ELEC4310

Power Systems
ELEC4310- Power Systems
Balanced Fault Analysis

Course Coordinator and Lecturer: Prof. Tapan Saha

(Room:47-406)
Telephone: 3365-3962
Email: saha@itee.uq.edu.au
FAULT ANALYSIS

▪ When a fault occurs in a power system network,

the currents which flow in the components is an
essential item to be known by the design
Engineers.

• The magnitude of the fault currents give the

Engineer the current settings for the protection to
be used and the ratings of the circuit breaker.
 Fault Analysis

⚫ The cause of electric power system faults is insulation

breakdown
⚫ This breakdown can be due to a variety of different factors
–lightning
–wires blowing together in the wind
–animals or plants coming in contact with the wires
–salt spray or pollution on insulators

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 Fault Types

⚫ There are two main types of faults

–symmetric faults: system remains balanced; these faults are
relatively rare, but are the easiest to analyze so we’ll consider them
first
–unsymmetric faults: system is no longer balanced; very common,
but more difficult to analyze
⚫ The most common type of fault on a three-phase system by
far is the single line-to-ground (SLG), followed by the line-
to-line faults (LL), double line-to-ground (DLG) faults, and
balanced three phase faults

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 Lightning Strike Event Sequence

1. Lightning hits line, setting up an ionized path to ground

⚫ 30 million lightning strikes per year in the U.S.! Australia
has comparable lightning strikes per year.
⚫ a single typical stroke might have 25,000 amps, with a rise
time of 10 s, dissipated in 200 s.
⚫ multiple strokes can occur in a single flash, causing the
lightning to appear to flicker, with the total event lasting up
to a second.
2. Conduction path is maintained by ionized air after
lightning stroke energy has dissipated, resulting in high
fault currents (often > 25,000 amps!)

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 Lightning Strike Sequence, cont’d

3. Within one to two cycles (20 ms), relays at both ends of

line detect high currents, signaling circuit breakers to open
the line
⚫ nearby locations see decreased voltages
4. Circuit breakers open to de-energize line in an additional
one to two cycles
⚫ breaking tens of thousands of amps of fault current is no
small feat!
⚫ with line removed, voltages usually return to near normal
5. Circuit breakers may reclose after several seconds, trying
to restore faulted line to service

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 Fault Analysis

⚫ Fault currents cause equipment damage due to both thermal

and mechanical processes
⚫ Goal of fault analysis is to determine the magnitudes of the
currents present during the fault
–need to determine the maximum current to ensure devices can
survive the fault
–need to determine the maximum current the circuit breakers (CBs)
need to interrupt to correctly size the CBs

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 RL Circuit Analysis

⚫ To understand fault analysis, we need to review the behavior

of an RL circuit

v(t ) = 2 V cos(t +  )
Before the switch is closed, i(t) = 0.
When the switch is closed at t = 0, the current will
have two components: (1) a steady-state value and
(2) a transient value.
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 RL Circuit Analysis, cont’d

1. Steady-state current component (from standard

phasor analysis)
2V cos(t +  )
iac (t ) =
Z
where Z = R 2 + ( L)2 = R 2 + X 2
V
I ac =
Z

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 RL Circuit Analysis, cont’d

2. Exponentially decaying dc current component

−t
idc (t ) = C1e T

where T is the time constant, T = L

R
The value of C1 is determined from the initial
conditions:
2V −t
i (0) = 0 = iac (t ) + idc (t ) = cos(t +  −  Z ) + C1e T
Z
2V
C1 = − cos( −  Z ) which depends on 
Z
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 Time Varying Current

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 RL Circuit Analysis, cont’d

Hence i(t) is a sinusoidal superimposed on a decaying

dc current. The magnitude of idc (0) depends on when
the switch is closed. For fault analysis we're just
2V
concerned with the worst case: C1 =
Z
i (t ) = iac (t ) + idc (t )
2V 2 V −t T
i (t ) = cos(t ) + e
Z Z
2V −t
= (cos(t ) + e T )
Z
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 RMS for Fault Current
2V −t
The function i(t) = (cos(t ) + e T ) is not periodic,
Z
so we can't formally define an RMS value. However,
as an approximation define
IRMS (t ) = 2
iac (t ) + idc
2
(t )
2 − T
2t
= 2
I ac + 2 I ace
This function has a maximum value of 3 I ac
Therefore the dc component is included simply by
multiplying the ac fault currents by 3

