B. Stillborg Mee rt | Users Handbook els ROCK Mee) alte an rrr W alate] " TRANS TECH PUBLICATIONS a ALE eSeC eae aOther volumes published within the Series on Rock and Soil Mechanics Vutukuri, V.S. & Lama, R.D. Handbook on Mechanical Properties of Rocks Yois. I-IV 1974/1978 Hardy, HLR., Jr. & Leighton, F.W,; Acoustic Emission/Microseismic Activity in Geologic Structures and materials First Conference 1977 Ku Wh, LiL, & Nowatzki, B.A: oil Mechanics for Off-Road Vehicle Engine 1977 Baguelin, F, Jézéquel, JP. & Shields, DH. ‘The Pressuremeter and Foundation Engineering 1978 Assonyi, Cs, & Richter, R.: ‘The Continuum Theory of Rock Mechanies 1979 Hardy, HR., Jr. & Leighton, F.W.t Acoustic Emission/Microseismic Activity in Geologic Structures and Materi: ‘Second Conference 1979 Hanna, T.H. Foundations in Tension Ground Anchors 1982 Jumikis, AR Rock Mechanics Second Edition 1983 Hardy, HLR.. Jr. & Leighton, FW. Acoustic Emission/Microseismic Activity in Geologie Structures and Materials ‘Third Conference 1984 Hardy, HLR., Jr dé Langer, M.t ‘The Mechanical Behavior of Salt First Conference 1984 Hanna, T.H.: Field Instrumentation in Geotecimical Engineering 198s Mazurkiewiez, B.K.: Offshore Platforms and Pipelines Selected Contributions 1986 Farouki, O.T. ‘Thermal Properties of Soils 1986 Hardy, HLR., Jr. & Langer, M.: ‘The Mechanical Behavior of Salt Second Conference 1986 Stacey, TR. & Page, C.H.: Practical Handbook for Underground Rock Mechanics 1986Series on Rock and Soil Mechanics, Vol. 18 (1994) PROFESSIONAL USERS HANDBOOK FOR ROCK BOLTING Bengt Stillborg » DrEng, Professor of Rock Mechanics Lule’ University of Technology Sweden 1994 TRANS TECH PUBLICATIONSECO QN/ war Professional Users Handbook for Rock Bolting __>> Second Eaition Series om Rock and Sit Mechanics Vol. 18 (1994) Copyright© of First Edition 1986 by Atlas Copco, Sweden Copyright© of Second Edition 1994 by Atlas Copco, Sweden Exclusive Worldwide Sales & Distribution Rights by ‘TRANS TECH PUBLICATIONS P.O, Box 1254 38670 Clausthal-Zellerfeld Germany ISBN 0-87849.094.9 All rights reserved Printed and bound in Germany [No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, oo transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the publisher.Foreword for Second Edition The first edition of this book, published in 1986, was an important addition to the small number of books dealing with the practical aspects of rock bolting and the de- sign of support for underground excavations. This revised second edition is likely to become even more popular than the first edition because it contains important new in- formation and results of pull tests on a number of rockbolt systems. These tests are amongst the best pull tests ever carried out on rockbolts and cable support systems and the care which was taken in their execution makes the results very valuable. Rock bolting is, above all, a practical business in which difficult decisions have to be made in the inhospitable environment of a mine or a tunnel on the basis of information which is almost always inadequate. Anyone who has been involved in underground engineering will know that rock bolting is essential for safety and stability but it can be very costly. A reasonable compromise between safety and cost depends upon the level of knowledge and experience of the person making the decision on when, where and how many rockbolts to install and on what types of rockbolts will do the most ef fective job. This book addresses many of the issues which have to be taken into ac- count in choosing and installing rockbolts. It is written with the professional miner or civil engineer in mind and the clear and uncluttered presentation will assist these per- sons making rational design and job site decisions. ‘Vancouver HOEK January 1994Foreword for First Edition Rock bolting is the most effective and the most economical means of supporting exca- vations in rock in both mining and civil engineering applications. Rockbolts can be used to control all types of instabilities except those involving extremely weak and soft ground such as that which may occur in a major fault zone. Various types of bolts, both tensioned and untensioned, are used today and an understanding of the way in which these bolts work is essential if they are to be used correctly Atlas Copco, as a major mining equipment manufacturer, has been involved in the practical aspects of rockbolt applications for many years. With the introduction of their Swellex bolting system, they are also now suppliets of rockbolts. This puts them into an ideal position to prepare a users handbook in rock bolting and I am delighted that they have recognized and accepted this challenge. The text which follows is a sound practical handbook which reviews the basic principles of rock bolting and sets out the design considerations used for most types of rockbolts in current use. It cusses the characteristics of these bolts and goes on to give a wealth of information on installation procedures and the observations and measurement of rockbolt perfor- mance. It is written with the professional miner or civil engineer or contractor in mind and these users should have a clear and uncluttered presentation of the information which they require in order to make rational design and job site decisions. I commend Dr. BENGT STILLBORG and Atlas Copco for their efforts in preparing this handbook and I look forward to using it in my own consulting and educational activ- ities in rock engineering. Vancouver Dr. EveRT HOEK November 1985Acknowledgements This handbook was initiated as a result of a visit to a tunnel work site beneath the har- bour of Copenhagen, Mr. LORNE HERRON, from Atlas Copco Canada, who has exten- sive experience of practical aspects of rock reinforcement, expressed the need for a us- ers handbook for rock bolting. The task of writing the handbook was later given to the undersigned, with the objective that the book should cover aspects of rock bolting from site investigation through design, selection, installation, tests, monitoring and costs of rock reinforcement. The financial support provided by Atlas Copco CMT AB is greatly appreciated. Special acknowledgements are directed to Mr. BJORN KAREBY and Mr. LORNE HERRON, both at Atlas Copco CMT, for their vital role in organizing the support re- ceived from Atlas Copco. Their assistance and encouragement is gratefully acknowl- edged. The author and sponsors of this handbook extend a special thanks to Dr, EVERT Hox for his review and comment on the work. Lulea BENGT STILLBORG January 1994Contents Foreword for Second Edi Foreword for First Edition . Acknowledgements .. Contents Terminology Conversion Factors PARTI 1 Introduction i 2 Why Rockbolts? 3 Review of Typical Rockbolt Systems. 5 Mechanically Anchored Rockbolts . 5 Grouted Rock- and Cablebolts 7 Grouted Rockbolts 7 Grouted Cablebolls. 10 Friction Anchored Rockbolts 12 Support Accessories to Rockbolt Systems .... 15 Rockbolt Installation Installation of Mechanically Anchored Rockbolts 20 Installation of Grouted Rock- and Cablebolts ... 22 Installation of Grouted Rockbolts 22 Installation of Grouted Cablebolts 24 Installation of Friction Anchored Rockbolls .... 26 5 Rockboit Load-Deformation Characteristics 29 5.1 Testing of Rockbolts 29 5.2 Rock- and Cablebolt Tensile Loading Across a Joint 31 5.2.1 The Concept of the [deal Rockbolt 32 5.2.2 Test Arrangement .... 33 5.2.3 Results with Comments. 34 5.3 Pre-Tensioning of Grouted Rockbolts . 43 6 Design Considerations 45 6.1 Rock Mass Conditions 45 6.2 Rock Mass Classification 47 6.3 Special Conditions ST 6.3.1 High In-Situ Stresses 37 6.3.2 Swelling and Squeezing Rock ... 58X CONTENTS Groundwater 60 Permanent and Temporary Reinforcement 60 Dynamic Effects .. 62 Cautious Blasting . 63 Choice of Rockbolt System 64 Design of Rock Reinforcement 67 Rock Mass — Rockbolt Interaction 67 Design Principles .... 69 Analysis of Structural Stability 70 Empirical Assessments 80. Numerical Models ... 101 Monitoring... 103 Cost of Rock Bolting 109 References Appendix... PART II* 11 Atlas Copco Auxiliary Equipment for Rock Bolting 19 11.1 Swellex® in Mining and Civil Engineering 120 11.1.1 General Description of the Swellex System... 120 11.1.2. Swellex — A Versatile System for Rock Reinforcement 126 11.2 Case Stories 139 11.2.1 Swellex in Mining and Civil Engineering Applications 139 11.2.2 Rock Bolting with Swellex from TBM... . 142 11.3 Mechanized Equipment for Rockbolt Installation . 145 11.4 Capacity Comparison Between Different ‘Types of Equipment for Rock Bolting ... 150 12 References (Part I) 155 List of Figures \s7 Subject Index 161 *amhored by representatives of Atlas Copco CMTTerminology Rock reinforcement Rock support Rock stabilization Pre-reinforcement Rockbolts Cablebolts Rock mass Failure of a rock mass XI The installation of rockbolis, cables or any other type of element in a rock mass to reinforce and mobilize the in- herent strength of the rock, so that the rock becomes ‘self supporting’. The rock reinforcement element is installed inside the rock mass, tat is, it forms part of the rock mass. ‘The application of a concrete lining, stee! sets or any other type of ‘engineering! structure which will restrict movements Of the rock, Rock support is external to the rock mass. Combined application of rock reinforcement and rock support to prevent failure of the rock mass, Installation of reinforcement in a rock mass before exca- vation commences, A reinforcing element, normally made of solid or tube formed steel installed untensioned or tensioned in the rock mass. A reinforcing element, normally made of stecl wires which are layed to a strand or a rope configuration and installed untensioned or tensioned with cement grouting in the rock mas In-situ rock, composed of small or large pieces of solid rock limited by discontinuities. Loosening or fall-out of rock from the rock mass.Xf Conversion Factors Physical quantity Length Area Volume Mass Density Force Moment Pressure or stress Energy Symbol (m?) (m’) (kg) (kg/m) (N) (Ny (Pa) a) ‘SJ-unit prefixes Prefix Symbol Multiplier tera T 192 1 mile = 1609344 m 1 in? = 645.16 mm? 1 yd¥ = 0.764555 m3 1 UK gal = 4.54609 1 1US gal [oz = 28,3495 g 1 ton UK { kp/em?(at) = 98.0665 kPa 1 psi = 6.89476 kPa 1kWh= 1 kpm = 9.80665 J I keal = 4.1868 KI 1 hkh = 2.6478 MI giga mega G M 10° 108 1016.5 kg J ton US = 907.185 ke 1 Ib/fe = 16.0185 kg/m? 1 Ib/in} = 276799 kg/m? 1 kp = 9.80665 N 1 Tbf = 4.44822 N 1 kpm = 9.80665 Nm tibf fi = 1.35582 Nm 1 bar = 100 kPa .6 MJ kilo k 105 tm?s= lkg= 1 kg/m = IN= 1Nm= 1kPa= kJ = milli m 10° 39.3701 in 3.28084 ft 1.09361 yd 6.621371 + LO“ mile 1550 in? 10.7639 ft? 1.19599 yd? 0.247105 + 10% acre 61.0237 in? 35,3147 - 10° ft" 1.30795 - 10% yd3 0.219969 UK gal 0.264172 US gal 2.20462 Ib 35.274 oz 0.984207 + 10% ton UK 1.10231 + 103 ton US 0.0624278 lb/ft 36.127 + 10° Ibfin? 0.101972 kp 0.224809 IbF 0.101972 kpm 0.737562 Ibf ft 0.01 bar 0.0101972 kp/em? (at) 0.145038 psi 0.277778 ° 103 kWh 101.972 kpm 0.238846 kcal 0.377673 * 103 hkh micro nano pico 4 P 10 10° 10?Chapter 1 Introduction The history of rock bolting dates from the end of the 19th century. However, rockbolts were not used extensively until forty or fifty years later. Since then, the use of rock- bolts in mining as well as in underground excavations for civil engineering applica- tions has become worldwide and hundreds of millions of bolts are installed annually. In recent years the range of applications for rockbolts has widened due to advances in rock mechanics and the increasing use of rock reinforcement in underground excava- tions, as an alternative to more traditional forms of support. Also, the development of new rockbolt concepts has led to the use of rockbolts in non-traditional applications. The engineer who must design rock reinforcement systems today is faced with an in- creasing demand to optimize his design with respect to both safety and economic con- siderations. This handbook attempts to summarize state-of-the-art of rock bolting pro- cedures, to guide engineers and operators in rock reinforcement problems. It is also hoped that the book will serve useful to both research and teaching institutions, as well ‘as companies undertaking work in rock reinforcement. The increasing use of rock reinforcement in underground excavations has resulted in a number of publications on rock reinforcement. This book contains a review of many of these publications, response to questionnaires and personal inquiries, as well as the professional experience of the author. It covers most aspects of rock bolting from a presentation of the most commonly used types of rockbolts through installation, site investigation, choice of rockbolt system, design, test and monitoring of rock reinforce- ment as well as cost factors, Also included are some aspects