Chapter I: Prophets and Prophetic Books

-Jews divided their Bible into three parts: law, prophets, writings; torah, nebiim, ketubim
- TaNaK
-New Testament uses various denominations: “law and prophets” (Mat 5: 17; 5: 12; 11: 13; 22: 40; Luk
16: 16; Joh 1: 45; Act 13: 15; 24: 14; 28: 23; Rom 3: 21)
-only occasionally the entire phrase is used “ all that was written in the law of Moses, in the prophets
and the psalms about me had be fulfilled” (Luk 24: 44; cf. Jer 18: 18)
-traditionally referred to as “former prophets” (i.e., Jos, Jdg, Sam, Kgs) and “latter prophets” (major:
Isa, Jer, Eze…. Minor: the 12, i.e., Hos, Joel, Amos, Oba, Jon, Mic, Nah, Hab, Zeph, Hag, Zech, Mal)
-although Daniel is sometimes called a prophet, the book is better called apocalyptic
-all of the prophets except for Jdg and Kgs carry an individual’s name
-Catholics refer to former prophets as “historical books”
-the order in which they appear in the Bible is not necessarily the order in which they were written

I. PROPHECY IN OTHER NATIONS

-Israel is not the only people claiming to have a means of access to divine plans
-past research has tried to look to pagan mantic experience, ecstasy, magic, thinking the prophet and
was the only figure really to fill the role of sorcerer/wizard of the tribe…best not to try a and make too
strong a parallel … but there are some worthwhile similarities
- Hebrews themselves recognized prophetic action outside of their own religion
-astonishing figure of Balaam, a Moabite who pronounces oracles of the Lord (Num 22- 24)…
although he seems to be an exception, since he is a foreigner speaking for YHWH
-elsewhere such people are called magicians (cf. Gen 41: 8, 24; Exo 7: 11, 22; 8: 3, 14, 15; 9:11)
-some ambiguity as to exactly what is the nature of the prophet: some say involved foretelling the future,
others say ecstatic agitation; others being a messenger for God. We cannot use any single one of these
with great assuredness.

1. Prophecy in Egypt
-some papyrus fragments were found and published by H.O. Lange in 1903… complete edition by
Gardiner, The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage … people began to think prophecy began in Egypt
- H. Gressman (1905) made the distinction between analogy and dependence regarding prophecy
-various other theories arguing for or against Gressman, supporting dependence upon Egyptian
prophecy or even to the other extreme in denying that the Egyptians had prophets, since there was no
ecstatic (these are all German works from 1905-1950 or so)
-S. Hermann (1963), on the contrary, said in there was Egyptian influence, but not dependence. He
explained that in Egypt profane, historical events led them to realize there was a troubled mix of
divinities in heaven … for Israel on the other hand it was a breach in the relationship with God which
was at the root of the various profane punishments and historical transformations
- primarily two texts used to compare Egyptian prophecy: “The Prophecy of Nefer-rohu” (ANET 444-
446) and “Admonitions of Ipur-wer”
-this prophecy at the service of the dynasty, including interest for justice, the evil-good dialectic

2. Prophecy in Mesopotamia
a) Ancient Assyria
-the great civilizations which continued configuring the ancient culture of Mesopotamia (Sumerians,

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Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Chaldeans, etc.) left numerous vestiges of magic and divination,
but practically nothing which reached a level elevated enough to use the term prophecy
- A.L. Oppenheim (The Interpretation of Dreams in the Ancient Near East, Philadelphia 1956)
organized the evidence into divination, dreams, historical lamentations
- W.W. Hallo (Akkadian Apocalypses: “Israel Exploration Journal” 16, 1966, p.231ff) noted the
difficulty attempting to establish the boundary between magic and religion. He said the same person
exercises the functions of magic, divination and religion.

b) Mari
-royal archives of Mari, contemporaneous with Hammurabi, beginning of second millennium
-civilization of Mari important because it finds its roots in Aramean tribes, ancestors of the Hebrews
-perhaps one was the clan of Terah, father of Abraham. It has been established that Mari experienced a
step in immigration from Ur to Haran (Abraham), then from Haran to Canaan (Abraham)
-we cannot in detail establish relationship between Mari in the Bible, but we can affirm some connection
… scholars believe that with Mari we’re entering into the sources of biblical culture (F. Ellermeier,
Prophetie in Mari und Israel, Herzberg 1968)
-analogies between the Bible and Mari: primacy of spoken message over written; people who present
themselves as messengers of God; they receive messages during worship or ecstasy or in the presence of
God; the messages are almost always exclusively directed towards the king; sometimes they threaten
him, sometimes announce salvation, usually with some conditions
-differences between biblical prophecy and Mari: criticism of the king at Mari is never deeply
foundational; Mari prophecy lacks prophetic action; Mari prophecy has an episodic character, as
opposed to the literary tradition both Biblical prophecy; Israelite prophecy is much more vigorous from
the doctrinal point of view, describing the sin of the people and its effect on all of human existence; in
Mari we find no call to conversion, nor any trace of escatological hope
- the mahhu of Mari is characterized by his: a) ordinary consultation, b) unexpected appearance, even
when he has not been consulted, c) representative of Dagan.

II. ISRAELITE PROPHECY

1. Vocabulary and etymology
-Greek origin (through Latin): pro-phetes means “Speaking in place of”, “Be the messenger of”, also “
speak before/in front of somebobdy”, “ speak in a loud voice”
-Old Testament word usually nabi, but also one finds hozeh (visionary; 2Sam 24: 11; Amo 7: 12); roeh
(seer; 1Sam 9: 9, 11, 18, 19).
-other words also used for a prophet: “ man of God” (1Sam 9: 6); “dreamer” (Deu 13:2), etc.
- nabi seems to come from the Akkadian root nb’, which means “to convoke, call”
- the Hebrew form would be passive (judging from vowels a-i, recognized in other words like masiah,
nagid, etc. So, it would end up meaning “called”, “gathered” by God for a concrete mission or vocation.

2. Use of vocabulary and prophetic functions

-great variety in the use of the word nabi
-elements of ecstasy, mediation of the word, preaching, intoning a hymn or promulgating curses of the
law, consulting God, doing miracles, interceding before God for the people, sometimes an individual,
sometimes a group

a) before entering the promised land

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- three people called nabi in the Pentateuch: Abraham when he intercedes (Gen 20: 7); Aaron as
representative of Moses (Exo 7: 1); Miriam, sister of Moses and Aaron, when she sings the song of
victory (Exo 15: 20).
-Moses himself as greater than any other prophet because he sees God face-to-face (Num 11: 25- 27)
-Deu 18: 9- 22 explains law of prophets: once in the promised land, after Moses has died, the authentic
prophet will be the representative of the Lord, and his word will be fulfilled.

b) in the promised land

-once the land is conquered, the use of nabi acquires all of its complexity and becomes more habitual
-Deborah is called the prophetess in Jdg and 4: 4, but we don’t know if it is because of her salvific
actions, her role as judge, or her singing like Miriam (Jdg 5).
-Samuel is also called, among other titles, nabi (1Sam 3: 19- 20; cf. 1Sam 9:9)
- prophetic groups appear called nebiim or bene hannebiim ( which need not be translated “ sons of
prohets”, but just prophets, since “sons of” is merely a way in Hebrew of expressing belonging to a
particular group)
-with significant frequency, nabi in the singular, with the article and a proper name, designates an office

3. Historical Sketch of the term “Nabi”

- the name “prophet”is already found in the Pentateuch
-[the hypothesis about traditions suggests it would be found most in Israelite texts (E from the north)
and exilic texts (D or P).]
-to discover its evolution, focus on former Prophets… still this is difficult because of not knowing
precisely the dating of texts

a) “Nebiim”: prophetic groups

= before the unified monarchy:
- prophetic groups seemed to predominate in this period. They don’t appear in traditions about the
conquest (Joshua), or in the time of Judges; rather in books of Samuel, there are itinerant, ecstatic
groups (1Sam 10; 18; 19; cf. Num 11), or at least living in a group (1Sam 19: 20).
-At least they live in a group (1Sam 19: 20)
-music used as a medium to achieve ecstasy (1Sam 10: 5; cf. 18: 10; Exo 15: 20; 2Kg 3: 15)
-their words are not intelligible, proved somewhat by the fact that they were not preserved as having
important content
-the action of God’s spirit is realized in them (1Sam 10: 10; 19: 20, 23; YHWH: Num 11: 29; 1Sam 10:
6)
- God’s Spirit is capable of coming upon other men (1Sam 10: 6, 10; 19: 20- 21, 23; Num 11: 25- 26)
-this spirit is an uncontrollable force which can be lethal since some cases (1Sam 18: 10- 11)
-Some of this is also typical of the prophets of Baal (which might explain the negativity against these
prophets at points) (1Sam can: 11- 12; 19: 24; cf. 1Kg 18; 2Kg 9: 11; Hos 9: 7).

= during the monarchy

-these groups will endure until after the monarchy, some clearly as prophets, for example in the court of
Jezebel (1Kg 18: 19ff), others integrated fully into the religion of Israel (1Kg 22, although they do not
receive the full confidence of Josaphat, king of Judah). The “spirit which is in their mouth” dominates
them (1Kg 22: 22). They jump and leap (1Kg 18: 26, 28; 22: 10), but still by means of them a word
from God is expected (1Kg 18: 24- 29; cf. 2Kg 1: 2).

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- Elijah and Elisha work related with such groups
-they lived a common life organized around a master (2Kg 4: 38; 6: 1; 2, 12, 21), called “father”
-socially they travel around with scarce resources (e.g., Gehazi in 2Kg 5), full of debts (2Kg for: 1- 7),
scarce food (2Kg 4: 38- 42)
-unclear if they arose because of the general crisis (2Kg 6: 25) or spontaneously.
-clear however that to the end they protected the patriarchal religion, refusing to adapt to Canaanean
customs
- a certain liberty of among kings and citizens, a social and economic independence
-they were crucial for the survival of Yahwism and prophetism
-among them for the first time was probably coined the phrase “ to be a prophet”, which meant to speak
in the name of the Lord
- one of the members of the group is their head
-these groups appear above all in relation with Saul or Elisha (Israelites); and geographically in the
northern part ( territory of Benjamin)

b) “Nabi”: prophet
-this word appears in the singular during the monarchic era
-masculine and famine in appearances

= during the united monarchy

- Gad and Nathan are characters who act alone and not in a group
- Gad is also called a “seer” (2Sam 24: 11)
- 3 principal characteristics for him: some relationship to the cult (2Sam 24: 18), function as a royal
counselor (1Sam 22: 5); speaks words of condemnation to the king (2Sam 24: 11- 12)
-The same could be said about Nathan: his Oracle about the construction of the Temple (2Sam 7), his
intrigue and counsel regarding the king (1Sam 1: 23- 27; cf. vv. 11ff), his harsh words towards David
after his sin (2Sam 12: 1ff)
- Samuel (called prophet in 1Sam 9: 9), even if he does not appear in any lists of prophets
- very significant political function as founder of the monarchy (1Sam 8- 12)
-not a stranger to the cult… was responsible for blessing the sacrifice (1Sam 9: 13); disturbs Saul
regarding cult questions, and announces the fall of his reign (1Sam 13: 13- 14; 15: 22- 23)
-although the stories about royal condemnation have most consistently reached us, must remember the
prophet also as a counselor of the king.
- remember that sources tell us Samuel (1Sam 10: 1ff; 1Sam 16) and Nathan (1Kg 1: 32ff) anointed
kingsjah (1

= during the divided monarchy

-This is the epoch of “classic prophetism”
-several important names: Ahijah of Shiloh (1Kg 11: 29; 14: 2, 18); Jehu (1Kg 16: 7, 12); Elijah (1Kg
18: 36); Micaiah ben Imlah (1Kg 22: 8ff); Elisha (2Kg 6: 12; 9: 1); a disciple of his (2Kg 9: 4); Jonah
(2Kg 14: 25); Isaiah ( 19: 2; 20: 1, 11, 14); the prophetess Huldah (2Kg 22: 14); etc.
-God can be consulted through them on behalf of kings or anybody else
-however, and they might disappear when a king wants to find out something (1Kg 18: 9- 14)
-they do not live in the court, but they do influence it with their oracles
- occasionally they anoint kings (2Kg 9)
- in this era, it seems there is a certain distance from the court for the most part

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-normally they put themselves at the disposal of any individual who desires to consul the Lord or solve
problems
- still they differ from the great prophets, in that prophets during the divided monarchies did not yet
address the people as a whole with God’s word ( upon request or not; cf. Jer 42)

= latter prophets and the title “nabi”

-during this era of one can say most precisely the prophetic phenomenon begins…
-still there exist prophetic groups and individuals as before (of which we know some anecdotal stories)
- now, we finally get those whose sayings are collected in more or less lengthy portions, in books
carrying their names
- the application of the term “nabi” is not uniform with prophets whose oracles are in writing
- e.g. the priest Amaziah calls Amos a seer (Amo 7:12,14)
-Amos, in fact, rejects the title “nabi”, but allows the verb “prophesy” (nb’) which Amaziah had used
(v.15)
-Hosea certainly could have used the title, since he links himself to the ancient prophets since Moses
(Hos 6: 5; 12: 11, 14). However, we only have the word nebiim coming from his enemies ( 9: 7)
-Isaiah is only called “nabi” in the section named “ legends of Isaiah” ( 37- 39), coinciding with 2Kg 19-
20
-the word “seer” is the more common appellation for him (Isa 1: 1; 2: 1; 6: 1; esp. 30: 10 and 28: 7)
-The prophetess mentioned in Isa 8: 3 seems to be his wife
-things seem to change some with Jeremiah who won century after Isaiah speaks of his vocation as that
of a prophet (Jer 1: 5; 19: 14) using the word nabi
-in the narrations of Jeremiah, the title is used for him 31 times
-he sees himself in the prophetic tradition (Jer 28: 8)
- the word “nabi”of years for the first time in the title of the book with Habakkuk (Hab 1: 1; cf. 3: 1)
-after the exile of the word will appear also in the heading of the books of Haggai (Hag 1: 1) and
Zechariah (Zec 1:1)
-Ezekiel, a contemporary of Jeremiah, is known as a “nabi”: “ they will know that there is a nabi in their
midst” (Eze 2: 5; 33: 33)…. Perhaps a formula similar to “ they will know that I am the Lord” (Eze 5:
13; 6: 10; 14: 7ff)
-note with Ezekiel the many manifestations of the spirit which seemed to be common for him: ecstasy,
rapture, translocation, etc.

4. Differences between former and latter prophets

-the point of transition is with the prophet Amos
-the differences:
a) former prophets in the Jewish tradition are historiographical books, while the latter prophets
are books named after a person
b) former have sporadic narrations about some prophets, while latter are systematic collections
of narrations and oracles
c) former usually respond to individuals’ specific requests; latter speak to the entire people
about “the end”, of vote definitive chastisement, and hopefully beyond the chastisement,… these latter
speak even if they are not requested
d) former preach by virtue of a religious interpretation of the moment; the latter collect almost all
of the important traditions of Israel and modify them as need be in order to found their preaching

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5. Conclusions (hypotheses)
a) Origin and evolution of the word “nabi”
= prophetism in Israel is considered as stemming from Moses, as a participation in his spirit in order to
guide the people
= the term “nabi” could be from Canaanean (philologically Akkadian) origin, first applied to those
groups of nebiim who entered a trance to manifest the presence of the divinities. Israelites would’ve
known these prophets in the pre-monarchic era when they entered the promised land
= this primitive manifestation of prophetism, unknown in the nomadic epoch of Israel, was not well
received in the reign of the South until a later epoch. [See, e.g., how in 1Kg 13 they systematically avoid
the name “nabi” by using “man of God of Judah”; also in the north they seem to use the word without
problem]. Perhaps the South was less influenced than the North by Canaanite culture.
= eventually the term “nabi” became habitual and lost its syncretistic connotations

b) History of Israelite prophetism

= the charismatic phenomenon, a sign of the divine presence in the life of man, which is found in almost
all cultures, was made present also in primitive Israel by means of the heads of families in the nomadic
era. By means of visions, dreams and other phenomena that divine will was known. The word of the
patriarch in such cases was decisive.
= groups of nebiim which the first Israelites encountered in the land of Canaan, slowly related
themselves to this phenomenon which continued with such persons as Joshua for those people called
judges. A head Began to emerge who spoke in the name of the divinity, and the term “nabi” began to be
applied to him
= upon institutionalizing the monarchic form of government, the figure of a peritus in divine questions
was developed. The king could consult him with every grave decision of government and military.
Also the prophet could make a contrasting criticism of the monarchy.
= the prophets who spoke against the monarchy could end up persecuted for their denunciations of abuse
= these prophets ended up being consulted by every type of person, Israelite or foreigner
= the ultimate and definitive step in the process these the appearance of the figures of the great latter
prophets who – although they occasionally dialogue with kings and individuals -- were characterized
primarily by preaching to the entire people, urging conversion before the imminent judgment of God
which they announced. More than any others, these persons drew to themselves the title “nabi”

III. THE BOOKS OF THE PROPHETS

1. Prophetic books and literary genres

-the prophetic books have literary characteristics specific to them, when compared to other biblical
works
-[N.B. from now on in these notes the term “prophet” will refer to the “latter prophets”, unless otherwise
specified]
-the variety of genres gives the impression of disorder in each book
-sometimes we can recognize a chronological order, if the oracles are dated (as is the case with Ezekiel)
-Sometimes there is a thematic or systematic order (oracles of the nations, oracles against Judah, etc.)
-still there are parts which are not characterized by such order, and we must consider other criteria
typical of an oral culture: assonance, repeated terms ( keywords), etc.
-still there will be a sense of disorder sometimes … and we have to admit that we have not yet found key
for describing the structure of some passages

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-we should not jump to the conclusion that the prophetic books are a disordered archive, or that they
were copied without intelligence, or that things were accidentally placed in this final position
-It is better to acknowledge that there is probably some coherent form, but that is culturally and
linguistically very distant from our own
-prophets certainly call us to study of literary forms and genres
-following the classic study of Claus Westermann (Grundformen prophetischer Rede, Munich 1960),
notice that prophetic tradition has collected primarily in three styles: prophetic narrations, oracles, and
prayers ( words of man towards God). [Westermann is leaving aside the wisdodm forms which are
found some times in prophetic writings].
-these three forms correspond in a certain way to the three parts of the OT: law consists primarily of
narrations; the prophets most properly contain oracles of God; and the Psalms mostly contain prayers
to God
- and these reforms also outline the fundamental literary history of the prophets: prophetic activity of
the 9th century is preserved primarily in narrative form; prophetically activity of the 8th- 7th centuries is
characterized by oracles; finally during the exile 2nd Isaiah integrated prayer into the prophetic word

2. The oracles
- since communication is a personal process between the Speaker and the listener, Westermann asked
three questions which help to determine with precision the genre of the oracles: 1) who speaks?; 2) to
whom does he speak?; 3) what is spoken about?
-The first question forces us to consider if the word of God is the word of the prophet
-the second and third questions help to classify the oracles literarily
-considering the recipients (question 2): distinguish oracles to the nations and oracles to Israel … then
further divide oracles to Israel as individual, group, or even an individual representing a group or nation
-considering the contents ( question 3): distinguish oracles announcing judgment and oracles announcing
salvation
-it seems the question about the recipients (question 2) influenced to some extent the Organization of
the books themselves … Consider collections of oracles to: heads, kings, prophets (cf. Jer 20- 23).
-especially the books of the major prophets seem to be organized according to the recipients:
I. oracles of judgment against Israel
II. oracles of judgment against foreign nations
III. oracles of salvation for Israel
(IV. Narrations)
-Sometimes it seems there are small collections regarding content (question 3): warning, exhortation,
scolding, but these are not as clear or expansive as the organization according to recipient

a) Principle parts of an oracle

-often prophetic material is based on the juxtaposition of texts of judgment and salvation
-very helpful to notice where a section begins and where it ends
-primarily two parts to an oracle of judgment
= accusation: usually employs a verb in past tense… provides the basis for what follows. A
formula of recrimination destined to cause the recipient to amend his ways. Invective or reproach.
= Judgment/Sentence: often introduced by the phrase “therefore… for this…” or some similar
formula which serves as a hinge between the two parts. The verb here is usually in the future tense.
-often there is a direct correlation between the sentence and the accusation, but this is not always neat
and obvious … the correlation need not be exclusively regarding content, but it could also be poetic or

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in the ambit of literary expression.
- consider Amos 2: 6- 16 (cf. ch. 3): the image of a cart pressed down with the weight of its cargo
(v.13) seems to have no relationship with selling the needy for a pair of sandals (v.6)…. But there is a
contrast found between the great mobility of the evildoers and the immobility which would result from
the punishment
-sometimes we can find two parts to oracles of salvation, but it is not always clear …
= The first part expresses the situation of desolation which provides the starting point for
liberation… otherwise at times a former period of chastisement is remembered in order to contrast it
with a new time of blessing

b) Derived genres of oracles

-the order we’ve just outlined is not necessarily the literary form found always … an oracle could begin,
e.g., with the chastisement and only secondarily explain the reasons
- an oracle might contain only one of the parts described above amplifying it with historical
considerations, exhortation, popular songs, laments, funeral songs, blessings, curses, etc.

