbers exactly
a d
à but at what cost?
A c
e
à literals have to use strings to represent numbers - unwieldy
t
y
à cannot use most math functions (they convert to /loats)
B
h
à many specialized math functions are de/ined in Decimal
t
a
à arithmetic operations are slower than floats
M
à they use more memory than /loats
t ©
h
https://docs.python.org/3/library/decimal.html
g
r i
y
à implements IBM General Decimal Arithmetic Specification standard
p
o
http://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html
C
y
e m
a d
Decimal Objects A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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The Decimal data type e m
a d
à decimal module
c
à Decimal data type (class)
A
Decimal(3)
te
y
take the integer 3 and convert it to a Decimal object
B
Decimal(0.1)
th
a
take the /loat 0.1 and convert it to a Decimal object
M
©
do you see the problem here?
t
h
0.1 is a float à it is already inexact, before we even pass it to Decimal
ir g take the string 0.1 and convert it to a Decimal object
p y
Decimal('0.1')
0.1 will be stored exactly as 0.1 in the Decimal type
C o
y
e m
0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 0.3 à False
a d
A c
Decimal('0.1') + Decimal('0.1') + Decimal('0.1') == Decimal('0.3')
te
à True
y
ok to use integers (not as strings)
B
Decimal(1) / Decimal(3)
th
à integers have exact representations
a
M
à Decimal('0.3333333333333333333333333333')
what precision?
t ©
g h
i
à default is 28 signi/icant digits
r
y
à we can override this value
p
C o
y
Significant Digits e m
a d
à number of digits needed to represent the decimal number
A c
à leading zeros are ignored 001.2345
te à 5 signi/icant digits
à trailing zeros are not! 1.2000
By à 5 signi/icant digits
th
a
à important to understand how this affects arithmetic operations
Decimal('0.15') * Decimal(2) M à Decimal('0.30')
t © (not 0.3)
g h
r i
Decimal('0.100') * Decimal('0.200')
p y à Decimal('0.020000')
C o
y
Rounding e m
a d
à can use the round() function
A c
à it will use a special rounding method de/ined by Decimal objects
te
round(Decimal('1.2335'), 3)
B y
à Decimal('1.234')
round(Decimal('1.2345'), 3)
th à Decimal('1.234')
a
à Banker's rounding M
(round to closest, ties to closest even)
à default
t ©
g h
à we can specify other types of rounding
r i
p y
C o
y
Arithmetic Contexts e m
a d
c
à when we perform arithmetic operations on Decimal numbers
A
à precision can affect results
te
à rounding methodology can affect results
By
th
Example: suppose we are using a precision of 5, and Banker's rounding
a
M
d1 = Decimal('1.2325')
d2 = Decimal('122') 1.2325 * 122 = 150.3650
t ©
d1 * d2
g h
à Decimal('150.36')
i
à only 5 signi/icant numbers – so had to round to two decimals
r
p y à used Banker's rounding à 150.36
C o
y
Arithmetic Contexts e m
a d
à view your current context settings
A c
decimal.getcontext()
te
à prec = 28
By
h
à rounding = ROUND_HALF_EVEN (Banker's rounding)
a t
M
à later we'll see how to modify the arithmetic context
IMPORTANT
t ©
h
à precision of a de/ined Decimal number is independent of context precision
g
r i
Decimal('1.23456789') will be stored exactly, even if context precision is 5
p y
à calculations, however, will use the context precision
C o
y
Mathematical Functions e m
a d
à standard arithmetic operators and functions:
+, -, *, /, //, %, ** A
round, abs, min, max, sum
c
te
à careful with math module
you can use…
B y
à Decimals get converted to floats /irst
th
a
à Decimal objects implement some math functions:
M
©
d = Decimal('…') à d.exp()
h t à d.sqrt()
r i g à d.ln()
à d.log10()
+ more… p y
o
https://docs.python.org/3/library/decimal.html#module-decimal

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Codingth
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Arithmetic ContextsA c
te
B y
th
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M
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ir g
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C o
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Arithmetic Context e m
a d
à precision of intermediate calculations A c
à arithmetic contexts used in decimal calculations to de/ine many things
à rounding algorithm
te
decimal.getcontext()
B y
à returns the current context information
th
prec
a
à precision (defaults to 28)
rounding
M
à the rounding algorithm (default ROUND_HALF_EVEN)
and more…
t ©
g h
à we can change those de/initions
r i
à globally
p y
o
àtemporarily just for a section of code (using a context manager)
C
y
Rounding Methods e m
a d
c
https://docs.python.org/3/library/decimal.html#rounding-modes
A
à default is ROUND_HALF_EVEN
te
y
à rounds to nearest, with ties to nearest even integer
B
0.135 à 0.14
th
0.145 à 0.14
a
M
©
à but can define other rounding methods
t
h
ROUND_HALF_UP
i g
à rounds to nearest with ties away from zero
r
p y
0.135 à 0.14 0.145 à 0.15
C o
y
Global Context Changes e m
a d
à can modify prec and rounding in the global context
A c
àcontext settings persist for the remainder of the program
te
ctx = decimal.getcontext()
ctx.prec = 5 By
ctx.rounding = decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP th
a
IMPORTANT M
there seems to be an open bug in Jupyter's IPython kernel
t ©
setting the global context settings gets reset in next cell
g h
i
à temporary workaround until bug is fixed
y r use this as your /irst cell in notebook:
o p !jupyter notebook --version

y
Temporarily Changing Context Settings e m
a d
sometimes we want to temporarily change the context
perform some operations using that context A c
te
revert the context to its previous state
By
à could change the global context
th
ctx = getcontext()
a current_prec = ctx.prec
M ctx.prec = new_prec
t ©
g h # perform operations
r i
y
ctx.prec = current_prec
à cumbersome
o p à may even forget to switch back

y
Using a Context Manager e m
a d
à much easier (and safer) to use a context manager
A c
e
create context and enter context manager
t
with decimal.localcontext() as ctx:
B y modify the local context
ctx.rounding = decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP
th
print(round(Decimal('1.12345'), 4)
a à Decimal('1.1235')
M
©
after exiting context manager, global context is automatically restored
t
g h
print(round(Decimal('1.12345'), 4) à Decimal('1.1234')
r i
p y
C o
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e m
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A c
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Codingth
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Custom Classes c a d
A
te
By
th
25
a
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g h
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C o
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à everything in Python is an object e m
à has a type (aka class)
a d
à has state
à has functionality
A c
te
for example, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] is an object
B y
à its type is list
th
à we say it is an instance of a list
a
à its state are the elements in the list
à functionality such as .append M
t © à two different objects
l1 = [1, 2, 3]
g h à both instances of the list type
r i
l2 = ['a', 'b', 'c']
à but different state
p y
l2.append('d') à affects l2, not l1
C o
y
Methods and Bindings e m
a d
à why does l2.append('d') not affect l1?
A c
e
à append is a function that works on a speci/ic instance of the class
t
y
à append is called a method of the list class
B
h
à when we call the append method: l2.append('d')
t
a
à the method is bound to the object l2
M
à basically it will operate on l2
t ©
h
à in general append will operate on whatever list object is speci/ied before the dot
g
l1.append(10)
r i
p y
l2.append('c')
C o
y
Custom Classes e m
a d
à we can de/ine our own custom types (classes)
A c
e
à instances of those classes will have
à a type (the custom type we created)
y t
B
à some state (we can store values specific to the instance)
h
t
à functionality (methods that are functions bound to the instance)
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Initializers e m
a d
à when we create a new instance of a class
à often want to create some initial state A c
te
à usually by passing arguments to the "creation" phase
à this is called the initialization phase

By
th
a
M
à creation process is started by calling the class (type)
a = tuple([1, 2, 3])
t ©
h
à we are calling the tuple class (using ())
g
r i
à passing it an argument: [1, 2, 3]
p y
à call returns a new tuple instance, initialized with the elements 1, 2, 3
C o
y
à every object creation follows this basic principle
e m
a d
reader = csv.reader(f, dialect=custom_dialect)
A c
à create an instance of the csv.reader class by calling it
te
à pass some arguments used for initialization (/ile and dialect)
By
à call returns an initialized new instance of reader
th
d = Decimal('1.2345') a
M
à create an instance of the Decimal class by calling it
©
à pass some arguments used for initialization (number string)
t
h
à call returns an initialized new instance of Decimal
g
r i
p y
C o
y
Classes as Blueprints e m
a d
A c
à classes are often referred to as blueprints for creating objects
à a single class can be used to create many instances of that class
à each instance will have it's own state
te
By
à the functions de/ined in the class become methods bound to the instance
because these functions are bound to the instance
th
à they can access the state of the instance
suppose we have a Person class de/ined a

M
à we wrote our class so that the initializer requires /irst and last names
©
john = Person('John', 'Cleese')
t
h
eric = Person('Eric', 'Idle')
g
i
à we implemented a greet() method to say hello
r
p y
john.greet() à 'John says hi!'
eric.greet() à 'Eric says hi!'
C o
y
Creating Custom Classes in Python e m
a d
à use the class keyword
A c
class Person:
te
'''A simple Person class'''
à code above is as simple a class as can be By
th
a
à but Python "injects" a lot of functionality into that class for us
à it is callable
M
p = Person()
©
à this created a new instance of Person
t
h
à Person and p have some state Python de/ined for us
g
r i
Person.__doc__ à 'A simple Person class'
y
Person.__name__ à 'Person'
p
C o
type(p) à Person and more…

y
e m
a d
DeVining Classes A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à classes are like templates for creating objects
a d
à objects have state and functionality
A c
e
à we can define what the state and functionality is using a class
t
y
à every instance of that class will have that functionality
B
t
à but every instance has its own state
h
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
class à Circle
a d
à state: radius
A c
à functionality: area(), perimeter()
te
By
circle_1 à Circle(radius = 1)
th
circle_2 à Circle(radius = 2) a
M
à two different circles
t ©
à each one has its own value for radius
h
à but formula to calculate area and perimeter can be common
g
r i
à it just needs access to the instance value for radius
p y
C o
y
e m
à to define a class we use the class keyword
a d
class Circle:
A c
de/inition of class is indented
te
By
th
à one (optional) part of the de/inition of a class is a docstring
a
M
à basically documentation of the class
class Circle:
t ©
h
"""This class can be used to represent a circle
g
i
and calculate area and perimeter
r
y
"""
p
à this is a valid Python class
o
y
class Circle: e m
"""docs for class"""
a d
à class does not do much
A c
te
à but it still has quite a bit of functionality built in for us by Python
By
Circle.__name__ à 'Circle'
th
Circle.__doc__ à 'docs for class' a
M
Circle.__class__ à Circle
t ©
h
Circle.__class__ is Circle à True
g
r i
p y
à Python also makes the class callable
C o
y
e m
à Circle can be called to create new instances of that class
a d
c1 = Circle()
A c
à two different instances of Circle
c2 = Circle()
te
c1 is c2 à False
By
à the type of c1 and c2 is Circle th
a
type(c1) is Circle à True
M
à c1 is an instance of Circle
t ©
g h
i
isinstance(c1, Circle) à True
y r
o p
y
e m
à we can set attributes directly on the instances
a d
c1 = Circle()
A c
c1.radius = 10
te
c2 = Circle()
By
th
c2.radius = 20
a
M
©
à we can retrieve the attribute from each instance
print(c1.radius) à 10
h t
i
print(c2.radius) à 20
r g
p y
C o
y
à we create instances of a class by calling the class e m
a d
à we can set/get attributes directly on the instances using dot notation
à to create and initialize a Circle instance A c