of cable bolting. The variety of rockbolts used at differeat work sites wortdwide is almost unfimited, as is the variety of the rock conditions in which bolts are used. One soon realizes in writ- ing a users handbook for rock bolting, the impossibility of satisfying the requirements of afl possible users, For clarity, and to keep the contents of this book within reason- able limits, it has been necessary to restrict the number of rockbolts described. The va- riety of rock conditions considered for design of rock reinforcement is also restricted to those of general interest.Chapter 2 Why Rockbolts? The principal objective in the design of a support system is to help the rock mass to support itself. This applies to rock reinforcement systems, e.g., here the rockbolts ac- tually form part of the rock mass, as well as to rock support systems e.g. steel sets which do not form part of the rock mass but support it externally. The rockbolt rein- forces and mobilizes the inherent strength of the rock mass. Steel set or shoterete sup- port systems, however, act to restrict movements of the rock mass externally. Rockbolts and systems for external support are often used in combination to obtain the best possible effect on rock mass stabilization. In fact, many times a combination of rockbolts and e.g. wire mesh and/or shotcrete to give support to the rock surface between the rockbolts, provides the optimum system for rock mass stabilization. A system that can be used for both temporary as well as permanent rock mass support. There are a number of reasons for the widespread use of rockbolt reinforcement systems. Some of these are as follows: — versatile, can be used in any excavation geometry — simple and quick to apply — relatively inexpensive — installation can be fully mechanized, Using rockbolts, the reinforcement density (spacing between bolts and bolt length) can be modified. This is frequently required by local rock mass conditions. Another ad- vantage is that rockboits can easily be combined with e.g. the above mentioned addi- tional external support systems wire mesh, shotcrete or a concrete lining. In many methods for underground excavation and support like the New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM) systematic rock bolting is combined with shoterete and for perma- nent reinforcement of the rock, a concrete lining. In addition, after blasting and muck- ing, prompt installation of rockbolts is of key importance in order to maintain the in- tegrity of the rock mass. Many rockbolt systems offer the advantage of an immediate support action after installation. A flow chart for a rock bolting program is illustrated in Fig. 1. It is important that the overall control of the rock bolting program (all the individual activities included in the program) is in the hands of a single engineer, or if this is not possible ensure that the different activities are properly documented.4 WHY ROCKBOLTS Before excavation During excavation After excavation © Site investigation © Detaiied site inves- © Long term monitor- @ Excavation require- tigation ments © Installation of rock- @ Relevant past case bolt system © Installation of monitoring system histories @ Choice of rockbolt system © Initial design © Choice of monitor- ing system © Review experience Note: Each activity i © Review design pendent on theca dependent on the outcome of all previous activities Fig. 1 Flow chart for rock bolting,Chapter 3 Review of Typical Rockbolt Systems ‘A number of different types of rockbolis are now used worldwide. Many rockbolt types show only minor differences in their design and are basically varieties of the same concept. For practical purpose, in a review of typical rockbolt systems, it is therefore possible to arrange the different types of rockbolts in groups and present rep- resentatives for each group. Only the most widely used rockbolt types from each group will be considered. The groups are made with reference to the different anchor- ing techniques The following groups of bolts are considered: = mechanically anchored rockbolts — grouted rock- and cablebolts — friction anchored rockbolts. 3.1 Mechanically Anchored Rockbolts The expansion shell anchored rockbolt, of standard or bail type, is the most common form of mechanically anchored rockbolt. The expansion shell anchor operates basi- cally in the same manner whether it is of standard or bail type. A wedge attached to the bolt shank is pulled into a conical expansion shell as the bolt is rotated. This forces the shell to expand against and into the wall of the borehole. The two mechanisms by which the shell is anchored against the borehole wall are; friction and interlock. The second of the two is the most siguificant in order for the rockbolt to provide optimum support action. Expansion shell anchored rockbolts have wide application in mining, particularly coal mining, but are also used in civil engineering projects. For application in permanent reinforcement systems, the void between the bolt and the borehole may be post- grouted. With only one or two exceptions, mechanical anchors are designed for use in moderately hard to hard rock conditions. They are not recommended for use in very hard rock, since a very hard rock will prevent the expansion shell from ‘gripping’ the rock, and the anchor will slip under load.6 ‘TYPICAL ROCKBOLT SYSTEMS Mechanically Anchored Rockbolt — Expansion shell anchor Expansion hell anchor “Bolt shank, (smooth bar’) dtemispherical ‘Typical technical data SL-unit Metric us. Steel quality designation: 700 N/mm? 70 kplinmn? 102 kpsi Steel diameter: 16mm 16 ma 5/8 in Yield toad, steel: 140 KN 14 tons 15.5 tons Ultimate load, steel: 180 kN 18 tons 20 tons Ultimate axial strain, steel: 14% 14% 14% Weight of bolt without face plate and nut: 2kg/im 2 kg/m 1.34 Ib/ft Bolt lengths: any length required Recommended borehole diameter: 35-38 mm 35-38 mm 13/8 in (critical) Advantages Relatively inexpensive. The bolt gives immediate support action after installation, By rotating the bolt, a torque is applied to the bolt head and tension accumulates in the bolt. In hard rock, high bolt loads can be achieved. Disadvantages Limited to use in moderately hard to hard rock. Difficult to install reliably, (see also section 4.{). Must be monitored and checked for proper tensioning. Loses its rein- forcement capacity as a result of blast vibrations or chips of rock spalling from under- neath the face plate due to high contact forces. Can only be used for temporary rein- forcement uniess corrosion protected and post-grouted, see section 6.3.4.GROUTED ROCK- AND CABLEBOLTS — 7 3.2. Grouted Rock- and Cablebolts ‘The grouted rock- and cablebolts are confined inside the borehole by means of cement or resin grout. Anchoring, (bond) between the holt and the rock is provided along the whole length of the reinforcing element by means of three mechanisms; chemical ad- hesion, friction and interlock. The second and third mechanisms are by far the most significant. The bond due to chemical adhesion may often, therefore, be disregarded. 321 Grouted Rockbolts Grouted rockbolts have been commonly used worldwide for the past forty years both in mining and civil engiaeering applications. The most commonly used grouted rockbolt is the fully grouted rebar or threaded bar made of steel. Cement or resin are used as grouting agents. The rebar or the threaded bar used with resin grout creates a system for tensioned rockbolts. More common however, is the rebar or the threaded bar used as untensioned bolts, i.e. dowels, with cement or resin as grouting agent. Both systems are used for temporary as well as per- manent support under various rock conditions. The threadbar rockboit is mainly used in particular civil engineering applications for permanent installation. The particular issue of tensioned or untensioned rockbolts is further discussed in sec- tion 4.2.1 and 5.3, A few years ago it was predicted that the resin would, in general, replace the use of ce- meat as grouting agent for fully grouted rockbolis. However, for a number of reasons, (mainly cost) this has not occurred.8 TYPICAL ROCKBOLT SYSTEMS, Cement Grouted Rockbolt — Rebar Typical technical data SI-unit Steel quality designation: 570 N/mm? Steel diameter: 20 mm ‘Yield load, steel: 120 KN Ultimate load, steel: 180 KN. Ultimate axial strain, stee): 15% Weight of bolt without face plate and nut: 2.6 kg/m Bolt lengths: Recommended borehole diameter: 3545 mm Advantages Metric 58 kp/mm? 20 mm 12 tons 18 tons 15% 2.6 kg/m any fength required 3545 mm US. 83 kpsi 7/9 in 13 tons 20 tons 15% 1.75 Ib/ft 13/8 in Properly installed, it is a competent and durable reinforcement system, however see also section 6.3.4 for further comments, The system provides high load bearing capac- ity in hard rock conditions. Disadvantages Use of standard cement in the grout requires several days curing before the bolt can take full load. Quality of grout and grouting is difficult to check and maintain con- stant. Can not be used in water carrying boreholes. Tensioning of the rockbolt is pos- sible only if special instalJation procedures are followed.GROUTED ROCK- AND CABLEBOLTS 9 Resin Grouted Rockbolt - Rebar ‘Typical technical data SF-unit Metric US. Steel quality designation: 570 N/mm? 58 kp/mm? 83 kpsi Steel diameter: 20 mm. 20mm 7/9 in Yield Joad, steel: 120 KN 12 tons 13 tons Ultimate load, steel: 180 KN 18 tons 20 tons Ultimate axial strain, steel: 15% 15% 15% Weight of bolt without face plate and nut: 2.6 kg/m 2.6 kg/m 3.75 tb/ft * Bolt fengths: any length required Recommended borehole diameter: max. 30 mm max. 30 mm max. | 1/8 in (critical) Advantages Properly installed, it is a competent and durable reinforcement system, however see also section 6.3.4 for further comments. The system provides high load bearing capac- ity in hard rock conditions. The bolt gives rapid support action after installation. If a 'Yast-setting’ resin is used for bottom anchoring of the bar, the fully grouted rockbolt can be tensioned, (see also section 4.2.1). Disadvantages Borehole diameter is crucial to the proper mixing and setting of the resin as well as filling the annulus between the rockbolt and the borehole wall. Difficulties with resin cartridges in underground environment which also can affect installation reliability, (see also section ). Resin can be messy and hazardous to handle as well as waste~ ful. Resin has a limited shelf life.10 TYPICAL ROCKBOLT SYSTEMS 3.2.2 Grouted Cablebolts Grouted cables have been used for reinforcement of structures in rock for the past twenty or thirty years. Cables were introduced to the mining industry, for the same purpose, over the Jast fifieen to twenty years. By definition a cablebolt is a reinforcing element, normally made of steel wires which are laid to a strand or rope configuration and installed untensioned or tensioned with cement grouting in the rock mass. A ca- blebolt for rock reinforcement may have any iength, It is important to note that the definition do not consider the fength of the element but only the way it is fabricated. ‘The use of cable reinforcement in a mining situation is, in general quite different from applications in civil engineering. In the mining industry cablebolts are predominantly installed untensioned and fully grouted for temporary support whereas in civil engi- neering permanent, pre-stressed cables are considered, Pre-stressed cables for civil en- gineeriag applications is also the area where most development work has beer con- ducted to date. All cable bolting is however, exclusively made using cement as the grouting agent. . Cable reinforcement has its most wide spread application in the mining industry where the commonly used type of cable is a 15.2 mm 7-wire steel strand, normally instaifed in units of two. This type of cable is developed for pre-stressed concrete elements, In order to improve the bond (load transfer) between the cable and the cement as well as the support stiffness, an open weave or 'birdcaged’ strand has been developed. Also this type of cable is installed in units of two. There are a number of features in the use of a flexible cable instead of a rebar or a threadbar in a reinforcement system for grouted rockbolts, Some of these are: varia- tion in bolt length is of no concer since the cable can be installed to any length from a reel even in narrow tunnels, and. inexpensive, very high load bearing capacity, for mechanization variation in bolt length represents no problem,GROUTED ROCK- AND CABLEBOLTS 14 Cement Grouted Cablebolt -Twin steel strand ‘Twin steel strand cable bolt ‘Typical technical data SE-unit Metrie US. Steel quality designation: 1950 N/mm? 198 kp/mm? 283 kpsi Cable diameter: 2x152mm 2x 15.2mm 2x 5/8 in Yield load, cable: 500 KN 50 tons 55 tons Ultimate load, cable: 500 kN 50 tons 55 tons