3. Other literary genres

-literary units containing dreams, visions, history
-sometimes the prophet is spoken about in the third person (biographical); sometimes one hears the
voice of the prophet himself in the first person (autobiographical)
- one finds also hymns, songs, texts of prayers
-sometimes the entire unit is covered with a juridical tone
-some concrete narrative genres follow:

a) symbolic action
- G. Fohrer, Die symbolische Handlungen der Propheten (Zurich, 1953), notes 32 instances of this: i.e.,
Isa 8: 1- 4; Jer 16: 2- 4, 5- 7, 8- 9; 19: 2, 11a; 27: 1- 12; 43: 8- 13; 51: 59- 64; Eze 4: 1- 3, 4- 8, 9- 17;
5:1- 17; 12: 17- 20; 21: 11- 12, 23- 29; 24: 1- 14; 32: 21- 27; 37: 15- 28; Zec 6: 9- 15.
-usually contain three principal elements: divine command, execution of the command, interpretation of
the gesture
-the arrows of king Joash (2Ki 13: 14- 19); the marriage of Hosea (Hos 1- 3); celibacy of Jeremiah (Jer
16); the spoiled loincloth (Jer 13: 1- 11); the portrayal of a deportation (Eze 12: 1- 16); avoiding the
mourning of a deceased spouse (Eze 24: 15- 24)
-normally are preserved only the divine command and its interpretation (e.g., 1Kg 11: 29- 31; 22: 11;
Jer 28: 10- 11)
-sometimes just the interpretation (e.g., Isa 20: 1- 6)
-the symbolic action offers a visible example of the message … the efficacy of the message depends
upon God’s action

b) call narrative
-most obvious: Isa 6: 1- 13; Jer 1: 4- 10; Eze 1: 1- 3: 15
-other examples: Amo 7: 10- 17; Isa 40: 1- 11; 42: 1- 7 (Servant of the Lord); 61: 1- 6…. Jdg 6: 11b-
17; 1Sam 3: 1- 4: 1; 1Kg 19: 1- 21; 2Kg 2: 1- 18
-why would prophets relate their own personal call story?
= personal need to communicate such a huge encounter with God
= provide credentials for speaking such a word (cf. Amo 7: 10- 17)

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 = make it clear that prophetic activity is not mere whim, but results from a transcendence
impulse
-the call comes at the beginning of the mission
-includes the process of one’s entire life (cf. Jer 1: 4- 10 which speaks of God’s call even before the
prophet was born)
-the importance of the repeated phrase “ I will be with you” in light of the difficulties of somebody like
Jeremiah
-in general the following parts can be distinguished in a call narrative

Exo 3 Exo 6-7 Jer 1 Isa 6 Eze 1:1-3:15 Isa 40

1) divine manifestation 1-3,4a 6:2 4 1-2 1: 1- 28 1-2
2) introductory word 4b-6 6:3-9 5a 3-7 1:29-2:2 3-5,6a
3) command/mission 10 6:10-11 5b 8-10 2:3-5 ---
4) objection 11 6:12 6 11a 2:6,8 6-7
5) confirmation 12a 7: 1-2 7-8 11-13 2:6-7 8-11
6) sign 12b 7:3-7 9-10 ? 2:8-3:11 ?

-recognizing the parts helps us to grasp the dynamic of a prophet’s call … a dynamic process
- 1)the divine manifestations shows that got it breaks into one’s life; such a presence is not a normal
experience for the prophet
- 2) the introductory word highlights the personal character of the communication: This is not merely
something anonymous or casual
- 3) the command is expressed in the imperative; a mission as an ambassador, rep, etc. … the words will
come from somebody else, not merely from the prophet’s own authority
- 4) there is always an objection; it is not false humility; the freedom of the person sent is highlighted by
this; an explanation in light of present difficulties and foreseen ones
- 5) the confirmation and (6) the sign comprise God’s response to the very real objection; the
confirmation is valid only for the individual prophet; the sign which is offered is not an attempt
necessarily to satisfy the personal curiosity of the individual or the public, but rather constitutes the
public credentials of the prophet. Only the person who believes that God has spoken is capable of
understanding.

IV. THE PROBLEM OF ORDER IN THE PROPHETIC BOOKS

-in spite of the apparent disorder in the latter Prophets, we have discovered some distinct clues for
ordering prophetic material
- above we already noted some structuring in the major prophets regarding content, but moreso
regarding recipients
-also we noted collections of woes (Amo 5: 7- 6: 7), judgments against individuals (Jer 22- 23), oracles
against nations (Amo 1- 2; Isa 13- 23; Jer 46- 51; Eze 25- 32)
- Eze even seems to have a certain chronological organization of material
-still we’ve not discovered entirely the key to organizing prophetic material, even if we are convinced
that these books are not merely casually thrown together
-we must assume that the last redactor inserted texts and ordered them according to some criterion
-theological tones above and beyond the historical situations in which the oracles were spoken: once
spoken, the oracles acquired meaning from concrete historical. Once written down, the order provided
some sense.

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-oracles of salvation normally come after those of judgment
-oracles against Israel appear last after a series of oracles against nations in Amos 2: 6- 16.
-it seems the oracles in Jer 36- 45 are a range theologically to appear as the final step of a reverse exodus
for the kingdom of Judah
-examples of inclusio in Amo 3: 1- 2 and 9: 7- 8; Isa 1- 2 and 66.

V. INDICATIONS REGARDING THE HISTORY OF INVESTIGATION

-FIND ARTICLES OR MONOGRAPHS WHICH DESCRIBE THE HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF
THE PROPHETS IN THE LAST FEW CENTURIES

VI. FOR PERSONAL STUDY

-purpose is to enable attentive reading … beginning with the former Prophets who provide background
for the great writing prophets
-discover the varied world of prophecy in Israel even before the figure of the classic writing prophet was
neatly defined

1. Promise – Fulfillment dynamic

-this is the key in which were written the former Prophets
-read slowly 1Kg 14: 1- 18; 16: 1- 13; 2Kg 14: 23- 27 … answer the question: “What is the common
idea among these texts?”
-read 1Kg 12: 32-13: 32 and 2Kg 23: 17- 25, trying to establish the relationship between these two
texts…. Write a paragraph about this relationship. Realize that both are strategically placed: the first
after the schism of the kingdoms; the second just before the narration of the conquest of Jerusalem.
Between these two texts there is the independent history of the two kingdoms

2. Lists of prophets
-we usually remember only a very short list of prophets … a longer list can be compiled, although it is
not always clear what the Bible means by calling somebody “prophet”
-list the prophets whose names appeared in the following texts: 1Sam 3: 20; 9: 9 (actually, read this
entire chapter); 22: 5; 2Sam 24: 11; 7: 12; 1Kg 1:11; 11: 29ff; 14: 22ff; 12: 21- 24; 16: 7; 22; 17; 2Kg
13; 14: 25; 22: 14ff; Jer 26: 20. The list can be completed still further with 1Kg 12: 32; 2Kg 21: 10- 15;
2Chr 12: 15; 13: 22; 15:1ff; 28: 9.

3. Title of “prophet” for special persons

-it is not always clear why somebody is called “prophet”
-read the following texts, and explain to whom the title “prophet” belongs, and why it is given: Gen 20:
7; Exo 7: 1; Exo 15: 20; Jdg 4: 4; 1Sam 3: 19- 20.

4. Terms equivalent to “prophet”

- Making a list of the terms equivalent to “prophet” in the following texts: 1Sam 9:9, 11, 18 (cf. 1Chr 9:
22; 26: 28; 29: 29 …); Isa 30: 10; 2Sam 24: 11; Amo 7: 12; Mic 3: 6- 7; Num 12: 6; Deu 13: 2; Jos 14:
6; 1Kg 9: 6, 10; 17: 18; 2Kg 4: 5; 9: 7; 17: 13; 21: 10; 24: 2; Jer 7: 25; Eze 28: 17; 2Sam 10: 2; Isa 42:
19; 44: 26; Hag 1: 13; Hos 9: 7.

5. Texts to read
- The following texts reflect well the spirit of the prophet in the pre-monarchic era and in the time of the

10
first kings: 1Sam 9:1-10:16; 18:10-11; 19: 18- 24; 1Kg 12- 13 (connected to 2Kg 23:16ff); 18: 25- 29;
22. Write a paragraph for each of the four passages above which summarizes your observations
regarding the character of an individual prophet or the phenomenon of prophecy.

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Chapter II: Prophets in the Kingdom of Israel

I. ISRAEL AND JUDAH AROUND THE 8 TH CENTURY B.C.

- could read pertinent sections of Bright’s history… or R. de Vaux’s history…. Or H. Cazelle’s history
- prophets involved in this period of time: Amos and Hosea ( Kingdom of Israel) and Isaiah and Micah
(Kingdom of Judah)

1. Socio-political situation in Israel

-inexactitudes inevitable here,but we can underline principal forces involved in the 8th c. B.C.
-after the division over the kingdom of Solomon into two smaller kingdoms, the north/Israel and the
south/Judah, most of the political and military activity centered upon fraternal battles between the two
kingdoms (1Kg 15: 6,16)
-later with the beginning of the dynasty of Omri in Israel (near beginning of 9th c.), the northern
kingdom acquires some relatively important weight internationally, but continues battles with Aramean
neighbor (Damascus) (cf. 1Kg 20; 22: 1; 2Kg 5: 7).
-for strength, Omri maintains the political alliances with Canaanites ( his son Ahab married Jezebel,
daughter of the king of Tyre), builds Samaria, and also establishes an alliance with Judah (cf. 1Kg 22).
-there exist in Israelite community in Jezreel, and a Canaanite community in Samaria. Omri’s political
savvy maintained the co-existence of both groups, perhaps with a predominance of the Canaanites
-with the strike of Jehu, motivated by the nebiim and supported by the Rechabites (cf. 2Kg 9; 10: 15-
16, 23)… a bloody and traumatic current in Israel which weakened Israel’s international status
-various alliances ended, and Damascus controlled easily the Transjordan (2Kg 10: 33).
-despite Jehu’s killing of the king of Judah for being in Samaria, it seems there were only skirmishes
between the two kingdoms (2Kg 14: 8- 15).
-no more problems with the Syrians because Damascus was preoccupied protecting the North, where the
Assyrian Empire began to make itself felt (Adadnirari III struck Syria in a way that it could not
recuperate)
- the threat became grave in 745 B.C. with the ascension to the throne of Tiglathpileser III.
-some economic improvement in the kingdom of Israel: relative peace and commercial exchange
provide some relief and progress under Jeroboam II. (for commercial details, construction, etc. of the
era, cf. the criticism of Amos, e.g. Amo 5: 11- 12; 6: 4; 8: 4- 6; etc.)
-The economic development, however, was uneven, and social division was caused as never before …
economic abuses, oppression of the marginalized, deviations in the administration of justice
-a progressive syncretism with the religion of Canaan [make sure you know what “syncretism” means]
-a ritualism without accompanying Justice … a concept of the special election without integration of
covenant commitments

2. Political instability
-The Kingdom of the north, after the death of Jeroboam II, is characterized by a series of unstable
governors… five kings in less than 15 years (Zechariah, Shallum, Menahen, Pekah, Pekahiah), some of
them only in the throne for months… a series of assassinations
-Hosea denounces the conspiracies and the lack of loyalty (Hos 4:1)… “Kings are named without
consulting me” (Hos 8: 4; cf.10: 3).
-King Hoshea (732-722)was last king in the north. He pledged allegiance to Assyria, but then turned
back
- fundamental question about whether to submit to the apparent strength of Assyria, or instead to form

12
alliances with neighbors ( especially Egypt) against Assyria’s superior power…. Differences of opinion
were the basis of internal division in Israel….. a weakening of the kingdom ensued, characterized by
taxes upon those allied, general suspicion of treason, etc.
-no surprise that Hosea uses such a context to take advantage of the theme of covenant (cf. 5: 13; 7: 8,
11; 8: 9, 10; 9: 3; 10: 5; 11: 5; 12:2…)… military in the matrimonial covenant interchange… alliance
with other nations is to abandon the Lord ( 4: 10; 5:4,7; 8: 1)
-realize that the military alliances were expensive not only monetarily, but also religiously

3. Syro-Ephraimite War
- wanting to stand up to Assyria, Rezin of Damascus and Pekah of Samaria try to form an alliance with
neighboring kings.
-Ahaz of Judah is included in the alliance. Because Ahaz refuses to spend his resources uselessly, Resin
and Pekah invade Judah (in 734), intending to destroy Ahaz and put in his place his son Tabeel (Isa 7:6).
Ahaz acts contrary to the opinion of Isaiah by requesting help from Assyria. Assyria’s incursion erases
the Aramean kingdom of Damascus from the political scene in 732 B.C.
-Israel manages to save itself, with Hoshea paying tribute to Assyria.
-10 years later (722) Hoshea rebels against Assyria, and the resulting strike against Israel ends that
kingdom

- IN SUMMARY: in order to understand the prophets of the 8 th century, it helps to remember how the
economic development was so uneven in the times of Jeroboam II (Amos), the question of alliances
with or against Assyria (Hosea) and the Syro-Ephraimite war (for Hos 5:8- 6: 6 and for Isa 7- 8).

II. THE PROPHET AMOS AND HIS WORK

Bibliography: F.S. ANDERSON—D.N. FREEDMAN, Amos: A New Translation with Introduction and
Commentary, AB 74, New York 1989; J.L. CRENSHAW, Hymnic Affirmation of Divine Justice: The
Doxologies of Amos and Related Texts in the Old Testament, Missoula 1975; D.E. GOWAN, The Book of
Amos, NIB 7, Nashville (1996) 337-431; PH.J. KING, Amos, Hosea, Micah – An Archaeological
Commentary, Philadelphia 1988; J. LIMBURG, Sevenfold Structures in the Book of Amos, JBL 106 (1988)
217-222; J. NOGALSKI, Literary Precursors in the Book of Twelve (BZAW 217), Berlin – New York
1993, 74-122; M.E. POLLEY, Amos and the Davidic Empire: A Socio-Historical Approach, Oxford 1989;
N.J. TROMP, Am V 1-17. Toward a Stylistic and Rhetorical Analysis, in OTS 23 (1984) 56-84; A. VAN DER
WAL, The Structure of Amos, JSOT 26 (1983) 107-113.

a) Prophetic activity
-we know nothing about the birth date or the death of the prophet … but there are some clues available
regarding his activity
-Amo 1: 1 refers to the reign of Jeroboam of Israel and Uzziah (= Azariah) of Judah
-some argument about exact dates, but should be between 791- 752 B.C. … these dates delimit his birth
and his activity
-“ two years before the earthquake” would be useful if we knew the date of the earthquake … Zec 14: 5
says “ you shall flee as you fled from the earthquake in the days of Uzziah of Judah”… from all of this
we can only deduce that the remembrance of the earthquake was preserved in the South, but we do not
know its date
-there seems to be no mention of the fall of the Kingdom of Samaria; at the same time he draws a picture

13
of a luxurious society with economic development … so it seems accurate to situate the details before
the end of the reign of Jeroboam II.
-if the incident at Bethel ( 7: 14ff) cuts and end to the prophetic activity of famous (at least in the
territory of Israel) we can delimit his activity with some certainty between 760- 750 BC, and with great
certainty before 722, the date of the fall of Samaria
-regarding the place and the duration of this activity, once again little that we know.
-the incident of Bethel, mention of cities like Bethel, Samaria, Gilgal, the predominant mention of Israel
in the oracles ( 2: 6- 16) and prevalence themes of the election and exodus ( 3: 2; 7: 9; etc.) will
strengthen the belief that his activity primarily developed in the kingdom of Israel
-arguments about his activity lasting from one single discourse in Bethel to a period of 3 years

b) place of birth and profession

-most commentators agree that he was born in Tekoa (cf. Amo 1.1!!) In the kingdom of Judah 8th near
the Desert, some 17 km south of Jerusalem
-The mention of the King of Judea in 1:1, before mentioning Jeroboam II, supports the presumption that
Amos was a prophet of the Kingdom of the South preached in the north … this explains the command of
Amaziah to escape to Judah ( 7: 12), which is the same as saying “ go to your house”
- Tekoa is mentioned various times in the OT: 2Sam 14; 1Chr 2: 24; 4: 5; 11: 28; 27: 9; 2Chr 11: 6; 20:
20; 2Sam 23: 26; Neh 3: 5, 27; Jer 6: 1… a place of wise and knowledgeable men
-seems to be a cultured man: knows how they swear in the temples, knows the secret history (e.g.,
theology of the election and traditions of Israel) … knowledge of profane geography and history (danger
of Assyria, the Nile …)… he is not a simple isolated pastor
- 1: 1 noqed ≈ head shepherd (probably not poor); 7:14 a dresser of sycamore trees; 7:15 the Lord
grasped him from following the flock

c) Was Amos a Prophet?

-the argument with Amaziah in 7: 10- 16, especially vv. 14- 15, cause scholarly debate… some saying
Amos never considered himself a prophet, others saying he considered himself one after the Lord’s call
-The Hebrew does not have the verb ‘to be’… Greek put in “was”
- Amaziah seems to think that Amos was sent by the king of the South to cause problems in the north.
Amos denies that he has any part to do with the nebiim who had such bad reputation in the north, still
worse in the South
-cannot necessarily identify him with the “ a man of God” mentioned in 1Kgs 13 who went up to
Bethel… significant similarities, but also differences

2. The Book of Amos: prophetic material

-the brevity of the work allows us a more detailed study … which we cannot undertake for the other
prophets
-a type of mosaic of various prophetic genres: one narration, five visions, great variety of oracles
( against the nations, “listen!”, woes, doxologies, etc.)
-the Organization of material:
a) Amo 1:1 Seems to divide the work into two parts: words of Amos ( corresponding to chapters
1- 6) and vision of Amos ( chapters 6- 9)
b) J.L. Sicre (Profetas) says:
1) oracles against foreign nations ( 1: 3- 2: 16)
2) oracles against Israel ( 3: 1- 6: 14)

14
 inclusio (
(

inclusio

3. Oracles against the nations

a) general questions

b) oracles against the nations in Amos

(
t

( ( (

( (

( (
 ise accusation and explicit verdict
= the Oracle against Judah ( 2: 3- 5) is redcacted with a generic formula and Deuteronomic terms
(i.e., from after the time of Amos). The verdict is similar to the one for Tyre and Edom
= finally, the Oracle against Israel ( 2: 6- 16) crowns the series with expressive, authentic vigor
-we can deduce [assuming that Israel would have been last mentioned in the original list] that the
primitive list of Oracles contained a series 4 ( Damascus, Gaza, Amon and Moab) + 1 (Israel), a number
linked to the four cardinal directions… evoking the totality of the earth, inhabited by the nations, with
its center at Israel… like Gen 2: 10, where four rivers are mentioned coming out of paradise, as branches
of a great fountain (cf. Jer 49: 36). The list was later amplified to 7 in order to signify the fullness of
evil and punishment.

c) the oracle against Israel (2: 6- 16)

- one can imagine the self-satisfaction of Israel upon hearing the list of accusations against other nations
… only to be caught by surprise finding itself last on the list, the place of greatest impact ( some have
compared this dynamic to that found in 2Sam 11, when Nathan accuses David by means of a story
regarding a third party… David is caught by surprise)
-its form:
1) accusation ( first part). Develops mentioning at least four crimes (or 7; vv.6b-8)
= general: for three faults in for four I will not pardon you
= particular: “ because you sell the innocent …”; an accusation more ample than against
the other nations
2) punishment ( third part):
= general: does not appear (“fire over the…)
= particular: “ therefore watch…”
-for the second part, the text provides a mixture between accusation and a sentence, which presupposes
an aggravation of the sin: Amo 2: 9- 12.