te
c1 = Circle()
c1.radius = 10
B y
th
a
à these attributes exist in the instance namespace à normally a dictionary
c1.__dict__ M
à {'radius': 10}
t © à sometimes the state is not in that dictionary
g h à but not in this course
r i
à but initializing the object state this way is cumbersome
p y
à we'll see a better way soon!
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
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Codingth
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g h
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C o
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a d
Initialization A c
te
By
th
a
M
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g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à we've seen how to define custom classes
a d
c
à we call the custom class to create new instances of that class
A
e
à but can we provide initial values when the instance is created?
t
à we've seen this before!
By
d = Decimal('10.1') th
a
M
à creates a new Decimal instance
à initialized to 10.1
t ©
h
à the initial value was passed in the same call used to create the instance
g
r i
p y
C o
y
à could mimic this initialization somewhat e m
a d
class Circle:
"""Circle class"""
A c
te
def create_circle(radius):
By
create the Circle instance (instantiation)
c = Circle()
th
c.radius = radius
a
set the instance radius (initialization)
return c
M
return the initialized instance
t ©
c1 = create_circle(10)
g h
r
type(c1) à Circlei
p y
c1.__dict__ à {'radius': 10}
C o
y
Recall Methods e m
a d
l1 = list('abc')
A c
two different instances of a list
l2 = list('def')
te
l1.append('d')
B y
l2.append('g') th
same append function
a
à but operates on two different instances of a list
M
l1 à ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
©
l2 à ['d', 'e', 'f', 'g']
t
l1.append('d')
g h
à append is bound to l1
l2.append('g')
r i à append is bound to l2
p y
obj.func() à func is bound to obj, and is called a method
C o
y
The __init__ Method e m
a d
A c
à the __init__ function is a special function that is called by Python
when we create a new instance of a class
te
class Circle:
By
def __init__(self):
th
print('__init__ called…')
a
M
Class creation: Circle() does two things
t ©
à creates a new instance of the class let's give it some name, new_obj
g h
i
à calls the __init__ function, passing new_obj as the /irst argument
r
y
à in that sense, __init__ is a method bound to new_obj
p
C o
y
à __init__ is a function de/ined inside the class e m
a d
c
à but a function nonetheless
A
e
à we can de/ine additional parameters! à recall what we did here
y tdef create_circle(radius):
h B c = Circle()
c.radius = radius
t
class Circle:
def __init__(self, radius):
a return c
self.radius = radius
M
à same thing!
t ©
à note that the name self is not a special name – it is just convention
g h
à could name it something else
r i
y
à specify this additional parameter when we create the instance
p
C o
c = Circle(10) c.__dict__ à {'radius': 10}

y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Instance Methods A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
à create instances from classes by calling them e m
à use __init__ method to initialize instances
a d
à add value attributes using dot notation A c
te
à but how do we add functionality?
By
th
c = Circle(10)
a
c.area() M
à math.pi * r ** 2
t ©
h
à area needs to be a function in the class
g
r i
y
à bound to the instance when called with dot notation
p
C o
y
à exactly the same as the __init__ function e m
a d
à define a function in the class
A c
e
à /irst argument will be the instance
y t
class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
h B
self.name = name
a t
def say_hello(self):
M
©
return f'Hello, {self.name}'
t
p = Person('Alex')
g h
r i
p.say_hello()
p y à Hello, Alex
C o
y
e m
a d
à just like __init__ we can pass additional parameters to methods
class Person:
A c
te
self.name = name
By
def eat(self, food):
th
a
return f'{self.name} is eating {food.lower()}.'
M
p = Person('Alex')
t ©
g h
p.eat('Broccoli')
r i à Alex is eating broccoli.
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Special Methods A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à already seen __init__
a d
à provides special behavior to our custom classes
A c
te
y
à there are many other such methods that provide special behavior
B
th
à they start and end with double underscores
à often referred to as dunder methods a
M
(so don't use this convention for your own method names!)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Object String Representations
e m
l = [1, 2, 3] a string
a d
print(l) à '[1, 2, 3]'
A c
te
class Circle:
By
def __init__(self, r):
th
self.radius = r
a
c = Circle(10) M
print(c) à t ©
h
<__main__.Circle object at 0x7fc2703b4b20>
r i g
à Python's default string representation of our custom objects
p y
C o
y
à can override this default behavior e m
à via special dunder methods
a d
à __str__
A c
à __repr__
te
str(c) à will call c.__str__()
By
repr(c) à will call c.__repr__()
th
a
à why two methods?
M
t ©
__str__ is used for string representation for users
__repr__ is used for string representations for developers (more details usually)
g h
r i
à print(c) uses __str__ if present
y
à otherwise __repr__
p
o
à otherwise default (class name & object id)
C
y
Object Equality e m
a d
l1 = [1, 2, 3]
not the same objects
l2 = [1, 2, 3]
l1 is l2 à False A c
but they are equal l1 == l2 à True
te
By
th
class Person:
a
M
self.name = name
p1 = Person('Alex') t ©p2 = Person('Alex')
g h
r i
not the same objects p1 is p2 à False
p1 == p2
p y à False
C o
y
à we can override equality de/inition for our custom objects e m
a d
à __eq__ method
A c
class Person:
te
self.name = name
By
th
def __eq__(self, other):
a
M
return self.name == other.name
p1 = Person('Alex')
t © p2 = Person('Alex')
g h
p1 == p2
r i
à p1.__eq__(p2) in general a == b
p y
à True à a.__eq__(b)
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Properties A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à we have seen to de/ine custom classes and how to
e m
à de/ine instance methods
a d
à get/set attributes directly on the instance
c.radius = 10
A c
self.radius = 10
te
sometimes called "bare"
class Person:
By
attributes

th
a
self.name = name
def say_hello(self): M
©
return f'Hello, my name is {self.name}'
t
alex = Person('Alex')
g h
alex.say_hello()
r i
à Hello,my name is Alex
alex.name = 'Eric'
p y
C o
alex.say_hello() à Hello,my name is Eric

y
e m
à we have been accessing these attribute values directly
a d
à we have no control over what the assigned values are
A c
à we have no control on formatting or modifying attribute when it is read
te
à sometimes we do!
By
th
a
we can control things in the __init__ when the instance is created
M
class Sale:
def __init__(self, quantity):
t ©
h
if not isinstance(quantity, int):
g
i
raise ValueError('Must be an int')
r
y
self.quantity = quantity
p
C o
y
e m
à cannot control how it is set subsequently
a d
class Sale:
def __init__(self, quantity): A c
if not isinstance(quantity, int):
te
raise ValueError('Must be an int')
By
h
self.quantity = quantity
a t
M
s = Sale(10)
s.quantity = "zero"
t © this works!
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Properties e m
a d
a property is like an attribute, but
A c
à the value is set via a method (setter)
te
à the value is retrieved via a method (getter)
By
th
if name is a property in the Person class, and p is an instance
a
p.name = 'Alex'
M
©
à calls the setter method for name, passing 'Alex'
t
g h
print(p.name)
r i
y
à calls the getter method for name, returning a value
p
C o
y
Read-Only Properties e m
a d
à can create read-only properties
A c
te
à de/ine a getter method
à but don't de/ine a setter By
th
a
M
(write-only properties are possible, but not common, and
a little harder to achieve)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Creating a Read-Only Property e m
a d
à define a method, with the name of the property
A c
à decorate the method with @property
te
class Math:
By
@property
th
this is a getter method
def pi(self):
a
return 3.14
M
m = Math() t ©
g h
m.pi
r i
à calls the method pi(), bound to m (e.g. m.pi())
p y
C o
y
e m
class Person:
a d
self._name = name
A c
notice the underscore
te
à convention
B y
à signifies _name is a private attribute to the class
th
à people using this class should not modify it directly
a
@property
def name(self): M
return self._name
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Read/Write Property e m
a d
à first define a getter à then de/ine the setter
A c
class Person:
te
self._name = name By
th
@property a all these property
def name(self):
M names must be the
©
return self._name same
@name.setter
h t
i
def name(self, value):
r g
y
self._name = value
p
C o
y
Calculated Properties e m
a d
à properties are very general
à they are just methods A c
te
By
à they do not have to be used just to return an attribute
à they can just calculate and return some value
th
class Person:
a
def __init__(self, dob):
self.dob = dob M
t ©
@property
g h
def age(self):
r i
y
age = <calc current age>
p
return age
o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
3rdParty Libraries c a d
A
te
B y
th
26
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
In this and the next sections we are going to cover some popular 3rd party libraries
A c
e
à there are thousands of 3rd party libraries
à so this is just a tiny subset
y t
h B
a t
à those libraries can have a ton of functionality
M
à we can only scratch the surface in a course such as this
t ©
h
à but, you will have all the tools and knowledge you need to research further
g
à read the docs
r i
p y
à read blog posts and see what other libraries are popular for your needs
C o
y
à dealing with time zones and DST e m
d
pytz
c a
dateutil
A
à provides an "intelligent" datetime string parser
te
requests
By
à used to query web servers and web APIs (over http(s))
th
numpy a
à highly ef/icient implementations for array
M
processing and math computations
pandas
t ©
à used for data manipulation and analysis
g h
r i
matplotlib
p y à used for creating plots and charts
C o
y
e m
à these are 3rd party libraries
a d
à they need to be installed
A c
te
pip install
By
th
à we already installed them at the very start of this course
a
M
à but you can also pip install them individually
t ©
à you need to know the package name
g h
r i
à library docs will have that information
p y
C o
y
e m
à create a virtual environment
a d
python3 –m venv env_name
A c
Linux vs Windows
py –m venv env_name
te
à activate virtual environment
By
th
source env_name/bin/activate
a Linux vs Windows
.\env_name\Scripts\activate
M
t ©
à install the library into the virtual environment
g h
pip install pytz
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
The pytz Library A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à used for dealing with time zones
a d
à implements the Olson (or IANA) database
A c
à supports DST (daylight savings times)
te
By
à uniform naming convention
th
US/Eastern
a
M
America/New_York
t ©
Europe/Paris
g h
r i à Area / Location
p y à goes back to 1970 (Unix epoch)
C o
y
e m
à https://pythonhosted.org/pytz/
a d
à pip install pytz
A c
import pytz
te
B y
pytz.all_timezones
h
à returns a list of all named time zones
t
a
à internally uses Python's tzinfo M
t ©
à but with some extras used for DST
g h
i
à a pytz timezone can be used instead of a tzinfo object
r
p y
C o
y
Looking up a Time Zone e m
a d
à can retrieve a time zone from its name
A c
pytz.timezone('US/Eastern')
te
By
pytz.timezone('UTC')
th
à pytz.UTC a
M
©
à can use these time zones instead of Python's tzinfo
t
datetime(
g h
i
2020, 5, 15, 10, 0, 0,
r
y
tzinfo=pytz.timezone('US/Eastern')
)
o p
y
Making a naïve datetime aware e m
a d
à use pytz time zone's localize method
A c
tz_ny = pytz.timezone('America/New_York')
te
tz_ny.localize(naive_dt)
By
th
à pytz will /igure out if it needs to use DST or not!
a
M
à this just attaches the time zone information to the naïve datetime
©
à it does not "convert" the datetime to the new timezone
t
h
i.e. it assumes the datetime was given in the timezone that is
g
i
being attached
r
p y
C o
y
Converting aware datetimes to other time zonese m
a d
c
à once we have an aware datetime we can convert it to another timezone
A
te
à use the astimezone method of the datetime object
B y
à but because we are using pytz timezone objects,
th
conversions work fine, including DST calculations
a
M
à if we start with a naı̈ve UTC time, we can directly transform it to a
speci/ic timezone
t ©
h
ir g
<py_tz_timezone>.fromutc(<naïve datetime>)
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
The dateutil Library A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
à https://dateutil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/ e m
a d
à pip install python-dateutil
A c
à parser
te
y
à ability to automatically parse dates and times from string in various formats
B
h
à this is what we'll look at in this course
t
a
M
but it has a lot more…
à computing dates based on advanced recurrence formulas
t ©
h
à generate sequence of dates weekly on Tuesday and Thursday for 5 weeks
r i g
à generate sequence of dates every weekday for 3 months
p y
à very similar to what you might see when you set recurring
o
calendar meetings
C
y
Basic Parsing Functionality e m
a d
from dateutil import parser
A c
parser.parse('2020-01-01T10:30:00')
te
parser.parse('2020-01-01 10:30:00 am')
By
th
a
parser.parse('12/31/2020')
parser.parse('31/12/2020') M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Ambiguous Month/Day e m
a d
4/3/2020 2020/4/3
A c
à is this Month/Day or Day/Month?
te
à parser default assumes Month/Day
By
i.e. month is specified first
th
a
M
à can override this by using dayfirst keyword argument
parser.parse('2020/4/3')
t © à April 3, 2020
g h
i
parser.parse('2020/4/3', dayfirst=True) à March 4, 2020
r
p y
raises a ParserError exception if date is invalid or unrecognizable
C o
y
Fuzzy Parsing e m
a d
à March the 4th, 2020 A c
à parser can even attempt parsing strings that contain extra information
te
à default parsing will not work
By
th
a
à use fuzzy_with_tokens=True argument when calling parse
à returns a tuple
M
(parsed datetime, ignored text elements)
©
à raises a ParserError exception if date is invalid or unrecognizable
t
g h
i
à it's quite good, but cannot handle just anything
y r
à May the fourth, 2020 is not recognized
o p
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
JSON Data A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à JavaScript Object Notation
a d
A c
à it is a simple way of representing objects using just strings
à very easy to transmit strings te
à over a network, as a text file, etc
By
th
a
M
à JSON is a lightweight standard that we can use to
t ©
à encode an object into a string à serialization
g h
à decode a JSON string into an object à deserialization
r i
p y
à most often used when transmitting data over the web (e.g. REST APIs)
C o
y
e m
à JSON is very simple
a d
A c
à easy for humans to read and write JSON
te
à easy for computers to parse and generate
B y
th
à it is a pure text format
a
à language independent M
(Python, C++, C#, JavaScript, Java, etc)
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
consists of:
e m
object
a d
à unordered key:value pairs delimited by { } (dictionary)
array
A c
à ordered list elements separated by , and delimited by [ ] (list)
values
te
à numbers (integer or with decimal point)
B y
à strings, delimited by double quotes "…"
à boolean true or false th (note the lowercase!)
a
à null
M
(None)
à object
t ©
à so objects can contain other objects, arrays
à array
g h à arrays can contain other arrays, objects
r i
p y
à basically JSON looks like a Python dictionary!
à a JSON object has a single root object – everything else is nested within it
C o
y
Example
it's a string
e m
'''
root is an object
a d
{
"firstName": "Eric",
key: value pairs
key must be a string A c
"lastName": "Smith",
te
strings must be double-quote delimited
"address": {
"country": "USA", By
value is another object
"state": "New York",
th
}, a
"age": 28,
M value is a list
"favoriteNumbers": [42, 3.14],
"likesSushi": false,
t ©
"driversLicense": null
g h
}
r i
'''
p y
Important: order of key:value pairs is irrelevant in JSON – don't count on it!
C o
y
à white spaces (spaces, tabs, newlines) do not matter
e m
a d
'''
{
A c
"firstName": "Eric",
"lastName": "Smith"
te
}
By
'''
th
a
M
'''{"firstName":"Eric","lastName":"Smith"}'''
t ©
à but which is more human readable?
g h
r i
à note the stylistic difference: camelCase vs snake_case
y
à of course, they are just strings, so you can use whatever you want
p
C o
y
Deserializing JSON (decoding) e m
a d
à Python standard library json module
A c
à json.loads(json_string)
te
By
à parses a json string and returns a dict object
th
a
Since JSON is a standard, Python's loads can handle any standard JSON object
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Serializing JSON (encoding) e m
a d
à json.dumps(dict)
A
à returns a JSON string c
à have to be more careful here
te
By
à basic JSON data types are very simple: int, float, str, bool, None
th
a
à Python has a far richer set of data types
M
à datetime, Decimal, custom classes, etc
t ©
à those are not serialized by default, and if we try, we'll get an exception
g h
i
à there is a way to specify custom encoders
r
p y
à beyond the scope of this course
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
REST APIs A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
What is an API? e m
a d
API à Application Programming Interface
A c this is what we interact with
te black box
interface
Your
Software
h B
send/receive data
Software
t
Application
Application
a
M
à enables your application to interact with another application
t ©
h
à a Python class exposes an API à methods, properties
r i g
interface
p y
Python
Code
send/receive data
Class
Instance
C o
y
à these days many applications are "in the cloud"
e m
à CRM à Payroll à trading platforms
a d
à Automated AI
à they expose an API available via the web using http(s)A c