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 Generator Modeling During Faults

⚫ During a fault, the only devices that can contribute fault

current are those with energy storage
⚫ Thus, the models of generators (and other rotating machines)
are very important since they contribute the bulk of the fault
current.
⚫ Generators can be approximated as a constant voltage behind
a time-varying reactance

'
Ea

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 Generator Modeling, cont’d

The time varying reactance is typically approximated

using three different values, each valid for a different
time period:
X"d = direct-axis subtransient reactance
X'd = direct-axis transient reactance
Xd = direct-axis synchronous reactance

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 Generator Modeling, cont’d

For a balanced three-phase fault on the generator

terminal the ac fault current is
 1  1 1  −
t
Td'

 + ' − e +
'  d  Xd 
X Xd 
iac (t ) = 2Ea 
− t "
 sin(t +  )
 1 1  
−
 X " X '  e Td

 d d 
where
Td" = direct-axis subtransient time constant (  0.035 sec)
Td' = direct-axis transient time constant (  1 sec)

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 Generator Modeling, cont’d
The phasor current is then
1  1 1  −
t
Td'

 +  ' − e +
'  d  Xd 
X Xd 
I ac = Ea  
− t "

 1 1  
−
 X " X '  e Td

 d d 
The maximum DC offset is
2 Ea' − t TA
IDC (t ) = " e
Xd
where TA is the armature time constant (  0.2 seconds)

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 Generator Short Circuit Currents

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 Generator Short Circuit Currents

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 Generator Short Circuit Example

⚫ A 500 MVA, 20 kV 3 is operated with an internal voltage

of 1.05 pu. Assume a solid 3 fault occurs on the
generator's terminal and that the circuit breaker operates
after three cycles. Determine the fault current. Assume

X d" = 0.15, X d' = 0.24, X d = 1.1 (all per unit)

"
Td = 0.035 seconds, Td'
= 2.0 seconds
TA = 0.2 seconds

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 Generator S.C. Example, cont’d

Substituting in the values

1  1 1  − t 2.0 
1.1 +  0.24 − 1.1  e +
I ac (t ) = 1.05  
 1 − 1  e− t 0.035 
 0.15 0.24  
I ac (0) = 1.05 = 7 p.u.
0.15
500  106
Ibase = = 14,433 A I ac (0) = 101,000 A
3 20  10 3

t
IDC (0) = 101 kA  2 e 0.2 = 143 k A IRMS (0) = 175 kA

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 Generator S.C. Example, cont’d

Evaluating at t = 0.05 seconds for breaker opening

1  1 1  − 0.05 2.0 
1.1 +  0.24 − 1.1  e +
I ac (0.05) = 1.05  
−
 1 − 1  e 0.05

 0.15 0.24 
0.035

I ac (0.05) = 70.8 kA
−0.05
I DC (0.05) = 143  e 0.2 kA = 111 k A
I RMS (0.05) = 70.82 + 1112 = 132 kA

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Network Fault Analysis Simplifications

⚫ To simplify analysis of fault currents in networks,

we'll make several simplifications:
1. Transmission lines are represented by their series
reactance
2. Transformers are represented by their leakage
reactances
3. Synchronous machines are modeled as a constant
voltage behind direct-axis subtransient reactance
4. Induction motors are ignored or treated as
synchronous machines
5. Other (nonspinning) loads are ignored

24
Common Power System Faults

line-line double line to

single line to
fault ground fault
ground fault

3 phase 3 phase to
fault ground fault

single line to ground fault

through a resistor
Fault analysis

Most common of this is single line to ground

fault. Three phase faults are the most severe
faults. Overhead lines are most vulnerable to
faults. In a typical system in UK:

Type No of faults %
O/H 289 61
Cables 67 14
Switch-gear 56 12
Transformers 59 13
 Fault Analysis
Lightning is the cause of most of the faults
occur in the 66 kV and more overhead
transmission lines.
The calculation of fault currents can be divided
into the following two main types.
(i)Three phase short circuits: network remains
balanced electrically. Normal single phase
equivalent circuits may be used.
(ii) Faults other than 3 phase short circuit, the
network is electrically unbalanced.
Symmetrical component theory is used for
this.
 Fault Analysis

Z
E

Consider an initially unloaded generator with

a short circuit across three terminals as in
Figure above.
The generated voltage per phase is E and
therefore the short circuit current is E/Z
Ampere, where Z is either the transient or
sub-transient reactance (impedance).
 Fault Analysis

If Z is expressed in per
unit notation.

Zpu = I FL Z ()
E
 Fault Analysis

Per unit values are defined on full load.

If IFL = Full load rated current as base
current
E = base value of voltage

Z () = EZ pu
IFL
The short circuit current is

Z () = EZ pu
IFL

ISC = E
Z ()
The short circuit current is:

ISC = EI FL
EZpu
The short circuit current is:

ISC = I FL
Zpu
 Short Circuit Level

Three phase short circuit volt-ampere

= 3 V Isc
= 3 V IFL/Zpu = Base volt ampere/ Zpu

Hence the short circuit level is immediately

obtained if the impedance from the source
of the voltage to the point of fault is known.
Example problem
EXAMPLE

An 11.8 kV Busbar is fed from three

synchronous generator (as shown in
Figure having the following ratings and
reactance’s: 20 MVA, X’=0.08 pu, 20 MVA,
X’=0.09 pu,60 MVA, X’=0.1 pu

Calculate the fault current and MVA if a 3 phase

symmetrical fault occurs on the busbars. The
voltage base = 11.8 kV and MVA base = 60 MVA.
Solution:

short
0.27 0.1 circuit
0.24
F
(I)
F
(II)

0.24 0.27 0.01 0.054

(III) (IV)
 First we have to convert the impedance’s
into same base.

0.08pu for 20 MVA; becomes 0.24 pu on 60 MVA

0.09pu for 20 MVA; becomes 0.27 pu on 60 MVA
All generators emf are equal, they can be converted into
one source.
Xe = parallel combination of 0.24, 0.1 and 0.27 =0.056 pu
Fault MVA= Base volt-ampere/ Z pu=60/0.056=1071.42 MVA
Fault current = 1071.42 *1000000/(1.732*11.8*1000)=52,423 A
Basic Matrix understanding
for fault analysis
Bus Impedance and Admittance
Matrix

[I] = [YBus] [V]

Inverting [Y] matrix we get ZBus

[ZBus ] = [YBus ]-1

Here [ZBus ] is a nn matrix for a n bus

power system.
We can write: for a three bus system

V 1  Z 11 Z 12 Z 13   I 1
V 2 =  Z 21 Z 22 Z 23  I 2
    
V 3  Z 31 Z 32 Z 33  I 3
Bus Impedance Matrix

The impedance elements of ZBus on the

principal diagonal are called driving point
impedance of the nodes and the off
diagonal elements are called the transfer
impedance's of the nodes.

Bus impedance matrix is important and

very useful in making fault calculations.
Let us investigate the node equations for a
THREE bus system.

We have seen previously:

Current at node 2: I2= V1 Y21 +V2 Y22 + V3 Y23

Here Y11 ,Y22 , Y33 are called self admittances

Here Y12 ,Y23 , Y31 etc. are called mutual admittances.

Y22= I2/V2 when: V1 and V3 are zero.

 So the self admittance of a particular node could be
measured by shorting all other nodes to the reference
node and then finding the ratio of the current injected
at the node to the voltage resulting at that node.

2
1

+
3
I1 V2

AC
I3

-
Reference
Y22= I2/V2 when: V1 and V3 are zero.
We can also write:
I1= V1 Y11 +V2 Y12 + V3 Y13 ;Y12 =I1 /V2 when: V1 and V3
are zero.