- Analysis of the first part of the Oracle in greater detail:

- Of what is Israel accused? The other nations are accused of sins we could say are against the natural
law. Israel is accused of many others.
-difficult to determine if there are seven (signifying plenitude) or – uniting the terms which are joined
with the conjunction “and” – four, in which case it would be a series of 3+1, which is indicated by the
generic accusation
- relationship between each accusation and some laws of Israel
= “ you sell the innocent for money and the poor for a pair of sandals” (cf. Amo 8: 6; 4: 1; 5:
12). Compare the similar law in Exo 23: 11.
= “ Trample the head of the poor … turn aside the way of the afflicted”. In Exo 23: 6 a juridical
sense: “ do not pervert what is due to the poor in his suit”.
= “ father and son go into one woman, profaning my holy name”. Compare with Lev 18: 15.
= “ They lay themselves beside every altar upon garments taken by a pledge”. This law is clear
in Exo 22: 25. You cannot take basic necessities from a person for longer than a day.
-it is an Oracle well-founded, although there’s more to say about it
-the faults of Israel are laid out so they form a pilgrimage, steps, preparation, a journey, and arrival of
father and son at the sanctuary for liturgical celebration… the journey of life, which the Israelites
considered to be a pilgrimage, is compromised because it is constructed upon injustices and does not
lead to the Lord. Notice the polemical phrases “ profane my name”, “whatever altar”, “his God”

16
- analysis of the third part of the Oracle:
-is there a relationship between the accusation and the sentence?
- seven times the impossibility of salvation is reiterated in … an eloquent and literary form
-Israel is condemned to immobility under the weight of its harvest, by means of a sentence constructed
with assonance between sheaves (‘myr) and naked (’rwm) [notice the consonants in reverse]
- also a concentric structure:
sheaves (‘myr)
flee
mighty
archer-swift of foot
mighty
flee
naked (’rwm)

-the most exterior mark is that of abundance and nakedness: sheaves-naked … in the center are symbols
of swiftness: The Archer with his arrows and agility; the verb “flee” is repeated in … everything speaks
of a useless movement, since the agile one will not escape, the swiftest one will not flee
-in the context of abundance and richness which characterized the era, this harsh Oracle would humble
eight people who consider themselves blessed because of the many goods and they possess, thinking
they can enjoy God’s abundance without doing justice

-analysis of the second part of the Oracle, vv. 9- 12.

-the sinful attitude of Israel worsens
-YHWHspeaks in first-person, while the verbs are in the past tense
-vv. 9- 10, expressing the “I” who speaks, as v.13, speak about the first occupation of the land as a gift of
God who fights for his people.
-these verses are united by two contrapositions
I destroyed land
Amorites Amorites
I destroyed land
- vv.11-12 gather in a chiasm of the rest of the occupation, contrasting the gift of God and the fault of
the people
v.11 prophet Nazarites
v.12 Nazarites prophets
- prophets and Nazarites are the great institutions of God in the land. In the desert God walked with his
people; in the land by means of the prophets. The Nazarites (cf. Num 6)are the ones who maintain the
desert spirituality in the midst of the promised land, not letting themselves be contaminated by material
goods. The nation ruins these two characteristic forms of God’s presence.

4. The book of the oracles (Amo 3-6)

-beginning with Chapter 3 of the two divisions of Chapter 7, must distinguish primarily two parts
(although there is some other material mixed in)
a) a section formed by three Oracles each beginning with the phrase “hear this word” ( 3: 1- 5: 6)
b) A section composer of three auricles which begin with the expression “woe to those who…”
(5: 7- 6: 14)
c) other oracles, characterized by the command “Seek the Lord” and various doxologies

17
 a) oracles “Hear this word”
these three oracles mention the punishment against Israel … only a remnant will be left of the unjust
society … they will pass from the good life to exile in … a funeral song, called qina, because the
punishment has happened.

-various themes in Amos’ message

= against the unjust Society (Amo 3): this chapter, well organized, opens with a call to attention.
Chastisement of his trial is the central theme. Notice the inclusio: “Israel” (vv. 1/14), “punish”.
- three imperatives help divide this section

=Amo 3: 1- 8: a brief Oracle, followed by some rhetorical questions expecting a negative

response. The form of the Oracle: a verb in the past for the first part; the hinge “therefore”; punishment
in the future… content of the Oracle is unusual: exodus and election as the juridical basis of the
judgment of Israel
= 3 following questions related to the call of Amos. His credentials. The last questions give
meaning to the rest: Amos cannot quit prophesying a terrible message ( 8b; cf. the discussion with
Ananias in 7: 10- 17); the plan of God ( 7) against the city ( 6b) has been revealed to the prophets; that
which is to happen will happen as surely as the trumpet produces alarm ( 6a) or a trap closes shut (5b)
once a bird arrives (5a). in message of punishment and the image of the terrible lion (Amo 1: 2; 3: 4, 8)

= Amo 3: 9- 12: enemies of Israel are invited to contemplate from above the sinfulness of
Samaria (vv. 9- 12). What they see? Normal vision sees commercial trade, abundance of goods, richness,
movement, development, the pride of the inhabitants of Samaria. Prophetic eyes discover chaos,
violence, oppression. Israelites believe they are accumulating riches, and the divine blessings; but they
have perverted reality. The arrival of foreigners becomes disaster. Economic well-being becomes the
cause of disgrace because of the injustice underneath it. … V.12 Begins with the expression “thus says
YHWH”, as if the sentence had two parts. The mention of the remnants which the pastor has to save
from the jaws of lion alludes to Exodus 22: 9- 12, the law of the Covenant Code, before the monarchy,
according to which the shepherd has to give his master account of the sheep: He has to make restitution
for any of the ones lost; if a wild animal tore apart, and the shepherd tried to avoid this, he need not
make restitution, but he does have to present some part of the torn up animal as proof. Something legal,
forensic. The mention of the remnant does not mean the destruction has been incomplete; rather it is
proof that the punishment has been fulfilled.

= Amo 3: 13- 15: The chapter closes with an inclusio. God punishes Israel, destroying
everything which seemed solid. The action of the enemies is testimony of just punishment. Former
injustice acquirers now a taint of idolatry. The “altars of Bethel” are not erected for god’s distinct from
the Lord, but in them God is adored as the Canaanites give worship to Baal, i.e., with useless rites,
mixed with injustice

= against the “cows of Bashan” (4:1-3) and the cult ( 4: 4- 5; 6- 16)

-The second oracle employing the formula “Hear this word” is directed against the “cows of Bashan”,
fat and well-grazed (cf. Deu 32: 14; Eze 39: 18). Normally this is understood as an image of the women
of Samaria, who, enjoying banquets and celebrations, were as culpable as their husbands of injustice.
-the application of animal names to people, especially to warriors, is normal (cf. Psa 22: 13; Jer 50: 27)

18
and even honorific. The Oracle mixes masculine and feminine suffixes, and therefore “cows” could four
refer also to soldiers in normal circumstances. The battle image of vv. 2- 3 would support such
interpretation. Whatever the exact reference of “cows”, the accusation of celebrations in luxury at the
expense of the poor is clear.
= Amo 4:4-5 makes a reference to worship (treated below)
= Amo 4: 6- 11 shows that history exculpates God. God has actually moved, but the people are
incapable of repentance. A formal structure by means of the repetition “although I…”, “ you did not
turn to me!, oracle of the Lord”. Five plagues are listed as punishment sent from God to the people to
achieve conversion (cf. Deu 28; Lev 26: 14, the list of curses)
= Amo 4:12 assumes the punishment is a consequence of what has come before: “For this I am
doing such and such with you…”
= Amo 4:13 his a doxology, showing up three times in Amos

=Elegy for destroyed Israel ( 5: 1- 3): the punishment is supposedly fulfilled, and YHWH
ironically intones funeral song for the decimated people. Specific rhythm for Hebrew verse (3+2). The
first time Lord decides so strongly to cause the death of his people. Amo 5: 8- 9 is a final doxology for
the section.

b) Oracles with “Woe to those who!”

-the collection is composed of three woes or lamentations ( 5: 7; 5: 18; 6: 1). The three hopes of Israel
are mentioned, the three signals which assure the approach of God and his blessing: justice, worship,
richness. Everything seems to be going well, so it appears of the Lord is with his people. The tribunals
are full of cases, worship is abundant, social life is characterized by richness and well-being.

= first woe (Amo 5: 7, 10- 12, [ 13] 16- 17): Leaving aside the doxology (vv. 8- 9) the theme of
Justice and the tribunals gives cohesion to the composition
a) accusation vv. 7,10
b) Punishment v.11 “for this”, “therefore”
c) accusation v.12
punishment vv. 16- 17 “for this”
-v.13 is often considered a leader addition, but it could express the silence of the prudent one
before such a state of affairs. Nobody dares to bring to light the faults he sees. So Justice does not
function. Innocent people are condemned. Every sort of evil in fact comes from the tribunals of Justice.
- The expression “ I will pass among you” ( 2 manuscripts’) alludes to the third and 4th vision and
to the Lord’s intervention in Egypt. Nobody can treat the Israelites as slaves, not even other Israelites.
The Lord is guarantor of the rights of the weakest and smallest of the people.

= second woe (Amo 5: 18- 20, 21- 27): Vv. 18- 20 directed against false hope in the day of the
Lord. A day of victory over enemies and reward for Israel. It will certainly be a day of victory for the
Lord, but against his people, and this will be worse than for any enemy.
-Vv. 21- 27 refer to worship and justice. A discourse without a formal introduction. Unclear the
connection with previous vv. However, Israelite liturgy as “memorial” is also a scatological anticipation
and therefore celebrates the luminous day of the Lord. The liturgy is full of splendor: festivals,
assemblies, holocausts, offerings, victims, songs, music (7 stubstantives).but without justice, none of
this gives hope for the day of the Lord.

19
 third woe (Amo 6: 1- 7, [ 8- 11] 12- 14): directed against luxury and pride of the rich. They
believe themselves uniquely chosen (v.2), preserve peace by force (v.3) and do not see that they walk
towards disaster (3a; 6c).
-a series of seven actions (almost all participle forms) describe the luxury. The last four actions
seemed to describe a cultic festival. Punishment will be exile and captivity.
- Vv. 12-14 list of the limits of the kingdom achieved by Jeroboam II, according to 2Kgs 14: 25.

c) Oracles “Seek the Lord”

- three small Oracles related to each other by mention of sanctuaries: for: 4- 5; 5: 4- 6; 5: 14- 17.
- Amo 4: 4- 5: an ironic invitation regarding the abundance of liturgical acts

- Amo 5: 4-6: what will the punishment be? The house of Joseph will be invaded by fire; the nation will
be destroyed.
- concentric structure:
seek me and you will live
do not seek Bethel
do not go to Gilgal
Do not to pass on to Beersheba
Gilgal will be deported without solution
Bethel will be reduced to nothing
Seek the Lord and you will live
-life is located in the sanctuaries, they think; but Amos denies this. He says life is in the Lord. Vv. 14-
15 explain how to seek him.
- strange that in Beersheba, a sanctuary of the South, merits central place in the Oracle … perhaps this is
merely some actualization of the Oracle for the South

- Amo 5: 14- 17: “Seek the Lord” could be understood as an invitation for cult pilgrimage. “ seek the
good, hate the evil” could be reduced to a generic desire. Amos is not speaking in abstract, but in
concrete realities: “ put justice into the tribunals” is something inherent in the election of the people.
Commandments and Covenant are already together in Exo 20:1,2.
- Chiasm of 5: 14- 15: good/evil-evil/good encompasses the entire life of the covenant

d) Doxologies
- 3 such texts: 4: 13; 5: 8- 9; 9: 5- 6.
- the form of hymns, w/ ki (because) as typical causal conjunction
-enumerate the attributes of the Lord: universal creator, governor of the cosmos, Lord of the world (cf.
Jer 10: 12; 31: 35)
-doxology is praise of the Lord for his perfect actions, concretely in creation, grandiose, stable, perennial
-usually concludes certain prayers’
- it seems 4: 13 reinforces the threat in 4: 12.
- 5: 8- 9 seems out of place, unconnected.
- 9: 5- 6 is connected to what precedes it, in light of the powerful divine gaze just mentioned.

5. The book of visions (Amo 7-9)

-beginning with c. 7, the book of Amos centers upon five visions with some other material mixed in

20
a) the visions
-some formal aspects: the first four visions begin with the same formula “This the Lord showed me”, but
the 5th is different.
-the visions are paired up by some repetitions
= In the first two ( 7: 1- 3; 7: 4- 6) the following repetitions: the object of the vision is clearly
punitive and the intercession of the prophet is effective. The formal union of these two characteristics is
expressed in v.6 by the phrase “nor will this happen”.
= the second two ( 7.7- 9; 8: 1- 3) are enriched with appendices: narration of the incident of
Bethel ( 7: 10- 17) follows the third; and diverse oracles ( 8: 4- 14) follow the 4 th. In each of the object
of the vision is not necessarily tragic, therefore some explanation is necessary, and the intercession is
eliminated with the affirmation “ I will never again pass by them”, which brings to mind contrastingly
the passage of the Angel of Death in Exo 12: 13 (cf. Amo 5: 17)
= the 5th ( 9: 1- 4) is clearly distinct. It is a type of cultic theophany. The earthquake theme
provoked by the appearance of the Lord is continued. The disaster will be a consequence of the
earthquake or a war. Sapiential concepts of “omnipresence” and “ omnipotence”. Concluding sentence
is ironic: the Lord will set his eyes upon them for evil, not for good. The presence of God among his
people, a consequence of divine election, becomes problematic.

b) other matierial
- Amo 7:10-17, Incident at Bethel: the narration of the incident of Amos with the priest Amaziah at
Bethel is the only narration of the book and gives us concrete details of the prophet’s life. An example
of conflict between priests prophets. And reveals the bad reputation accompanying the term nabi,
understood as a profession by which one provides for himself. The final Oracle against Amaziah extends
to his family and Israel.

- Amo 8: 4- 8, Oracle against fraudulent Commerce: the themes of mourning and sorrow resound.
“buying the poor for a pair of sandals” is repeated. Fraudulent Commerce is expressly prohibited by the
law (Deu 25: 13- 15), although it seems to have been a common practice (cf. Prov 11: 1; 16: 11; 20: 10,
23).

- Amo 8: 9- 14, the day of the Lord: 3 oracles united by their a escatological coloring. As we saw in
5:18, the contrast of light- darkness for this day. The second oracle speaks of last days. Bread is
necessary, but man does not live by bread alone (Deu 8: 3). Not speaking merely of a good disposition
upon hearing, but about a following of what is heard. The silence of God will be truth. The death of the
firstborn ( 8: 10) extends to all youth. Could understand this Oracle as a reinterpretation of the elegy of
5: 12: “the maiden Israel” who personifies the entire people of Israel and its capital and becomes the
youth of Israel.

- Amo 9: 7- 10, the other side of election: this section closes with an inclusio with 3: 1- 2, the theme of
the election misunderstood. The gaze of the Lord evokes the end of the 5th vision. Amos imagines that
Israel will be shaken from among the nations. False hope is born in the people, since the threat is not
immediately fulfilled.

6. The restoration ( 9: 11- 15)

-the authenticity of these few verses has been often questioned, because the contrast so much with what

21
 gone before, or because they seem to reflect the situation of the exile, or because they refer to the
kingdom of the South
-remember that in less desires good for his people. Remember his intercession in the first visions ( 7: 1-
6). He also desired conversion, despite the worst elements he saw ( 4: 6- 11; 5: 6, 15).
-a new beginning is not unthinkable, despite the social upheaval
-notice the radiant tone of the vocabulary

7. Theology of the book of Amos

-attempt to find a coherent message of the entire book
-the concept word of God…the first prophet of the writing prophets to put God’s word in writing …
numerous mentions the “word”, using “ thus says the Lord”, “word of the Lord” … also because of the
image of the roaring lion, overture of the book, and by the punishment of his silence ( 6: 10; 8: 12)
-the first novelty of this word is the prophet himself: he becomes a the true subject of the word by first
being its depository, and then communicating it (although he himself rejects the title prophet, making it
hard to define him)
-consider how the prophet seems dangerous by is preaching, since he attacks the tradition (temple,
people, king), whereas the priest seems to preserve this tradition
-the prophetdoes not have full control over the word: The word keeps him in proportion
-the content or object of this word one could say his election, literarily expressed by the inclusio 3:2 /
9:7 and implicit in some illusions (“I will no longer pass in their midst”; “Lord set his gaze on them”;
etc.) … the experience of the election provide security for Israel. Economic, military and every other
sort of abundance appears to be signs of divine favor. Amos makes it clear that justice is required for
divine favor.
-election is the juridical basis for divine judgment (cf. 3: 2; 4: 12; 5: 25; 9: 4, 8). Destroying the nation
with injustice at the same time destroys the relationship with God.
-the word spoken by the prophet is also salvation. Remember the Lord’s desire that they convert (cf. 4:
6- 11). Life is in him ( 5: 4- 6, 14- 15). He hears the supplication of the prophet ( 7: 1- 6). He will leave
a remnant ( 3: 12; 5: 3) and reconstruct the House of David ( 9: 11ff).
-The anger of God is not the opposite of this faithfulness; rather it is the consequence logical. If the
Lord remain silent he becomes something of an accomplice to injustice. He must attend to the cause of
the poor and oppressed. In judgment and in salvation his sovereignty is manifest

8. Practical exercises
-analyze the vocabulary of Justice, the images of nature, society as it is reflected in this book.
-study theological themes: Social and forensic Justice ( 2: 6- 16; 4: 1- 3; 5: 7- 17); divine election ( 3: 1-
2; 9: 7- 10); God and the nations in the oracles against the nations, conditions for worship ( 5: 21- 27);
the day of the lord ( 5: 18- 20; 8: 9- 14); the figure of the prophet ( 3: 3- 8; 7: 10- 17); the image of God,
his warnings and chastisement, remembrance of ancient traditions (serpent, abyss, Jacob, Exodus,
David) … choose one of these themes, and examine the verses which treat it (remember in the analysis
from this class). Study the literary form and interpret the passage, beginning with the historical and
social setting. Attempt a reading of the same text in a Christian key and actualize it.
-compare and contrast a couple of the visions or a couple of the oracles against the nations

III. THE PROPHET HOSEA

Bibliography: P.M. ARNOLD, “Hosea and the Sin of Gibeah”, CBQ 51 (1989) 447-460; M.J. BUSS, The

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Prophetic Word of Hosea ( Berlin – New York 1969; D.R. DANIELS, Hosea and Salvation
History. The Early Traditions of Israel in the Prophecy of Hosea (BZAW 191), Berlin – New York 1990;
M. DE ROCHE, “Structure, Rhetoric and Meaning in Hosea 4:4-10”, VT 33 (1983) 185-198; W.F.
STINESPRING, “A Problem of Theological Ethics in Hosea, in J. CRENSHAW – J.T. Willis, eds., Essays in OT
Ethics, New York (1974) 131-143; G.A. YEE, “The Book of Hosea”, NIB 7, Nashville (1996) 195-297;
ID., Composition and tradition in the Book of Hosea (SBL.DS 102), Atlanta/GA 1987.

1. Historic trace: political and religious situation

a) the political situation
- VIII B.C., political upheavals … rebirth of Assyrian power, and Empire which amplified and defended
its frontiers by annihilating cities and mixing populations of rebel nation’s. two possibilities before such
an enemy: submit in order to avoid consequences; try to maintain independence, organizing some type
of defense, hopefully with the help of neighboring nations (especially Egypt)
-in general the OT ( with a Deuteronomic perspective, after the unification of worship carried out by
Josiah) judges harshly anybody (kings) pro-Assyria. Is that this not only because of the disastrous
economic consequences of tribute paid, but also because of religious implications.
-on the other hand, the kingdom of the North did not value the monarchy as much as in the South. A
more charismatic concept, generally speaking, conferred upon the king his leadership, rather than
depending entirely upon his genealogy. In the north there did not catch on the same salvific concept of
the kingdom which existed in the South regarding the reign of David. Therefore dynastic changes did
not presuppose religious trauma.
-after Jeroboam II his son Zachariah ( 2Kg 15: 8) lasted only few months before being assassinated, and
concluding the dynasty of Jehu. After Shallum, who lasted one month in power (2Kg 15: 13), Menahem
submitted to the Empire and lasted 10 years. The Book of Kings judges him harshly, because he seems
pro-Assyria. But perhaps this really was the only possible choice. Eventually an anti-Assyrian coalition
formed under Pekah and Pekahiah. After its destruction in the Syro-Ephraimite War ( 734- 732 BC),
King Hoshea came into power (2Kg 17: 1) and submitted to the empire, holding back the fall of the
Kingdom of the North for another nine years (2Kg 17: 6; 18: 10).

b) the religious situation

-understanding politics is not enough to understand Hosea’s preaching … there are religious
implications to all Covenant politics. Covenants were not maintained only by means of tribute paid, but
also the greater power required religious compromise.