te
à web sites
y
à request data using a URL
B
th
à this is called a GET request (fetches data)
a
M
t ©
server
Software
web
Browser
g h
GET https://site.com/page1
Application
r i
p y
C o
y
How a browser retrieves a web page e m
a d
c
GET https :// mysite.com /path/to/page.html
method protocol domain A
resource path
verb
te
B y
URI (Uniform Resource Identi3ier)
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

th
à also supports query arguments
a
M
à basically like named arguments in Python functions
©
GET https://mysite.com/currentTemp?city=Chicago&units=metric
t
h
à web server at mysite.com waits to receive these requests
g
r i
à browser sends request to web server
y
à server sends back data (often html, but does not have to be!)
p
o
à browser displays returned data
C
y
Sending Data e m
a d
à can also send data to a web server
c
à e.g. user registration data
A
à different methods/verbs à e.g. POST
te
B y
à specific "path" on web server we need to send the data to (specific URL)
th
à data is attached when request is sent by browser
a
M
à web server receives this data and does something with it
©
à and usually returns a response of some kind
t
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
In general… e m
a d
à web servers listen for incoming requests
A c
à request contains
te
à method GET, POST, …
By
à URL
th
à speci/ies exactly what we are trying to "access"
à query arguments (maybe) a
M
à "attached" data (maybe)
t ©
h
the set of what URLs, query arguments, methods and data a web server understands
g
r i
à is essentially an API
p y
à data is not necessarily HTML – can be JSON, XML, …
C o
y
REST APIs e m
a d
à REST APIs are special types of APIs
A c
à REST has to do with how they are implemented and their behavior
te
à as users of the API we don't actually care if it's REST or something else!
By
th
à one of the fundamental characteristics of a REST API is that calls are
independent of each other (stateless)
a
M
à call to API does not rely on remembering how you interacted with it in the past
t ©
à not quite the same with web sites
à log in
g h
r i
à now you can access pages on the site
p y
à web server remembers who you are
C oà stateful

y
Authentication / Authorization e m
a d
c
à REST APIs are generally secured
à you need to be authenticated
A
à web server needs to know who you are
te
à usually a secret token you pass in the request
à in something called headers
B y
th
à just an extra "bucket" of key-value data that can be
a
sent/received along with request
M
à you also need to be authorized to perform the request
t ©
à you may be authorized to read some data
h
à but you may not be authorized to create/delete that data
g
r i
p y
Authentication à establishes who you are to the system you are interacting with
Authorization à governs what you can/cannot do in system
C o
y
API Data Formats e m
a d
à most modern APIs use JSON for sending/receiving data
à sometimes uses XML, or even proprietary formats A c
te
y
simple, easy to read
B
{
"firstName": "Davey",
th
more verbose, but also more powerful
a
"lastName": "Jones",
"ship": "Flying Dutchman",
"lastSeen": 2017, M
©
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
"nationality": null
}
h t
<root>
<firstName>Davey</firstName>
r i g <lastName>Jones</lastName>
p y <lastSeen>2017</lastSeen>
<nationality/>
C o </root>

y
Resources e m
a d
c
à REST APIs allow us to interact with entities, called resources
à bank account
A
à customer
à create new account
te à create new customer
à list accounts for speci/ic customer
à get balance
By à get customer info
à update customer info
à deposit, withdraw
th à delete customer
à delete the account a
M
©
GET https://.../customer/12345/account/5523?query=balance
t
h
à {"balance": 2123.45, "asOf": "2020-04-05T15:35:45+00:00"}
g
r i
POST https://.../customer/12345/account/5523
p y
+ {"action": "withdraw", "amount": 100.0}
o
à {"balance": 2023.45, "asOf": "2020-04-05T16:00:00+00:00"}
C
y
API Methods e m
a d
c
à since humans design/write these APIs, things are not always consistent!
A
GET à retrieves resource(s)
te
à often used with query args
By
th
POST
a
à used to create a resource
M
à issuing the same POST request twice can end up creating two resources
PUT, PATCH
t ©
à usually used for updating an existing resource
g h
DELETE
r i
à delete a resource
p y
C o
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Status Codes e m
a d
à making an HTTP request (GET, POST, etc) always returns a status code
à plus whatever else the API speci/ies
A c
2xx à success
te
200
201
à OK
à Created
B y
request was successful
resource created successfully
202 à Accepted
th
request accepted, but not /inished processing (async)
4xx à you did something wrong a
400 à Bad Request M
server did not understand the request
401
t ©
à Unauthorized technically this means "not authenticated"
403 à Forbidden
g h
this means not authorized
404 à Not Found
r i server cannot /ind speci/ied resource
p y
5xx à Server had an issue à usually not your fault!
C o
à many more… https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_HTTP_status_codes

y
Finnhub Stock API e m
a d
à https://finnhub.io
A c
à provides free and paid tiers
te
à REST API
à uses JSON
By
à mostly GET requests
th
a
à you'll need to sign up for an account to follow along (free tier)
à this is the web M
à things change often!
t ©
h
à by the time you view these videos their APIs could have changed
g
r i
à but I'll show you how to read the documentation in case that happens
p y
à generally things stay backward compatible – clients get really annoyed otherwise!
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
By
Codingth
a
M well, almost…
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
The requests Library A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
à python has a module in the standard library for making http requests
A c
à slightly low level interface (think time vs datetime)
à 3rd party library Requests: HTTP for Humans

te
à pretty much standard
By
th
à even Python's own docs suggest using it!
a
M
©
https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/
t
pip install requests
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Making Requests e m
a d
requests.get(…)
A c
à all standard methods/verbs are implemented as functions
requests.post(…)
te
requests.put()
By
etc…
th
a
à common arguments
M
url
params
t ©
à the URL request will be sent to
à dictionary of query parameters (key = value)
g h
json
r i
à JSON sent in request (usually for POST, PUT, etc)
headers
p yà dictionary of headers (key = value)
C o
and many more…

y
Receiving Responses e m
a d
à it has the following properties (amongst others): A c
à result of making a request (get, post, etc) is a Response object
te
status_code à e.g. 200, 403
By
reason
th
à e.g. OK, Forbidden
a
text
M
à content of the response
json
t ©
à returned deserialized JSON (if any) à so a dict
g h
à reading this property if no JSON is present raises a ValueError
headers
y ri à dictionary of headers received from server
cookies
o p à cookies received from server

y
Example: Google search results (HTML response) e m
search:
a d
à search terms: python http requests
A c
à number of results: 5
te
y
https://www.google.com/search?q=python+http+requests&num=5
B
th
a
à using requests library to retrieve the HTML search results
response = requests.get(
M
url='https://www.google.com/search',
t ©
params={'q': 'python http requests', 'num': 5}
)
g h
r i
response.status_code à 200
p y
response.reason à OK
o
response.text à HTML page browser would display
C
y
e m
à calling an unde/ined URL
a d
response = requests.get(
A c
url='https://www.google.com/search2',
te
)
By
params={'q': 'python http requests', 'num': 5}
th
a
response.status_code à 404 M
response.reason à Not Found
t ©
g h
r i
p y
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e m
a d
A c
te
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Codingth
a
M
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g h
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NumPy c a d
A
te
By
th
27
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e
à NumPy is a widely used library mainly used for working with arraysm
à very fast
a d
à very memory efficient
A c
à very /lexible
te
By
th
a
pip install numpy
https://numpy.org/ M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
What are arrays? e m
a d
à basically lists
à a Python list is a type of array
A c
à elements are indexed
te
à arr[0], arr[1], …
à array can be sliced By