Ultimate axial strain, cable: 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% Weight of cable: 2.1 kgm 2.1 kg/m 1.41 lb/ft Cable lengths: any length required Recommended borehole diameter: 48-64 mm 48 - 64 mm 2-212in Advantages Inexpensive. Properly instaiied, it is a competent and durable reinforcement system, however see also section 6.3.4 for further comments. The system provides high load bearing capacity in hard rock conditions. Can be installed to any length in narrow ar- eas Disadvantages Use of standard cement in the grout requires several days curing before the cable can take full load. Quality of grout and grouting is difficult to check and maintain con- stant. Can not be used in water carrying boreholes. Tensioning of the cablebolt is pos- sible only if special installation procedures ace followed.12 TYPICAL ROCKBOLT SYSTEMS 33 Friction Anchored Rockbolts Friction anchored rockbolts represent the most recent development in rock reinforce- ment techniques. Two friction anchored rockbolt types are available, the Split Set and the Swellex. For both types of rockbolt system, the frictional resistance to sliding, (for the Swellex combined with interlocking) is generated by a radial force against the bo- rehole wall over the whole length of the bolt. Friction anchored rockbolts are the only type of bolts where the load of the rock is transferred to the reinforcing element di- rectly without and necessary auxiliary such as mechanical locking devices or grouting agents. Although the two systems are presented under a common heading, they display some major differences. These are related to their anchoring mechanism and support action, as well as their installation procedure. Strictly speaking, only the Split Set is a true friction anchored rockbolt and as such itis sometimes called the ‘Split Set Friction Rock Stabilizer’. The anchoring mechanism of the Split Set will prevent the bolt from sliding up to a load of about haif the ultimate tensile strength of the steel tube, when the bolt wil start (0 slide. The bolt can thus accommodate large displacements without failing. The anchoring mechanism of the Swellex is friction and mechanical interlock. When the EXL Swellex is subjected to a load that approaches the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt, the bolt will start to slide, The EXL Swellex can thus accommodate large rock displacements. The property of the Split Set and the EXL Swellex rockbolts to accommodate large rock displacements is preferred when ground movements are large The Split Set system is commonly used in the mining industry, with only limited use in civil engineering applications. The Swellex system is used both in mining and in civil engineering applications, In civil engineering applications particularly for tunnel reinforcement.FRICTION ANCHORED ROCKBOLTS 13 Friction Anchored Rockbolts — Split Set® SS-39/SS-46 W ‘Typical technical data on SS-39/SS-46 Sl-unit Metric us. Tube diameter: 39/46 mm 39/46 mm 11/2/ 17/9 in Yield load, steel tube: 90/135 kN 9/13.5 tons 10/15 tons Ultimate load, steel tube: 110/163 kN 11/16.3 tons 12/18 tons Ultimate axial strain, steel tube: 166% 16/16% 16/16% Weight of bolt without face plate: 1.8/2.8 kg/m 1.8/2.8 kg/m 1.2/1.9 lb/ft Bolt lengths: 0.9-30.9-3.6 m —0.9-3/0.9-3.6 m 3-10/3-12 ft Recommended borehole diameter: 35-38/41-45 mm 35-38/41-45 mm 13/8-11/2 / 15/8-13/4 in (critical) Split Set® iy s registered trademark of Ingersoll-Rand Company, USA. Advantages Simple installation. Gives immediate support action after installation, No hardware other than a jackleg or jumbo boom for installation, Easy application of wire mesh. Disadvantages Relatively expensive. Borehole diameter is crucial in the prevention of failure during installation and in the provision of the intended holding force. Successful installation of longer bolts can be difficult, Cannot be used in long term installations unless pro- tected against corrosion. The steel tube is sensitive to corrosion both at its inside and outside surfaces.14 TYPICAL ROCKBOLT SYSTEMS Friction Anchored Rockbolts - Swellex® EXL/Super ‘Expanded steel tube ‘Domed face plate Typical technical data on EXL/Super SL-unit Metric US. ‘Tube diameter: 26/36 mm 26/36 mm 1/13/8in Yield load, steel tube: 100/205 kN 10/20 tons 11/22 tons Ultimate load, expanded steel tube: 110/215 KN 11/22 tons 12/24 tons Ultimate axial strain, steel tube: 20/15% 20/15% 20/15% Weight of bolt without face plate 2/4 kg/m 2/4 kg/m 1.34/2.68 Ib/ft Bolt lengths: any length required Recommended borehole diameter: 3544484 mm 3544/4844mm 13/8 / 1 7/8 in Swellex® is a registered trademark of Atlas Copco AB, Sweden. Advantages Rapid and simple installation. Gives immediate support action after installation, Can be used in a variety of ground conditions. The installation causes contraction in the bolt length. This effectively tensions the face plate against the rock surface. Disadvantages Relatively expensive. Long term installations require coated Swellex, see also section 6.3.4 for further comments. Requires a pump for instalation.SUPPORT ACCESSORIES 15 3.4 Support Accessories to Rockbolt Systems Ground conditions vary over a wide range. This implies that the stability problems can be expected to be different depending on prevailing conditions. The rock support measures must therefore be adapted to the actual rock conditions. Experience has shown that rockbolts very often should be applied in combination with surface support in order to prove effective. The effect of the surface support is to provide surface con- finement to the fractured rock and thereby support the rock between the rockbolts. The two measures in combination will act to preserve the integrity of the rockmass. Adaptation to actual needs is made by variation in type, quantities and qualities of the rockbolt and the surface support respectively. Examples of types of surface support are; face plates, wire mesh, shotcrete and rock straps. Face plates A face plate is designed to distribute the load at the bolt ead uniformly into the sur- rounding rock. To maintain the elasticity and the load bearing capacity of the rockbolt system, the choice of face plate is crucial. Some commonly used face plates are shown in Fig. 2. The flat plate can be used when the rock surface is smooth and the bolt is installed perpendicular to the surface of the rock, However, the common irregular rock surface or the inclined rockbolt will introduce unfavorable loading to the bolt head. If a hemi- spherical seating is added to the nut as in Fig. 2, the bolt can be installed obliquely to the rock surface without introducing unfavorable tensile stresses in the bolt. Another + + Flat plate Domed plate Triangular bell plate Fig.2 Some commonly used face plates and their respective effective contact surface. Partly after SCHACH (1971).16 TYPICAL ROCKBOLT SYSTEMS advantage with the hemispherical seating is that the nut will lie flat against its base. This permits more favourable tensioning of the bolt, The adjustable domed face plate for Swellex rockbolts is designed to provide for an optimum installation of the rack- bolt independent of the rock surface geametry or the bolt angle. The flat face plate, 's supported only at a few highly stressed points at the rock surface, (see Under sufficiently high pressure, the rock may crush at these points, The tension in the batt will then be reduced, A setting of only one to two mm can reduce the tension in the bolt by 20 — 70% . The bolt must then be setenstoned. This shortcoming in the flat face plate is greatly reduced with the domed or triangular bell plates, which have larger supporting areas. These plates also give the rockbolt system greater flexibility. If the bolt is first tensioned and then fully grouted the tension in the bolt is preserved and the bolt actioa is no longer dependent upon the face plate. When untensioned bolts are used, (e.g. fully cement grouted rebars), a simple face plate may be provided. This ensures an adequate face anchoring. It will aiso prevent debonding of the bar from the borehole at the rock face. Furthermore, face plates can give some support to the rock surface if the nut has been tightened with a spanner to ensure seating of the face plate, Wire mesh Two wire mesh types are commonly used in combination with rockbolts. These are the chainlink mesh and the weldmesh. The chainlink mesh is flexible and strong. It is usually used right up to the face, to pre- vent injury to personnel and damage to equipment from smaller pieces of rock or spalled flakes. The mesh should be attached to the rock at intervals of between I and 1.5 metres. Short pins or rockbolts, can be used between the regular pattem or rock- bolts. Depending upon the spacing between support points, a chainlink mesh can carry a considerable foad of broken rock, Tests have shown that with a spacing of 1.5 ~ 2.0 meters between support points the mesh can carry approximately 2.5 tons per m? of broken rock. The chainlink mesh is, however unsuitable for combination with shot- crete, since it causes considerable rebound and provides insutficient reinforcement of the shotcrete, Weldmesh consists of steel wires set on a square or rectangular pattern and welded at each intersection. It is used to provide confinement to the rock between rockbolts and for reinforcing shotcrete. The weldmesh is much more rigid than the chainlink mesh and because of this generally to be preferred for confinement of the rock surface between rockbolts. The principal advantage of the weldiesh over the chainlink mesh is its rigidity and the fact that one can go back and do shotcreting if required at a later stage. The rigidity of the weldmesh is however, also a disadvantage in that it is more difficult to get it to accommodate to the irregularities of the rock surface. The weld- mesh (or the chainlink mesh) is attached to the rock surface by means of the rockbolt face plate or by a second plate washer on existing rockbolts, see Fig. 3. Typically, 4.2 mm wires set at 100 mm intervals are used for reinforcing shoterete. For the applica~ tion of a weldmesh in combination with shoterete see Fig. 4SUPPORT ACCESSORIES 17 Fig.3 A weldmesh (or chainlink mesh) attached to the rock by means of the rockbolt face plate (A) or by a second plate washer on existing rockbolts (B), as EIT Weldmesh Mesh washer 2ind layer of shoterete Fig.4 Details of reinforced shotcrete application in combination with rockbolt reinforce- ment,18 TYPICAL ROCKBOLT SYSTEMS. Shoterete Shotcrete is commonly used in combination with rockbolts, in a wide range of ground conditions, particularly in underground civil engineering applications. Also in under- ground mining, shotcrete is increasingly used to provide support to the rock surface between rockbolts. ‘There are two basic types of shoterete, the dry-mix shotcrete where the mix is dry and the water is added at the nozzle. The wet-mix shotcrete has basically the same compo- nents as the dry-mix, except that the water is already added in the mixer. In the case of the wet-mix, any accelerator must be added at the nozzle. The dry-mix shoterete type is most widely used. ‘The quality of the shoterete placed, depends upon the materials used and the mix de- sign. However, this, together with the method of placement, is also very much a matter of skill and judgement among the operators. A typical mix contains the following per- centage of dry components by weight: Cement 15-20% Coarse aggregate 30-40% Fine aggregate or sand 40-50% Accelerator 2-5% The water/cement ratio (by weight) for dry-mix shotcrete lies in the range 0.3 - 0.5 and is adjusted by operator to suit local conditions. The addition of 50 mm long and 0.4 — 0.8 mm diameter steel fibres has been found to improve the toughness, durabil- ity, and shear and flexural strengths of shotcrete, and to reduce the formation of shrinkage cracks. Steel fibres are added according to the specifications of the manu- facturer. In applying the shotcrete, the nozzle should be kept as nearly perpendicular to the rock surface as possible, and at a constant distance of about 1 m. A permanent shotcrete lining is usually between 100 mm and $00 mm thick, the larger thicknesses being placed in a number of layers. Details of reinforced shoterete application in com- bination with rockbolt reinforcement is iJhestrated in Fig. 4. Rock straps Rock straps are commonly made of 6 mm (1/4 in) steel which is approx. 