-Israel’s religious problems always had to do with Canaanite religion: especially the cult of Baal. When
the Israelites arrived in Palestine, they were semi-nomadic shepherds. They thought of YHWH as a
God for shepherds, who protected their emigration, guided them along the way, and save them in their
battles against tribes in neighboring peoples. Once established in Canaan, their profession changed to
that of agriculture. With little religious formation, and an idea of God which was very imperfect, they
could not conceive of their shepherd God being able to help them cultivate the earth, providing rain and
guaranteeing sufficient seasons. This gave opportunity for the diffusion of the cult of Baal, lord of the
rain and the seasons, who arranged for fullness of the earth and favored those who cultivate it. Some
Israelites accepted this god, despite the fact that his worship required immoral practices such as Sickert
prostitution. YHWH continue being the God of the people, the one who first met their needs was Baal.
He gave bread and water, wool and linen, wine and oil. When the Israelite had these things, he did not
give thanks to YHWH, but to Baal. Whenever there was lack in any of these things, the Israelite drew

23
near to Baal for help. In any other nation this would’ve caused not even the slightest difficulty; all of the
gods were quite tolerating. But YHWH did not permit competition of any sort. [this paragraph from
Alonso / Sicre, Profetas II, 860]

- one century earlier, Elijah preached for the first time a strict monotheism. Other religions did not have
this. And the condemnation of any aspect of these religions-such as the cult of fertility and sacred
prostitution-was not so much because the acts were evil themselves, but because they represented a
portion of reality among the people which was not under the reign of YHWH.
-typical of Canaanite religion is the existence of rice which are merely obligatory and a connection to
justice. The rites reflect divine reality as it is known through myth.
-under Baal, religious rites could be maintained without reference to justice; and to try this with YHWH
is to treat him like Baal. This was present in Amos ( 4: 4- 5; 5: 46, 14- 15) and is also in Hosea ( 4: 1- 3;
5: 8; 6: 6; cf. 2: 21- 22).

2. The person of Hosea

a) location of preaching
-almost certainly in the northern kingdom: he understands the politics of the North of his time is … his
book reflects historical details such as the payment of tribute to in order to buy a military help, etc.
-the introduction itself contains timely details (cf. Hos 1:1).
-some problems: why allude to the kings of Judah, if Hosea is in the north? Furthermore, the three last
southern kings mentioned do not coincide chronologically with Jeroboam II. Why the inexactitude? The
beginning of the Book of Isaiah cites the same three kings of Judah (Isa one: one). Is Hosea a
contemporary with Isaiah? In such a case, the mention of Jeroboam II is also more than a chronological
detail: it is an affirmation of chronological coincidence with Amos. There for the title of the book puts
Hosea in relationship with Amos and Isaiah.
-very difficult to calculate the duration of his prophetic ministry. There is no evidence that Hosea
prophesied after the fall of the northern kingdom ( 721 BC)
-furthermore, in Hos 1: 4 it says “Call him Jezreel, because very soon I will punish the House of Jehu for
the blood of Jezreel and I will put an end to the kingdom of Israel”. Jezreel is sort of the Yahwist capital
of the northern kingdom. This text remembers and condemns the massacre of Jezreel by Jehu, ordered
by Elijah.
-in Hosea one concern typical societal situations of Israel in that age: court conspiracies (Hos 7: 3- 7,16;
8: 4; 10: 3, 15); references to a tribute paid to Egypt ( 5: 13; 7: 11; 8: 8- 9; 10:5ff; 12: 2)
-clear allusion to the Syro-Ephraimite war in 5: 8- 6: 6. [one could compare these verses with Isaiah 7-
8 to notice the distinct positions of the two prophets regarding the same situation. Their context makes
them preach differently.]
-Hoseamentions almost exclusively traditions in cities of the north, such as Jacob and the cities of Bethel
and Jezreel. [scholars believe that mention of the South which does exist in the book is probably later
actualization of the oracles of Hosea]

b) Hosea is probably Benjaminite

-remember that Benjamin and Joseph ( who is divided in the Bible into tribes, Ephraim and Manasseh)
are the sons of Rachel, the beloved wife of Jacob, whom biblical tradition identifies with Israel (cf. Gen
29: 31- 32: 24; 35: 16- 21). These tribes of Rachel are the depository of great biblical traditions.
-Hosea therefore familiar with traditions of Jacob (Hos 12) and Benjaminite cities (cf. 5: 8; 9: 8)
-almost all the commentators and the size of influence of Hosea on the Benjaminite Jeremiah

24
 osea is the only latter propphet originating in the reign of the North (Remember Amos was from the
south). Jeremiah was Benjaminite (North), but The northern kingdom of existed when he arrived.

c) Hosea was a cultured man

-the variety and richness of his images ( 2: 8, 14; etc.) he knows historical traditions of his people and
dares to criticize them (ch. 9). He is familiar with priestly circles ( 4: 6; 9: 2, 11; 10: 1, 11; etc.)
-probably from the world of the nebiim of the North: 6:4-6 presents him in the prophetic line of
messengers of divine justice and carrier of sacred tradition; his sympathy with the prophet who is
persecuted ( 9: 8- 9); prophets maintained opposition to Canaanite influence and defended the original
covenant (Moses is presented as a prophet, in opposition to Jacob) ( 12: 8- 11, 13- 15)

d) the problem of the wedding of Hosea

-in Chapter one the command is given to marry a prostitute and have bastard children: all of their names
have symbolic meaning. This is told in the third person voice.
-autobiographical first-person voice in Chapter 3, where “again” (v.1) a command to love and adulterous
woman and pay the necessary price
- an allegory or historical reality?
-Chapter 1 and Chapter 3 referred to the same woman?

= allegory: St. Jerome, medieval Jews, Luther, Calvin. Calvin said the symbolic actions are
fictitious episodes invented to symbolize the relationship of God with Israel. Jerome said they were
visions. Medieval Jews said such a marriage could not take place historically ( Maimonides, Ibn Ezra,
Kimchi). They said allegory only attempts to describe the relationship of God with Israel.
- against allegorical interpretation is the mention of her father. Also, an allegory is not married
twice (chapters 1 and 3). P. Humbert said it would be ridiculous for Hosea to present himself as a
fictitious victim of adultery if in fact he lived happily with his family.

= actual historical incident

-Two possibilities…
1) two distinct marriages with two distinct women. So said Jerome in his allegorical
explanation. Duhm ( 1920) said he first married a prostitute and later an adulteress. Such a personal
situation, however, presented as the fulfillment of commands from the Lord, does not have coherent
meaning for the situation of the people. It becomes difficult to explain how Hosea can describe the
beginning of the relationship between God in Israel with idyllic and true beginnings ( 2: 15; 11: 1).
2) the same woman in each case (a sacred prostitute?) whom he repudiates the first time and
then returns to marry. Once he discovers the adultery, he describes his impulse towards her as a
command to marry a prostitute. Various other explanations similar.

- Hosea (and then God himself) supposedlydoes something expressly prohibited by the law of God. Deu
24: 1- 4 mentions the case of a man not being able to re-marry a woman he has repudiated. Jer 3:1 also
condemns such an action
-the difficult personal experience of Hosea reveals to him the enormous infidelity of the people Israel
and the great love of God. There is no possibility of solution if God does not act contrary to his own
laws, i.e., if his love for Israel is not infinitely greater than their comprehension of the laws

3. The Book of Hosea

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 ndications about the structure of the book, especially focusing on the first three chapters which are
most important for the theology of this prophet.
- observations about other important texts

a) Division and structure

- the Hebrew text has suffered significantly in its transmission, so it is sometimes hard to decipher
- also difficult because we are not so familiar with the dialect of the Northern kingdom as we are with
the Southern
-the juxtaposition of oracles of judgment and salvation without transition is very difficult. Gives the
impression that the original order has been altered, or perhaps a significant part of material lost. Most
likely any later additions would’ve been those of salvation. Still the final structure must have
theological sense …
- three parts to the book: cc. 1- 3; cc. 4- 12; cc. 12- 14. Each section begins with litigation/complaint
(rib) ( 2: 4; 4: 1; 12: 3) and concludes with an oracle of salvation (3; 11: 8- 11; 14)
-The book is to be understood as a series of complaints which YHWH places before the people, but
which end well.

b) Notes for reading the first three chapters of Hosea

= chapter 1: biographical narrative telling how God commanded Hosea to marry a woman of
prostitution and have children with her… all for the sake of explaining how the nation has prostituted
itself away from the Lord. Such prostitution earns punishment of the monarchy, symbolized by the name
of the first son.
- Jezreel is the city of the massacre of Jehu (cf. 2Kg 9: 14f), but also the name given to the entire
plain found between the mountains of Samaria and Galilee. Etymologically it signifies “God sowed”,
which is alluded to in Hos 2: 23- 25.
-the name of the daughter alludes to the abandonment of a characteristic very typical of the God
of Israel: compassion (Exo 33: 19; 34: 6; Psa 86: 15; cf. also Deu 13: 18; 30: 3; Isa 14: 1; 27: 1; Psa
102).
- The name of the third son (Hos 1:9): very common to name the people according to their
belonging to the Lord (cf. Exo 3:7, 10; 5: 1; 6: 7; 7: 4, 16; Jer 7: 23; 31: 33). Now this is negated.
- “ you are my people, I am your God” is the covenant formula… now symbolically broken
- without the Covenant, this people loses its identity and it’s very existence; so Hosea warns
about their very annihilation.
- in the thought of the day, if a people disappeared, it’s god would also disappear… this is the
problem Hosea is viewing: God himself is confronted with annihilation at the very moment he warns
his people about their disappearance.
-God himself must restore the relationship, even contrary to his own law

= chapter 3: autobiographical narration constructed as command-execution-explanation.

-assume the women in chapters 1 and 3 are the same, since there are phrases like “ once again”,
“Still”, “again”.
-The price paid is that which would be given for a slave (3:2)
- v.3 seems to require a purification such as a new mother would undergo (cf., Lev 12: 4- 5)
- v.5 looks forward to the reunification of both kingdoms under the scepter of David

= chapter 2: divides easily into two parts, Hos 2:1-3 and 2:4-22

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 Hos 2:1-3 pronouncement of salvation contain a series of five phrases in third person
announcing future occurrences. V.3 gives a command for the present in the second person.
- the union of Israel and Judah remembers Eze 37: 15ff, esp. 37:21.
- 3 clear actions, presumably God’s: multiply the people, unite Judah and Israel, elect a
common head
- in the multiplication of the people one hears the echo of the promise to the patriarchs (Gen 12:
2; 15: 5; 32: 13)… unmerited pardon in this… amazing faithfulness of God.
- NT echoes in Rev 7: 9; 1Pet 2: 10; Rom 9: 25.

-Hos 2:4-22: Judgment, new beginning, a new situation

Chapter 2 (more detail)

– the chapter can be divided clearly into two parts

Hos 2:1-3: announcement of salvation

– delimitation: Chapter 1, beginning in verse 4, a series of negative imperatives which by definition are
contrary to the present verses
– the passage announces salvation, but vv.1-2 contain a series of five phrases in third person, focusing
on the future... v.3 contains a command for the present in second person
– H.W. Wolff suggests reasons against authenticity of these vv., considering the phrase “great day of the
Jezreel” in v.2: a break with the announcement of judgment in Chapter 1, which follows in c.2,
beginning w/2:4;... When Hosea preaches salvation, he does so with the goal of conversion;... the
changing of names makes more logical sense at the end of c.2;... Jezreel (according to Wolff) in 2:2
presupposes an etymological game with 2:24;... the union of Israel and Judah recalls Eze 37:15ff, esp.
37:21 [“naming”, “head or king”, “land/earth”];... the initial phrases are excessively long when
compared with other oracles of salvation
–Still Wolff also offers reasons in favor of authenticity: the language is not improper to Hosea;... the text
could not be independent because it does not make sense alone;... also it could not be a gloss because it
is not explaining anything;..... this author ends up saying it must belong to a “school of Hosea”
– 3 clear actions announced, presumably divine: multiply the people, unite Judah and Israel, choose a
common head
– multiplication of the people is an echo of the promise to the patriarchs (Gen 12:2; 15:5; 32:13); not the
grace of the election, but rather unmerited pardon (cf. Rev 7:9; 1Pet 2:10; Rom 9:25)

2:4-22: judgment, new beginning, new situation

– scholarly debate about whether to divide the passage between vv.15 and 16 or between vv.17 and 18
– triple repetition of the formula “Oracle of the Lord” (vv. 15, 18, 23) with the distinct function
structural of the formula “that day” (vv. 18, 20, 23) which marks a clear beginning, and includes the
triple repetition “for this” or “for such” (vv. 8, 11, 16) which usually marks the second part of an
Oracle..... in other words it becomes clear that there should be divisions between 17/18 and 19/20 and
22/23

Hos 2: 4-10: a judgment of divorce with the purpose of conversion

– the children, strangely, are witnesses of the accusation
– perhaps conversion is not attained, but a warning is given with the images of nakedness and dryness

27
( .5) and of the lack of compassion (v.6)
– Exo 21:10 holds the key to this warning... a passage about what a man must give the first wife if he
divorces... but Hosea seems to be speaking about a complete divorce without these things
– v.7 resumes the accusation, with words of the woman invoking her lovers
– vv. 8-9 chastisement of unfruitfulness
– v.10 holds out hope, based on the possibility of ignorance behind the wrongdoing

Hos 2:11-15: takes up again the judgment w/vv. 8-10, using the formula “therefore”
– the spouse will be deprived of food, clothing and festive atmosphere proper to Israelite worship
– cultic festivity is clearly an illusion to Canaanite worship as well... i.e., the idea of divorce is taken up
again in a cultic key
– v. 14 mentions again the lovers...
– v.15 concludes with the sentence of chastisement of the sin

Hos 2:16-17: perhaps the most problematic... instead of “therefore” introducing a chastisement, the Lord
seems to begin again with his people
– the desert is often considered a place of trial and tempting (Psa 95:8-9)
– here the desert constitutes the place of first love, the journey of lovers (cf. Hos 9:10; 13:4-6)
– things get turned inside out: the first military loss in the land (Achor; cf. Jos 7:26) becomes victory,
and the story of sin becomes a positive response
– the normal canonical order (Egypt – desert – land) gets changed into desert – land – Egypt

Hos 2: 18-22: the life of faithfulness begins with “that day”

– relationship with the husband is reconstituted, the name of baals is forbidden
– a universal alliance accompanies a stable wedding (vv.20-21), based in justice and right, affection...
“knowing the Lord” (v. 22)
– schematic vision of this section:
2:4-10: judgment in the key of divorce
A: (4-6) nakedness-but-not sons (= no-wedding)
B: (7) lovers, enjoy gifts of the land
C: (8-9) didactic punishment: sterility
(10) because they did not understand
2:11-15: divorce in cultic key
A: (11-13) no food-nakedness-festivity (= no-wedding)
B: (14) lovers, enjoy the peace of the earth
C: (15) punishment
for forgetting about me
2: 16-17: unexpected new beginning
A: (16) seduction in the desert
B: (17a) gift of the vineyards of the land
C: (17b) new exodus, equivalent to
positive response of youth
2:18-22: new situation
A: (18) new wedding
B: (19) no mention of baals
C: (20-21) complete and eternal alliance (fidelity)

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 to know the Lord

– a threefold structuring based on the verbal signals

– significant theological themes for Hosea: knowledge, forgetfulness, response

Hos 2: 23-25
– beginning with “that day” (as in vv. 18, 20)
– a series of positive responses leading to fruitfulness: seed of wheat, vying or olive needing earth, etc.
– the children change their names (as in 2:1-3, although this time the text explains it) and are called as
the people born of the exodus
– everything in the key of love, of fruitful power of the Lord

Final structure
1:1-9: personal experience of Hosea
2:1-3: growth (fecundity); change of names
2:4-10: judgment of divorce and punishment
2:11-15: judgment of cultic divorce
2:16-17: new beginning
2:18-22: stable marriage
2:23-25: fecundity (sowing); change of names
3:1-5: personal experience of Hosea

– in 2:16 and unexpected change in the discourse with the announcement of a new beginning... sucking
literary appearance of the theme expresses its ideological novelty
– the personal experience of Hosea helps him to understand the situation, especially the magnitude of
God’s faithfulness and love for Israel
– neither conversion nor repentance of the people is announced... the subject of the newness is
exclusively the Lord

c) other texts in the Book of Hosea

– to understand the theology of Hosea, it suffices to know well chapters 1-3
– other texts confirm the message and shed light

Hos 4–11, second part of the book

= warnings or invectives against Israel

– in 4:1-3 God brings lawsuit against the people (rib) for lacking faithfulness (emet) and loyalty (hesed),
and knowledge of God
– instead there is perjury, lying, assassination, thievery, adultery, homicide, etc.
– 4:2 is known as the “prophetic Decalogue”, not because 10 sins are mentioned, but because those
mentioned reflect the 10 Commandment Decalogue.... the whole cosmos is affected (v.3)
– 4:4-5:7 is a series of oracles thematically related along the theme of fornication... 4:4-11 refers to
fornication by priests (vv.10-11) who should be transmitting the knowledge of God... 4:12-19 shows
how such sin passes from the temple to the people... 5:1-7 speaks against priests, people, monarchy... the
spirit of fornication (v.4) is generalized... cult worship cannot appease or fake out the Lord
– in 5:8-6:6 and illusion of the Syro-ephraimite war in passionate tones... the lack of loyalty to God and

29
others makes pardon impossible... a political result, internally and externally... alliances with those who
appear strongest, but these are not valid alliances... perversion has reached even the cult and prophets
– in 9:10 a series of reflections about history begins, showing that the relationship with God has been
perverted since the beginning: in the desert from Baal of Peor (cf. Num 25:1-5), throughout the time of
the monarchy since Gilgal (1Sam 15:23), and the epoch of the land with Bethel and Gibeah ( Jdg 19-21).
– 11:1-11 is a historical meditation upon the evil response to the Lord’s initial love... constitutes the end
of the second part of the book of Hosea, does concluding with an oracle of salvation

Hos 12–14. Reflective language against Ephraim

– continues historical reflections upon the sin of Israel, ending with a penitential liturgy, 14:2-9
– the nation manifests its conversion in the form of a prayer refusing to establish its hope in other
alliances, upon horses or false gods... which allows them to return to their first love
– 14:10 is a sapiential epilogue

4. Theology of the Book of Hosea

a) concepts with theological content
– some concepts which become classical: to know, hesed (affection/love), ’emet (faithfulness)

= ’emet.... Means truth, but something more than logical truth. Found in Hos 4:1, but related to
“faithfulness” (emuna, 2:20).... basic concept is consistency... then duration, security, dependability, so
that it sometimes gets translated “truth”... apply to personal relationship = “loyalty”

= hesed.... important for both Hosea and Jeremiah... “goodness” is an imperfect translation.... usually
combined with another word to form a hendiadys [two for one] such as “faithful love”, “gracious
affection”, “merciful love”... occurs in 2:21; 4:1; 6:4; 6:6; 10:12; 12:7

= to know.... not just cognitive aspect, also experiential as in relationship... “maintain a special relation
with”...
– knowledge of God: 4:1; 6:6
– knowledge (in general), but thinking about God: 4:6 (2x); 10:12
– to know (verb) with God as the object: 2:10, 22; 5:4; 6:3; 8:2; 13:4
– to know (verb) with God as subject and Israel as object: 5:3
– negation of knowledge: 5:9; 8:4 (not have God’s approval); 9:2; 10:12 [LXX]; 12:1; 14:10

b) theological systematization
= the corruption of Israel... Hosea’s preaching uncovers the corruption affecting Israel: the whole nation
is touched, priests, kings, political leaders
– 3 levels of effect:
+ contamination of Yahwism by Canaanite fertility religion... even total abandonment of
traditional Yahwistic perspectives... most visible in cult arena, so this receives most invective...
especially cc.2 and 4 attack idolatry as the capital fault of Israel
+ rupture and breakup of political life... rupture of essential ties between Israel and Yahweh
cause profound disequilibrium in political life, in the innermost parts of the kingdom (6:7-11; 7:17) as
well as external politics internationally... Israel is too confident in her own destiny, so she creates
political alliances with foreign powers... history confirms the prophet’s vision of tragedy in 722 B.C.
(7:8-16)

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 fall of social order... social values are corrupted... interpersonal faults are condemned in 4:2;
6:6, 8-9; 7:1; 10:4, 12-13; 12:8-9)

