Name: Sahil Agrawal

Roll Number: 20IM10045

Aim of the Experiment

- To understand RC circuits as Low-Pass Filter, CR and RL as High- Pass

Filter and understand the behaviour of both.

- To understand square wave response of RC circuit and understand RC

circuit as a Differentiator and Integrator

Tools Used
1) Resistors
2) Capacitors
3) Inductor
4) Multimeter
5) Oscilloscope
6) Sinusoidal Voltage Source
7) Square wave Voltage Source
8) LT Spice

Background Knowledge-

Voltage Divider

A voltage divider is a simple circuit which turns a large voltage into a smaller
one. Using two series resistors and an input voltage, we can create an output
voltage that is a fraction of the input.
Circuit diagram

Graph

Vin = 6V p-p , Vout = 0.95 V, f = 20 KHz

RC Frequency Response

RC low pass filter

A simple passive RC Low Pass Filter or LPF, can be easily made by

connecting together in series a single Resistor with a single Capacitor.
In this type of filter arrangement the input signal (Vin) is applied to the series
combination of resistor and capacitor but the output signal (Vout) is taken
across the capacitor only.

They allow any frequency ranging from 0 Hz to its cut-off frequency fc while
blocking any frequency greater than fc to pass through them. fc is calculated
by fc = 1/2𝜋RC where R is resistance and C is capacitance of the circuit in
their respective SI units.

The range of frequencies from 0 to fc is called pass band of the filter and the
range of all the frequencies greater than fc is called stop band of the filter.

Circuit Diagram

Here, we have taken R = 10 kΩ, C = 0.1 uF, and Vin = 1.2 V ∴ fc = 1/2𝜋RC =
159.155 Hz
Observation table

Graph

-3 dB cutoff frequency, fc = 159.16 Hz which is approximately equal to the

theoretical value 159.155 Hz.
C-R High pass filter

A simple passive RC High Pass Filter or HPF, can be easily made by

connecting together in series a single Resistor with a single Capacitor as
shown below. In this type of filter arrangement the input signal (Vin) is applied
to the series combination (both the Resistor and Capacitor together) but the
output signal (Vout) is taken across the resistor only.

They block any frequency ranging from 0 Hz to its cut-off frequency fc and
allow any frequency greater than fc to pass through them. Here also, fc is
calculated by fc = 1/2𝜋RC where R is resistance and C is capacitance of the
circuit in their respective SI units.

The range of frequencies from 0 to fc is called stop band of the filter and the
range of all the frequencies greater than fc is called pass band of the filter.

Circuit Diagram

Here, we have taken R = 10 kΩ, C = 0.01 uF, and Vin = 1.2 V

∴ fc = 1/2𝜋RC = 1591.55 Hz
Observation table

Graph

-3 dB cutoff frequency, fc = 1591.67 Hz which is approximately equal to the

theoretical value 1591.55 Hz.
L-R High pass filter

Same as C-R High- Pass Filters, R-L High-Pass Filters block low frequencies
and allow high frequencies to pass through them. In R-L High-Pass Filters, the
output voltage is taken across the inductor. We know that the inductive
reactance is directly proportional to source frequency, so at high frequencies,
the inductor will offer very high impedance and so it will allow very less current
to pass through it. So, maximum amount of voltage drop occurs at the inductor
and a negligible amount of voltage drop occurs at the resistor. But at low
frequencies, the inductor acts almost like a straight wire and so, negligible
voltage drop occurs across it. Hence, high frequencies easily pass through it,
while low frequencies cannot.

They block any frequency ranging from 0 Hz to its cut-off frequency fc and
allow any frequency greater than fc to pass through them. Here also, fc is
calculated by fc = R/2𝜋L where R is resistance and L is inductance of the
circuit in their respective SI units.