100 mm (4 in) wide and of variable length. Straps are used where rock conditions are poor and a ravelling failure around the collars of the rockbolts has been experienced. To inhibit this type of failure, the rockbolts can be connected together using steel straps support- ing the surface of the rock.Chapter 4 Rockbolt Installation The installation of rockbolts and cablebolts should be organized in such a way that the installation becomes an integral part of the excavation cycle and gives temporary sup- port to the rock. Since many types of rockbolts can be used in permanent reinforce- ment systems, it is important to consider the ‘temporary’ reinforcement system as @ part of a later, additionally installed, Jong term support system. The type of rockbolt should be chosen with the complete ground support system in mind. The installation should be performed by qualified, properly trained and experienced personnel. In general, rockbolt and cablebolt installation is a problem of working accessibility. A manual procedure is still therefore the most common installation technique. Today, however, fully mechanized bolting rigs are available for all types of rockbotis and cablebolts. These rigs are capable of performing the compiete installation cycle. The bolting capacity of a fully mechanized rig is often large, and the consistency in quality of installation obtained is generally better than that obtained from manual installation. Also, from safety and health aspects, the fully mechanized bolting rig provides very good working conditions for the operator. It is necessary to have a bolting programme which is sufficiently extensive to justify the cost of an elaborate rig. Many different varieties of rockbolts and cablebolts are in use. Numerous different in- stallation techniques also exist. These are frequently developed to meet local require- ments and limitations, Before reviewing installation procedure, the importance of proper scaling before rock reinforcement must be emphasized. One of the common causes of accidents in underground excavations, involving falling rock, is inadequate scaling after a blast. Mechanical scaling is always to be preferred, since it generally gives a better result and is safer for the scaling crew. However, excessive scaling may well produce the adverse affect of rock instability and great care should be exercised, the scaler must not be used as a mechanical excavator. Where mechanical scaling is not possible, manual scaling should be performed so that smaller blocks do not be- come detached as a result of deformation of the excavation, subsequent blasting or drilling in an adjacent area,20 ROCKBOLT INSTALLATION 4.1 Installation of Mechanically Anchored Rockbolts Borehole diameter is critical for the installation of expansion shelf anchored rockbolts. The voit cannot be installed in an undersized or oversized hole. To install, the holt is pushed into the hole until the face plate is in contact with the rock. The nut on the bolt is then rotated until a preset torque is reached. This can be accomplished by the use of ‘a tool which automatically shuts off, at a pressure corresponding to the preset torque. The recommended applied torques range from 135 to 340 Nm (100 — 250 ft-Ib) or 4.5 KN (1000 Ib) load above or below the 50% limit of the bolt yield load or anchorage ca- pacity whichever is lower, PENG (1978). As the torque is applied to the bolt, a tension develops in the bolt, provided the expansion shelf firmly grips against the borehole wail. The torque — tension relationship can vary considerably for a specific applied torque. Nevertheless, a linear relationship between bolt tension and torque exists, and this can be written: P=CT (y) where P is the bolt tension in N (pounds) and 7 is the applied torque in Nm (foot- pounds). C is the proportionality constant between the bolt tension and the applied torque. Asa ‘rule of thumb’, C is equal to 50 for a 16 mm (5/8 in) bolt and 40 for a 19 mm (3/4 in) bolt, PENG (1978). C should be given in the appropriate units. Factors that affect the value of the constant C are the applied upward thrust on the bolt during in- stallation and the angle of installation. ‘The effectiveness of an expansion shell anchored rockbolt strongly depends basically on two ‘points’, the grip of the shell against the borehole wall and the contact between the rock and the face plate, see also section 3.4, Apart from the borehole size, the rocktype and the integrity of the rock at the zone of anchorage will affect the gripping foree, In hard rock conditions high bolt loads can be achieved. However, if the bolt is placed within 10 ~ 20 m (30 — 60 ft) of a blast, the bolt can lose its tension and must be retensioned. In weaker rocks, the effectiveness of the bolt is reduced by local crush- ing of the rock by the ribbed sleeves of the shell. Clay-filled joints can, in otherwise good conditions, cause serious problems. In very weak rocks like fractured shale or mudstone, the use of mechanical rockbolts in general, is not recommended ‘The installation and the effectiveness of the bolt is independent of the water conditions in the borehole when the boit is used for temporary support. Post-grouting is per- formed when the bolt forms part of a permanent reinforcement system. Installation time, for an expansion shell anchored rockbolt of 2 m (6.5 ft) length, (ex- cluding the time for borehole drilling) is typically 75 sec.MECHANICALLY ANCHORED ROCKBOLTS 21 Fig.5 — Tensioning of an expansion shell anchored rockbolt using a torque wrench22 ROCKBOLT INSTALLATION 4.2 Installation of Grouted Rock- and Cablebolts The installation procedure for grouted rock- and cablebolts exhibit differences as well as simifarities. One of the principal differences is that resin type grouts ure never used with cablebolts, However, using cement grout as the grouting agent the installation procedure becomes almost identical. 42.1 Installation of Grouted Rockbolts The installation procedures used for grouted rockbolts are very sizitar, whether ce- ment or resin grout is used. The grout ca be placed in the borehole either by pumping or by using cartridges. When the grout is pumped into the borehole, common practice is to push the grout tube into the bottom of the hole and fill the hole as the tube is re~ trieved, It is important to ensure that the tbe is in full contact with the cement/resin, as it is retrieved, to prevent the formation of airpockets, When the hole is filled, the bolt is pushed into the hole through the grout, until it hits the bottom of the hole or full contact is made between the face plate and the rock surface To keep the grout in vertical upholes the grout must be sufficiently thick. A cement grout with a water/cement-ratio (by weight) of between 0.30 and 0.35 is commonly used. The cement grout can be used with an additive that will accelerate the setting of the grout fike quick-sctling resins are available. If cement mortar is to be used, ready- mixed mortar is recommended. When the grout is pumped into the hole, there is a problem of sealing the collar of the borehole, Proper sealing is important, especially in vertical upholes, In upholes, the sealing prevents excessive grout from leaving the hole after bolt installation, and it also stops the bolt dropping out of the hole until the grout has set. When the grout is pumped into the borehole, the borehole size is not critical for the final grouting result ‘A more convenient and quicker method of grouted rockbolt installation is to use car- ridges. Both cement and resin cartridges are available. The most commonly used ce- ment cartridge contains cement and additives within a porows container which soaks in water, before it is placed in the borehole. Mixing is required for the resin cartridge. This is not the case with the cement car- tridge. The mixing of the resin takes place when the bolt is rotated through the car- tridge, Cement grout cartridges can also be used in combination with resin cartridges to reduce the cost of fully resin grouted rockbolts, see Fig. 6. The problem of excessive grout leaving the borehole is not usually encountered when cartridges are used, since the cartridge normally produces a thicker mix. The problem of keeping the bolts in upholes until the grout has set remains, The use of a si sealing at the hole collar provides the best solution to this problem. When car are used to place the grout in the borehole, the hole size becomes critical both for proper mixing and filling of the hole. Manufacturer specifications should be followed.INSTALLATION OF GROUTED ROCK- AND CABLEBOLTS 23 For many years the issue of tensioned or untensioned rockbolts has been argued and discussed, particularly among consultants involved with practical tunnel reinforcement design. It is the opinion of the author that tensioned rockbolts oaly very rarely and only in special applications can be justified from a reinforcement action point of view. see section 5.3 for a detailed discussion of the subject. Also, the more complex work- ing practices involved in the installation of a tensioned rockbolt may influence the quality of the final reinforcement result. However, from the point of completeness the installation procedure of tensioned rockbolts is covered in the following two para- graphs. Bolt tensioning can be applied either by a tool which rotates the nut on the bolt until a preset torque is reached, or by direct pull. Typically the bolt is tensioned to approx. 60% of its yield foad. A torque wrench or a machine which is set to stal] at a pressure corresponding to the preset torque is usually adequate. The probiem with this method, applied to grouted bolts, is almost identical to that discussed in section 4.1 for me- chanically anchored rockbolts. If the bolt is to be tensioned at higher loads (exceeding approximately 100 KN (10 tons)), tensioning in direct pull with a hydraulic bolt ten- sioner is to be recommended, HOEK and BROWN (1980), Fig. 6. The tensioner should have an easily read calibrated gauge for the load. Provided the capacity is sufficiently large, the hydraulic bolt tensioner can also be used for pull-out testing of the bolts. Fig.6 Principle of installation and tensioning of a fully grouted rockbolt using an hydraulic bolt tensioner.24 ROCKBOLT INSTALLATION Using the technique described above. for pumping the grout into the hole, the bolt can- not be tensioned unless it is partly debonded. Debonding of the bolt top section can be performed by using PVC tape or a high density polyethylene sleeve. By using a quick- setting resin cartridge over the bond length and slow-setting resin cartridges over the free length, the bolt can be tensioned as soon as the former has gained sufficient strength. Typically, a resin grouted bolt can be tensioned within I to 5 minutes after in- stallation, while a cement grouted bolt requires a couple of hours to set, depending on the additives used and rock temperature. The fully grouted rockbolt is one of the most common of all rockbolt systems. It is perhaps also the most versatile system. When cement grout is used in combination with a standard rebar, this is often the cheapest type of rock reinforcement. It is, how- ever, important to check the quality of both the resin and the cement before use, since both agents are products which are sensitive to storage underground for extended lengths of time. Some results from tested grouted rockbolts, which indicate the diffi- culty of obtaining a good grouting of the bolt, are given in Chapter 5. Installation time, for a fully resin grouted rockbolt of 2 m (6.5 ft) length, (excluding the borehole drilling and the curing time) is typically 75 sec. 4.2.2 Installation of Grouted Cablebolts Short cables, (cable length less than 6 metres or 20 ft) can replace the rebar or the threaded bar in a reinforcement system. The installation procedure used for short cables is the same that is used for grouted rockbolts, except that resin or cartridges in any form are never used. Installation time, for a fully cement grouted cablebolt of 2 m (65 ft) length (excluding the borehole drilling and the curing time) is typically 100 sec. For grouting long cables, (longer chan 6 metres), cement is exclusively used as the grouting agent. The installation procedure for long cables in horizontal and down- wards inclined boreholes is as follows. The grout hose is inserted to the bottom of the borehole and retrieved as the hole is filled with cement. After the hole has been filled, the cabie is pushed down the hole until it reaches the bottom of the hole. It is recom- mended that the inserted length of cable is measured accurately and compared with the drillers borehole log-sheet. This procedure will prevent the cable fom not being fully inserted. Installation of long cables in horizontal to upwards inclined boreholes is illustrated in Fig. 7. First, the cable is inserted to the bottom of the borehole, together with a stiff nylon or polyethylene breather tube. After the grout tube has been inserted some 0.5 metres (1.5 ft) into the hole, the hole is sealed off at the collar. In steep upholes, it is necessary to lock the cable in place to prevent it from sliding out of the hole. The cable is locked by