= prophetic interpretation of the corruption of Israel

– interpreted in light of religious traditions of Israel... employs two principal concepts: prostitution and
adultery
– prostitution is a degenerate love... describes the progress of the simulation of the Canaanite religion by
Israel... emphasizes especially three aspects of Israel’s behavior: a) absurd and senseless compromise to
give oneself to the god of fertility and become radically condemned to sterility... b) connotes a shallow
union, a compromise which cannot be fully expressed in anyone’s life... c) a devaluation of a life of total
love
– adultery is broken conjugal love... denotes the rupture caused by Israel in her covenant with God (3:5;
6:4)... more precisely, the initial and fundamental relationship between Israel and God was presented as
a conjugal bond... the religious history of Israel is the story of a conjugal love destroyed by Israel

= God loves Israel: a theological presupposition of Hosea

– Hosea presents God as a God of love (9:15; 14:5)... taking place in stages up to the present
– the rupture can be fixed in the future if Israel will adopt a new attitude towards God
– God’s love for Israel especially in conjugal terms (3:1)... total and exclusive
– other OT places focusing on God’s love... Jer 2–3; Eze 16; 23; 36 – 37; Isa 51 – 52; 54; 60 – 62
– NT passages focusing on God’s love (hardly exhaustive)... Mat 22:2-4; 25:10; Mar 1:41; 8:2; Luk
7:13; Joh 3:29; Rom 8:30 5, 39; 9:25; 2Cor 13:13; Gal 2:20; 1Pet 2:10; 1Jo 4:9; Rev 19:7; 21:2-5; 22:17

= the stages of love between God and Israel

– particular to Hosea is relating the divine love of God for Israel to history... the love is instituted,
develops and is renewed in history
– first love... the entire preaching of Hosea is based upon an affirmation that Yahweh and Israel gave
themselves to each other mutually with whole heart.... a time of courtship... the time of the Exodus and
the desert (9:10; 11:1; 12:10; 13:4)
– the breakup... radical rupture of covenant relationship which gave to the community its very being... a
rupture of hesed, justice, right, truth,... all divine gifts and fundamental interpersonal realities... a
profound disorder is introduced into the people (4:1; 9:10, 15-17; 10:9-10; 12:3-5)
– total disarray of the people, radical sterility, suppression of the covenant, catastrophe, punishment
arising from the very nature of the sin (2:5, 11, 14-15; 4:3, 6, 10; 5:4-7; 7:2; 8:13; 9:3-6, 9; 10:14-15;
11:6; 13:15)... this punishment seems to be the last word from God... it seems God’s destructive word
must come to pass, but remember that there was a salvific word first which also is powerful and must be
fulfilled (2:16; 11:8-9), and so a foundation for hope appears
– a new destiny of the people coincides with a repentance of disposition... the people must return to their
first love... back to the attitude of the desert (2:16, 23-25; 14:2-9)

5. Practical exercises
a) why does it seem there are three parts in the book of Hosea? What is the internal dynamic of each
part?
b) explain the literary structure of Chapter 2 of Hosea
c) offer an explanation of Hosea 11, following the guidelines:
– carefully read the text and check various translations (cf. 11:4)

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 – note the change in verb tenses as a means of signaling sections within the chapter
– list the words which repeat in the various sections or group them in semantic categories
(geographical names, verbs of motion, etc.) as a way of describing the internal dynamic
of the text
– is there a logic to God’s action with Israel?

Chapter III. Prophets of the Reign of Judah: Isaiah and Micah

I. THE PROPHET ISAIAH AND HIS WORK

– various difficulties the work presents under the name of Isaiah

– the figure of the Prophet in his surroundings
– the oracles found in his book

Bibliography: P.R. ACKROYD, “Isaiah 1–12: Presentation of a Prophet”, in Congress Volumen. Göttingen,
1977: VTS 29 (Leiden 1978) 16-48; M.A. SWEENEY, The Book of Isaiah in Recent Research. Currents
in Research, in Biblical Studies 1 (1993) 141-162; C.C. BROYLES – C.A. EVANS, Writing and Reading
the Scroll of Isaiah (VT.S LXX 1-2), Leiden 1997; C.A. EVANS, “On the Vineyard of Isaiah 5 and Mark
12”, BZ 28 (1984) 82-86; D. CARR, Reaching for Unity in Isaiah, in JSOT 57 (1993) 61-80; A. LAATO,
“About Zion I will Not Be Silent” (CB.OT 44), Stockholm 1998; R.F. MELUGIN – M.A. SWEENEY
(edd.), New Visions of Isaiah (JSOT.S 214), Sheffield 1996; K. NIELSEN, “Isa 6:1–8:18* as Dramatic
Writing”, ST 40 (1986) 1-16; R.H. O’CONNELL, Concentricity and Continuity (JSOT.S 188), Sheffield
1994; C.R. SEITZ, How is the Prophet Isaiah present in the latter Half of the Book?, in JBL 115 (1996)
219-240; M.A. SWEENEY, Isaiah 1-4 and the Post-Exilic Understanding of the Isaianic Tradition
(BZAW 171), Berlin – New York 1988; A.J. TOMASINI, Isaiah 1.1-2.4 and 63-64, and the composition
of the Isaianic Corpus, in JSOT 57 (1993) 81-98; J. VAN RUITEN – M. VERVENNE (edd.), Studies in
the of Isaiah. FS W.A.M. Beuken (BEThL 132), Leuven 1997; J. VERMEYLEN (ed.), The Book of Isaiah
(BEThL 81), Leuven 1989; J.T. WILLIS, “The First Pericope in the Book of Isaiah”, VT 34 (1984) 63-77;
ID., “The Genre of Isaiah 5:1-7”, JBL 96 (1977) 337-362; H.G.M. WILLIAMSON, The Book Called
Isaiah, Oxford 1994.

1. The problem of the Book of Isaiah

a) position in the Bible

– various versions place it differently: TM, LXX, Vul (and most translations) place it at the beginning of
the major prophets, as opposed to the Babylonian Talmud which places it at the end.

b) the text of the book

– differences between TM and LXX occur in many biblical books, but in Isaiah they acquire for the first
time a certain block of prophetic text... both traditions have suffered in the process of actualization...

c) the work of one or various prophets?

– quite a disputed question in the history of study of this book... but today most scholars no longer
discuss it, because they presume various authors/editors/compilers
–the fact that the entire book is inverse, except for cc. 36 – 39, and that these chapters are parallel to
2Kg 18 – 20, led people to divide the book into three great sections: 1 – 35, 36 – 39, 40 – 66... already in

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the 11th century people began to place the last part in the post-exilic era... but the greatest revolution
came with critical exegesis at the end of 18th-century (Döderlein, Eichhorn) which underlined the
apparent separation between chapters 39 and 40. In 19th-century (Duhm) was proposed separation
between chapters 55 and 56. The book remained with the same name, but divided into three sections,
each attributed to a distinct epoch.... people began to speak of Isaiah (1 – 39), II Isaiah (40 – 55), III
Isaiah (56 – 66). Such people belonged to the “critical school”, yet there remained a “traditional
school”.

= Critical School [using history, literary criticism, theology]

– history: beginning with Isaiah 40, there are no more references to successes or persons of the eighth
century; rather of the sixth century B.C.: mention of Cyrus (44:28; 45:1), invitation to “come out of
Babylon” (48:20) and undertake a return to Jerusalem reflects the situation of exile which was so vivid
for Jews at the beginning of sixth century... in a similar manner, beginning with Isaiah 56, the text
reflects problems of the community which has already returned to Jerusalem and is involved in the
reconstruction of the capital, a situation found at the end of sixth century
– the first chapters of the book reflect the situation of Jerusalem in the middle of the eighth century B.C.:
the mention of the Syro-Ephraimite War in Isaiah 7 and warnings of chastisement in these chapters....
but beginning in Isaiah 40, the exile is not predicted: its end is announced open 40:1-2).... the Temple
and Jerusalem have been destroyed and restoration is announced; chastisement is finished... the situation
of those in exile is apparent: disheartened and lacking faith (40:27; 41:10; 49:14), murmuring against the
plan of God (45:9)... beginning with Isaiah 56, the return is not predicted, it is already happened and the
Temple is reconstructed, and the walls are being restructured.... proximate salvation is mentioned to one
group (56:1; 57:17; 59:9-12; 62:11; 63:7)... punishment of the impious and schismatics declared (65:13;
66:3)

– literary reasons: more difficult to discern in translations... in general Isaiah has a solemn style,
measured, concise, employing sonorous tones and grandiose images (1:2; 2:2), detailed enumeration
(3:16-24)... II Isa is warmer and passionate, more rhetorical; images of family life which are open and
not overly structured; very frequent repetition of words (40:1; 43:11; 48:11; 43:25; 48:15; 51:9, 12, 17;
57:6, 14; 55:1; 52:10), using a profusion of words from a the semantic domain “joy”... for III Isa
scholars have not underlined particularities, but in general a less poetic manner as preceding text, with a
few exceptions

– theological reasons: the author of Isaiah 1 – 39 has his eyes focused on the davidic dynasty, on a
messiah, a new David, gloriously reigning and moved by the spirit and strength of the Lord; arrogance
and pride of the nation merits chastisement on God’s part, and his Holiness and transcendence is
exulted...
– Isa 40 – 55 highlights God’s quality as creator and Redeemer of the people (Exodus); the servant (cf.
52:13 – 50 4:12) who will save the people in this section is very distinct from the “savior” of 9:1-6 and
11:1-9, and has more characteristics as a prophet than a king... the concept of a remnant is more distinct
and clear and universal... a polemic against idols
– beginning with Isaiah 56, apostasy is conceived in a different way,... and eschatological taint over the
entire section, and greater interest in the cult... God is Lord of history.

= Traditional School
– the critical school did not always stick strictly to the data, but rather at times overstepped its bounds...

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 the other hand the intellectual environment was not always ready to accept novelty.... the unity of the
book of Isaiah, especially its authorship, was strongly, even passionately, defended...
– basic concepts such as authenticity and prophecy itself were disputed
– the basic arguments for a single authorship:
= tradition: within the OT (Sir 48:23) Isaiah appears prophesying consolation for Israel... the NT
cites various texts of II-Isa (Mat 3:3/Isa 40:3; 8:17/53:4; 12:17/42:9ff; Luk 4:17/61:1; Joh 12:38/53:1;
Act 8:30/53:7)... according to Josephus (Ant. 11,I, 1-2) Cyrus promulgated his edict (2Chr 36:23) after
reading Isaiah [although one should note that 2Chr 36:23 affirms that the edict of Cyrus fulfills the
prophecy of Jeremiah, not Isaiah].
= authenticity (insisting that the entire work was directly written by the prophet Isaiah): the
“anonymous” character of chapters 40-66 did not fit into the concept of biblical canon... the many
relationships between the diverse parts of the book were highlighted... a literary inclusio is formed by
the first chapter and the final chapters of the book [cf. Alonso-Schökel, Profetas I, 381-83]...
= style: accepted undeniable differences existing in the various parts of the book, but suggested
that the oracles of chapters of 40 – 66 were never really spoken, but rather written in order to be read,
thus justifying stylistic differences...

– recent study (without all the polemics which surrounded earlier decades) has manifested multiple
relationships between various sections of the book
= “holy one of Israel” is a formula found 11 times in the first part of the book and 13 times in the
second, just as in Jer 50:29; 51:5 or in Psa 71:22; 78:41; 89:19. The expression is probably connected to
the Jerusalem cult
= “says Yahweh” (imperfect tense, rather than the more normal perfect) is used throughout the
entire book
= “closed eyes” as a symbol of spiritual blindness is used in 6:10; 29:10, 18, as well as in 42:7,
19; 44:18
= the theme of the vineyard is repeated in 5:1-7 and in 27:2-5,... the theme of messianic peace
uses the same symbols in 11:6-9 and 65:25

– the actual situation... the decree of the Biblical commission of June 28, 1908 did not succeed in putting
to rest the contest between the schools.... but nowadays it is become possible to argue this passionately
about the existence of II-Isa (called “Deutero-Isa”) as a prophet of the exilic era, who announced the
return of the people....Isa 40 and following are said to belong to him.... widely accepted
– many more doubts are sustained regarding what is known as III-Isa (“Trito-Isa”), chapters 56-66 and
its distinction from II-Isa.
– overall, scholarship is bringing to the surface with insistence the many relationships between all the
parts of the book...
– increasing acceptance of the idea of an “Isaian school”, which adapted and deepened the preaching of
the great prophet of the eighth century....
– figures existing apparently for both II-Isa and III-Isa: salvific person (messiah or servant), interest in
Jerusalem (as center of the nations or place of universal renewal), majesty of God (the holy one or
creator)

2. The Prophet Isaiah: Personality and Historical Setting

a) the person of Isaiah

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 orn before 760 B.C., son of somebody named Amoz (1:1), not known to us, although thought by the
fathers of the church to be the prophet Amos... Amoz seems to be the family name...
– his interest in the monarchy of David and Jerusalem suggest he is a Jew
– probably lived in the capital, since his motive speaking of country miseries is not from experience... he
seems to have a precise knowledge about the capital, its pools, canals, arsenals (7:3; 22:9; 29:7)... he
seems to have seen the temple packed with cult activity (1:10-11)... he knows the reactions provoked by
abundant taxes for arms and Assyrian campaigns (3:12, 14, 15; 5:8-9)... his easy relationship with
sovereigns suggests aristocracy, nobility (7:3) in his line... sticks up for the oppressed
– the name of his wife unknown, but she is called a prophetess (8:3; either because she prophesied, or
perhaps because she was married to a prophet)
– at least two sons, given symbolic names: “a remnant will return” (7:3), “plunder speeds, spoil hastes”
(8:3)
– vocabulary that links him to wisdom circles (11:1-5, counsel, discernment, intelligence, wisdom) [cf.,
A.T. ANDERSON, “Was Isaiah a Scribe?”, JBL 79 (1960) 57-58; J.W. WHEDBEE, Isaiah and Wisdom,
Nashville 1971]
– fond of details (3:16ff)... vibrant images (“ raised signal” 5:26; 18:3; 30:17; 31:9; “stretched hand”
1:25; 5:25; 9:11, 16, 20; 10:4; 19:16; 23:11; 31:9; “destroying tempest” 28:2; 29:6; 30:20 7, 28, 30;
32:2; “the vineyard cared for and destroyed” 5:1ff; etc.)
– fond of antitheses (small humanity/great divinity... peace/war... darkness/light) assonance (5:7; 10:16;
29:2, 9; 30:16).... the noisome invador (5:26-30; cf. 17:12-14)
– scholars say he is a master of style

b) Isaiah and His Times

– scholars believe they can put his oracles in chronological order... but some risks
– helps to see how the prophetic preaching gets adapted to the changing times

= historical note about the epoch of Isaiah

– his ministry began about 740, year of the death of King Uzziah (= Azariah) (6:1)...
– he lived under Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah (Isa 1:1) [remember that this same list of Kings is
used at the beginning of the Prophet Hosea, probably as a way of showing contemporaneity with Isaiah]

– Uzziah did not affect Isaiah’s preaching much, since this king died... succeeded his assassinated father
(2Kgs 14:21)... a sickness of the skin obligated him to hand over the duties of the kingdom to his son
Jotham (2Kgs 15:5)

– Jotham reined in an era of relative prosperity. Isaiah denounced vigorously injustices. In international
relationships, rejected invitation of Rezin of Damascus to enter into an anti-Syrian coalition... “In those
days the LORD began to send Rezin the king of Syria and Pekah the son of Remaliah against Judah.”
(2Kgs 15:37)

– with the accession of Ahaz, Syro-ephraimite conflict explodes.... in order to resist a Syrian pressure
from Tiglath-Pelezer III, Israel and Damascus promote a coalition with Egypt. Ahaz follows the opinion
of Isaiah, not entering the coalition, and suffers an invasion (Isa 7).... taking advantage of the situation,
Edom rises up and takes Eilat, while the Philistines break in to the Negev and Sephela. At this point
Ahaz acts against the counsel of Isaiah, and asks help Assyria (2kgs 16:7) who come to the rescue: in
734... reduce the Philistines and Egypt... in 734 sack Galilee and Transjordan, destroying three Assyrian

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provinces of Gilead, Megiddo, Dor. Hoshea of Israel assassinates Pekah, rectifying the situation,... in
730 to Damascus falls, Rezin is dejected... Arameans deported
– this war was an important disaster also for Judah, and because of the tributes required as well as the
destruction experienced throughout the country, also because they lost to definitively the rich mineral
zone of Edom (2Kgs 16:5-6)
– Ahaz imposed harsh taxes, and took the treasure of the temple (2Kgs 16:8, 17)
– social structures disintegrate... widening gap between rich and poor... (Amo 6:1; Mic 1:5)... Isaiah says
the rich proprietors deposed the poor unjustly (3:13-15; 5:1-7, 8) and judges were corrupt (1:21-23;
5:23; 10:1-4)
– religious consequences of the war: now Israel had to coexist with the Assyrian religion, allowing its
worship (2Kgs 16:10-18 refers to temple innovations). Ahaz probably had to offer sacrifice to Assyrian
gods. Pagan practices, superstitions, foreign ways... especially child sacrifice (2Kgs 16:3-4; cf. Isa 2:6-
8, 20; 8:19; Mic 5:12-14).
– The failure of his mission caused Isaiah to take a period of silence (Isa 8:16-20)

– two distinct steps in the government of Hezekiah: accepting the domination of Assyria... rebelling
against it... perhaps this second epoch earned him honorable mention by the deuteronomist (2Kgs 18:3)
for his temple reforms
– discussion about his age.. Supposedly young, but the biblical text scholars want to correct at 2Kgs
18:2... perhaps not 25 years old, but five years old when he began to reign.... it makes sense that his
coming-of-age would be the point at which he decided to rebel
– his youth coincided with the reign of Shalmanaser V (724)... the submission provided some tranquility
[different from the king of Israel, Hoshea, who took advantage of the moment of Shalmanaser’s
accession to try to rebel, refusing to pay tribute and drawing near to Egypt... Egypt was itself divided
into four kingdoms; Shalmaneser attacked and took Hoshea prisoner, surrounded Samaria for two
years... in 722 Shalmanaser died and Sargon II destroyed Samaria, finishing the kingdom of Israel, the
reign of the North]

– shortly later from the direction of Babylon, which attempted independence, a conflict for about 12
years with Merodachbaladan (2Kgs 20:12; Isa 39). Also Egypt was rebuilt under the XXV Dynasty
(714) provoking rebellions. Ashdod and other Philistine cities (713) invited Judah to unite with them
against Assyrian power.... but apparently Judah did not join at that time
– finally, when Sargon succeeds Sannecharib (705), Hezekiah gives in to pressures. The empire is
experiencing disquiet on many sides. Merodachbaladan continues rebellion for about nine months... the
seeds of the Babylonian Empire. Hezekiah becomes sick but then is healed (Isa 39; 2Kgs 20:12-19)...
generalized revolt in Palestine and Syria.... Hezekiah has negotiation with Egypt (Isa 30:1-7; 31:1-3) and
becomes one of the leaders of the rebellion (2Kgs 18:8). In 701 Sannecharib comes (2Kgs 18:13-16)
and conquers almost the entire kingdom; only Jerusalem remains. The massacre at Lachish is
tremendous (2Kgs 18:14 – 19:9a, 37-38; Isa 37:9-36... scholarly dispute about the order of events behind
these texts... Sannecharib’s ultimatum, Hezekiah’s tribute, Isaiah’s intervention, the march of the
Assyrians... the failure to capture Jerusalem)... Hezekiah paid tribute and was able to keep governing,
but only in Jerusalem. The rest of Judah past to the Philistines. Jerusalem became a vassal of Assyria
until the fall of Nineveh. The entire countryside filled with foreign cult activity (2Kgs 23:4-10; Zeph
1:4-6, 8-9). Because he did not rectify this situation, King Mannaseh was considered pernicious by the
deuteronomist.

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= notes on Hezekiah’s reform
– above all his reform was religious, earning for him great praise from the deuteronomist (2Kgs 18:3-8)
– mitigating external factors: relative recuperation and unity in Egypt... widespread climate of desire to
rise up against dominant power
– internal factors: desire to reform the political line... religious discontent in the face of a paganizing
tendency... the influence of official theology about the monarchy, based upon 2Sam 7.