à arr[start:stop:step]
th
à variable size a
à can add / remove elements from array
à heterogeneous M
à elements can have different data types
t ©
à a NumPy array (ndarray)
g h
à /ixed size
r i
p
à homogeneousy
C o
y
Python list vs NumPy ndarray
e m
à these are some of the similarities and differences
a d
ndarray
A c
list
fixed size
te variable size
can be reshaped
By
homogeneous
th heterogeneous
elements have specialized, a elements are
restricted data types M Python objects
indexing arr[i]
t © lst[i]
slicing arr[a:b:c]
g h lst[a:b:c]
r i
y
masking arr[(arr > 2) & (arr < 10)]
p
o
fancy indexing arr[[0, 3, 4]]
C
y
NumPy Efficiency e m
a d
à more space ef/icient than Python
A c
e
à array manipulation and calculations are much faster
t
à vectorization
By
à but at a cost
th
a
à /ixed size
M
à once created, cannot add/remove elements
à elements can be replaced
t ©
h
à homogeneous à all elements must be the same type
r i g
à even in multi dimensional arrays (arrays of arrays)
à data types
p y à it uses data types from underlying C language
C o à memory ef/iciency & vectorization

y
Integer Sizes e m
a d
à integers are stored as sequences of bits (0s and 1s)
à number of bits determines how large the integer can be A c
te
4 bits largest number y
à (1111)2 = 20 + 21 + 22 + 23 = 15
B
à range is: [0, 15] (16 numbers)
th
a
M
à but may want negative numbers
©
à in that case, one bit is reserved to keep track of the sign
t
à 3 bits
g h à (111)2 = 20 + 21 + 22 = 7
r i
-7 -6 … -1 -0 +0 +1 +2 … +6 +7
p y à 0 does not need a sign à [-8, 7]
C o
y
Integer Sizes e m
a d
à 8 bits [-128, 127]
A c
signed à 16 bits [-32_768, 32_767]
te
integers à 32 bits [-2_147_483_648, 2_147_483_647]
By
à 64 bits
th
[-9_223_372_036_854_775_808, 9_223_372_036_854_775_807]
a
à 8 bits [0, 255] M
à 16 bits [0, 65_535]
t ©
unsigned
g h
integers à 32 bits
i
[0, 4294967295]
r
à 64 bits
p y
[0, 18_446_744_073_709_551_615]
C o
y
Floats e m
a d
à Python uses 64 bits to store floats
A c
à certain precision and size of exponent
te
By
à C also has 32-bit floats
th
à less precision, smaller exponent a
à but more ef/icient storage M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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NumPy Types e m
a d
à in NumPy you choose your data type
A c
à if you pick an unsigned 8-bit integer, you can only store numbers in [0, 255]
te
signed integers
y
à int8, int16, int32, int64
B
th
unsigned integers à uint8, uint16, uint32, uint64
a
floats à float32, float64 M
©
(float64 is compatible with Python float)
t
g h
i
complex à complex64, complex128
r
p y
(complex128 is compatible with Python complex)
o
https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.types.html
C
y
Vectorization
e m
suppose we want to multiply every element of one array by the
corresponding element in another array
a d
a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
A c
à result = [10, 40, 90, 160]
b = [10, 20, 30, 40]
te
à loop result = []
By
h
for i in range(4):
result.append(a[i] * b[i])
a t
or [x * y for x, y in zip(a, b)]
M
at every loop, Python must:
à lookup the operand objects t ©
g h
i
à determine the types
r
y
à try to perform the operation (if a * b does not work, it tries b * a)
p
o
C does not have to do all that work à signi/icantly faster
C
y
Vectorization e m
a d
NumPy implements things in such a way that
à given a and b are NumPy arrays (ndarray) A c
te
à given a supported function or operator
By
a + b à add(a, b)
th
a * b
a
à multiply(a, b)
a / b M
à divide(a, b)
sin(a) / sin(b)
t © à divide(sin(a), sin(b))
g h
i
à NumPy pushes the loop and calculations down into C
r
y
à this is called vectorization
p
o
à these functions are called universal functions (ufunc)
C
y
Why are Arrays Important? e m
a d
à most data we deal with is represented as arrays
à often multi-dimensional arrays A c
te
y
à an image is a 2-dimensional array of colored pixels
B
th
à each pixel is an array, e.g. [red, green, blue, alpha]
a
M
à a video is an array of images (a bit oversimpli/ied)
à audio is encoded into arrays

t ©
g h
à stock quotes, tick data are arrays of data
r i
y
à an Excel spreadsheet is a (2-dimensional) array
p
C o
y
NumPy is a huge library e m
a d
à lots of universal functions
A c
e
à financial, math, stats, linear algebra, sorting, sampling, Fourier
t
transforms (discrete) and more…
By
à we'll just look at a few of these
th
a
M
à also introductory look at array creation and manipulation
©
(indexing, slicing, fancy indexing, masking, reshaping)
t
g h
r i
https://numpy.org/doc/stable/
p y
à it also is the foundation for the Pandas library (dealing with data sets)
C o
y
e m
a d
Creating Arrays from Lists A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à first thing is we have to import NumPy
a d
import numpy
A c
te
à typically everyone aliases it for less typing
import numpy as np
By
th
a
M
à the array type is np.ndarray
©
(n-dimensional array)
h t
r i g
p y
C o
y
e m
a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
a d
type(a) à ndarray
A c
te
à but what type was used for the elements themselves?
By
à remember that in NumPy we use the C types, not the Python types
th
a
à also array is homogeneous, i.e. every element has same data type
M
a.dtype à int64
t ©
h
à NumPy analyzes the data and picks something appropriate
g
r i
à in this case a 64-bit integer
p y
à for /loats it defaults to 64-bit /loats
C o
y
Specifying the element data type e m
a d
c
à we can override that default and select a speci/ic type
A
a = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.int8)
te
a.dtype à int8
By
Careful! th
a
M
à do not use a type that is too restrictive
©
à weird things happen when integer in list is too large for specified dtype
t
h
à /loats in a list will be truncated if dtype is set to an integer
g
r i
y
à why not just always use int64?
p
à memory ef/iciency for extremely large datasets
o
y
Multi-Dimensional Python Lists e m
a d
à in this course we'll stick to 2 dimensional arrays
l = [
A c
[1, 0, 0],
te
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 1]
rows
B y
à also called axes
rows à axis 0
]
th columns à axis 1
columns a
M
à only using 2 dimensions is not particularly restrictive
t ©
h
time open high low close prev_close
1603249488
r i g100 102 98 102 100
y
1603249498 200 202 198 202 200
o p
1603249587 300 302 298 302 300

y
Converting Multi-Dimensional Lists to Arrays e m
a d
A c
à works exactly the same way as with 1-D arrays
à but again, remember that all the elements in the array must be of the same type
te
l = [
B y
[1, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
th
[0, 0, 1] a
]
M
t ©
h
m = np.array(l) dtype à int64
ir g
m = np.array(l, dtype=np.uint8)
p y
C o
y
Array Shape e m
a d
c
à shape of an array is number of elements in each dimension
A
[
te
[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]
à 2 dimensions
B y
h
à /irst dimension has 2 elements
]
a t
à second dimension has 3 elements
M
à (2, 3)
[1, 2, 3]
t ©
à 1 dimension
g h
à first dimension has 3 elements
y ri à (3, )
o p
à use the shape attribute of ndarray objects

y
e m
a d
A c
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Codingth
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g h
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e m
a d
Creating Arrays from Scratch A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
à seen how to create arrays from lists
a d
A c
à handy to convert lists of data loaded from a CSV file for example
à or retrieved via a web API
te
By
th
à sometimes we just need to generate specialized arrays
a
à could do it from a Python list M
t ©
h
à but NumPy has several convenient functions
g
r i
p y
C o
y
Array of zeros e m
a d
np.zeros(size_or_shape, dtype) A c
te
By optionally specify data type
th defaults to float64
single number à 1-D array of that length a
tuple à shape (# rows, # columns) M
t ©
[0, 0, 0]
g h
[
[0, 0, 0],
r i [0, 0, 0]
p y ]
C o
y
np.zeros à arrays filled with zeros
e m
a d
np.ones à arrays /illed with ones
A c
np.full
te
à arrays /illed with some speci/ied constant value
B y
à generates identity matrices
h
np.eye
np.arange a t
à generates 1-D array based on a range (start:stop:step)
M
np.linspace
t ©
à generates evenly spaced numbers between start/stop
g h
np.random.random
r i à arrays /illed with random /loats [0, 1)
p y
np.random.randint à arrays filled with random integers [low, high)
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Reshaping Arrays A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
What is reshaping? e m
a d
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] shape à (6, )
A c
te
à using the same elements, we can rearrange them
B y
th
a
[ [ [
[1],
M
[1, 2, 3], [1, 2],
[3, 4], [2],
[4, 5, 6]
]
t © ]
[5, 6] [3],
[4],
(2, 3)
g h [5],
r i (3, 2)
]
[6]
p y (6, 1)
C o
y
Reshaping Shares Elements e m
a d
c
à this is very important (and we'll see later this applies to slicing also)
A
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
te
shap = arr.reshape(3, 2)
B y
th
a [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
[
M
©
[1, 2],
t
[3, 4], these are the same elements
[5, 6]
g h à if you change the value at [0, 0] in shap, it

i
]
r
will change the corresponding value in arr [0]
p y and vice versa
C o à in a sense, reshaping rearranges the "slots"

y
Making a Copy e m
a d
à arr.copy()
A c
te
à this will make a copy of arr
By
th
à can use to break the tie between an array and the reshaped array
a
M
t ©
g h
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e m
a d
A c
te
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Codingth
a
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g h
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C o
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e m
a d
Stacking A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
à concept is very straightforward e m
a
à we can stack arrays one on top of each other (vstack) d
à or we can stack then side by side (hstack)
A c
te
1 2 3
4 5 6
10 20 30
40 50 60
hstack
By 1 2 3 10 20 30
4 5 6 40 50 60
7 8 9 70 80 90
th 7 8 9 70 80 90
a
1 2 3 M
4 5 6
t © 1
4
2
5
3
6
g h
7 8 9 vstack 7 8 9
ri10 20 30 10 20 30
p y 40 50 60 40
70
50
80
60
90
o
70 80 90

y
Stacking e m
a d
à a1, a2, a3 are arrays
A c
np.vstack((a1, a2, a3))
te
à stack vertically
np.hstack((a1, a2, a3))

B y
à stack horizontally
th
a
M
argument is a tuple
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Shapes must be Compatible e m
a d
A c
à if stacking vertically, same number of columns for each array is required
à if stacking horizontally, same number of rows for each array is required
te
1 2 3
By 1 2 3
vstack
4 5 6
th 4 5 6
7 8 9
a 7 8 9 10
0 0 0
M 0 0 0
t © 10 20
1 2 10 20 30 0
g h 1 2
40 50
0
hstack 3 4 40 50 60 0
i
3 4 0
y r
5 6 70 80 90 0 5 6
70
90
80
99
0
o p
y
What happens to dtype? e m
a d
à can stack arrays with different dtype
à NumPy will determine a suitable common data type A c
te
à we cannot control that
By
th
à stacking uint8, uint16 and int64
a
M
à NumPy picks a float64 for the stacked array
t ©
h
in a future version of NumPy (1.20), it will be possible to specify the
g
r i
data type when using the concatenate function – which is a more
y
generic form of vstack and hstack
p
C o
y
Casting an Array to another Data Type e m
a d
arrays we are stacking to a common type
A c
à we can however control the stacked data type by /irst converting the
te
à use the astype method on an array
By
arr1.astype(np.int64)
th
a
M
à so we could use this to stack multiple arrays
np.vstack(
[ t ©
g h
arr1.astype(np.int64),
r i
arr2.astype(np.int64)
]
p y
o
)

y
e m
Stacked Arrays are Independent of Original Arrays
a d
A c
à we saw that a reshaped array is "linked" to the original array
te
à this is not the case for stacked arrays
B y
h
à modifying an element in the stack does not modify original array
t
a
à modifying element in original array does not modify the stack
M
t ©
h
ir g
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e m
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A c
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Codingth
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Indexing A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Python Sequence Types e m
a d
à recall Python sequence types such as lists and tuples
A c
à elements are positionally indexed te
0, 1, 2, …
By
h
à get element at index i lst[i]
à replace element at index i

a t
lst[i] = x
M
à indexing 2-D lists (a list of lists) works the same
arr = [ [1, 2], [3, 4] ] t ©

g h
arr[0][1] à 2
r i
p y
arr[0][0] = 100 arr à [ [100, 2], [3, 4] ]
C o
y
Indexing NumPy Arrays e m
a d
à very similar to Python sequence types
arr = np.arange(1, 7).reshape((2, 3))
A c à
[
[1, 2, 3],
e
[4, 5, 6]
arr[0][0] à 1
y t ]
arr[1][2] à 6
h B
a t
à with NumPy arrays instead of [i][j], we can use [(i, j)]
arr[0][0] arr[0, 0] M
arr[1][2]
t ©
arr[1, 2]
a tuple, so we can omit the ()
g h
à for 1-D array
r i
y
arr = np.arange(1, 7)
p
arr[1] à 2
C o arr[(1,)] à 2

y
Mutating Elements e m
a d
à works the same as Python lists
A c
arr = np.arange(1, 7)
te
By
h
arr[2] = 30 arr à [1, 2, 30, 4, 5, 6]
a t [
M
arr = np.arange(1, 7).reshape((2, 3))
[1, 2, 3],
©
à
[4, 5, 6]
h t [
]
ri
arr[1, 2] = 60 à g [1, 2, 3],
p y ]
[4, 5, 60]
C o BEWARE: data types!