a top anchor arrangement or by some locking arrangement at the collar of the hole. Once the hole is sealed off, and the cable locked in place, the hole isINSTALLATION OF GROUTED ROCK- AND CABLEBOLTS — 25 filled with cement grout and the air trapped inside the hole escapes through the breather tube. The hole is filled with cement grout, when weak grout flows out of the breather tube. Finatiy, the grout tube is sealed and cut as illustrated in Fig. 7. Results by STILLBORG (1984) show that even though the bond sirength between the cable and the grout is improved when the water/cement-ratio decreases, the choice of water/cement-ratio is limited by the capacity of available mixing and pumping equip- ment for the grouting of long boreholes. It was concluded that an 0.4 water/cement-ra- tio (by weight) is the most suitable mix for practical use in the installation of long cables, The bond strength is improved by using additives in the cement grout. However, compiex working practices give final grouting results which are difficult to control. This is particularly true in a mining environment. In conclusion, the use of any additive, including sand, will make the installation process of the cables or rock- bolts more costly and difficult to control. Mechanical equipment for installation of cables in any direction of the borehole is commercially available. Cable bolting using long eables in steep upholes, can be very difficult and inefficient, without the assistance of a specially designed cable bolting rig. Instaifation time, for a fully cement grouted cablebolt of 20 m (65 ft) length (ex- cluding the borehole drilling and the curing time), but with the assistance of a mechan- ical cable feeder, is, in a downward inclined borehole, typically of the order of 30 min. “win steel strand Fig.7 Principle of installation of a long fully grouted cablebolt in an inclined yphate. A convenient sealing for the borehole collar must still be developed.26 ROCKBOLT INSTALLATION 4.3 Installation of Friction Anchored Rockbolts The installation procedure for the two friction anchored rockbolts, the Split Set and the Swellex, are quite different. The Split Set rockbolt is forced into a borehole. The borehole has a slightly smaller di- ameter than the bolt. A stoper or a jackleg drill is often used. Here the installation is sometimes a problem in confined areas, An incorrect borehole diameter is the major cause of failures during installation. The borehole diameter is also of critical impor- tance to the support action of the Split Set after installation. If the hole diameter is too small, the bolt becomes difficult to install. If the hole diameter is too large, the holding force of the boit is not sufficient. The bolt cannot be tensioned but it gives immediate support afier installation. It is not suitable for permanent reinforcement. The bolt can be used in a variety of rock conditions but is less suitable in racks which are very frac- tured andlor soft. Installation time, for a Split Set rockbolt of 1.8 m (6 ft) length (excluding the bore- hole drilling time) is typically 40 sec. The installation of the Swellex rockbolt is simple. It does not require the help of any mining machinery once the borehole is drilled. In manual rock behing, the bolt is in- serted in the hole and a high pressure water pump is used to expand the bolt within the borehole, The pump is carried manually. The inflation pressure forces the steel tube into the irregularities of the borehole and thus provides the anchoring of the boit. However, the expansion of the bolt also causes a contraction in the length. This effec- tively tensions the face plate against the rock surface. The face plate load against the rock surface is approximately 2 tons. The bolt provides full support action immedi- ately after installation and borehole diameter is not critical. A correct installation pro- cedure of the bolt does not rely on operator judgement since the pressure of the pump is set at the specified level by the operator and this is his only input to the system. The pump stops automatically at the pre-set pressure, indicating that the bolt is properly in- staifed. The Swellex rockbolt system can be used in a wide variety of ground conditions from very soft ground resembling soil to very hard and fractured rock like fractured quartz ite. The Swellex should not be used in long term insiallations unless it is protected against corrosion. Both types of friction anchored rockbolts can be used in water bearing rocks, even under high water pressure. Installation time, for a Swellex rockbolt of 2.4 m (8 ft) length (excluding the borehole drilling time) is typically 25 sec.ROCKBOLT INSTALLATION 28 of a Swellex rockbolt. Fig.9 InstallationChapter 5 Rockbolt Load-Deformation Characteristics ‘The principal objective in the design of a support system is to help the rock mass to support itself. This applies to rock reinforcement systems, ¢.g., where the bolts actu- ally form part of the rock mass. The bolt reinforces and mobilizes the inherent strength of the rock mass by constraining the movements of individual blocks of rock. Block movements are constrained principally by bolts intersecting the joints between blocks, ‘The load-deformation characteristics, in tension or shear, of a rock- or cablebolt de- pends essentially on the type of bolt. For the same bolt type the load-deformation characteristics can, however, vary considerably depending upon factors related to the installation of the bolt. Failures of rock reinforcement systems can occasionally be attributed to the material properties of the bolt itself. The number of such cases are, however, negligible com- pared with those which relate to the installation of the rockbolts. Common causes of rock reinforcement failure are: Incorrect choice of rackbolt system Grouting agents out-of-date for a given application Inappropriate grout mixture Inappropriate setting of borehole Damage to breather tube Borehole too long or too short Inadequate sealing of borehole Incorrect borehole diameter Inadequate lubrication of nuts, Borehole not properly flushed washers, and threads Inadequate grout placement Incorrect installation procedure Inadequate bond length Inadequate test programme Dirty steel No monitoring of reinforcement system 5.1 Testing of Rockbolts The number of causes which can seriously affect the performance of the rockbolt rein- forcement system are almost unlimited. It is therefore important that the work is per- formed by trained personnel. Even so, the testing of the rockbolt system is important to gain confidence in the final result. There are a number of testing methods available to control the quality of the installed bolt. A number of examples of testing methous which can be applied to the rockbolts described in this handbook are shown on the next page.30 | ROCKBOLT LOAD-DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS Type of rockbolt Method of testing Expansion shel! anchored rockbolt: Pull-out test, torque wrench, load cell. Grouted steel bars: Pull-out test, overcoring and electronic non-destructive testing. Grouted steet cables: Pull-out test and overcoring. Friction anchored rockbolts: Pull-out test, overcoring, indirect non-destructive testing. Pull-out test A pull-out test is similar to the tensioning procedure, except that the bolt is now loaded to failure, see the hydraulic jack system shown in Fig. 6. Pull-out force and displacement are recorded Torque wrench A torque wrench can be used to measure indirectly the load on the bolt. A torque is applied untif the nut starts to turn, The measured torque can then be related to the load, see Fig. 5. Load cell The load on the bolt can be measured by 2 load cell which is placed between the face plate and a bearing plate at the surface of the rock. The load cell will, when installed correctly. give a very accurate reading of the load on the bolt as a function of time. Overcoring Overcoring by means of diamond drilling is used either to determine the integrity of the grout or to check corrosion Indirect non-destructive test The Swellex rockbolt can be checked for proper installation as well as damage with the use of the waterpump that is employed to expand the bolt. A properly installed and faultless bolt will be confirmed, at installation, by the pump automatically stopping at the pre-set pressure. In the fater life of the bolt the pump can again be used in the same manner, to check for damage or failure of the bolt. This can be done repeatedly, since it is a non-destructive test of the bolt. Electronic non-destructive test For cement and resin grouted stee! bars the quality of the grouting as well as the bolt length can be checked by an electronic non-destructive testing device based on the principle of reflected stress waves. A specially designed sensor containing piezoelec- tric crystals is pressed against the free planar end surface of the bolt. Compressional and flexural elastic waves are transmitted into the bolt. When the waves travel along the bolt, some energy is transferred througit the grout into the rock and thus the wave amplitude decreases. The elastic waves are reflected from the inner end of the balt. The reflected waves ate recorded at the outer end of the bolt by the piezoelectric erys-ROCK- AND CABLEBOLT TENSILE LOADING 314 tals. If the grout surrounds the bolt fully, and is of good quality, the amplitude of the reflected wave is more completely damped than if the grout is of poorer quality. From the time interval between the excited and reflected wave, it is possible to calculate the length of the bolt. The amplitude of the reflected wave, or sometimes those of sueces- sive reflections, can be analyzed, and the probable condition of the rockbolt can be es- timated on the basis of calibration tests. The importarice of testing of the rockbolt system after installation has been demon- strated by BERGMAN et al. (1983), for example. Fully cement grouted rebars installed during 1975 and 1980 in an underground mine were tested by using the above mentioned principle of electronic non-destructive test- ing technique. The instrument, (called Boltometer), gave the following class distribu- tion for the quality of the grouting of the bolts; A 35% — B 25% —C 25% ~ D 15% where the tentative Boltometer index for cement grouted bolts is as follows; Class Boltometer reflection Estimated bolt performance A No reflection Optimum (up to 2.3 m bolt length)* B One small reflection Reduced c One large or several minor reflections Insufficient D Many large reflections Very poor or non-existent*# © If the bolt is longer than 2.3 m and perfectly grouted in the outer clusion can be drawn from the grouting quality of the innermost part ** The bolt can (probably) be pulled out of the borehole by a hydraulic jack. 1m part of the borehole, no con- ‘The above results reflect a large variation in the quality of grouting of the bolts tested. This may well alfect the foad-deformation characteristics of the bolts as well as the system of reinforcement. 5.2. Rock- and Cablebolt Tensile Loading Across a Joint Traditionally, standard pull-out tests are used by engineers to obtain guidance on the load bearing capacity and the load-deformation characteristics of installed rockboks. There are however, depending on the type of rockbolt tested, a number of disadvan- tages in using standard pull-out tests as a way of testing and comparing different rock- bolt types. One obvious deficiency being that a standard pull-out test simply does not provide the load-deformation characteristics of a rockbolt subjected to loading across a joint in the rock, a situation for which rockbolts are designed. In section 5.2.1 the concept of the ideal rockbolt, subjected to load across a single joint, is presented and32 ROCKBOLT LOAD-DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS discussed in terms of load-displacement characteristics. In order to obtain the load- deformation characteristics of rockbolis which realistically resemble the characteris- tics of the installed rockbolt, and to be able to compare, the general load-deformation characteristics of different types of rockbolts, a laboratory test arrangement has been developed, sce section 5.2.2 for further details, Test results, employing the developed test arrangement, of the most commonly used types of rockbolts are reported in sec tion 5.2.3. Further, the test results are discussed and compared with the char: of the ideal rockbolt. 