The range of frequencies from 0 to fc is called stop band of the filter and the
range of all the frequencies greater than fc is called pass band of the filter

Circuit Diagram

Here, we have taken R = 1.5 kΩ, L = 2.2 mH, and Vin = 1.2 V ∴ fc = R/2𝜋L =
108.514 KHz.
Observation Table

Graph

-3 dB cutoff frequency, fc = 108.6 KHz which is approximately equal to the

theoretical value 108.514 KHz.
RC Pulse response

R-C Saw-Tooth Wave

Saw-Tooth wave occurs in RC Circuit when the capacitor gets sufficient time
to charge itself. An RC circuit gives Saw-Tooth waveform as an output when
the frequency of the source voltage is sufficiently low, such that the capacitor
gets sufficient time to charge itself and then discharge itself. (i.e. T >> RC or
when T ≥ 5RC)

Circuit diagram

Here, we have taken R = 10 kΩ, C = 0.1 uF, and Vin = 1.2 V PRF = 150 Hz , T
>> RC Rise time = 2.2 RC = 2.2 ms. ( Time to reach 0.1Vin to 0.9Vin )
Graph

Vout Amplitude = 1.16 V Rise time = 2.23 ms which is approximately equal to

theoretical rise time 2.2 ms.

RC integrator

The Integrator is a circuit that converts or ‘integrates' a square wave input

signal into triangular waveform output.
So, we put a resistor such that we can control the current and ideally try to
have dVout/dt to be a constant. Since the current does not change much during
the initial part of the charging and discharging of the capacitor , the value of
RC must be chosen such that it is large compared to the time period of the
square wave.
Circuit Diagram

Here, we have taken R = 10 kΩ, C = 0.1 uF, and Vin = 1.2 V PRF = 1.5 KHz ,
T << RC

Graph
RC as differentiator

The Differentiator circuit converts or 'differentiates' a square wave input signal

into high frequency spikes at its output.
In an RC circuit if we take the voltage drop across R, and if we keep RC
time constant is very short compared to the time period of the input waveform
we will be differentiating the square wave.
Circuit Diagram

Here, we have taken R = 100 kΩ, C = 0.1 nF, and Vin = 1.2 V PRF = 1.5 KHz
, T >> RC

Graph
R-L Differentiator

R-L differentiator acts the same way as C-R Differentiator and converts
square wave pulses into high frequency spikes at the output, except there is
an R-L circuit and the output voltage is taken across the inductor.

Circuit Diagram

Here, we have taken R = 1.5 kΩ, L = 2.2 mH, and Vin = 1.2 V PRF = 15 KHz ,
T >> L/R
Graph

Discussion

1) Frequency response curves are plotted in semi log with frequency in log
scale or log log plots i.e. intervals in x-axis are in decades and not uniform
intervals in order to compare the area of the required skill and obtain sharp
changes.

2) An RC circuit acts as an integrator circuit when it is subjected to a very high

frequency square wave, such that the time period of the square wave is very
very less than the time constant of the RC circuit, so the capacitor does not
get enough time to charge, so it rapidly charges and discharges, forming a
triangular wave pattern of voltage

3) An RC Circuit gives a Saw-Tooth waveform when the time period of input

voltage is sufficiently large so that the capacitor charges completely. Then, the
capacitor voltage gives a series of concave charging and convex discharging
graphs which give the form of a Saw-Tooth

4) In CR Differentiator Circuit also, the time period of input voltage is

sufficiently large to charge the capacitor completely, so that we get uniform
spikes in the output voltage.
5) An L-R circuit can be used in place of an R-C circuit to act as a Low-Pass
Filter, similarly, an R-L circuit can be used in place of C-R circuit to act as a
High-Pass Filter, this is because of the direct dependence of inductive
reactance on the frequency of the source

6) An L-R circuit can be used in place of an R-C circuit to act as a low-pass

filter, similarly, an R-L circuit can be used in place of C-R circuit to act as a
high-pass filter, this is because of the direct dependence of inductive
reactance on the frequency of the source.

7) Also, these combinations of Resistor & Inductor can be used to create

Differentiators and Integrators based on their configurations (i.e. R-L
Differentiator and L-R Integrator)

Conclusion

We concluded that different combinations of Resistor & Capacitor and

Resistor & Inductor can be used to create different types of frequency
filters/modulators, signal differentiators and signals .

Sign……………