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Codingth
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Slicing A c
te
By
th
a
M
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g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Slicing Python Sequences e m
a d
l = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
A c
te
l[0:3] à [1, 2, 3]
By
th
à slicing returns a new, independent, list
a
slice_ = l[0:3] M
slice_[1] = 20
t ©
slice_ à [1, 20, 3]
g h
r i l à [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
p y
C o
y
Slicing Python 2-D Sequences e m
a d
m = [
[1, 2, 3],
A c
e
[4, 5, 6],
]
[7, 8, 9]
y t
h B
à want to slice in two axes
a t
m[0:2] à [
M
t ©
[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]
g
]
h
r i [
y
[2, 3],
à cannot just use a slice to isolate
o p ]
[5, 6]

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Python Sequence Slice Assignments e m
a d
c
à we can mutate a Python list by using the assignment operator with a slice definition
A
l = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
te
l[0:3] = [10, 20, 30]
By
l à [10, 20, 30, 4, 5]
th
a
M
à since Python lists are not /ixed size, we can also replace the slice with more or less
elements
t ©
l = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
g h
r i
l[0:2] = [10, 20, 30, 40] l à [10, 20, 30, 40, 3, 4, 5]
p y
C o
y
Slicing 1-D NumPy Arrays e m
a d
à very similar to slicing lists
A c
arr = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])
te
arr[0:3] à [0, 1, 2]
By
ndarray (not list)
th
a
à step, negative indexing, etc are all supported, just like list slicing
M
arr[2:6:2] à [2, 4]
t ©
arr[1::2] à [1, 3, 5, 7]
g h
r i
arr[::-1] à [8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]
p y
C o
y
Slicing 2-D Arrays e m
a d
à NumPy provides support for slicing along multiple axes
A c
e
axis 1
0
0
1 2 3
1 2
slice 0:2 along axis 0 y t
axis 0 1 4 5 6
h B
2 7 8 9
a t
and slice 1:3 along axis 1
arr[0:2, 1:3] M
t ©
g h axis 1 slice
axis 0 slice
r i
p y
à can also write this as arr[:2, 1:]
C o
y
Slicing 2-D Arrays e m
a d
à can get even fancier when using steps
A c
axis 1
te
1 2 3 4 5
B y
à can think of this as the intersection of
6 7 8 9 10
thà rows 0, 2, 4 à [::2]
11 12 13 14 15 a à columns 1, 3 à [1::2]
M
axis 0
16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24
t
25© arr[::2, 1::2]
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Slice Assignment in NumPy Arrays e m
a d
à works very similarly to assigning to list slices
A c
te
à cannot replace with an array that is not the same shape
By
à also means we cannot change size of the original array
th
à makes sense since NumPy arrays are fixed size
a
à be careful with data types!
M
a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
t ©
g h
a[0:3] = np.array([10, 20, 30]) a à [10, 20, 30, 4, 5]
r i
p y
à can also replace with a list or tuple – NumPy will handle it
C o
y
Slice Assignment in NumPy Arrays e m
a d
A c
à can also assign a single value (not an array) to a slice
te
B
times as necessary (this is called broadcasting)y
à NumPy basically fills the slice with the same value repeated as many
th
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) a
M
arr[::3] à [1, 4, 7]
t ©
arr[::3] = 0
h
arr à [0, 2, 3, 0, 5, 6, 0]
g
r i
p y
C o
y
Slices are "linked" to Original Array e m
a d
à similar to reshape we saw earlier
A c
te
à a slice is "linked" to the array it was sliced from
By
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
th
s = arr[0:3] à [1, 2, 3] a
M
©
à replacing an element in s will be "seen" by arr
t
à and vice versa
g h
r i
à to avoid this, make a copy of the slice
p y
s = arr[0:3].copy()
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
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Codingth
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Fancy Indexing A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
d
à we saw how to use single index values to specify an array item
a
1-D à arr[3]
A c
2-D à arr[2, 5]
te
à we saw how to use slicing
By
1-D à arr[1:3:2]
th
2-D à arr[1:3:2, :5] a
M
t ©
à single items at a time
g h
i
à items that can be de/ined using slicing
r
y
à sometimes not enough – what if we want items (or rows) 1, 2 and 4?
p
C o
y
One way… e m
a d
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
A c
te
à want an array consisting of elements at indices 0, 1, 3 and 5
By
th
sub = np.array([arr[0], arr[1], arr[3], arr[5])
a
à works M
t ©
g h
à but what we really have is an array of indices np.array([0, 1, 3, 5])
r i
p y
à and NumPy supports specifying elements using an array of indices
instead of just a single index
C o
y
Fancy Indexing e m
a d
à use an array of indices (an index array)
A c
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
te
index_array = np.array([0, 1, 3, 5])
By
th
sub = arr[index_array]
a
M
©
à 1, 2, 4, 6
h t
à can also just define the index array inline
r i g
y
sub = arr[np.array([0, 1, 3, 5])]
p
C o
y
Array Index Shape e m
a d
à shape of array index determines shape of selection
A c
e
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
y t
B
arr[np.array([0, 1, 3, 4])] à [1, 2, 4, 5]
th
a
arr[np.array( M (4, )
[
t © [
[0, 1],
g h à
[1, 2],
[3, 4]
r i [4, 5]
y
] ]
)
o p (2, 2)
y
Fancy Indexing in Multiple Dimensions e m
a d
à fancy indexing can be applied to multiple axes
A c
[index_array, index]
te
[index, index_array]
[index_array, slice]
By
[slice, index_array]
th
[index_array, index_array]
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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index_array and index e m
a d
1 2 3 4 5 A c
arr[1, np.array([0, 1, 3])]
6 7 8 9 10
te
11
16
12
17
13
18
14
19
15
20 By
single row
21 22 23 24 25
th
à [6, 7, 9]
a
M
1
6
2
7
3
8
4
9
5
10
t © arr[np.array([0, 1, 3]), 1]
11 12 13 14 15
g h single column
16 17 18 19
r i20 à [2, 7, 17]
21 22 23
p y
24 25
C o à note how resulting array is 1-D

y
index_array and slice e m
a d
1 2 3 4 5
A c
arr[1:3, np.array([0, 1, 3])
6 7 8 9 10
multiple rows
te multiple columns
11
16
12
17
13
18
14
19
15
20 à [
B y
21 22 23 24 25
th[6, 7, 9],
a [11, 12, 14]
M
]
1 2 3 4 5
t ©
arr[:, np.array([0, 3])
6
11
7
12
8
13
9
14
10
g
15h à [ [1, 4],
16 17 18 19
r i 20
[6, 9],
21 22 23
p y
24 25
[11, 14],
[16, 19],
C o ]
[21, 24]

y
index_array and index_array e m
a d
à keep index arrays same shape
A c
à not commonly used – can be confusing for someone reading your code
te
1-D and 1-D
By
arr[np.array([0, 2]), np.array([1, 3])]
th
a
à think of this as zipping the indices from the two axes
à (0, 1) (2, 3) M
1 2 3 4 t
5 ©
6 7 8
g9h 10
à [2, 14]
11 12
r
13i 14 15
16
p
17
y 18 19 20
o
21 22 23 24 25

y
index_array and index_array e m
a d
2-D and 2-D
A
à again think of this as zipping up indices from both axesc
à but now our "index array" is really 2-D as well
te
arr[np.array([[0, 1], [3, 4]]),
By
np.array([[0, 2], [1, 3]])]
th
0 1 0 2 a
(0, 0) (1, 2)
M
à
3 4 1 3 (3, 1) (4, 3)
1 2 3 4 5
t ©
6 7 8 9
g
10h à [
[1, 8],
11 12 13 14
r i 15 [17, 24]
16
21
17
22
18
23p y
19
24
20
25
]
C o
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A c
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Codingth
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g h
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e m
a d
Masking A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Boolean Masking e m
a d
c
à use an expression that evaluates to a boolean for each element of an array
A
à make an array of those True/False values
te
y
à use that array to "filter" elements in another array
B
> 0 t
apply /ilterh
a
M
10 True 10
-10 False
20
-20
True
False t ©
20
30 True
g h 30
-30 False
r i
p y
C o
y
Comparison Functions e m
a d
c
à functions which can be applied to each element of an array
A
te
à returns an array containing the result for each element
np.less(arr, value) By
th
a
à looks at every element of arr and evaluates element < value
M
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
t ©
np.less(arr, 4)
g h à [True, True, True, False, False]
r i
p y
C o
y
NumPy Logic Functions e m
a d
à other functions exist:
A c
greater less_equal equal
te not_equal
By and more…
th
a
à https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/routines.logic.html
M
à but we can just use comparison operator symbols
< <= > >=
t ©
== !=
g h
r i
à using these will use the NumPy corresponding functions
p y
C o
y
Applying the Mask e m
a d
à this array of True/False values is called a mask
A c
te
à we can apply this mask to an array (use same shaped arrays)
By
h
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
a t
mask = np.array([True, True, False, True])
à or just use M
mask = arr != 3
t ©
arr[mask] à [1, 2, 4]
g h
r i
p y
à can do all this in a single statement arr[arr != 3]
C o
y
Masking 2-D Arrays e m
a d
c
à masks will return a 1-D array, even if array being masked is 2-D
A
à basically applies mask element by element
te
arr = [ mask = arr != 3 By mask à [
[1, 2],
th [True, True],
[3, 4]
a [False, True]
]
M ]
t ©
arr[arr != 3]
g h
à [1, 2, 4]
r i à result is 1-D
p y
C o
y
Combining Logical Operators e m
a d
à Python uses and or not
A c
à for NumPy we have to use
te
& and
By
| or
th
~ not (complement) a
M
à because of operator precedence, use () to group logic expressions
t ©
arr = np.arange(-10, 10)
g h
r i
arr[(arr > 0) & (arr % 2 == 0)]
p y
à [2, 4, 6, 8]
C o
y
e m
a d
A c
te
yB
Codingth
a
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t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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e m
a d
Universal FunctionsA c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
ir g
p y
C o
y
e m
d
à earlier we saw that universal functions are vectorized functions
a
à they apply a function to each element of an array
A c
te
à the loop and function evaluation are done in C, not Python
à very fast
By
th
à we'll see how much faster in coding section
a
M
à NumPy has a large number of universal functions
à trig and hyperbolic

t ©
à math operations (arithmetic, logs, exponentials, sqrt, abs, …)
g h
à comparison functions (equal, less than, greater than, min/max, …)
r i
p y
https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/ufuncs.html#available-ufuncs
C o
y
Universal Functions and Operators e m
a d
c
à add, subtract, multiply, divide, floor_divide, mod, power, …
A
e
à can be called as functions, with at least one argument being an array
t
np.add(arr_1, arr_2)
By
np.add(arr_1, scalar)
th
a
à or just use the + operator M
à Python will use np.add
t ©
g h
à similarly with -, *, /, //, %, **
r i
p y
C o
y
Array and Array e m
a d
[a0, a1, a2] + [b0, b1, b2]
c
à[a0 + b0, a1 + b1, a2 + b2]
A
[a0, a1, a2] % [b0, b1, b2]
te
à[a0 % b0, a1 % b1, a2 % b2]
By
a00 a01 a02 b00 b01 b02
th a00 ** b00 a01 ** b01 a02 ** b02
a10 a11 a12
**
b10 b11 b12 aà
a10 ** b10 a11 ** b11 a12 ** b12
M
à keep array shapes the same
t ©
g h
à technically possible to use different shapes à broadcasting
r i
y
https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.broadcasting.html
p
C o
y
Array and Scalar e m
a d
à simplest form of broadcasting
A c
[a1, a2, a3] * 3
e
à [a1, a2, a3] * [3, 3, 3]
t
B y
scalar
th broadcast to match shape
a
M
1 /
a00 a01 a02
à
t ©
1 1 1
/
a00 a01 a02
a10 a11 a12
g h 1 1 1 a10 a11 a12
r i
p y
C o
y
Mismatched Shapes e m
a d
à sometimes possible
c
à not going to focus on this in this course
A
same number of elements
te
B y
a1 = [
th
a2 = [10, 20, 30]
[1, 2, 3],
a
M
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]
]
t ©
h
[ [
g
[1, 2, 3], [10, 20, 30],
a1 * a2 à
y ri [4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]
* [10, 20, 30],
[10, 20, 30]
o p ] ]