= the oracles of Isaiah in chronological history

– of course, debated by scholars, but the following represents some general consensus on some of the
oracles
+ in the reign of Jotham (cf. Isa 1:1; 6:1; years 739-734), the oracles of 2:1-22 (at least vv. 6-
22); 6 (vocation); 1:2-3, 10-31 (except vv. 18-20); 3:1-4:1 (except 3:10-11); 5:1-23; 10:1-4.
+ in the reign of Ahaz (and some of Hezekiah) up to the fall of Samaria (years 734-722), the
oracles of 7; 8:1-17 (except vv. 9-10); 9:7-20 (poem of the “outstretched hand”); 28:1-4; 5:25-30 (“
outstretched hand” and “raised signal”)
+ first period of Hezekiah, during the reign of Sargon II (722-705), oracles in which Isaiah insists
upon preaching non-confidence towards Egypt: 18:1-7; 20:1-6; in others, advising against anti-Assyrian
alliances: 14:28-32; 18:1-7; 20:1-6; 28:7-22; 29:1-14; 30:8-17.
+ second period of Hezekiah, coinciding with the reign of Sennecharib (705 and beyond), Isaiah
returns to his opposition against Egypt: 30:1-5; 31:1-3 (Hezekiah enters into an alliance).... the epoch of
Sennecharib’s campaign (one or two invasions?): 1:4-9; 10:5-15, 27b-32; 14:24-27; 19:1-4, 11-15; 22:1-
14; 28:23-29; 29:15-16; 30:(15), 6-7, 27-33; 31:( 1-3), 4-9; 32:9-14.
A summary of the content of these oracles: for Isaiah the invasion is punishment for the sin of Judah.
The Assyrian Empire does not understand that it is merely an instrument in the hands of the Lord. Zion
will endure.

3. The Book of Isaiah (1-39): division and content

– each author finds his own structure... reasonable is the idea of three great sections, with oracles against
the nations taking the central spot... [this has also been suggested for the other major prophets]

a) Isa 1–12: oracles against Judah and Jerusalem

– 2 distinct parts in addition to the prologue (1) of the whole book and a psalm concluding the whole
section (12): chapters 2 – 5 contain proclamation of judgment against Judah and Jerusalem, while six –
11 are centered on the “remembrance” of Isaiah (6:1 – 9:6)
– Isa 2 has its own introduction (2:1) which confers a certain independence on chapter 1.
– difficulty with Chapter 6: despite its historical nature, some related to the previous chapters, especially
because they see a change of theme beginning in chapter 7... such authors tried to read it between
chapters 1 and 2... other authors connect chapter 6 to the following chapters.... which makes more sense,
and avoids trying to relocate the chapter... it ends up serving as an introduction to the memorial of Isaiah

b) Isa 13 – 23: oracles against the nations

– throughout this collection the word massa is used as a technical term for “oracle”
– an appendix formed by chapters 22 – 23, dedicated to Jerusalem, the governor Shebna and to Tyre...
once again an oracle against the chosen people, at the end of a section against the other nations
– chapters 24 – 27 form a special collection. After visiting the judgment of the nations, here is a logical

37
 low-up, eschatological chapters about universal judgment

c) Isa 28 – 35: oracles against Judah

– later than the earlier oracles against Judah mentioned... but before the campaign of Sannecharib
– 1 section of six maledictions against Samaria (28:1), Jerusalem (29:1), the alliance with Egypt (29:15;
30:1; 31:1) and Assyria (33:1), and a type of epilogue formed by chapters 34 – 35.... eschatological
chapters attributed normally to II-Isa

– chapters 36 – 39 form a narrative collection, parallel to 2Kgs 18 – 20, perhaps added later as a
historical appendix

4. Reading Some Texts of Isaiah

– focus on the first 12 chapters, especially the oracle of Emmanuel
– diachronic and thematic indications used to discover best division
– these chapters provide a good initiation into the theology of Isaiah

a) General structure of Isa 1:1 – 12:6

– begins with a prologue (1) and concludes with a hymn, something of a doxology (12)
– divides into three subsections

= 1:2 – 5:24: announcement and global motivation of judgment

– an accusation (1:2-3) “Israel does not know...”... followed by a reproach, beginning with “Ah”,
because they have abandoned the Lord... (1:4)... almost exactly the same phrase found in 5:24, in a
context of lamentations (5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22). An apparent inclusio delimited here.
– another small unit delimited by pericopes 2:2-5 and 4:2-6: both imagine Jerusalem and a future
political time,... employ the opposition full-empty and high-low symbolism

= 5:26 – 9:6: first realization of judgment

– the Syro-Ephraimite invasion provides the first experience of judgment
– 3 or 4 signs of gratuitous liberation: Emmanuel, two sons of Isaiah, written testimony left by Isaiah
– section enshrined in the poem of the “raised hand”... Isa 5:25 continues in 9:7... repetition of the
refrain
“For all this his anger is not turned away and his hand is stretched out still.” (9:12, 17)
– section begins with tumultuous dynamic, after an invasion... then a raised up sign (5:26)... finally
messianic peace established by the newborn child
– internal unity of 6/7:1 – 8:21, called “book of Emmanuel”
– the vocation of the profit serves as a prologue for the diptych formed by chapters 7 and 8:
7:4 don’t fear 8:12 don’t fear
7:7 it will not pass 8:10 it will not pass
7:5 they devise your ruin 8: 10 take counsel

= in both sections a sign from the Lord

7:11 ask for a sign 8:18 signs and portents

= in both sections the future measured vertically

7:11 deep... high 8:22 faces upward... look to Earth

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 = above all the mention of Emmanuel in both chapters
7:14 Emmanuel 8:8,10b Emmanuel

= (5:25); 9:7 – 11:16, (12): second realization of judgment

– distrust during the previous war leads to a major invasion (Assyrian), with symbolic roots, a distinct
almost eschatological tone and vague references to the present (e.g., reference to the child [11: 8],
compared to 9:5)
– invasion provoked by the raised hand of the Lord (9:7)
– eventually everything will change when the newly raised definitive sign (11:12), after the root of Jesse
implants Justice (11:3-5) and peace (11:7-9), reunites those who were dispersed and divided

b) Detail of some texts...

= first section: Isa 1:1 – 5:24

– Isa 1
– the chapter constitutes a summary and introduction for the entire book, almost a miniature, closely
related to all of the sections of the entire book
– remember already mention made of the inclusio formed with chapters 65 – 66 and with 5:24
– internal inclusio as well: the verbs “rebel” (v.2) and “sin” and “abandon” (v.4), repeated in v.28
– 1:2-9... the heavens and earth convoked to testify against Israel... they are witnesses to divine fidelity
– 1:4-9 past punishments, rather than warnings about the future.... therefore seems a bit out of place, but
fits a theological schema: sin-chastisement-conversion (or destruction).... four classes of people
mentioned increase in intimacy (humanity, nation, race, son)... at the same time for types of malice are
also increasing (sinners, blameworthy, wicked, degenerate)... external consequence of corruption: the
body, infection (vv.5,6)... the height of exteriorization realized in Zion (v.8)... desolation, but also shelter
spoken about, which connects to the image of remnant.... now Zion is under siege and surrounded; the
antithesis will be Zion established over the green and glorious country (4:2-6)

- Isa 1: 10- 20 a distinct oracle, but still connection with the prior unit 5 … Sodom and Gomorrah are
key words for both sections … an imperative begins each section (vv. 2, 10) … a double theme: a) Israel
is full of sin (vv.4-9), still different from Sodom, because the Lord has left a remnant. Need to abandon
the road of perdition (vv. 10- 15) and take the way of salvation (vv. 16- 17) … avoid destruction (vv. 18-
20)….. b) to the infection of 1: 5- 6 corresponds purification and external consequences (v. 19)
-considering the themes “cult”-“Justice”, this oracle compares with several of Amos (cf., e.g., Amo 15:
18- 27; cf. also 1Sam 15: 20; Hos 6: 6)
-The message literally centered on “Hands”: full of offerings, extended in prayer, yet to the Lord looks
away because they are full of blood
- Isa 1: 21- 26 theme of Justice (v. 21) gives way to theme of assassins (vv. 22- 23)… purification by
separation must happen (v.25)… justice still reigns…. A concentric structure whose center is “ they do
not defend the orphan, they do not help the cause of the widow” … second person pronouns at
beginning give way to first person pronouns
faithful city
righteousness-justice
has turned to dross

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 ends, run after
do not defend the orphan … widow
adversaries, enemies
turn my hand, dross
judges-counselors
faithful city

… the expected punishment seems to be a promise of betterment

- Isa 2: 1- 4: 6
-… 2: 1- 5 Authenticity questioned; almost exactly same passage in Mic 4: 1- 5; also the concept of
transforming weapons replicated in Jl 3: 10. … some authors say it belongs to Isaiah, others to Micah,
others say both prophets took it from a third source … Some say it was added after the exile … Feuillet
argues that it belongs to Isaiah as follows: a) similar to Isa 11: 1- 9; 32: 1- 5, 15- 20;… b) universalism
of the passage is most explicable with Isaiah, given his sapiential and political formation…. c) Micah
has clearly taken some texts from Isaiah, such as Mic 5:2 / Isa 7: 14; Mic 5:4 / Isa 9: 5; Mic 5: 9-12 / Isa
2: 6- 7; … d) preoccupation with Zion and its sanctuary matches more the dominant themes of Isaiah

-… 2.6- 22 is considered the oldest Oracle we have of Isaiah, spoken in the time of Jotham, directed
against the pride and idolatry connected to riches and Commerce in Judah… this is also the worst
preserved Oracle of the entire book … too dominant themes: superstition of Judah (vv. 6- 11, 18, 21)
and of the day of the Lord coming because of human pride … vv. 6- 11 the universe bowed down before
fabricated idols … man thrown out of his natural place (3x “ land” in vv. 7- 8) … Pride ends in the dust,
debasing humanity, and civilization disappears… vv. 12- 19 go to the root of evil with a symbolic
poem: symbols of External greatness of Man (cedars, oaks, mountains, hills) … man gets proud once he
has achieved these heights…. Vv. 20- 22 describes human humiliation, an emptying which is contrary to
the initial fullness (vv. 6- 8) … v.22 echoes Gen 2: 7 (Adam, breath) for the return of man to dust.

- 2: 1- 5 compared with 4: 2- 6 … defined geographical space is Zion, Jerusalem, House of the Lord in
… Time is the end of times; that day ( 2: 2; 4: 2) … also shared symbolism “high/low”… mountains
represent transcendence, theophanic manifestation….

-- Isa 5: 1- 24 it … The song of the vineyard ( 5: 1- 7) and a series of “Ah”’s conclude this section. The
genre “song” repeats in 27: 2-5 … song consists mainly of a parable which is interpreted in v.7… the
vine image comes from the OT (Hos 10: 1; Isa 27: 2- 5; Eze 15: 1- 8; 19: 10- 14; Jer 2: 21; 5: 10; 6: 9;
12: 10; Psa 80: 9- 19; Deu 32: 32; Sir 24: 17) and also NT (Mat 20: 1- 15; 21: 33- 41; Joh 15: 1- 8)….
The series of “woes” reveal the unjust Society of the epoch.

= Second Section: Isa 5: 26- 9: 6

-consider the entire second section in order to locate well the Oracle of Emmanuel in context… already
said that the , one of the “outstretched hand” surrounds the entire unit, as does the “raised signal” which
will attract invading nations… each sign, however, ends up switching ( 11: 10: the root of Jesse, sign
for the nations; 11: 11: “extend his hand” to recover people) … an interior transformation: initial
darkness ( 5: 30) becomes light ( 9: 1- 6); darkness was a poetic image of the invasion ( 5: 26ff) into
light is produced is oppression is taken away and a child is born ( 9: 1- 6)

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- Isa 5: 26- 30: Assyrian invasion the beginning contains the invasion caused by raised sign of the
Lord … hope is darkened … Isaiah is sent to his people with a message of hope upon which they should
depend

- Isa 6: vocation of the prophet … historical introduction begins the account, context of a vision … the
majesty of God, seated on his throne, surrounded by his ministers, filling the temple into Earth with his
mantle; seraphim sing his Majesty and glory, filling the earth … Ezekiel reproduces and develops the
vision, explaining how the arc abandons the temple (Eze 1: 10) … the prophet’s objection about
impurity throws into relief the holiness of God and his power to purify
-people argue about whether this chapter is a vocation story or a concrete mission story
-in biblical tradition the vision of the throne usually accompanies the theme of deceit (1Kgs 22: 19- 23;
Job 1- 2)

- Isa 7: 1- 8: 23a: oracle of Emmanuel

-The interpretation of Mat 1: 22- 23 of Isa 7: 10ff… Matthew’s interpretation assures us that the oracle
of Emmanuel is one of salvation; also that the signer ultimately is the Virgin birth. … Matthew can
affirm that Jesus birth fulfills this word, without needing to claim that Isaiah imagine the exact thing in
his mind … the word of Isaiah would also have been pertinent to his own era
-even the name Emmanuel is equivalent to the cry for help in a disastrous situation (cf. 8: 8)
- in 7: 17, “the king of Assyria” (a gloss) points to a disaster not known since the schism
-Without this gloss a positive aspect appears: reunification, flowing milk and honey in the land, the
curds, offered with aromatic herbs, was one of the gifts offered to Babylonian gods…
-correspondence between the Hebrew almah and the Greek parthenos (LXX and Matthew)?

- 7: 1- 9 the first encounter between Ahaz and Isaiah at an important historical moment: Ahaz, son of
Jotham, son of Ussiah (v.1), and Pekah, son of Rommeliah suggest a son of Tabeel as candidate to
Judah’s throne, which threatens the Davidic dynasty … Isaiah shows up with his son (v.3) to speak of a
remnant which will return, as well as a condition no warning against unbelief (v.9b)… enemies cannot
oppose the promise God made to David (2Sam 7), including the election of Jerusalem as capital of Judah
… which indicates a tradition of the South, i.e., Judah

- 7: 10- 16 A new encounter with Ahaz (Isaiah’s presence is presumed), perhaps in the court, since after
v.13 the plural is used. Ahaz refuses a sign, for religious reasons (cf. Deu 6: 16) … The harsh reaction
(of the prophet?) Make sense if we realize that the king has just finished immolating his son (2Kgs 16:
3) to avoid an invasion, also that he has asked for help from the king of Assyria (2Kgs 16: 7)

- 7: 17, 18- 25 a series of oracles… v.17 concludes the preceding section, but also introduces 4 oracles
regarding “That day”, a Day which has not been seen since separation of the kingdoms of North from
South. Salvation or warning? … the oracles offer little hope … the first announces an invasion
provoked by the Lord (vv. 18- 19)… for the second (v.20) remember the gravity of a normal shave (cf.
2Sam 10: 1- 5)… the third (vv. 21- 22) is hard to interpret, explaining the diet of 7: 15 as salvation of
the remnant: underlining present littleness, or emphasizing past abundance contrary to present…. The
fourth (vv. 23- 25) fulfillment of the announcement of 5: 1ff, producing a want of men (cf. and 3: 25- 4:
1) and flies invading the camps…. Surely we are already speaking of the Assyrian invasion…

- 8: 1- 4 a new sign, written on a great surface with legible characters it … Another son of Isaiah, whose

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name represents Assyria’s readiness to invade it … The time is short: “Before he learns to say Papa,
Mama”

- 8: 5- 10 connected with the previous by the phrase “again, anew”… the classical oracular form has an
unexpected connection to salvation, since the two parts (vv. 5- 8 and 9- 10) unite in final mention of
Emmanuel… who is the enemy? In favor of Assyria is The abundant River (Euphrates), luxury (v.9; cf.
5: 26) and the gloss of v.7. … in favor of the Syro-Ephraimite innovators is the use of the plural
“nations” (v.9)

- 8: 11- 20 constitutes too autobiographical pieces with unified theme: the prophet moves away from the
people in … isolates himself … his message will be sealed as a sign until it gets fulfilled … it will
appear that the invaders are succeeding, but in fact God’s plan will be filled

-in summary, chapters 7 and 8 constituted by a three sections each: the first two formally united to each
other; the third takes up the theme of failure is … each chapter begins with a sign, expressed by the
name of the sons of the prophet, and continues with the mention of Emmanuel:
7: 1- 7 son of Isaiah 8: 1- 4
7: 10- 16 mention of Emmanuel 8: 5- 10
7: 17- 26 conclusion 8: 11-20

-- vv.8: 21- 23a very difficult to translate and to situate historically

- 8: 23b- 9: 6 final scene of the section

-the explosion of light and joy, because a signal of the end of the military power and oppression of
Assyria appears. The child who is born opens the future to a new epoch.

= third section: Isa 9: 7- 12: 6

-beginning with 9: 7 the tone is distinct, the reference to the present less clear, and the child of 11: 8
(renewal of Jesse) is future it … at the end the child will be the raised sign for the nations ( 11: 1, 12)

c) interpretation of the prophecy of Emmanuel

-in reading the second section, we discussed the difficulties of this pericope … the importance of the
theme “son” throughout this section, as well as salvation in the end which the name “Emmanuel” will
accomplish ( 8: 8, 10)… it seems obligatory therefore to find an interpretation which concurrently
comprehends simultaneously the polemic tone and the salvific tone you … that the Virgin birth was the
signal offered by Isaiah was defended at first by the Christians, readers of Matthew’s Gospel is … the
Jews opposed to this reading forcefully (cf. discussion of Trypho and Justin)

=etymology of “alma”
-tried to explain the philology by means of the route ‘lm, “conceal/hide”… so St. Jerome imagined the
alma as a young virgin, hidden from the eyes of men. Today it is assumed that the word comes from an
identical ‘lm, whose origin is the proto-semitic glm which would not have in Hebrew a verbal
equivalent, but derived substantives, one of which would be alma. The meaning of this root in Semitic
languages is something like “ to be strong”, “ to be an adult sexually”… the masculine form is
interpreted “ young man”, “virile”, sometimes as “ slave”; simile the female interpretation would be
“Young woman”, not yet mother, but capable of being a mother.

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 = use of alma in the OT
two times in masculine singular (1Sam 17: 56; 20: 22), referring once to David (about to fight
with Goliath) and the other time to the servant Jonathan; five times in a feminine plural (Psa 46: 1; 68:
26; Sol 1: 3; 6: 8; 1Chr 15: 20) with some ambiguity about whether the name applies because of musical
capacity or because of employment in the palace; four times in the singular (Gen 24: 43; Exo 2: 8; Isa 7:
14; Prov 30: 19)
- Gen 24: 43 LXX also translates the alma as parthenos, but here clearly is not intending to affirm the
virginity of Rebecca. When this is the intention, it expressly states that “ she does not know man”, the
LXX uses the word betula

= Canaanite use of the term

- one Phoenician text attributes to the alamoth cultic functions (sometimes fertility rites) worthy of
retribution. One he Ugaritic text, published already in 1936, reproduces exactly, five centuries earlier,
the text of Isa 7: 14: hd glmt tld b…,which translates as “ behold a young woman will give birth to a
son” … probably referring to a logical consequence of the love of Nikkal with the god Yarhu….

= proposed interpretation
-suggested that Isaiah is announcing the birth of the king’s son … the mother will be the alma, an
ancient title with mythical reminiscences, applied to the queen, or head concubine… in a moment of
crisis for the Davidic dynasty, the birth of the son to the king and the promise that he will occupy the
throne is a great signal of future and hope … the fact that the succession will happen quickly is bad news
for the king… in fact best educated guess is that Hezekiah succeeded Ahaz at only 5 years old, born
only a few years before the Syro-Ephraimite war.