5.2.1 The Concept of the Ideal Rockbolt Here it is interesting to consider the ideal load-displacement characteristics of an in- stalled rockbolt acting across a single joint in tension. A relationship that can be given independent of any particular ground conditions, from swelling/squeezing rock to ex- tremely hard and brittle rock, in low or high stress conditions. The ideal rockbolt system, should initially act infinitely stiff in order to attract load and by doing so help to maintain the integrity of the rack mass as much as possible. However, as the load on the bolt gets near its ultimate tensile strength the bolt should have the ability to accom- modate large rock deformations and not fail or drop in its load bearing capacity. The bolt behaviour should be rigid/perfectly-plastic. This ideal load-displacement charac- teristics, independent of ground conditions, of an installed rockbolt is schematically il- lustrated in Fig. 10. Ultimate tensile strength Lead CeND = 10 15 2 2 20 a5 40 45 60 98 0 Displacement Cad Fig. 10 The idea) Joad-displacement characteristics, independent of ground conditions, of an installed rockbolt.ROCK- AND CABLEBOLT TENSILE LOADING 33 5.2.2 Test Arrangement ‘The test arrangement is designed to, under strictly controlled conditions, simulate the load-deformation characteristics of a rockbolt subjected to tensile loading across a joint which opens normal to the joint plane, STILLBORG (1991). The test arrangement is schematically illustrated in Fig. L1. Fig. 11 Schematic illustration of the test arrangement for rockbolt tensile loading across a joint. Note, for practical purpose three bolts, one at the time, can be tested in the ‘same two blocks. High strength reinforced concrete with a compressive strength of 6, = 60 MPa is used for the two 1.5 meter concrete blocks simulating two 1.5 meter blocks of rock separ- ated by a joint. The boreholes for the rockbolts are all drilled using percussive drilling technique in order to create a borehole surface with a roughness comparable to that obtained in metamorphic or igneous rock types. The length of the boreholes and the subsequently installed rockbolts are 3 meters. The borehole diameter is carefully measured to meet the requirements set by the rockbolt manufacturer. The two blocks «we separated, simulating joint opening, ata rate of 3.6 mn/min. One advantage of using concrete blocks in an extensive comparative test program as oppose to blocks of rock is the consistency in the properties of the concrete blocks that is obtained. Friction between the concrete blocks and the foundation on which the blocks rest is to a large extent eliminated by placing the blocks on low friction rollers, Friction that can not be eliminated in the test set-up is measured and compensated for in the final eva- luation of the test results. The joint opening is measured by two LVDT measuring gauges, one on each side of the mated blocks. This arrangement facilitates compensation of any rotational move-| 34 ROCKBOLT LOAD-DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS ment that may occur between the two blocks. At the free ends of the two blocks, any rockbolt displacement, (sliding) is also measured by LVDT measuring gauges, all four gauges with a measuring accuracy of + 0.125 mm. The servo-hydraulic load actuator and the LVDT gauges, are connected to a host computer that provides real time gra- phical output of the rockbolt load-deformation relationship as well as any rockbott sti- ding that occurs. Three rockbolts on each type are tested, one at the time. Based on the three test results a graph is constructed that represents the mean value of the three tests. The monitoring system further facilitates data processing and final presentation of the results as they appear in section 5.2.3. 5.2.3 Results with Comments The test results, (mean value of three tests) are presented graphically and comments are given with reference to each type of bolt tested. In order to facilitate comparison of results between different types of bolts, the axis of the diagrams are given in the same scale whenever practical. As stated in the previous section, the test arrangement with associated measurements allowed for monitoring of joint opening, as well as any rock bolt deformation/displacement as a function of applied load, Without lend oneself to any mathematical development it is important to distinguish between rockbolt deformation and rockbolt displacement. Rockbolt deformation is a change of size and shape of the rockbolt that occurs as a result of loading. This change may also defined as strain. Rockbolt displacement occurs when the inner and/or the outer end of the rockbolt moves relative to the rock as a result of loading. This move- ment is also defined as general bond failure, sliding of the bolt. Practically, for rock- bolt displacement, one is principally concerned only with the inner end that moves since the outer end is prevented to move by the face place One of the two, deformation or displacement, can theoretically occur independent of the other, however, in practice rockbolt displacement is always associated with rock- bolt deformation. Consequently in the diagrams, when ao rockbolt sliding occurs, the load is plotted against deformation but when sliding is present the load is plotted against displacement.ROCK- AND CABLEBOLT TENSILE LOADING 35 Mechanically Anchored Rockbolts Expansion Shell Anchored Rockbolt; see Fig. 12 Comments: Before the bolt load reaches the level of pre-tensioning, 22.5 kN, no rockbolt deforma- tion occurs. At 22.5 KN, the face plate starts to deform, At a load level of 30 KN the face plate is deformed 4.5 mm and at a load of 40 KN the deformation of the face plate is 9.5 mm. The bolt shank has deformed an additional 3.5 mm at the load of 40 KN. This gives a total rockbolt deformation of approx. 13 mm at the load level of 40 KN. Ata load of 40 KN the triangular bell plate is completely flat and only the bolt shank deforms. At a load of approx. 80 KN and 25 mm of rockbolt deformation, the expan- sion shell anchor fails progressively when the wedge, attached to the bolt shank, is pulled through the conical anchor shell. The rockbolt fails compleiely at a load of ap- prox. 90 KN. The bolt accommodate a total deformation/displacement of approx. mm, This is a combination of face plate deformation, bolt shank deformation and ‘an- chor slippage’ under an increasing load bearing capacity up to approx. 90 kN, o 5 10 15 20 2 30 3 10 45 50 55 60 Displacement Caml Fig. 12 Expansion shell anchored rockbolt ~ tensile loading across a joint. For technical specifications of the rockholt see section 3.1.36 © ROCKBOLT LOAD-DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS Grouted Rack- and Cablebolts Cement Grouted Rebar; sce Fig. 13. Comments: The rockbolt does not stide but is loaded up to failure which occurs between the blocks, in the joint, at approx. 180 KN, (18 tons) and 30 mm of rockbolt deformation. The sudden drop in load which can be seen in the graph at approx. 150 KN reflects the typical characteristics of the hot rolled rebar steel subjected to tensile loading. 200 180 160 140 120 100 Load CkNI 80 60 40 20 Oo 5 10 15 20 25 36 35 40 45 50 55 60 Deformation Emmy Fig. 13 Cement grouted rebar — tensile loading across a joint. For technical specifications of the rockbolt see section 3.2.1ROCK- AND CABLEBOLT TENSILE LOADING 37 Resin Grouted Rebar; see Fig. 14. Comments: The rockbolt does not slide but is loaded up to failure which occurs between the blocks, in the joint, at approx. 180 KN, (18 tons) and 20 mm of rockbolt deformation. The resin bond is stiffer than the cement bond and local fracturing as well as bond fail- ure in and near the joint is fimited, resulting in comparatively smaller total rockboit deformation. The loading of the rockbolt is concentrated over a short section of the rockbolt. 200 190 160 140 120 100 Load CkNI 80 60 40 20 + o 85 10 185 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Deformation Emmi Fig. 14 Resia grouted rebar ~ tensile loading across « the rockbolt see section 3.2.1 joint. For technical specifications of38 ~ROCKBOLT LOAD-DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS, Plain Twin Steel Strand; see Fig. 15. Comments: fnitially no deformation occurs up to a load of approximately 50 KN. At 50 KN, the ca- blebolt starts to deform locally between the two blocks, in the joint. At the same time bond failure, failure of the chemical and mechanical bond at the cablebolt-cement grout interface, starts to progress along the cable, initiated at the position of the joint. As bond failure progress the cable deforms over a progressively longer ‘free’ length. At a load of approximately 550 kN, (S5 tons) tensile failure occurs in one of the two strands, resulting in slip, general bond failure of the remaining intact strand. As the in- tact strand starts to slip the cablebolt can take no more load. This happens at « defor- mation of approx. 50 mm. 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 o 5 10 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Deformation Emm) Fig. 15 Plain twin steel strand — tensile loading across a joint. For technical specifications of the cablebolt see section 3.2.2ROCK- AND CABLEBOLT TENSILE LOADING 39 Birdcaged Twin Steel Strand; see Fig. 16. Comments: Initially no deformation occurs up to a load of approximately 50 KN. At 50 KN, the ca- blebolt starts to deform locally between the two blocks, in the joint. At the same time bond failure, failure of the chemical znd mechanical bond at the individual wire-ce- ment grout interface, starts to progress along the wires, initiated at the position of the joint. It is a general observation that the bond, the interaction between the cablebolt and the cement grout is very effective resulting in only local crushing and fracturing of the cement grout in and near the position of the joint. Bond failure only extends out to a limited distance from the joint. The result is a comparatively stiff behaviour of the cablebolt, the load on the bolt is concentrated over a short section of the cable. The ca- blebolt experience no slippage but is loaded up to approx. 500 kN, (50 tons) corre- sponding to a deformation of approx. 12 mm. At this level of load both strands in the cablebolt fails momentarily. 600 850 500 450 400 250 300 Load CkNI 250 200 150 100 50 o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 +45 5O 55 60 Deformation Cm Fig. (6 Birdcaged twin steel strand ~ tensile loading across a joint. For technical specifica- tions of the cablebolt see section 3,2.2.40 ROCKBOLT LOAD-DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS Friction Anchored Rockbolts Split Set, Type SS 39; see Fig. 17. Comments: The frictional resistance is overcome and the bolt starts to slide, at approx. 50 KN, (5 tons). The sliding of the bolt is preceded by no measurable rockbolt deformation. The rockbolt maintains however, a constant load bearing capacity for the duration of the test which is 150 mm of joint opening. Load CkNI 200 180 160 140 o S§ 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 sO 55 60 Displacement Emm] Fig. 17 Split Set, type SS 39 — tensile loading across a joint. For technical specifications of the rockbolt see section 3.3.ROCK- AND CABLEBOLT TENSILE LOADING 41 Swellex, Type EXL; see Fig. 18 Comments: Initially no deformation occurs in the rockbolt up to a load of approx. 50 KN, (5 tons). ALSOKN, the bolt starts to deform locally between the two blocks, in the joint, At the same time "bond failure’ occurs near the joint, (some of the frictional and interlock re- sistance are overcome, partly due to lateral contraction of the bolt). As the load in- creases the ‘bond failure’ progress and the bolt deforms over a progressively longer ‘free’ length, General ‘bond failure’ reaches the far end of the bolt at approx. 115 kN, (LS tons). This corresponds to a rockbolt deformation of approx. 10 mm. At general ‘bond failure’ the bolt starts to slide. The rockbolt maintains however, a constant to in- creasing load bearing capacity for the duration of the test which was 150 mm of joint opening, divided into initially 10 mm of rockbolt deformation followed by approx. 