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A c
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Codingth
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e m
a d
c
Additional Math and Stats Functions
A
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e
à NumPy has a host of array manipulation and computational functionsm
a d
à trig/hyperbolic, logs/exponents
A c
e
à linear algebra (matrix/vector products, eigenfunctions/values, inverses, etc)
y t
à stats (averages, variances, correlations, histograms)
à discrete Fourier transforms
h B
a t
https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/routines.html
M
à simple /inancial functions
t ©
h
à mainly related to interest calculations
i g
à slated to be removed from NumPy
r
à don't use them
p y
C o
y
Other More Specialized Libraries e m
a d
à many more specialized libraries
à usually built on top of NumPy and Pandas A c
te
à SciPy
y
interpolation, optimization, integration, linear algebra, stats, …
B
à statsmodels
th
regression, imputation, models, time series, …
a
à pyfolio M
portfolio performance and risk analysis
à QuantLib t ©
quantitative /inancial library
g h
à Quandl r i
useful for getting financial datasets directly into Python (not all
p y datasets are free)
C o
y
Axes e m
a d
à recall discussion on axes
A c
l = [
te
y
[1, 0, 0],
rows
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 1]
h B à also called axes
t
rows à axis 0
]
a columns à axis 1
columns
M
t ©
h
à many of the universal functions in NumPy can operate
g
r i
à on the array as a whole
p y
à along an axis
C o
y
Max e m
a d
à 1-D is intuitive
c
np.amax(np.array([1, 2, 3])) à 3
A
axis 1
te
y
arr à
axis 0
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
h B
9 10 11 12
a t
M
np.amax(arr) à 12
t ©
h
à simply runs through all elements of array
g
r i
p y
C o
y
Max e m
a d
à can specify an axis
A c
np.amax(arr, axis=0) à performs the operation across each row
te
y
(i.e. for each column)
1 2 3 4
h B
axis 0 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 a t
M
t ©
g h
i
[9, 10, 11, 12]
r
p y
C o
y
Max e m
a d
(i.e. for each row) A c
np.amax(arr, axis=1) à performs the operation across each column
te
axis 1
[
B y
1 2 3 4
th 4,
5 6 7 8
a 8,
9 10 11 12
M ]
12
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
Other Functions e m
a d
à some functions only operate element by element
sin sinh arcsin arcsinh A c
log exp around …
te
By
th
a
à some functions, like amax, that operate on groups of data, support axes
amax amin M
mean median std
t ©
sum
g h
cumsum product …
r i
y
https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/routines.math.html
p
C o
y
Histogram e m
a d
c
à np.histogram à creates binned frequency distribution
a = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] A
te
B y
3 5 3
th
bins à [0, 3) [3, 8) [8, 11)
0 3 8 10 11 a à define bin bounds using left edge,
M and rightmost edge (which is inclusive)
t © à bins = [0, 3, 8, 10]
h
np.histogram(a, bins_arr) à tuple: (array frequencies, bins array)
g
np.histogram(a, int)
yri à calculates evenly spaced bins in min/max range
à tuple: (array frequencies, bins array)
o
à other variants p https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.histogram.html

y
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A c
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Codingth
a
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Pandas c a d
A
te
By
th
28
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
c
à Pandas is built on top of NumPy
A
à data manipulation and analysis, focused on tabular and time series data
te
à arrays with rows and columns
By
h
à but uses labels to identify rows and columns
t
a
à in addition to positional indices
M
à columns in the same array can have different data types
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Series à 1-dimensional
A c
te
DataFrame à 2-dimensional
By
h
à a collection of Series objects
a t
M
Index à used to index Series and DataFrame objects
t ©
h
one of the key differences between Pandas and NumPy
g
r i
à NumPy array elements are indexed (implicitly) by position
p y
à in Pandas we can assign our own (explicit) labels
C o
y
e m
à this section will cover some of the basics of Pandas
a d
à Pandas is a huge library
A c
te
à lots of data querying and manipulation functionality
B y
th
https://pandas.pydata.org/
a
à user guide
M
https://pandas.pydata.org/docs/user_guide/index.html
à API reference
t ©
https://pandas.pydata.org/docs/reference/index.html
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
a d
Indexes A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à let me get something out of the way first J
a d
à index
A c
à indexes? à indices?
te
à both are correct
By
à I am not always consistent!
th
a
M
©
usually…
t
à I refer to elements of an index as indices
h
i g
à I refer to multiple index objects as indexes
r
p y
C o
y
What is an index? e m
a d
à arrays / lists
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
A c
0 1 2
te
3
B y
h
element in array can be identi/ied by its (positional) index
t
avalue in a dictionary can be
à dictionaries
{ M identified via its key
t ©
'a': 1,
'b': 2,
g h 'c': 3
y ri }
p
à an index is a way to "look up" one or more values in an array or dictionary
o
y
Sequence Types e m
a d
c
à sequence types such as Python lists, tuple and NumPy arrays
A
e
à have a natural positional order to their elements
t
By
à this forms an implicit index on the sequence uses the
positional
l = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
th l[0] indices
0 1 2 3
a l[1:4]
M
©
à with Pandas we can define an explicit index (in addition to the implicit index)
t
h
idx = ['first', 'second', 'third', 'fourth']
g
r i
l = [
p y 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd' ]
o
à we'll see how this works later
C
y
Pandas Indexes e m
a d
à pd.Index à most generic type of Index
à they contain elements A c

te
à they are based on NumPy arrays
By
h
à they themselves have an implicit positional index
t
a
Python list. tuple,
NumPy array, …
M
idx = pd.Index([10, 20, 30, 40])
idx[0] à 10
t ©
h
idx[1:4] à Index([20, 30])
g
ri
idx[[0, 2]] à Index([10, 30])
y
returns an Index object
p
idx[idx % 4 == 0] à Index([20, 40])
o
y
Specialized Indexes e m
a d
à Int64 indexes
A c
for indexes that contain integer indices
te
y
à Float64 indexes for indexes that contain float indices
à Range indexes
h B
for integer sequence defined via a range
a t
à similar to difference between Python list and range
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] M à sequence is materialized

range(0, 6)
t © à sequence is not materialized
g h à elements are produced as
r i requested when iterating
p y
à Range indexes can be more efficient (storage and computation)
C o
y
Indexes Have Set-Like Properties e m
a d
à can find the union and intersection of indexes
& à intersection A c
te
| à union
in à element of
By
th
a
M
à Pandas will use broadest data type needed for union/intersection
t ©
à RangeIndex indexes will try to return a RangeIndex as result of
union/intersection
g h
r i
à not always possible
p y
C o
y
String, Integer and Float Indexes e m
a d
A c
à strings will result in an Index object, with an object data type (a catchall type)
pd.Index(['a', 'b', 'c'])
te
By
th
à integers will result in an Int64Index object
pd.Index([1, 2, 3]) a
M
©
à /loats will result in a Float64Index object
t
h
pd.Index([0.1, 0.2, 0.3])
g
r i
p y
C o
y
Range Indexes e m
a d
à can create using the Python range object
A c
pd.Index(range(1, 10, 2))
te
By
à can use Pandas RangeIndex class directly
th
a
pd.RangeIndex(start, stop, step)
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
y
e m
à index values do not have to be unique
a d
pd.Index([1, 1, 2, 2])
A c
à perfectly legal
te
y
but if we associate an index with a sequence, how does a non-unique index work?
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A 10
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A 30
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item at index A?
r i g à two items! à [10, 30]
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à an index value may refer to multiple values in the associated array
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à a bit different from Python dictionaries
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Series A c
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Python Sequences, NumPy Arrays e m
a d
à associative arrays
A c
l = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
te those sequences can be used to
0 1 2 3 4
By access (or reference) items in the

sequence
a = np.array([10, 20, 30, 40, 50])
th à they are also called indexes
0 1 2 3 4
a à based on position
M à positional index
t ©
h
à there is an association between the index and the values à associative array
g
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à in Python lists, tuples, NumPy arrays, this positional index is implicit
r
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à index provides a unique mapping between indices and values
p
C o
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Python Dictionaries e m
a d
à another type of associative array
à mapping between keys and values A c
à keys are not positional based
te
à do not even have to be numbers
B y
à but it's still an associative array th
a
d = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
M
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a à 1
g h b à 2
index
r i c à 3
p y
à unique index à no implicit positional index
C o
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Pandas Series e m
a d
à another type of associative array
à has some dictionary-like properties A c
à has some sequence-like properties
te
B y
h
à it's a sequence type – so elements have a de/inite position in collection
t
à positional index
a
à can also de/ine an explicit index M à a second index
t0© 10 a
g h 1 20 b
r i 2 30 c explicit custom
p y
implicit positional index
à it's always there
3 40 d index
à indices are also
C o referred to as labels
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d
0 10 a
1
2
20
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b
c
c a
3 40 d
A
te
à can reference items by positional indices
B y [0] [1] …
à or by using the explicit index

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['a']
t
['b'] …
a
à can even use slicing and fancy indexing
M
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à even with an explicit index that is not numerical
t
h
['a': 'c']
g
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['a':'d':2]
p y
C o
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à indexing works as expected
a d
à slicing has a twist
A c
à positional index [0:5]
te
à excludes endpoint
B y
à explicit index ['a':'c']
th à includes endpoint
a
0 1 2 3 M
10 20 30 40
t © [0:2] à 10, 20
a b c
g h
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['a':'c'] à 10, 20, 30
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p y
Pandas understands that these are not positional indices (strings)
C o
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A point of confusion… e m
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implicit index
0 1 2 3
c a
[100, 200, 300, 400]
A
explicit index
2 3 4 5
te
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[2]
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à is this using implicit index?
[2:3] à or explicit index?
a
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if both implicit and explicit index are integers:
t
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[2] à uses explicit index
g
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[2:3] à uses implicit index
à can be confusing
o p
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loc and iloc attributes e m
a d
c
à allows us to specifically indicate use of implicit or explicit index
A
te implicit index
0 1 2 3
B y
s = 100, 200, 300, 400
th explicit index
2 3 4 5 a
M
s.iloc[2]
t ©
à uses implicit index
g h
s.loc[2]
r i à uses explicit index
p y
C o note the square brackets