4. Theology of Isaiah
a) systematizations
-impossible to summarize in only a couple concept … everything hangs on the divine transcendence,
manifest in holiness and majesty … holiness of God discovers sin of man, manifest in pride; the majesty
of God encounters the uselessness of the plans of enemies in history … that’s holiness centralized in the
temple; Majesty centralized on Mount Zion … God’s plan includes the election of Jerusalem and
promise to the Davidic dynasty … although God must set himself against human sin, his plan still will
come to pass: “A remnant will return”.
- A. Gelin (IDB II, 733- 734) summarizes a Isaiah’s theology in four themes: God, faith, nation, a
remnant
- C.R.North (Prophets, 71- 100) in six themes: sovereignty of God, his holiness, human sin, faith in the
lord, remnant, Messiah
-God is holy, strong, transcendent, and he judges Israel (1: 2), still joined to his people; … rebellion
against holiness of the Lord is not simply personal pride, but also consequences social included ( 1: 21;
3: 16- 17; 4; 5: 7, 8, 21, 23; 10: 1) and political ( 8: 6) … justice is required to eliminate the sin ( 1: 10-
20; 11: 3) … need to accept faithfully God’s plan ( 7: 7; cf. 28: 16; 30: 15)… Assyria will fall into the
same error, used as an instrument of God’s chastisement towards Israel, yet thinking only about its own
strength ( 10: 13- 15; 37: 29)
-difficult to to decide the chronology, but a general outline might be:
= in the time of Jotham preoccupied with social and religious situation
= in the time of Ahaz tried to build a faith and confidence in order to avoid asking help of the

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 ssyrians … silence when they did not listen to him
= in the time of Hezekiah once again spoke against political alliances with Egypt or Assyria, in
order finally to announce the salvation of Israel… perhaps he was convicted by the arrogance of
Assyria

-everything encompassed by the plan of God, his work, activity … opposed to the political and military
plans of men ( 7: 5; 8: 10; 9: 3, 11; 30: 1; 36: 5). … God takes interest in the history of his people: in
history he realizes his work ( 5: 12, 19; 10: 12; 28: 21; 29: 23) … in history reside his glory, as in the
temple ( 29: 23) … his plan is decided from the beginning ( 22: 11), centered in Jerusalem, culminates
with the future Messiah and the fullness of the spirit( 9: 5; 11: 2)

5. practical exercises
-review the reasons given for the structure of Chapters 7- 8. What consequences the results for the
interpretation of the oracle of Emmanuel? It can be understood first negatively, but also positively. In
each case, what is the sign which the prophet offers? What problem presents itself for the NT? [could
use I, 4, b, 2 of the notes above]
-in order to appreciate the literary style of Isaiah, you could compare Isa 3: 16- 24 with Amo 4: 1- 3,
supposing that both oracles are directed against women of the capital.
-study personally the song of the vineyard (Isa 5: 1- 7) noticing first of the repeated words and the
syntactic structures. Consult a commentary.

II. THE PROPHET MICAH AND HIS WORK

-almost all the prophetic books are difficult to interpret, given their redactional process, so it’s difficult
to perceive the immediate situation and persons
-actualization, glosses, additions to the original preaching before it found its way to the page

Bibliography: L.C. ALLEN, The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah and Micah, Grand Rapids 1976; K.H.
CUFFEY, The Coherence of Micah. A Review of the Proposals and a New Interpretation, Diss. alla Drew
University, Madison/NJ 1987; D.G. HAGSTROM, The Coherence of the Book of Micah: A Literary
Analysis, Atlanta 1988; PH.J. KING, Amos, Hosea, Micah: An Archeological Commentary, Philadelphia
1988; J.L. MAYS, The Theological Purpose of the Book of Micah, in Hom. Zimmerli (Göttingen 1977)
276-287; G. STANSELL, Micah and Isaiah: A Form and Tradition-Historical Comparison, Atlanta 1988;
J.T. WILLIS, “The Structure of Micah 3—5 and the Function of Micah 5:9-14”, ZAW 81 (1969) 353-368;
ID., The Structure, Setting and Interrelationship of the Pericopes in the Book of Micah, Diss. alla
Vanderbilt University, Nashville/TN 1966; H.-W. WOLFF, “How Does Micah Understand His Prophetic
Mission?”, Minneapolis 1990; A.S. VAN DER WOUDE, “Micah in dispute with the Pseudo-Prophets”, VT 19
(1969) 244-260.

1. Epoch and Personality of Micah

-the title of the book (1:1)puts us in the epoch of “Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah of Judah” …
contemporaneous with Isaiah, although he would not have known the era of Hoshea… according to
2Kgs 17- 20, a dramatic era, the fall of Samaria ( 722) takes place, as well as incursions of Sennacherib
(711 and 701) into Judah
-born in Moresheth, a region close to Philistia, which was invaded and sacked by the Assyrians ( 1: 10-

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15; 2Kgs 18: 13)… perhaps at this time Micah took refuge in Jerusalem (Isa 14: 32) and there discovers
the scandal of social injustice existing ( 2: 1- 5; 3: 1- 4, 9- 12)
-a bit of crude personality ( 3: 8) … his reflections had to shake the nobles of his time … his oracle
against Jerusalem ( 3: 12) will be remembered a century later (Jer 26: 18- 19)
-it seems he began his mission before the fall of Samaria, since his first oracles are dedicated to Samaria
( 1: 1, 6- 7, 14- 15). … certainly moved in times of Hezekiah, as tradition remembers (Jer 26: 18)… so
we should situate his activity between 722 and 701. … In the South, since historical reference is the
same as Isaiah’s
-never named a prophet, and seems isolated from the rest ( 3: 8) … argued much with the prophets who
preached falsehoods (cf. 3: 5- 8, 11- 12) … never narrates how he is called by God
-the vision of society reflected in his book is pessimistic, as with other prophets of this time: greedy
machinations ( 2: 1- 5), injustice against widows and orphans ( 2: 8- 10), commercial fraud ( 6: 9- 11),
assaults in the street ( 2: 8), corrupt judges ( 3: 11), prophets who pronounced oracles according to a
price ( 3: 5,11), even in the family covetousness has ruined everything ( 7: 5- 6) … a typo of cruel
cannibalism practice here ( 3: 2) …
-many points of intersection with Amos and Isaiah

2. The Book of Micah

a) Division in sections
-continual succession of oracles of judgment and salvation seem to offer clarity, but it is also cause for
many problems in the study of this book … it has the impression of being a theological and
conscientious ordering of prophetic material
-classical division still valid
1—3 (except 2: 12- 13): warnings
4: 1- 5: 8: promises
5.9-7:6: warnings
7:7-20: promises

-The divisions are not pure, since sections of the warnings have some other elements, and the same for
promises sections
-continue discussion about authenticity, especially regarding the promises, because in various places it
seems to suppose already exile ( 2: 12- 13; 4: 10)

- structural indicators in the text:, especially in the imperatives, “Listen!”

a) 1: 2- 2: 11 (denunciation) - 2: 12- 13 (salvation)

b) 3: 1- 12 (denunciation)- 4: 1- 5: 15 (salvation)
c) 6: 1- 7: 6 (denunciation)- 7: 7- 20 (salvation)

-difficulty here is that chapters 4- 5 do not contain only salvific oracles … still useful

- “Listen!” found in 1: 2; 3: 1, 9; 6: 1- 2, 9)
-The two occurrences in Chapter 3 are identical … 1: 2 and 6: 1- 2 are double imperatives creating a
forensic tone…
-the end of each section who is beginning we have signaled above would be

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 2: 12- 13: a text which could be a citation of the false prophets
3: 5- 8: an Oracle against false prophets
4- 5: argument against false prophets, Concluding with a salvation by means of a
definitive purification ( 5: 9- 14)
( 6: 6- 8: salvation will not come through the cult, but rather through the working of
justice)
7: 8- 20: liturgy of purification and reimplementation in the nation of fidelity and loyalty

- The book then made up of 4 (or 5) unequal sections: 1: 2- 2, 13; 3: 1- 8; 3: 9- 4:4( 5: 14); 6: 1-( 8; 6:
9)- 7: 20. … A structure manifesting three things:
a) confirms of the textual into thematic difference of chapters 6- 7.
b) Accents the important place of false prophets in the Book of Micah [false prophets are
probably those who speak Salvation to whoever will pay them… 2: 11; 3: 5, 11]
c) maintains the peculiarity of chapters 4- 5

b) Internal dynamic of the sections

= First Section (1—3)

- focuses on a theophany in which the Lord testifies against the injustice of his people… In c.1 begins
the theophany, motivated by the sins of Jacob and Judah (vv.2-5), which provokes the hruin of Samaria
(vv.6-7) and Judah (vv.8-9,10-16, in form of an elegy or lament, difficult to translate and understand)
- cc.2—3 have parallel structures

2:1-5 against the powerful 3:1-4 powerful

2:6-11 against false prophets 3:5-8 false prophets
2:12-13 (untimely prophecy) 3:9-12 powerful; false prophets

– his words against the rich, owners of houses and fields, who oppress the poor (2:1-5), provokes an
argument against false prophets (2:6-11) who are content because people honor them
– Micah understands the destruction of Samaria as consequence of continual internal injustice (2:10-11)
– false prophets believe the words about reunification (2:12-13)
– Micah uses the dynamic image of injustice compared to skinning the poor (3:1-4)
– once again words against false prophets (3:5-8); and the leaders: rulers, prophets, priests (3:9-12)
– even a scandalous word against Zion, provoked by false prophets preaching security (3:12)

= Chapters 4–5
– seems most appropriately interpreted as a discussion between Micah and the false prophets about the
salvation of the nation.... false prophets had interrupted already two times in the previous section (2:6-7;
2:12-13)... difficult to know exactly who is speaking at a given moment... repetitions help some

“In the last days” (4:1) Micah

(4:5) false prophets
“In that day” (4:6) Micah
“And you...” (4:8) false prophets
“Now” (4:9) false prophets

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 “Now” (4:10) Micah
“Now” (4:11) false prophets
“Now” (4:14) Micah
“And you...” (5:1) Micah
“And it shall be” (5:4) false prophets
“And it shall be” (5:6) Micah
“And it shall be” (5:7) false prophets
“And it shall be” (5:9) Micah

–the theme of salvation treated in this discussion according to the following facets:
when will it take place? False prophets: now
Micah: later, after punishment
from where will it come? False prophets: from Jerusalem
Micah: from Bethlehem
in what doesn’t consist? False prophets: a conquering remnant, nationalist, strong
Micah: a small remnant, purified of idolatry and including
nations who desire it

= Final Section (6 – 7)
– convocation of a trial of God against his people opens the section (6:1-5)
– the most solid entities will be shaken
– God’s historical blessings serve as a legal foundation for the judgment (6:3-5)
– the cultic approach to God, lacking basic justice, no longer suffices (6:6-9a)
– Justice (6:9b-16): a direct attack on Omri and Ahab (at least aimed at the North) because they
constructed the city by means of injustices
– loyalty (7:1-7): the society is totally lacking this
– the final section (7:8-20) is a liturgy consisting of four smaller parts (7-10; 11-13; 14-17; 18-20)
– Jerusalem rebukes her arrival in hope of salvation; God announces the coming of the expected day;
Jerusalem calls upon the Lord’s salvation, and expresses confidence in his pardon... leads once again to
faithfulness (emet) and loyalty (hesed) in the nation

3. Message and Theology of Micah

– for exactness, distinguish between the message of 1 – 5 and 6 – 7, although not separate in every point
– Chapters 6 – 7 do not touch at all on the problem of false prophets
– those following the religious rituals are content in their false belief, based on the idea of divine
promises being automatic... especially promulgated by false prophets, pacifying the conscience of such
people, extinguishing their charism, silencing the voice of the Lord (3:5-7)
– the Lord cannot remain silent... Micah announces a judgment against Jerusalem and Samaria for
idolatry, injustice, duplicitous interpretation of ancient traditions (2:6-7; 3:11b)... in questions of justice
the Lord spares neither his nation nor his city
– Micah does not empty the dogmas: Blessing of Jacob (2:7), the presence of the Lord in Zion (3:11),
the Exodus from Egypt (1:15?; 7:15), the promise to David (5:1-3)
– in fact the false prophets empty the dogmas, preaching hope at least for the remnant (4:7; 5:2, 6, 7;
6:5), but the future requires hesed, justice, humility (6:8)
– some texts are quite parallel in theme to texts of Isa: Mic 1:10-16//Isa 10:27ff... Mic 2:1-5//Isa 5:8ff...
Mic 5:9-14//Isa 2:6ff... note the repetition of Isa 2:2-4 = Mic 4:1-4 [cf. B.S. CHILDS, Introduction tot he

47
OT as Scripture Philadelphia 1979) 435-436].

4. Practical Exercises
– read chapters 4 – 5 as a discussion between Micah and a group of false prophets and attempt to note
the division between speakers... use the discussion above with indications given... note to the specific
characteristics of each mentality, comparing them, leading to a picture of the true prophet and a false one

Chapter IV
JEREMIAH AND HIS TIMES

I. HISTORY OF THE EPOCH UP TO THE FALL OF JERUSALEM

– dependent much upon biblical sources such as 2Ki 21 – 25; 2Chr 33 – 36... also prophets who
ministered at this time: Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Nahum, Habakkuk

1. International Situation
– characterized by changing of the dominant power... the Assyrian Empire gives way to the new
Babylonian Empire
– in the last chapter we left the Assyrians besieging Jerusalem, at the mandate of Sennacherib, yet lifting
the siege without apparent motive in 701 B.C.... According to 2Ki 19:37 “one day he was assassinated
by his sons”. 20 years had passed (681).... Esarhaddon followed him (681-669), succeeding in
conquering Egypt, setting up 22 districts... dominated the entire region, but died trying to put down an
Egyptian revolt.
– Ashurbanipal (669-627) managed to maintain the Empire, but with constant fighting... in 652 his
brother Shamash-Shumukin rose up against them in Babylon.... Medes in the North took notice... in
Syria and Palestine discontent grew... perhaps Mannaseh of Judah collaborated in a rebellion, since 2Chr
33:11-13 says he was taken captive to Babylon... but he was allowed to return...
– Psammetik I founded the XXVI Dynasty in Egypt (663)
– Sinsariskun, a son of Ashurbanipal responsible for the Babylonian front, cedes the throne to
Nabopolassar, marching against his own brother.... Sinsariskun reigns until 612, seeing the fall of Ashur
(614) and the destruction of Nineveh (612) by Medes and Chaldeans
– Asurubalit (612-609) finds refuge in Haran, being the last king of the Assyrians
– usually consider Nabopolassar (626-605) as the founder of the new Babylonian Empire... succeeded in
throwing out the Assyrians... after 10 years (616) attacked the heart of Assyria, but the Egyptians came
to the help of their former lords, the Assyrians... Pharoah Neco II, son of Psammetik, also came to help
in 609 and 605...
– Babylon becomes the only political and military power of the region... Nebuchadnezzar has to return
to Babylon immediately upon the death of his father in 604... 603 he calls all of the kings of the area to
be his vassals... Jehoiachin is king of Judah at the time... Nebuchadnezzar is the king who had most
direct influence in Judah and caused the definitive destruction of Jerusalem

2. History of Judah
a) From Manasseh to the Reform of Josiah
– Manasseh governed 55 years in Jerusalem (698-643 B.C.)... Deuteronomist considers him one of the
worst kings... politically submitted to Assyria, paid tribute, permitted and practiced Assyrian religion
(2Ki 21:9-15) such that Yahwism almost disappeared

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 (
( )



 (
(

b) Note on the Reform of Josiah

(
)

c) The End of the Reign of Judah

Josiah

(
)
Jehoahaz ) ( )

Jehoiakim
 the party of those who wanted him to submit to Chaldean power... he did not have many friends (Jer
22:18; 36:30)... his son Jehoiachin after only three months bowed to Nebuchadnezzar, who changed his
name to Jeconiah and carried him off to Babylonia, leaving in Jerusalem another son of Josiah,
Mattaniah, whose name Nebuchadnezzar changed to Zedekiah as a sign of dominance
– Jeconiah, led to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, is the king whose 37 years later will receive amnesty
from Evilmerodach (2Ki 25:27-30)... this was the first deportation... notable people accompanied the
king, probably Ezekiel, since he belonged to an important priestly family
– Zedekiah (597-586), son of Josiah, uncle of Jeconiah... the prophet Jeremiah treated him with
benevolence, the last king of the dynasty of David, weak, pressured by those who wanted submission to
Babylon as well as those who wanted to resist her... in 594 in Jerusalem and international reunion
attempting to organize resistance against Babylon... included Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, Sidon... but
without the help of Egypt it had no future... Zedekiah out of fear sends ambassadors to Babylon in order
to assure his loyalty... Jeremiah uses the location to send a letter to the exiles (Jer 29)... five years later,
589, Egypt breaks into Asia... Zedekiah is uncertain about supporting Egypt, so he consults Jeremiah
several times (Jer 21:1-7; 37:3-10, 17; 38:14, 23)... Jeremiah councils against rebellion, but Zedekiah
cannot resist the pressure of courtiers and princes, so he rebels against Babylon... January 5, 587,
Jerusalem is laid under siege... notification that the Egyptians were coming to how Judah caused the
siege to be lifted briefly, but July 19, 586 the Babylonians broke the walls of Jerusalem... Zedekiah had
tried to escape, but was captured on the way to Jericho, carried to Riblah; and there they took out his
eyes just after he watched his sons get executed... then deported, but the time and place of his death is
not known... one month later, the general Nebuzaradan destroy the temple and palace and placed
Gedaliah as governor
– the epilogue of the story of the kingdom of Judah begins: Gedaliah places his seat in Mizpah, where
Saul had been elected (1Sam 10:17-18)... Gedaliah did not belong to the dynasty of David, and perhaps
because of this he was assassinated by Ishmael with the help of the Ammonites... Ishmael carries some
captives to Ammon, among those Jeremiah and his secretary Baruch... John, a leader of the camp, allows
them to travel with him to Egypt... thus the story of the reign of Judah narrated in the book of Jeremiah
concludes in the same place it began, Egypt
–important to remember another historical date in the cycle of deportations: in 582 Nebuchadnezzar
decides upon a third deportation to Babylon, 745 Jews (Jer 52:30), bringing the number of exiles to
4600... according to Josephus (Ant., 10, 9, 7) this happened as part of the campaign of Nebuchadnezzar
through Moab and Ammon... others place it differently
– so the figure of Jeremiah coincides with this final step in the kingdom of Judah
– usually other prophetic texts are dated to this era: Zephaniah, Nahum (who treats the fall of Nineveh in
612 B.C.), and Habakkuk.... all of these are certainly before the exile

II. THE PROPHET JEREMIAH AND HIS WORK

Bibliography: R.P. CARROLL, Century’s End. Jeremiah Studies at the Beginning of the Third
Millennium, in CR.BS 8 (2000) 18-58; A.H.W. CURTIS – T. RÖMER (edd.), The Book of Jeremiah and
Its Reception (BEThL 128), Leuven 1997; A.R.P. DIAMOND – K.M. O’CONNOR – L. STULMAN,
Troubling Jeremiah (JSOT.S 260), Sheffield 1999; W.L. HOLLADAY, The Root Shûbh in the Old
Testament, Leiden 1958; I.D., “The Background of Jeremiah’s Self-Understanding”, JBL 83 (1964) 153-
164; I.D., “Jeremiah and Moses: Further Observations”, JBL 85 (1966) 17-27; I.D., The Architecture of
Jeremiah 1–20, Lewisburg 1974; I.D., Jeremiah, 2 vols., London 1986, 1991; J.PH. HYATT, “Jeremiah”, in
Interpreter’s Bible 5 (Nashville-New York 1956) 777-1142; I.D., Prophet of Courage and Hope,

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 ashville-New York 1958; D.W. JAMIESON-DRAKE, Scribes and Schools in Monarchie Judah. A
Socio-Archeological Approach (JSOT.S 109), Sheffield 1991; E. KRAGELUND HOLT, “Jeremiah’s Temple
Sermon and the Deuteronomists: An Investigation of the Redactional Relationship Between Jr 7 and
26”, JSOT 36 (1986) 73-87; D.G. SCHLEY, “The Salism: Officers or Special Three-Man Squads?”, VT 40
(1990) 321-326; CH.R. SEITZ, Theology in Conflict. Reaction to the Exile in the Book of Jeremiah
(BZAW 176), Berlin – New York 1989; H.O. THOMPSON, The Book of Jeremiah. An Annoted
Bibliography (AT-LA.BS 41), Lanham 1996; E. TOV, The Jeremiah Scrolls from Qumran, in RQ 14
(1990) 189-206.