Thus the mutual admittance is measured by

shorting all nodes except node 2 to the
reference node and injecting a current I2 at
node 2, Then Y12 is the ratio of the negative of
the current leaving the network in the short
circuit at node 1 to the voltage V2.

[The -ve of the current leaving node 1 is used

since I1 is defined as the current entering the
network. THE RESULTANT ADMITTANCE IS
THE NEGATIVE OF THE ADMITTANCE
DIRECTLY CONNECTED between nodes 1 and
2].
NODE ELIMINATION BY MATRIX ALGEBRA:

Nodes at which current does not enter or

leave the network can be eliminated.
[I] = [YBus ][V]

Where [I] and [V] are column matrices and

[YBus] is a symmetrical square matrix.

The column matrices must be so arranged

that elements associated with nodes to be
eliminated are in the lower rows of matrices.
Matrix elimination

• Elements of the square admittance

matrices are located accordingly.
• The column matrices are partitioned
so that the elements associated with node
to be eliminated are separated from the
other elements.
• The admittance matrix is partitioned
so that elements identified only with
nodes to be eliminated are separated from
the other elements by horizontal and
vertical lines.
Matrix elimination

Where IX is the sub-matrix composed of

the currents entering the nodes to be
eliminated, VX is the sub-matrix
composed of the voltages of these
nodes.

    
I K L V
= T
 A   A
    
    
I
 XL  M V  X
Matrix elimination

IX : all elements to be zero

K: with nodes to be retained (with self and
mutual admittance’s)
M: With nodes to be eliminated.
L and LT are composed of only those mutual
admittance’s common to a node to be
retained and to one to be eliminated.
Matrix elimination

IA = K VA +L VX…….(E)
IX = LT VA +M VX…(F)
Since all elements of IX are zero:
- LT VA = M VX
Multiplying both sides by M-1
-M-1 LT VA =M-1 M VX = VX…..(G)
Substituting (G) in (E),
IA = K VA -LM-1 LT VA
IA =[ K -LM-1 LT ] VA
Matrix elimination

Which is the node equation, having the

admittance matrix [ K -LM-1 LT ].

This admittance matrix enables us to

construct the circuit with the unwanted
nodes eliminated.

When a large number of nodes are

eliminated the matrix M whose inverse
must be found is large.
Matrix elimination

Inverting a matrix is avoided by

eliminating one node at a time, and the
process is very simple.

The node to be eliminated must be the

highest numbered node and renumbering
may be required.

The matrix M becomes a single element

and M-1 is the reciprocal of the element.
Partitioning of the matrix

[Ybus]=Y11 …. Y1j……
Yk1……Ykj……
L=Y1n
Ykn

M=Ynn

The original admittance matrix is partitioned into

symmetrical K, L, LT and M as above.
Matrix Elimination

Then The reduced matrix is K-LM-1 LT

The new matrix becomes:

Ykj(new)=Ykj(orig)- (YknYnj)/Ynn

Each element in the original matrix

K must be modified.
55

Formation of ZBus for

Symmetrical fault analysis
Modification of an existing Bus
impedance matrix:

How an existing Bus impedance matrix

may be modified to add new buses or
connect new lines to established buses.
In our analysis buses will be identified
by numbers or letters h, i, j and k.

The letter p will designate a new bus to

be added to the network to convert Z
original to an (n+1) by (n+1) matrix.
CASE 1: Adding Zb from a new bus p to the reference bus:

Ip
p

Zb

Ref

The addition of the new bus p

connected to the reference bus
through Zb without a connection to
any of the buses of the original
network cannot alter the original
bus voltage. when a current Ip is
injected at the new bus. The
voltage at the new bus is Vp= Ip Zb
 CASE 1: Adding Zb from a new bus p to the reference bus:

Vorig  Zorig 0   Iorig

 =   
 Vp  0 Zb  Ip 
The new row in Z matrix =[0 0 0 …. Zb]

The new element in the voltage vector =[ Vp]

The new element in the current vector =[ Ip]