140 mm of sliding, Load CkNa 2 30 35 40 45 so 55 60 Displacement Cam) ° ° 3 a st Fig. 18 Swellex, type EXL ~ tensile loading across a joint. For technical specifications of the rockbolt see section 3.3.42 ROCKBOLT LOAD-DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS It is obvious from the test result given in figures 12 to 18 matched with the technical specifications for the respective bolts that some bolts better than others resemble the ideal load-displacement characteristics of an installed rockbolt, as given in Fig. 10, It is, however important to recognize the limitations in the generality of the test re- sults, It is also necessary to appreciate the fact that any rockbolt test results are spe- cific to the conditions in which they are obtained as well as the installation procedure employed. Caution should therefore be exercised when the test results are considered on an individual basis. However, because all tests were conducted under identical conditions, the test results should serve most valuable to the design engineer as an index for comparison between different rockbolt types. Except for the load-displacement characteristics of the bolt it is important to consider the following rockbolt system (bolt and installation eqaipment) properties; — versatile, can be used in any excavation geometry, — instaitation procedure must be simple and reliable such that the rockbolt can be in- stalled with a high rate of success, — the rockbolt should give immediate support action after installation and should be able to install in water-filled boreholes, — the system should be relatively inexpensive, — sometimes the shear strength of the rockbolt has to be considered. If a rockbolt is subjected (o some component of sheat, the load bearing capacity is re- duced compared to a bolt which is loaded in pure tension. ‘The reduction in strength depends upon the bolt type and the angle between the bolt and the joint surface. When the angle between the bolt and the joint surface is less than 40° the failure of the bolt is in tension. If the bolt angle is greater than 40° the failure is in combined tension and shear. As the angle between the bolt and the joint surface approaches 90° the failure approaches that of a pure shear, BJURSTROM (1973). Shear test results on cables have shown that a cable can sustain a comparatively much larger shear load-displacement than a solid steel bolt. This is due to the basic difffer- ence in the construction of the two reinforcing elements. The wires in the cable are re- positioned and effectively gradually put into more of tension as the cable is being sheared, STILLBORG (1984). Also the friction anchored rockbolts, the steel tube, is ef- fectively put into more of tension as the bolt is being sheared. Generally, it is however the experience of the author that only rarely one find any type of rock- or cablebolt that display the typical signs of having failed in pure shear. The tensile, compressive and shear strength of rock is far below the comparative properties of steel conse- quently there will always be a larger or smaller component of bolt tension in any kind of block shear moyementsPRE-TENSIONING OF GROUTED ROCKBOLTS 43 5.3. Pre-Tensioning of Grouted Rockbolts For a point anchored rockbolt like an expansion shell anchored bolt, pre-tension, (ten- sion applied in conjunction with the installation) must be applied to the bolt in order for the concept to work, however the tension may be very small. In order to increase the stiffness of the system the pre-tension must be increased. A fully grouted rock- ot cablebolt work however, quite different in that the bolt is confined inside the borehole by means of cement or resin grout. Anchoring, between the bolt and the rock is pro- vided along the whole length of the reinforcing element. The same apply to the fric- tion anchored rockboits, the Split Set and the Swellex. a frictional bond is provided between the bolt and the rock along the entire bolt length. Commonly the following two reasons are given for pre-tensioning grouted rockbolts: — By pre-tensioning, the rockbolt reaction force introduced into the rock will act to restore the integrity of the rock mass which has been lost as a result of the excava- tion, Figure 19 is an attempt to schematically illustrate the load effect of rockbolt pre-tensioning on the rock. A f | fy / | / | fot pedestal {to the bolt axis. f eeatice || Ast zt | =) Rock approx. 1 meter Face plate (225 em?): trem hole. collar (13m): 3.2 «108 N/m? 15.5 = 10°N/m? N illustration of the load distribution into the rock as a result of rockbolt g. Given as an example is the same type of rockbolt as the one presented in section 3.2.1, a 20 mm resin grouted rebar. In rockbolt pre-tensioning, the tensile load applied to the bolt is typically 60% of its yield load. For the illustrated rockbolt this means a pre-tensioning force of approximately 72 kN or 7.2 toms. Note: only the ‘most highly stressed planes, the one perpendicular to the bolt axis are considered, Fig. 19 A schemati pre-tensioni44 ROCKBOLT LOAD-DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS — By pre-tensioning the rockbolt, the reinforcement system will be active, stiffer when subjected to load. When a grouted rockbolt, which may be mechanically an- chored or resin anchored and then fully grouted, is used to hold up blocks or wedges which would fall under gravity there is no dilation component and the block or wedge can start to break up as soon as contact with the bounding planes is lost. Pre-tensioning of the bolts helps to maintain contact between the planes, pro- vided that the total preload exceeds the dead weight of the block Figures 13 and 14 can be used in order to illustrate how much stiffer the reinforcement system becomes when the rockbollt is pre-tensioned. The illustration presented in Fig. 19 shows that the effective force per unit area of rock is very small. The pressure/stress resulting from the tensioning is only 5.6 kPa at a dis- tance of approximately | meter into the rock. At this distance from the tunnel wall the rock pressure may well be 8 MPa or 1400 times higher. The load distribution into the rock depends on several factors, the most important one being the degree of rock mass fracturing. In very fractured rock the load distribution angle will increase leading to even smaller stress effects in the rock as a result from the pre-tensioning. Figures 13 and 14 show that a pre-tensioning to 72 KN would only marginally affect the rockbolt stiffness, (the load-deformation curve would become vertical up to the level of pre-tensioning). Expressed in rockbolt deformation the reduction as a result of the pre-tensioning would be less than 0.5 mm. In summary; - Rockbolt pre-tensioning can only act to close up near surface fractures and will therefore have no practical influence on the bulk of the rock mass. Mesh or shot- crete would be required to control ravelling of the broken rock between the face plates. ~ Rockbolt pre-tensioning wil! only have a very marginal influence on the stiffness of a fully bonded rockbolt. Only very rarely can the limited benefit of the pre-tensioned rock- or cablebolt justify the extra cost and the more complex installation and quality control procedure.Chapter 6 Design Considerations ‘The design of rockbolt systems is basically a matter of being able to predict the mag- nitude, directions and types of stresses which arise from the virgin stresses and their influence on the rock mass surrounding an excavation. In practice, this is not a trivial problem since stress changes in a rock mass depend on a number of factors such as ex- cavation geometry, rock mass conditions, inherent rock stress situation etc. In addition, the effect of the reinforcement on the rock mass and the anticipated life time of the re- inforcement must be considered, The following list gives some of the factors that in- fluence the design of a ground support system; Purpose of excavation General stress state ‘Temporary or permanent reinforcement Rock mass conditions Safety requirements Groundwater conditions Practical considerations Possible failure modes Excavation geometry Support pressure required Available access Time for support action Extraction technique Previous experience Proximity of adjacent exca ations: Cost and availability In this chapter some of the most important of the above design considerations for rockbolt systems will be reviewed and whenever possible, examples will be given on how these considerations can be quantified. 6.1 Rock Mass Conditions A geologist divides rocks into three different classes, depending upon their origin: — Sedimentary rocks — Metamorphic rocks — Igneous rocks46 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Sedimentary rocks consist of an assemblage of detrital particles and possibly pebbles from other rocks in a matrix of materials such as clay minerals, calcite, quartz, ete. From their nature, sedimentary rocks contain voids or empty spaces, some of which may form an interconnected system of pores. Metamorphic rocks are produced by the action of heat, stress, or heated fluids on other rocks, sedimentary or igneous. Igneous rocks consist of a completely crystalline assemblage of minerals such as quartz, plagioclase, pyroxene, mica, etc. Typical mechanical properties of some common rock types are listed in Table 1 Table 1 ‘Typical Static Mechanical Properties of Some Common Rock Types* Unconfined Modulus Point Angle Compressive Tensile of Load of Rock Class Rock Type Strength Strength Elasticity index Friction .{MPaj Gy [MPaj}_——E[GPa}_—_ dso) (MPal degrees Limestone 50-200 5-20) 20-70 05-7 33-40 Sedimentary Mudstone 15 | - 01-6 = rocks Sandstone 50-150 5-15 15-50 7 25-35 Siltstone 5-200 2-20 20-50 0 27-31 Shale 50-100 2-10 5-30 - a Metamorphic Gneiss 100 - 200 5-20 30-70 2-1 23-29 rocks Marble 100 - 200 30-70 2-12 25-35 Quarzite 200-400 50-90 5-15 Igneous Basalt 100-300 40-80 9-14 rocks Gabbro 100-300 10-15 40-100 6-15 Granite 100 - 200 5-20 30-70 5-10 29-35 * Sources of references; LAMA and VUTUKURI (1978), BROCH (1983), D'ANDREA et al. (1965: Baron (1973). In nature, intact rock masses with the mechanical properties as listed in Table 1 are of rare occurrence. {nstead, rock mass conditions vary considerably, and conditions are seldom the same from site to site. Even in the same tunnel, the rock mass can vary from intact rock to swelling rock conditions. However, the rock mass can sometimes be uniform and well defied with respect to the geological structures. Examples of some structural patterns commonly encountered in underground tunnels are given be- low. ‘The design of rock reinforcement systems for a rock mass with the structural patterns shown in Figs. 20 A-D will be discussed in the next chapter. Where rock mass conditions cannot easily be assigned tw any of the examples shown in Figs. 20 A~D, additional classification systems exist. These can be used to aid the design of appropriate support requirements.ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION 47 Fig. 204 Fig. 20B A potentially unstable wedge or block. Horizontally-bedded rock overlayed by intact, rock and loaded by gravity. Fig. 20€ Fig. 20D Horizontally-bedded weuk rock. Individual blocks of rock which may loosen or fall as a result of gravity and/or in-situ stress induced loading. 6.2. Rock Mass Classification The Geomechanics Classification proposed by BIENIAWSKI (1973) and the Q-system proposed by BARTON, LIEN and LUNDE (1974) are the two most commonly used rock ation systems. Both systems include sufficient information to provide a ssment of factors which influence the stability of an underground excava-48 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The Geomechanics Classification ‘The Geomechanics Classification operates with five basic classification parameters for the rock mass. The way in which these parameters have been incorporated into the Geomechanics Classification for jointed rock masses is shown in Part A of Table 2. A number of points or a rating is allocated to each range of values for each parameter and the sum of the ratings for each parameter is called the RMR (Rock Mass Rating)- value. The RMR-value must be adjusted for joint orientation by applying the correc- tions given in Part B of Table 2. An explanation of the descriptive terms used for this purpose is given in Table 3. Part C of Table 2 shows the class and description assigned to rock masses with various total ratings. The interpretation of these ratings in terms of stand-up times for underground excavations and rock mass strength parameters is given in Part D of Table 2. The ROD (Rock Quality Designation)-value, DEERE (1964), referenced in Table 2, is defined as the percentage of core recovered in intact pieces of 100 mm or more in length in the total length of a borehole; Length of core in pieces > 100 mm Q) Length of borehole An RQD-value would usually be established for each core run of 1 or 2 metres, Table 2 Geomechanics classification of Jointed Rock Masses. After BIENIAWSKI (1979) ROD (%) = 100 x A. Classification Parameters and their Ratings Parameter Ranges of Vales ] Poiovivad | > 10M] 4-10 MP 2-4NPa | 12a] Forti hw range Strength | strength index — uniaxial compres ofinact, i eet = - | Seton petered mural | Usiaxialcom- | >250MPu | 100-2500r= ( 50-100MPa [25-s0MP. [5-25 ]1-5] <1 [pressive stvength [MPa ang 5 2 7 sy? Drea quay ROD [WOE Ton | 7S Re TT | 50 % Rating x 7 2 8 3 [Sessa et isoninaien | >Fm | 06-2 m | 200 0mm | Wr200mm | —_Smm dick 4 Noveontnuoes | Separation <1 mim | Separation < tm | <$ mun tek ‘on ‘Nosearaion | Slihly weathred | Highly weathered. [OR Separation | Separation > 5 am Unwethered | walls ‘vals r=smm” | Continous —_ wall ek | | comin ‘Rating 30 ss 20 | 10 0 inflow perm | Nowe 10 10-25 