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Deleting Items e m
a d
à indexes are immutable
A c
e
à deleting an item would require deleting the corresponding index value
t
à instead use .drop() method
By
th
a
à returns a new series with new explicit index
M
t ©
g h
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p y
C o
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Creating Series objects e m
a d
from pandas import Series
A c implicit index
à from a dictionary
te
Series({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
By 0 1
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explicit index
th a b
a
M
à from a list, specifying explicit index using another list
t ©
Series([1, 2], index=['a', 'b'])
g h
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p y
C o
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Series Attributes and Methods e m
a d
.index à returns the explicit Index object
A c
te
.values
By
à returns a NumPy array of the values
.items
th
à zip of explicit index values and array values
a
.iloc M
à used for indexing using implicit index
t ©
à used for indexing using explicit index
h
.loc
r i g
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.drop à used to remove an element by explicit index
o p
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DataFrames A c
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By
th
a
M
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g h
r i
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C o
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e m
d
à Series à analogous to 1-D NumPy array with an explicit index
c a
A
à DataFrame à analogous to a 2-D NumPy array with an explicit index
te
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à for the rows
B
à and for the columns
h
another way to look ay it… a t
M
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a DataFrame is a collection of Series objects
t
g h
à a common explicit index for the rows à series are aligned
r i
à the columns (Series) form a Series too à explicit index
p y à column names possibly
C o
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explicit index for rows explicit index for columns
e m
a d implicit index
county population gdp

A c area
for rows
The Bronx Bronx 1,418,207

te
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Brooklyn Kings 2,559,903

B y91.559 70.82 1
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Manhattan New York
a
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Queens Queens 2,253,858 93.310 108.53 3
Staten Island Richmond

h t 476,143 14.514 58.37 4
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y 0 1 2 3
o p implicit index for columns

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à can think of it as a Series of Series e m
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à or a dictionary of dictionaries
A c
column index labels
{
te
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'county': {
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'The Bronx': 'Bronx',
'Brooklyn': 'Kings',
…
th
},
a row index labels
'population': {
M
'The Bronx': 1_418_207,
t ©
'Brooklyn': 2_559_903,
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'gpd': { … },
r i
}
…
p y
C o
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Constructing a DataFrame e m
a d
pd.DataFrame(…)
A c
à from a list of Series objects
te
à from a list of lists
By
th
à from a list of dictionaries
a
à from a dictionary of Series objects M
t ©
à from a dictionary of dictionaries
g h
r i
à in some cases row and column explicit indexes are created as expected
p y
à in some cases we may have to define these indexes manually
C o
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Some DataFrame Properties and Methods e
m
a d
.info()
A c
à prints some useful info about the data frame
te
y
.transpose() à transposes the data frame, maintaining indexes
.rename()
h B
à allows us to rename the index labels (rows and/or columns)
a t
M
.set_index() à use an existing column in the data frame as a row index
.index
t ©
à the Index object used to index the rows
h
ir g
.columns à the Index object used to index the columns
.drop()
p y à used to drop rows/columns from the data frame
C o
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Selecting Data A c
te
By
th
a
M
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g h
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C o
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DataFrames e m
a d
axis 1 - columns
à analogous to a Series of Series
A c
e
axis 0 - rows
t
à or a dictionary of lists / dictionaries
B y
th
{
"col0": { a
M
"row0": value,
},
t © "row1": value
h
"col1": {
g
r i "row0": value,
"row1": value
p y }
C o }
à a sequence of aligned columns

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e m
d
à consider it as a Series of Series c1 c2 c3
r1 1
c
df = r2 4 a 2
5
3
6
Ar3 7 8 9
à c1 is a series of values
te
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share a common row index ['r1', 'r2', 'r3']
B
h
a t
à df is like a Series [c1, c2, c3] with index ['c1', 'c2', 'c3']
M
à or like a dictionary {'c1': c1, 'c2': c2, 'c3': c3}
t ©
g h
df['c1'] à this selects the item with label 'c1'
r i
p y
à the column (series) c1
o
à note that [] cannot be used with positional indices with DataFrame objects
C
y
loc and iloc e m
a d
à just like with Series, but with 2 axes
à loc uses the explicit index A c
te
à iloc uses the implicit (positional) index
B y
th
à but think of DataFrame like a NumPy array with two axes
a
axis 1 (columns)
M
df.loc[v1, v2]
t © df.iloc[v1, v2]
g h
r i axis 0 (rows)
p y
o
à slicing and fancy indexing works the same way as with Series, but using 2 axes
C
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Replacing Values e m
a d
à can replace values using assignment (==) operator
A c
à replace single selected cell
te
à with a scalar value
By
th
a
à replace multiple cells selected using slicing/fancy indexing
M
à with a 2-D NumPy array/list of lists of same shape
t ©
à with a scalar value that will be broadcast
g h
à with a 1-D NumPy array that will be broadcast
r i
y
à can replace with a Series or DataFrame but indexes can cause issues!
p
C o
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A c
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Codingth
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Missing Values A c
te
By
th
a
M
t ©
g h
r i
p y
C o
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Python e m
a d
à None object
A c
à can be used to indicate unde/ined or missing in a sequence
[1, 2, None, 4]
te
B y
h
à IEEE standard for floats also has the concept of an undefined float
t
à NaN (not a number) a
M
à float('nan')
t ©
à math.nan
g h
à np.nan
r i
p y
C o
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Equality of NaN e m
a d
à two NaN values always compare False
A c
te
à cannot compare two undefined (unknown) values…
a = math.nan
By
a == b à False
b = math.nan
th
a is b à False
a
M
à so how do we test if a number is NaN?
à math.isnan()
t ©
g h
math.isnan(np.nan) à True
r i
y
à NumPy universal function np.isnan()
p
C o
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Pandas Series e m
a d
à if the series is a series of /loats
A c
nan à nan
te
None à nan
B y series was made into a float

pd.Series([1, 2, None, np.nan])
th
a
M
à [1.0, 2.0, NaN, NaN], dtype=float64
t ©
à if the series is a series of object (for example for series of strings)
g h
r i
pd.Series(['a', 'b', None, np.nan]) None was not
p y converted to NaN
C o
à ['a', 'b', None, NaN], dtype=object

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Testing for Missing Data e m
a d
à could be None à could be NaN
A c
te
à pd.isnull() à handles both
By
h
à universal function (operates on Series or DataFrames)
a t
à returns element by element comparison
M
à True if value is None or NaN
t ©
à pd.notnull()
g h
à similar to isnull(), but opposite result
r i
p y
C o
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Replacing Series Missing Data e m
a d
à use loops to iterate and replace missing values
A c
à specialized Pandas functions
te
à s.fillna(value)
B y
à replaces any null with specified value
th
à s.fillna(method=…)
a
à method = 'ffill'
M
à forward fill
t ©
null, 1, null, 2, null, null
g h
y ri à [null, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]
p
à method = 'bfill'
o
à backward /ill

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Replacing DataFrame Missing Data e m
a d
à works same as Series replacement
à but the axis is important for back/forward fills
A c
t
back/forward Cill along axis 1e
0.0 0.1 0.2
B
0.3
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or along axis 0 1.0 NaN 1.2
th1.3
2.0 2.1 NaN
a 2.3
3.0 3.1
M
3.2 3.3
t ©
g h
df.fillna(method='ffill', axis=0) 2.0 2.1 1.2 2.3
r i
p y
df.fillna(method='ffill', axis=1) 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.3
C o
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Interpolating Missing Data e m
a d
à more advanced techniques
A c
à linear interpolation
te
à splines …
By
th
a
à beyond scope of this course M
t ©
à but will look at simple linear interpolation in code
g h
r i
https://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/reference/api/pandas.DataFrame.interpolate.html
p y
C o
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Dropping Data e m
a d
à already saw this for Series objects
A c
à DataFrame is 2-D 0.0 0.1
te 0.2 0.3
1.0
2.0
B y
NaN
2.1
1.2
NaN
1.3
2.3
t
3.0
h 3.1 3.2 3.3
à do we delete rows with missing values?
a
M
à or do we delete columns with missing values?
à need to specify an axis
t ©
df.dropna(axis=0)
g h
r i
df.dropna(axis=1)
p y
à axis defaults to 0 if we don't specify it
C o
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A c
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Loading Data A c
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By
th
a
M
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g h
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C o
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à Pandas has built-in functions for loading many types of data
a d
in this lecture we'll look at
A c
à CSV files te
à Excel files By
th
a
M
à many other data sources are supported (SQL, JSON, SAS, SPSS, etc)
t ©
h
https://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/reference/io.html
g
r i
p y
C o
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Loading a CSV File e m
a d
c
à pd.read_csv(<file_name>)
à has many optional arguments A

te
à header B y
à sep and delimiter (just like Python's csv.reader)
row number to use as column labels, otherwise
infers them
th
a
M
à usecols a list of positional indexes indicating which
columns to keep
à names
t ©
renames the columns
à index_col
g h
speci/ies (by name or index) which column to use
r i as the row index
p y
o
https://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/reference/api/pandas.read_csv.html
C
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Loading an Excel File e m
a d
à Pandas relies on external 3rd
à many exist, such as xlrd, openpyxl
A c
party libraries to read Excel files
te
à need to pip install the library in your virtual env
B y
à already done if you followed install at beginning of course
th
à pd.read_excel('file_name')
a
à sheet_name
M
the sheet name, or index (zero based) to load
à header
t ©
à usecols
g h
à names
r i
à index_col
p y and more…
o
https://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/reference/api/pandas.read_excel.html
C
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A c
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Basic Data AnalysisA c
te
B y
th
a
M
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C o
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à basic facts about a loaded data set
a d
.info()
A c
àcolumn names, types, not-null counts
te
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.describe() à mean, min, max, quartiles, std dev
B
h
à by default only includes numerical columns
t
à include='all' a
M
à categorical columns
t ©à # unique values
g h à most frequent value + frequency
r i
p y
àoutput is "print" output
C o
y
e m
à equivalent methods to obtain the same data
a d
.nunique() à # of unique values
A c
.unique()
te
à array of unique values
.value_counts() B y
à Series of values and their frequency
th
.count() a
M
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.mean()
.std()
h t
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.quantile()
p y
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A c
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Sorting and Filtering A c
te
B y
th
a
M
t ©
h
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C o
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Filtering e m
a d
à boolean masking
A c
t
à works similarly to NumPy and Series maskinge
à create a boolean masking array
By
th
à apply mask to data frame
a
à use explicit or implicit indexM
mask = df['col'] >= 0
t ©
g h
i
mask = df.iloc[:, 2] >= 0
r
p y
df[mask]
C o
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Sorting e m
a d
à sort rows based on the row index labels
A c
df.sort_index()
te
By
à sort rows based on values in a column
th
a
M
df.sort_values('col label')
t ©
à similarly to Python's sorted() function, these support a key argument
g h
r i
p y
C o
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Reviewing sorted(key=…) e m
a d
l = ['Z', 'a', 'b']
A c
sorted(l, key=lambda x: x.casefold())
te
By
à key is a function that transforms each element of l, one by one
th
l = ['Z', 'a', 'b'] a
M
sort_keys = ['z', 'a', 'b']
t ©
g h
i
à sorting is then based on sort_keys
r
y
à sort by an associated series of keys
p
C o
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The key Argument for DataFrames e m
a d
à sort by an associated series of keys
A c
te
à instead of using a function that generates the keys one by one
By
à use a vectorized function to generate the sequence of sort keys all at once
th
a
M
à key function receives a Series as its argument
©
à should return a Series object with same shape
t
h
s = Series([1, -1, 2, -2])
g
r i
p y
key = np.abs(s) à Series([1, 1, 2, 2])
C o
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Sorting by Index e m
a d
a
B
1
4
2
5
3
6
A c
c 7 8 9
te
By
def sort_func(ind):
th sort_func(df.index)
return ind.str.casefold()
a à ['a', 'b', 'c']
M
df.sort_index(key=sort_func)
t ©
or
g h
r i
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df.sort_index(key=lambda ind: ind.str.casefold())
p
C o
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Sorting By Values e m
a d
à same as sorting by index
A c
à uses some specified column instead of index
te
c1 c2 c3
By
a 1 -2 3
th
df.sort_values('c1')
B -4 5 6
a
M
c 7 8 -9 à sorts based on values in c1
t ©
c1 c2 c3
g h B -4 5 6
r i a 1 -2 3
p y
index is preserved
c 7 8 -9
C o
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Sorting by Values with a key e m
a d
c
à key function receives the sort by column (Series) as its argument
A
e
c1 c2 c3
a 1 -2 3
y t
B -40 5
c 7
6
8 -9
h B
a t
df.sort_values('c1', key=lambda col: np.abs(col))
M
à returns a new Series t ©
à key function receives column c1 as its argument
h
à 1, 40, 7
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c1 c2 c3
r g
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c 7 y
a 1 -2 3
8 -9
C o B -40 5 6