CASE II: Adding Zb from a new bus p to an existing
bus k

Ik Ik+Ip
original
k network

Ip

Ref
p

Zb
Case -II Adding Zb from a new bus p to an
existing bus k
The addition of a new bus p connected through
Zb to an existing bus k with Ip injected at bus p
will cause the current entering the original
network at bus k to become the sum of Ik which
is injected at bus k plus the current Ip coming
through Zb
The current Ip flowing into bus k will increase the
original Vk by the voltage Ip Zkk.
Ik Ik+Ip
original
k network

Ip

Ref
p

Zb
Adding Zb from a new bus p to
an existing bus k
Vk (new) = Vk (orig)+ Ip Zkk
Vp will be larger than the new Vk by the voltage Ip Zb .
Vp = Vk (orig)+ Ip Zkk + Ip Zb .
Vp = Vk (orig)+ Ip (Zkk + Zb )
We now see that the new row which must be added
to Zorig in order to find Vp is [Zk1 Zk2 ….. Zkn …. , (Zkk
+ Zb )]
Ik Ik+Ip
original
k network

Ip

Ref
p

Zb
Adding Zb from a new bus p to
an existing bus k
Since Zbus must be square matrix around
the diagonal; we must add a new column
which is the transpose of the new row.

The new row in Z matrix =[Zk1 Zk2 ….. Zkn …. ,

(Zkk + Zb )]
The new element in the voltage vector =[ Vp]
The new element in the current vector =[ Ip]
 CASE III: Adding Zb from an
existing bus k to the reference bus.

Zb

This is the modification of Case II. Let

us first create a new bus p then short
circuit p to reference.
We assume that Zb is connected from
the existing bus k to a new bus p, then
we short circuit bus p to the reference
bus by letting Vp = 0
CASE III: Adding Zb from an existing bus k
to the reference bus.

So we can have the same matrix as in case II. Then

we can eliminate (n+1) row and (n+1) column
matrix by matrix elimination.
Zhi is the new matrix.
Zhi(new) = Zhi(orig) - [Zh(n+1) Z(n+1)i ] / (Zkk + Zb )
Where h=row, i column

Zb
CASE IV: Adding Zb between two existing
bus j and k

Ij Ij+Ib

Ib
Original
netwwork

k
Ik Ik-Ib

Ref
CASE IV: Adding Zb between two
existing bus j and k
V1 = I1 Z11 + …………+ Z1j ( Ij + Ib ) + Z1k ( Ik - Ib ),
rearranging:
V1 = I1 Z11 + …………+ Z1j Ij + Z1k Ik + Ib(Z1j -Z1k ),
similarly
Vj = I1 Zj1 + …………+ Zjj Ij + Zjk Ik + Ib(Zjj -Zjk )
Vk = I1 Zk1 + …………+ Zkj Ij + Zkk Ik + Ib(Zkj -Zkk )

Ij Ij+Ib

Ib
Original
netwwork

k
Ik Ik-Ib

Ref
CASE IV: Adding Zb between two
existing bus j and k
We now need one more equation: Since Ib is also
unknown:
Vk - Vj =Ib Zb, 0= Ib Zb +Vj -Vk
Substituting Vj and Vk from the above equation
0 = Ib Zb + I 1(Zj1 -Zk1 ) + ..+ Ij(Zjj -Zkj ) + Ik(Zki -Zkk )
+(Zjj + Zkk - 2 Zjk )Ib
Ij Ij+Ib

Ib
Original
netwwork

k
Ik Ik-Ib

Ref
CASE IV: Adding Zb between two
existing bus j and k

Collecting the coefficients of Ib and

renaming them as Zbb , Zbb = Zjj + Zkk - 2 Zjk
+ Zb
The new column is column j minus column
k of original with Zbb in the (n+1) the row.
The new row is the transpose of the new
column. As there is no new bus we want to
eliminate it, we will be eliminating (n+1)
row and (n+1)column as before.
Zhi(new) = Zhi(orig) - [Zh(n+1) Z(n+1)i ] / (Zjj + Zkk
- 2 Zjk + Zb) Where h=row, i column
 Symmetrical Fault
calculation using ZBus
Fault calculation using ZBus