3128 3135 tome eg liven tirednin | estmin tien Tawar OR on —|or— lon “jor | |e |e 0 bo-o1 1-02 02-05 >os slates top, OR. Jor ior. | Gevert | Comrieey dey Damp Wet Dripping | Flowing | sontions Rating is ! io t a 0 |ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION 49 Table 2 continued B, Rating Adjustment for Joint Orientations ‘Strike and dip vey Favourable Fir Unfavorable Very ‘exentaions of joins favourable uucavurable Timnels 0 = = | wo =2 sings [Foundations 0 =2 = =15 zy Slope =a 30 0 C. Rock Mass Classes Determined from Total Ratings, Rating 100 8 we 61 eat 1021 <20 ‘Chass No, 1 o im WV v Description Very good eck | Goed ook Fair ook Poorrock | Very poor rock D. Meaning of Rock Mass Classes Class No. 1 u fn Ww v canna ume years ‘month Tweak | _ 10hours 30 mines Assent for1Smspan_ | for8mspan | forSmspan_| for23mepan | fort mspan Cohesion ofthe rock mass S400kP | 300-400 KPa | 200-300KPs | 100-200KPa |< 100KPa Frcton angle of the rock mass >a wae 25-38 w|i Table 3 The Effect of Discontinuity Strike and Dip Orientations in Tunnelling. After BIENIAWSKI (1979) ‘Ske perpen one aks Silla pel Spe ae Dive wih dp Drie pel totum axis irspecive DipF 9" | Dina —ae | Dear | paw | basen | bparnas | TMM Very Favourable Fir | Untivouable | Vay Fir Uatavounble favourable untavorale BIENIAWSKI has related his RMR-value to the stand-up time of an active, unsupported span. This relationship is shown in Fig. 21.50 DESIGN CONSIDERATION 88s 8 3 UNSUPPORTED SPAN, metres | HOUR 10 Wo? 108 0% 10 STAND-UP TIME, hours Fig. 21 Relationship between the RMR-value and stand-up time of an unsupported under- ground excavation span. After BIENIAWSK! (1979), Calculation of the RMR-value in the field is simple when pre-investigation data is used. If a parameter value is not available, it is possible to estimate the value and to run a sensitivity check on the RMX-value for different values chosen. A practical example taken from HOEK and BRowN (1980), which has been modified according to the revised Geomechanics Classification, BIENIAWSKI (1979), illustrates how the system is used: After the structural regions have been identified, the classification parameters for each structural region are determined from field measurements and recorded on the input data sheet given in the Appendix. Consider the example of a granitic rock mass in which a tunnel is to be deiven. The classification has resulted in the following assess- ment:ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION 51 Classification Parameter Value or Description Rating 1. Strength of intact material 150 MPa 12 2. ROD 70% 13 3. Joint spacing 05m 10 4, Condition of joint Slightly rough surfaces. Separation <1 mm. Slightly weathered walls. 25 5. Ground water Dripping 4 Total score 64 ‘The tunnel was oriented such that the dominant joint set strikes perpendicular to the tunnel axis with a dip of 30° against the drive direction. From Table 3, this situation is described as unfavorable for which a rating adjustment of — 10 is obtained from Table 2B. Thus the final rock mass rating becomes 54, which places the rock mass at the upper end of Class IIT with a description of fair. Fig. 21 gives the stand-up time of an unsupported 3 metre tunnel in this rock mass as approximately | month. ‘The Q-System for Rock Mass Classification On the basis of evaluation of a large number of case studies of underground excava- tion stability, BARTON, LIEN and LUNDe of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) proposed an index for the determination of the tunnelling quality of a rock mass. The value of this index, Q is defined as follows: RODXJ,x 4, J, XJ, x SRF 3) where Length of core in pieces > 100 mm ROD (%) = 100 x Length of borehole is the joint set number is the joint roughness number is the joint alteration number Jy is the joint water reduction factor, and SRF is a stress reduction factor if a ‘The numerical values of these parameters are determined from Table 4. The reader may get the impression that the Q-system is complex and difficult to use in the analysis of practical problems. This is not the case, however. Determination of the Q-value for a typical rock mass will demonstrate this. IL is important, however, that the comments at the end of Table 4 (these were made by BARTON, LIEN and LUNDE) in ad- cinion to the notes listed in the tables are carefully considered52 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Table 4 Classification of Individual Parameters Used in the Q-System. After BARTON, LIEN and LUNDE (1977). Deseription Notes Rock Quality Designation Very poor Poor Fair Good Excellent mOORP = (1) Where RQD is reported or measured as $ 10, including 0) a nominal value of 10 is used to evaluate @ in equation (3), (11) ROD intervals of 5, Le. 100, 95, 90, et. are sufficiently accurate. Joint Set Number Massive, no or few joints (One joint set (One joint ser plus random Two joint sers ‘Two joint set plus random ‘Three joint sets ‘Three joint sers plus random Four or more joint sets. random, heavily jointed, ‘sugar cube’ ete, Crushed, rock, eantlike ROmmgNe> pb (1) For intersections use (3.0.3) (Il) For portals use (2,0 x) 3 Joiat Roughness Number (a) Rock wall contact and (b) Rock wall contact before 10 ems shear Discontinuous joints Rough or iregular, undulating Smooth, undulating Slickensided, undulating Rough or iregular, planar ‘Smooth, planar Slickensided, planar OaPpaEP> (6) No rock contact when shear H. Zone containing clay minerals thick ‘enough to prevent rock wall contact 1. Sandy, gravelly or crushed zane thick ‘enough to prevent rock wall contact, a Bonne (Descriptions refer to small scale features and intermediate seale features, in that order. (il) Add 1.0 the mean spacing ofthe relevant joint setis greater than 3m. (ID J,= 0. can be used for planar slickensided joints having lineations, provided the ‘orientated for minimum 4, Joint Alteration Number (a) Rock wall contact A. Tightly healed, hard non-softening, impermeable filing ic. quartz or epidote B, Unaltered joint wall, surface staining only C._ Slightly altered joint walls. ‘Nom-soflening mineral coatings, sandy particles, clay-free disintegrated rock ete D. Silty-, oF sandy-clay coatings, sara! clay fraction (non-soft) Wd 07s 10 (0, 9pprox.) oO as 25-30") (20-257)ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION 53 Description Vatue Notes E, Softening or os (tetion clay mineral coatinas, ie, kaolinite or mica. Also chlorine, tale. gypsum, graphite et, and small quantities of swelling clays 40 16") (b) Rock wall contact before 10 cms shear F, Sandy particles, clay-fee disintegrated rock ete 40 25-30) G. Strongly over-consolidated non-softening clay mineral fillings (continuous, but < 5 mm thickness). 60 6-24 H.— Medium or low over-consolidation, softening, clay ‘mineral fillings cont but < $ mm thiekness 80 (12-16% 1. Swelling clay fillings. ie. montmorilinite (continuous, but <5 mm thickness) Value of J, depends on percent of swelling clay-size particles, and access to water ete -12) (c) No rock wall contact when sheared K, L, Zest or bunds of disintegrated or erushed rock M. and clay (see G, H. J for description of clay 68 6-28) condition). or8— 12 N. Zones or bands of silty-or sandy-clay, small Clay fraction (non-softening). 50 ie) 0,P, Thick, continuous zones or bands of clay (ee 10, 13 oF (624°) R. | G,H,J for description of elay condition) 13-20 5. Joint Water Reduction Factor (Uy) Approx. water pres. (kpiem?) A. Dry excavations or minor inflows, ite. <5 Vin locally 10 <10 B_— Medinnm inflow or pressure, oecasional ‘outwash of joint fillings 0.66 1-25 C. Lange inflow or high pressure in competent rock with unfilled joints os 25-10 (1) Factors C to F are erude D. Large inflow or high pressure, considerable estimates. Increase J, if ‘outwash of joint fillings 0.3 S10 drainage measures are E, Exceptionally high inflow or water pressure installed at blasting, decaying with time 02-01 >10 CUD) Special problems caused Exceptionally high inflow or water pressure by ice formation are not continuing without noticeable decay 01-008 > 10 considered 6. Stress Reduction Factor (a) Weakness zones imerseeting excavation, which may (sre cause loosening of rock mass when tennel is excavated A. Multiple occurrences of weakness zones containing clay or () Reduce these values chemically disintegrated rock, very loose surrounding rock 10 of SRF by 25 - 50% Aany depth). if the relevant shear B. Single weakness zones containing clay or chemically zones only influence disintegrated rock (depth of excavation < 50 m), 5 ‘nut do not intersect C. Single weakness zones containing clay or chemically the excavation lisimtegrated rock (depth of excavation > 50 m) 25 D. le shear zones in competent rock (clay-Iree), loose surrounding rock (any depth). 1S Single shear zones in competent rock (clay-free) (depth of excavation < 50m) 50 F. single shear zones in competent rock (clay-free) depth of excavation > 50 m) G. Loose open joints, heavily jointed or “sugar cube’ ete (any depth).54 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Description Value Nowes (0) Competent rock, rock stress problems ois, oie, (SFR) H._Low stress, near surface >200 132.5 A) Forstongly anisotropic Virgin stress field (if measured} J. Medium stress 200-10 13-066 1.0 when $.$6/dy < 10, reduce 6, and G, 10 0.8 6, and 0.8 6, K. High sess, very tight structure When 64/03 > 10 reduce ¢. and (usually favourable to stability, 910 0.6 G, and 0.6 6, where: may be unfavorable for wall 6, = unconfined compression stability) 10-5 066-023 strength, and 6, = tensile strength {point load), and 6) and o, are he 1, Mile rock burst (massive rock) 5-10 major and minor principal stresses. M. Heeryrock burst (massive ck) 250.1610 20 (III) Few case reconds available where depth of crown be low surface is less than span widh. Suggest SRF increase from 2.5 to 5 for such, eases (see HD. (c) Squeezing rock: plastic nw of incompetent rock under the influence of high rock pressure N. Mild squeezing rock pressure 5-10 ©. Heavy squeezing rock pressure 10-20 {d) Swelling rock: chemical swelling activity depending one presence of water P.—Mild swelling rock pressure 5-10 R. Heavy swelling rock pressure 1-15 Additional Notes on the Use of the Above Table When making estimates of the cock mass quality (Q) the following s ‘notes listed in te tables: }. When borehole core is unavailable, ROD, can be estimated from the number of joints per unit yotume, in which the number of joints per metre for each joint set are added. A simple relation can be used to convert this number to ROD for the ease of clay free rork masses: ROD = 115 ~3,3 J, (approx.) where J, = total number of joints per m* (ROD = 100 for J, <4.5) 2. The parameter J, representing the number of joint sets will often be affected by foliation, schistosity, slaty cleavage of bedding ete. If strongly developed these parallel joints’ should obviously be counted as a complete joint set, However, if there are few joints visible, or only occasional breaks in the core due to these features, then it will ‘be more appropriate to count them as random joints’ when evaluating Jy. 3. The parameters J, and J, (representing shear strength) should be relevant to the weakest significant joint set or clay filted discontinuity in the given zoue. However, ifehe joint set or discontinuity with the minimum value of (yi, )is favourably oriented for stability, chen a second, less favourably oriented joint sot or discontinuity may sometimes be more significanr, and its higher value of J//, should by used when evaluating Q. The value af 1/J, should in fer relate to the surface most likely 10 allow failure to initiate, 4. When a rock mass contains clay, the factor SRF appropriate © loosening loads sbould be evaluated. In such ceases the strength of the intact rock is of litte interest. However, when joiiting is minimal and clay is completely aibsent the strength of the intact rock may become the weakest link, and the stability will then depend on the ratio rock-stress/rock-sttength. A strongly anisotropic stress field is unfavorable for stability and is roughly accounted for as in note IC in the table far stress reduction factor evaluation, 5. The compressive and tensile strengths (4, und 6,) of the intact rock should be evaluated in the saturated condition iF ‘his is appropriate to present or future in situ conditions. A very conservative estimate of strength shoufd be made fr those rocks that deteriorate when exposed to moist or saturated eanditions.. idelines should be followed, in addition to theROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION 55 Rock mass classes determined from total ratings: Q-value Rock mass description Class no. >40 Very good rock 1 10-40 Guod rock Ul 4-9 Fair rock ur 1-3 Poor rock Iv

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