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Sorting on Multiple Columns e m
a d c1
a
c2
-1
c3
100
à can specify a multi-level sort based on multiple columns
A c z
a
2
-3
200
300
te a 10 400
By z -1 500
th
a
df.sort_values('c1') à stable sort based on c1 column c1 c2 c3
a -1 100
M a -3 300
t © a
z
10
2
400
200
h
df.sort_values(['c1', 'c2']) c1 c2 c3
z -1 500
i g
à sorts on c1, then c2
r
a
a
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300
100
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o
z -1 500
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Manipulating Data A c
te
B y
th
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M
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C o
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à vectorized operations similar to NumPy arrays
a d
.count .sum .prod
A c
.min .max .mean .std
te
By
th
à works across all elements of DataFrame
a
à or along a speci/ied axis
M
à regular arithmetic operators
t ©
g h
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à NumPy universal functions
p y
C o
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à .transpose()
a d
a
A 0
b
1
c
2
A
a 0
B
3
C
6 A c
B 3 4 5
à
b 1 4 7
te
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à to_numeric() a
à int, float M
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à entries that cannot be converted result in an exception
g h
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à can override this behavior using the errors argument
r
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errors = 'coerce'
C o
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Concatenating DataFrames e m
a d
à concatenate along an axis
pd.concat([df1, df2, …], axis=0|1) A c
te
axis = 1 à horizontally
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axis = 0 à vertically
B
th
à uses row or column index to "align" concatenated rows/columns
a
axis = 1 M a b c d e f
a b c d
te© f r1 1 2 3 1 2 3
r1 1 2 3
h
r1 1
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r2 4 5 6 4 5 6
r2 4
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5
8
6
9 r i r2 4
r4 7
5
8
6
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r3
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7
nan
8
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nan
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C o à this is called an outer join

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Concatenating DataFrames e m
a d
à outer joins are the default
A c
à in an outer join "missing" data in the join are replaced with NaN
e
a b c d e f
a b c d e f r1
r2
1
4 y t 2
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3
6
1
4
2
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r1 1 2 3 r1 1 2 3
r2 4 5 6 r2 4 5 6 r3
th 7 8 9 nan nan nan
a
r3 7 8 9 r4 7 8 9 r4 nan nan nan 7 8 9
M
à in an inner join, missing rows/columns are dropped entirely
a
r1 1
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c
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r2 4 5 6 r2 4
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pd.concat([df1, df2], axis=1, join='inner')
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Matplotlib c a d
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à Matplotlib is a popular graphing library
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https://matplotlib.org/
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à integrates well with Jupyter Notebooks
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àthere are many others available too
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à geoplotlib
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maps, geographical data
à ggplot M
little simpler than matplotlib, not as
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customizable (based on matplotlib)
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à plotly
r i interactive plots/web, contour plots, 3D, …
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and more…
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à numerous extension packages to Matplotlib
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à financial
à maps and map projections A
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à specialty axes (like broken axes)
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à electronic circuits
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à Venn diagrams
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à density maps M
à statistical maps
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à ML visualizations and many more…
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https://matplotlib.org/3.1.0/thirdpartypackages/index.html
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à we'll look at how to create and theme various Matplotlib charts
à single plots
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à overlayed plots
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à grids of plots
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à we'll look at OHLC plots using mplfinance extension
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https://github.com/matplotlib/mpl/inance
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à pip install matplotlib
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pip install mplfinance
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Matplotlib Basics A c
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Imports e m
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à two sections of the matplotlib library we will use often
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import matplotlib as mpl
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import matplotlib.pyplot as plt By
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Styles e m
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mpl.style.available
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à returns a list of the various styles available on your system
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à a list of strings
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use the exact string as listed above
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mpl.style.use('…') M
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à sets your notebook to use a particular style
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à see a preview of various styles
https://matplotlib.org/3.2.1/gallery/style_sheets/style_sheets_reference.html
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Anatomy of Figures e m
figure legend
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Title blue line
red line
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te scatter plot markers
major ticks
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y-axis label th line plots
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minor ticks
Axes
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0 1 2 3 4 5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
0.25
0.75
1.25
1.75
2.25
2.75
3.25
3.75
4.25
4.75
x-axis label
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major tick labels minor tick labels

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Creating a Figure and Axes e m
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à simplest is to use subplots() function in pyplot module
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import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
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plt.subplots()
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à creates a new figure and one Axes object
à returns it as a tuple a
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à and displays the figure in Jupyter
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fig, ax = plt.subplots()
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à blank chart
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à need to specify something to plot
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Plotting Data e m
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à we add a plot to an Axes
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ax.plot(x_coords, y_coords, label='…')
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à this adds a (line) plot to the Axes object, with specified plot name (used in legend)
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à x and y coordinates can be lists, NumPy arrays, Pandas columns, …
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à can keep adding more plots to same Axes
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à we have to display the figure to see the result
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à typically create figure and plots in a single Jupyter cell
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Additional Axes Settings e m
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ax.set_xlabel('…')
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à sets the x-axis label
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ax.set_ylabel('…')
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à sets the y-axis label
ax.set_title('…')
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à sets the title
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ax.legend() à creates and adds a legend
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à note how all these are applied to the Axes object
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à later we'll see how to add multiple Axes to the same figure
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Multi Plots A c
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Multiple Plots on Same Axes e m
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à saw this in previous lecture
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à just keep adding plot to same Axes object
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ax.plot(…)
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ax.plot(…)
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Multiple Axes on Same Figure e m
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à we can also chart multiple Axes on the same /igure
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à grid layout
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à number of columns
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à number of rows
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plt.subplots(n_rows, m_columns)
à creates the figure M

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à creates n * m Axes objects laid out as speci/ied
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à returns figure and collection of Axes as a 2-value tuple
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à first element is the figure
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à second element is a NumPy ndarray with all the Axes
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Setting Figure Size e m
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à technically size is defined in width and height in inches
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à what that shows up as on your screen will depend on your resolution (dpi)
à default is 6.4 (w) x 4.8 (h)

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à can specify for a single figure
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plt.subplots(figsize=(width, height))
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à or speci/ied as a global change
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plt.rcParams['figure.figsize'] = [width, height]
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à play around with width/height until you /ind a setting you like
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More Plot Types A c
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Plot Styles e m
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à plot(…) a line plot
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à bar(…) vertical bar plot
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à scatter(…)
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scatter plot
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à plenty more…
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https://matplotlib.org/3.1.1/gallery/index.html
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Adding Vertical/Horizontal Lines to Axes e m
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à sometimes useful to add vertical/horizontal lines to a chart
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à display info such as mean, median, other important "values"
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ax.axhline(y=…, xmin=0, xmax=1)
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ax.axvline(x=…, ymin=0, ymax=1) a
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xmin/xmax
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à values between 0 and 1
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à 0 indicates left edge, 1 indicates right edge
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ymin/ymax
p y à values between 0 and 1
C o à 0 indicates bottom edge, 1 indicates top edge

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Histograms e m
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à can use NumPy to generate histogram data, and then use Matplotlib
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à but also built-in to Matplotlib directly
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ax.hist(data, bins=…)
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à data is the data for which we want to generate the histogram
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à bins specifies the number of bins we want to use
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Codingth
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Charting with mplfinance A c
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mplfinance e m
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https://github.com/matplotlib/mplfinance
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à add-on to Matplotlib that provides extra plot types
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pip install mplfinance
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à import it in Jupyter
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import mplfinance as mpf
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à we'll use it for candlestick/OHLC charts
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Plotting OHLC Charts e m
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à simplest is to arrange a Pandas data frame as follows:
A c
à index is the datetime for each row
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à /ive data columns in speci/ic order
By
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à Open, High, Low, Close, Volume
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mpf.plot(data_frame) M
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Additional Plot Arguments e m
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à type
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used to specify chart type (e.g. 'ohlc', 'candle')
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à mav
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used to superimpose one or more moving averages
à single value for single mav, tuple of values for multiple
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à volume a
True to display Volume bar chart (defaults to False)
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à show_nontrading
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True to show non-trading days in chart
(gaps), defaults to False
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Superimposing Plots e m
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à create subplots
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à plots = mpf.make_addplot(…)
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à add them to main plot when creating it
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à mpf.plot(…, addplot=plots) a t
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Codingth
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Conclusion c a d
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By
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30
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Congratulations!!!th
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What we covered e m
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à the Python language
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à basic and advanced data types
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à some of the Python standard library
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à some popular 3rd party libraries th
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requests à Web and API requests, JSON
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Numpy à ef/icient array computations
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Pandas à loading and manipulating data
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Matplotlib à charting data
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Important References e m
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www.python.org
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numpy.org
pandas.pydata.org
h B
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matplotlib.org
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requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/
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Practice! e m
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à to learn programming: practice, practice, practice
à yes, it can be hard A c
à yes, you'll make mistakes
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à even seasoned devs struggle and make mistakes – often!
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àread (and understand) other peoples' code
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à if you work with other devs, review each other's code
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à or find a developer friend who can do that
à look at open source projects (GitHub)
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à be patient – don't give up
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à you won't become an expert in 3 weeks
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à as you write more code, you'll become more and more proficient
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Practice Sites e m
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à there are many sites where you can practice with coding challenges
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edabit.com
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coderbyte.com
www.codewars.com a t
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www.hackerrank.com
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and many more…
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Additional Resources e m
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stackoverClow.com à if you have a coding question
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à you probably weren't the first with that question
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à you will probably /ind an answer, at least close
à if not, you can post your question
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à just browse questions/answers – incredibly informative
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Python Cookbook, by Beazley and Jones (O'Reilly Press)
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Fluent Python, by Ramalho (O'Reilly Press)
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YouTube à experts such as Hettinger, Beazley, Martelli, PyCon talks
Twitter
p y à Raymond Hettinger (@raymondh)
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Codingth
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g h almost kidding!
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à try executing these (separately) in a Jupyter cell
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import this A c
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import __hello__
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import antigravity
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à if you're a dev who would rather use braces {} for code blocks
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from __future__ import braces
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I hope you enjoyed this course as much as I enjoyed creating it
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Thank You!! th
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y

r i g dictionaries and sets

p y dates and times

p y Using REST APIs

à downloadable course materials

à this can create conflicts! t ©

reference Python installt ©

C o à usually .ipynb extension

C o "My dog likes cats" is False

var my_var index1 a index_1

Certain types of operators include:

Python integer division:

131 131 131 97: 3

C o the same objects!

© MathByte Academy 100

© MathByte Academy 101

g h True and False

© MathByte Academy 109

© MathByte Academy C 111

à price < 100 is False M

o p indent to form the else block

© MathByte Academy C 120

© MathByte Academy C 121

if grade >= 70: M

© MathByte Academy C 127

o p elif statement executed

© MathByte Academy C 128

à lists can be heterogeneous B y

à lists have unbounded growth M à can add as many elements as we want

t © à but they are still finite

© MathByte Academy C 149

à this list is homogeneous M

à but they don't have to be

o p the last element of this list is itself a list

© MathByte Academy C 150

l = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]

© MathByte Academy 154

(10, 20, (3, 4))

© MathByte Academy 160

t = 10, 20, [True, True]

l[0:2] à starts at 0, and includes element at 0

© MathByte Academy C 172

à can also leave the start index blank

l[9:6:-1] à [100, 90, 80]

© MathByte Academy 177

© MathByte Academy C 207

Hexadecimal – uses powers of 16

>?15 = 5×16! + 1×16" + 12×16# + 15×16$

© MathByte Academy C 211

p y straight into your Python code

© MathByte Academy C 216

© MathByte Academy 219

à tedious to type out M

© MathByte Academy C 235

© MathByte Academy 241

range(start, end, step)

à immediately jumps to the next iteration