1. The burned and re-edited book (Jer 36)

a) content and structure of the chapter
– a long chapter, and little incentive to read it... little known by believers and barely used in liturgy... still
a crucial point of entry into Jeremiah... helps one to know the origin of prophetic books, particularly
Jeremiah
– the situation: Jeremiah cannot get to the temple, perhaps because he is in prison... he dictates a book to
Baruch, his secretary, containing all the oracles pronounced up to that point, in order to see if the people
listen and convert, since God is still disposed to forgive... Baruch reads it to the people, also tries to get
the king to listen; but king Jehoiakim burns it... and Jeremiah dictates another, with additions (v. 32)
– hardly ever has such a short-lived book received so much ink... written in one year (36:1, 9... some say
4 years) comment it survives only a few hours
– created because of divine command, exegetes struggle to reconstruct its content
– but the importance is in its burning, since it then becomes a very precious symbol... it transcends its
own literal content
– 3 sections: a triptych: 1-8; 9-26 [with three distinct scenes: 9-13; 14-20; 21-26]; 27-32... the first and
last part correspond because they both contain the command to write the book, as well as its
fulfillment... the middle section containing three scenes narrate the readings of the book, as well as the
reactions provoked before the people in the temple (9-13), before the dignitaries in the room of the
Secretary (14-20) and before the king in his winter dwelling (17-26)

b) importance for the composition of the entire book

– v.32 says many other words similar were added... who added them? What was the criteria established
for similarity? Which were they?... it seems this is a confession of the history of the book beyond what
Jeremiah exactly said... it’s important for the prophet/editor to connect his work with the first (vv. 28,
32a)
– the book in itself is a prophet, occupying the place of Jeremiah, going where he could not, containing
his preaching... its content is identified as “word of the Lord” (vv. 4, 11), “word of Jeremiah” (v. 10),
“words of the book” (v.32)... the book is a prophet by vocation (“command of God”, vv. 1, 27), by
mission (cause conversion, v.3) and because of its tragic end (v.23)
– up to this point the message is clear: the king does not listen to the word of Jeremiah (nor do the
people), but destroys it... but this word resurges with continued strength... remember the crucified and
resurrected Word... also the “words” of the Law were written two times, because sin caused destruction
of the first writing... narratively, the “not-listening” of the word has its history... the audience diminishes
(people, dignitaries, King), is left in a room (v.20) and commands that the authors be hidden (v.19),
finally God hides them (v.26)... interest in the content of the book continues to diminish so that the
preoccupation remains its mere existence... the rewriting really is for the sake of its existence, more so
than its content..... actually, Jeremiah with his life, his celibacy, his actions symbolic, his imprisonment,

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is required descent into Egypt, is more the message
– Jeremiah’s internal struggle is expressed in what is known as his “confessions”
– an important point: 36:24 says nobody feared nor rent his garments [remember the exact opposite
words in 2Ki 22:11 Re: a book which is found in the temple and read before the king... Josiah was
king... Josiah ranked his garments, yet his son Jehoiakim did not... Josiah will be buried with his fathers,
Jehoiakim will not]
– the book of Josiah made history in Judah because it was listened to; usually identified with the book of
Deuteronomy or some part of it.... the book of Jeremiah also made history, because it provoked a change
in the tone of the message of the Prophet: the moment of conversion is passed, punishment is irrevocable
(36:31)
– the “type-scene” is Deu 17:14-20, the Deuteronomic law regarding the king... words which seem to
draw the image of Jehoiakim (Jer 22:13-19)

2. Jeremiah and the history of his time

a) traditional chronology
– ordinarily was accepted the Jeremiah was born about 650 B.C. (During the reign of Manasseh) in
Anatoth, a benjaminite city located 6 km north of Jerusalem (Jer 1:1; 11:21; 32:6-12)... a priestly family
[the priests of Anatoth descended from Abiathar, were exiled by Solomon (1Ki 2:26-27) who favored
Zadok... family quarrels because of opposition by some to the sanctuary at Shiloh, annexed by Jerusalem
at the beginning of the monarchy... included in Jeremiah’s famous discourse against the temple (7:12;
26:6)]... probably installed in Jerusalem, given the reform of Josiah... now linked to the country,
concerned about the dryness (14:4, 5), the vineyards (8: 13), purchases a field from his uncle in Anatoth
(32), etc.
– his prophetic mission required him to remain celibate (16:1-13)
– usually four stages in his prophetic activity recognized, paralleling historical eras

= first step: under Josiah (627-622)

– 13th year of Josiah (627) Jeremiah receives his vocation (1:2; 25:3)
– from this first period primarily oracles from chapters 1 – 6 and 30 – 31... curious that these last
chapters are aimed at the northern kingdom which ceased to exist about 100 years earlier
– Jeremiah preaches the need for conversion and warns against an undefined “enemy of the North”
(1:13-16; 4:5-6, 30; 3:2; etc.)... only after 605 is it realized that this is the Chaldean empire
– no direct allusion to Josiah’s reform, despite the fact that there is much Deuteronomic language... it
would be impossible to avoid the reform, so it is assumed that in these years (622-609) he was silent, but
his silence is interpreted as support for the reform: there’s simply no oracle we can definitely connect to
this time period
– When Jehoahaz (= Shallum) was carried to Egypt, Jeremiah bemoaned it (22:10-12)

= second step: under Jehoiakim (609-597)

– the texts pertaining to this period primarily from chapters 7 – 25
– suppose Jeremiah recommences his activity: a) after the final disaster of the reform, or because of
tribute they have to pay, citizens around him return to foreign cults (7:17, 30-32);... b) other citizens
superstitiously believe in the temple (7:1-15);... c) Jehoiakim is an unjust king because of his opulence
and because of the harsh taxes upon the people (22:13-19)
– the following specific oracles concretely attributed to this time:
+ beginnings of Jehoiakim (609): 7:1-15, discourse against the temple; 26, a narration against

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city and temple; 22:1-19, exhortation to the royal household to repent
+ 4th year of Jehoiakim (605), significant date in history, Nebuchadnezzar ascends to the throne,
his victory at Carchemish, the “enemy of the North” is identified with Babylonians: 46:2-12, Oracle
against Egypt in punishment for the death of Josiah; 25:1-14, another discourse against the temple when
Jeremiah is imprisoned (19:1 – 20:6) and prevents entry into the temple; 36, he writes a book when he
cannot go personally to the temple
+ 5th year of Jehoiakim (604): 47:2-7, invasion of Palestine and conquest of Ashkelon; 36:5ff
where the TM shows Baruch reading the book before the people
+ years of Jehoiakim’s submission (601-600): 12:7-13, which speaks of the damages of war and
the ensuing tribute
+ 11th year of Jehoiakim and 7th of Nebuchadnezzar (597), the first conquest of Jerusalem and
deportation: 35:1-19, speaks about the Rechabites as an example of obedience, also the last episode of
Jehoiakim; 22:24-30, Jeconiah and his mother go into exile, as Jeremiah predicted (10:17-21; cf. 13:15-
17; 22:20-27); 15:5-9 damage from the invasion and siege of the city
– the era of Jehoiakim is perhaps the richest of his preaching, also most crucial... conversion is still
possible and would assure the permanence of the people in the country, which is not automatic...
Jeremiah’s preaching against the temple leads to persecution... his preaching requires submission to
Nebuchadnezzar as a sign of punishment... the rebellion of Jehoiachin, perhaps after the routing of the
Babylonians in Egypt (601) incites the prophet to speak against alliances with Egypt... opposition of
false prophets and consummation of the rebellion caused the punishment to be irrevocable

= third step: under Zedekiah (597-586)

– the fourth year of Zedekiah (593) is the date of chapters 27 – 29 (correcting errors in the MT which
attributed these chapters to Jehoiakim)....
– with the ascension to the throne of Pharaoh Psammetik II (594), who succeeded Neco, submission was
encouraged and an international conference in Jerusalem (Jer 27) which did not take off... to this
moment refers the text about to descent to Babylon (51:59-64) and the letter of Jeremiah (Jer 29)
– the ninth year of Zedekiah (588) takes place the rebellion of Judah against Babylon, instigated by
Pharoah Hophra... after which immediately begins the siege of Jerusalem (587)... 34:1-7 says only
Lachish, Azekah, and Jerusalem resist... 34:8-10 is a rite of liberty for calling upon the Lord and
avoiding further captivity
– the siege gets interrupted briefly when the Egyptians arrive... 34:11-12 recovering freed captives;...
37:1-10 going to Jeremiah to beg his intercession;... 37:11-16, Jeremiah wants to go to Anatoth to
redeem a field (32:1-15), but he gets put in jail;... 38:1-13 + 21:8-10 attempt to kill Jeremiah in the pit;...
38:14-23, last meeting with the king... 39 a text relative to the destruction of the city (cf. parallels Jer 52
and 2Ki 25)
– Jeremiah continues to recommend submission to the Babylonians in order to save the kingdom; no
other route... receiving the punishment is the only hope for the future

= fourth step: under Gedaliah (586...)

– chapters 39 – 40, Gedaliah in Mizpah and his assassination
– chapters 42 – 43 consultation with Jeremiah near Bethlehem about staying in Babylon
– Chapter 44, last oracle of Jeremiah in Egypt... he announces that submission to Nebuchadnezzar is the
only way to salvation... they should at all costs avoid going to Egypt, because such a move will put an
end to the nation

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b) “Low/Young” chronology in the book of Jeremiah
ficulties in the traditional chronology above encouraged the collaboration of another...
first the main difficulty is mysterious relationship established between Jeremiah and the Deuteronomic
reform... it is impossible that the prophet did not allude to it, if he knew it personally... the book of
Jeremiah has undergone an important Deuteronomic re-elaboration... Jeremiah is a prophet who spoke
against the temple, priests and kings, all central elements of the Deuteronomic reform... there is not a
single Oracle in the whole book which speaks of the reform or of Josiah
... there seems to be no solution other than to imagine a period of silence... does that mean Jeremiah was
in agreement with the reform and did not have to speak? Or was it that although he was not in
agreement, he knew it was impossible to convince the people, who followed it so readily? But it seems
hard to imagine Jeremiah avoiding such speech just because it seemed impossible...
– he receives his vocation in the 13th year of Josiah, i.e., 627.... so his birth was probably around 650.
– what was the occasion for speaking the first time? He refers to his birth as a time before which he is
already consecrated (1:5; 15:10; 20:14-18)
– this answers some questions: a) the absence of oracles about the reform makes sense if we realize he
would’ve been only five years old! ... b) his first intervention would have been the oracle against the
temple in 609 (7:1-15); he would’ve been 18 years old, and would have composed other oracles
probably as well... c) before hand in times of Josiah, he had preached; the oracles normally understood
as belonging to the reign of the North could be from this time; an optimistic message: begin again!
Return to Zion! Could God ever forget Israel? Judah should accept his sister! Jeremiah was from the
tribe of Benjamin and could not have been indifferent to the reunification of the two kingdoms under
Josiah which he knew as a child;... d) finally, at the time of the fall of Jerusalem Jeremiah would have
been about 40 years old
– still there are some difficulties with this chronology: his celibacy, the very early age of his preaching....
but others in biblical tradition were called from their mothers’ wombs: Samson (Jdg 13:5), Samuel
(1Sam 1:22; 3), also cf. Luk 2:42 re: Jesus..... his celibacy can be explained as symbolic of the
circumstances in which it is not worth living... nevertheless, his message was not so dark at the
beginning when he thought conversion was possible (2:1-4, 4)... only later did he think chastisement
inevitable (15:1)
– with this new chronology, Jeremiah would be 23 or 26 years old (as opposed to traditional chronology
of 46 or 49 years old), old enough in that society to have decided against marriage because of the Lord’s
call

c) Genealogical tree of kings in Jeremiah’s era

– in italics the names of kings reigning for a long period... the numbers before the names indicate the
order of their appearance on the throne... numbers in parentheses are the dates

Zebudda (marriage ) 1. Josiah (648-609) (←marriage) Jamutal

3. Jehoiakim (609-597) 2. Jehoahaz (609; to Egypt) 5. Zedekiah (597-586)

4. Jeconiah (597; to Babylon)

3. The Book of Jeremiah

a) Difficulties presented

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 asons for difficulties: a) variety of genres, such as oracles against Judah, narrations by Jeremiah,
narrations about Jeremiah, “confessions”, a letter, oracles against the nations, symbolic actions,
historical narrations, etc.... b) chronological disorder apparent in the text... c) problems of content; for a
long time people live attempted to reconstruct the “primitive scroll” which was burned (Jer 36) in order
to consider it an authentic base of oracles of Jeremiah.... d) differences between the MT and LXX; the
Greek text is 1/8 shorter (2700 words less) than the Hebrew, and although it is true that the MT includes
numerous repetitions (6:22-24 = 50:41-43; 7:1-14 = 26; 6:12-15 = 8:10-12; 10:12-16 = 51:15-19;
15:13-14 = 17:3-4; 16:14-15 = 23:7-8; 23:5-6 = 33:15-16; 23:19-20 = 30:23-24; 30:10-11 = 33:25-26;
39:4-10 = 52:7-16; 49:19-21 = 50:44-46), this cannot explain the entire discrepancy
– there probably existed more than one text of the book of Jeremiah, since 4QJerb (Jer 9:22 – 10:18)
agrees with the text of LXX, while 4QJera, 4QJerc and 2QJer are closer to the MT.... furthermore, in each
case there is a different textual ordering of material... fundamentally, beginning with Jer 25, there is a
transposition of the oracles against the nations to distinct places

MT LXX
25:15-38 A) cup of the nations 32:15-38
46:1 – 51:58 B) oracles against the nations 25:15 – 32:14
26 – 45 C) narrations of Jeremiah 33:1 – 51:30
51:59-64 D) narration of Jeremiah 51:33-35

– the order of MT is A-C-B-D, while the order of LXX is B-A-C-D.... which leads us to the most
important difficulty: the book’s formation, origin... beginning without doubt at chapter 36

b) division into sections

= Jer 1 – 25: the judgment of Judah and Israel... subdivides into 1 – 6: compact homogenous group of
oracles; 7 – 25: begins (7) and ends (25) with a discourse, mixes oracles with other genres

= Jer 26 – 45: last moments of Jerusalem... and Jeremiah normally appears in these chapters, but he is
not the subject of the events.... at play is the destiny of the Word of God and his Prophet... an inclusio
between chapters 36 and 45 regarding treatment against Jeremiah, “the passion of Jeremiah” (37 – 44)...
before this was the danger of the prophet and argument with false prophets (26 – 29), the book of
consolation (30 – 33) and two chapters which juxtapose disobedient Jews with obedient Rechabites (34
– 35).

= Jer 46 – 51: oracles against the nations... the last part of the book, whose introduction is the “cup of
the nations” (25:13ff)... some oracles seem to contain dates put in by redactors (46:2; 47:1; 49:34)

= Jer 52: historical appendix... repetition of 2Kgs 24:20 – 25:30 and partially of Jer 39.... worth noting
that 51:64 says “they will grow weary. Here and the words of...”.... modern translations into English
leave out the “they will grow weary”, because it seems clearly to be a gloss of “they will grow weary” in
51:58, where it seems the book used to end.... about three different introductions for the book seem to
exist: Jer 1, which introduces the entirety of the oracles; 25:15-38, which introduces oracles against the
nations; Jer 26 which introduces narratives.

c) literary sources for the book

– the work of S. Mowinckel (from jail, and with only a Hebrew Bible and a piece of paper!) Provide a

55
 s for all further studies, separating the book into four sources, as follows:
A. Source “A” provided authentic (from the Prophet himself) poetic texts, oracles or
discourses.... primarily chapters 1 – 6 and 25
B. Prose texts which speak of Jeremiah in the third person. Traditionally Baruch was considered
the author of these texts, a conviction which expresses believe in a school of disciples around Jeremiah...
primarily in chapters 26 – 45
C. Prose texts characterized by Deuteronomistic language. Jeremiah speaks in first person,
usually in the context of discourse, scattered throughout the book and beginning in chapter 7 (7:1 – 8:3
[treating temple and cult]; 11:1-14, 23 [about the broken covenant]; 16:1-13 [about the isolation of the
Prophet]; 17:19-27 [about the Sabbath]; 18:1-12 [God, a free agent acting as he desires]; 21:1-10 [about
the destiny of Jerusalem]; 22:1-5 [to the kings of Judah]; 25:1-14 [about imminent punishment]; 34:8-22
[the broken oath]; 35:1-19 [about the Rechabites]... many other passages could be added to the list
D. Oracles against the nations coming from still another source... chapters 46 – 51 and 52... this
first set of chapters is said to have undergone a great re-elaboration.

– the exact extension and source background of a concrete text is always disputed, but in general
scholars have agreed on a tempting the following: delimiting the extension of the authentic oracles (=
source A), which would be equivalent to the “primitive scroll”;.... establish the relationship between the
authors of source B and C;... establish the authenticity of some texts of C or the relationship between C
and A...
– the fundamental sources established by Mowinckel have for the most part been maintained
– today, however, Mowinckel’s hypothesis has been set to the side often so that theological work on the
final rejection of the book can be done, it’s intentionality be found

4. Notes for reading some particular texts

a) the call of Jeremiah: Jer 1:4-10 (+vv. 11-12 + vv. 13-19)

– a narrative dominated by the sign of the word
– typical introductory formula (1:4, 11, 13; 2:1; 13:3, 6, 8; 16:1; 18:5; 24:4)
– the word is much more than a simple sound, rather it is an event... the word chooses, consecrates,
names Jeremiah
– a divine promise of God’s presence accompanies the word
– the name given to his mission is universal in scope, “prophet to the nations”
– the word is in fact the only weapon used in this mission: to tear down, destroy, build, plant
– man’s word of objection is contrary to this word of God which can act even through a weak instrument
– God will command the words to speak and he will be there present
– if you read this introduction without realizing the rest of the book, it can seem simply a nice emotional
story... but if you realize the trials Jeremiah faces throughout the book, this becomes quite dramatic an
introduction
– a vocation story quite different in tradition from Isaiah: no vision here, nor an objection of impurity,
nor celestial intermediaries... rather, a word directed immediately to a human messenger, a personal
dialogue happens with the Lord
– several connections with the vocation story of Moses
= Exo 3–4... a double objection to the mission (Exo 4:1, 10)... solutions offered (Exo 4:12, 13)
= Exo 6:2-12+ 7:1-7... Moses mentions the difficulty in speaking (6:12, 30)... God promises to
tell him what to say (7:2)

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 = summary: personal and direct encounter with the Lord; a dialogue of communication; presence
of doubt and objection; God responding with a promise of his presence and signs

b) confessions of Jeremiah
– these are various texts written in first person in which the Prophet complains to the Lord
– normally the following are considered: the first confession (11:18 – 12:6)... second confession (15:10-
21 [13-14?])... third confession (17: [9-10] 14-18)...]... fourth confession (18:18-23); fifth confession
(20:7-18 [13?])...
– texts expressing God’s call, but a crisis trying to live that call
– somewhat close to lamentation psalms of an individual
– remember the cry of Moses when the people murmured (Exo 17:4)... the complaint of Samuel when
God rejected Saul (1Sam 15:11).... the desperation of Elijah on Horeb (1Kgs 19:10)
– a juridical language to the confessions... because at first glance it appears the Lord has not remained
faithful to his word of support for the Prophet, and therefore the enemies of Jeremiah seemed to be right
(12:1; 15:15; 17:18; 20:10): Jeremiah’s word against them does not get fulfilled
– Jeremiah’s enemies are the chorus of prophets announcing peace which does not exist (23:17; cf. 2:35;
6:14; 7:4, 8, 10; 8:11; 14:13; also the dispute with Hananiah in ch.28 and 37:19)
– the enemies also referred to as “merrymakers” (15:17), “familiar friends” (20:10; 38:22), those who
“speak fair words” (12:6)
– Jeremiah’s word should be believed because it has not been spoken out of self satisfaction, rather out
of compulsion (17:16; 18:20; 20:9)
– most difficult is when it seemed the Lord is acting like the enemy... the enemy who does not want
Jeremiah’s name pronounced (11:19), fitting in with the way God requires celibacy, i.e., no descendents
(16:1-4)... they want to trick and overcome him (20:10), which is what he says God has accomplished
(20:7)
– God’s responses are significant: I will punish your enemies (11:22-23) and protect you (15:20-21)... if
your situation seems bad, it will get worse (12:5)... I know what I am doing is sending you enemies
(15:12) because you need conversion (15:19)
– more painful than a sharp response is God silence at times (17:14-18; 18:18-23; 20:7-18)

c) considerations for a literary analysis of the confessions

= first confession: 11:18 – 12:6
– a double text with two interventions of the Prophet and two responses of the Lord
– in the first part Jeremiah realizes he has been instructed by the Lord (11:18-20; 12:6)
– unclear who “they” in v.18 are, usually identified with family members in Anatoth in 12:6
– 11:20 has a juridical character: it is a judge who investigates profoundly what has been entrusted to
him
– the Prophet again speaks and accuses the Lord of injustice (12:1-4) because evildoers prosper
– the genre here seems to be that of a rîb, a legal plaint

= second confession: 15:10-21

– can be divided into two parts, each with a corresponding response of the Lord (15:10-14/resp 11-14)...
(15-21/resp 19-21)
– finding God’s words makes sense if understood as the scroll of the law (2Kgs 22:13; 23:2)... and
eating them the acceptance of his vocation (cf. Eze 2:8 – 3:3; also Deu 8:3; Isa 55:1-11; Amo 8:11)
– in the first part Jeremiah alleges being persecuted wrongly... the Lord accepts his part in the

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 rsecution, but explains that it is not final, but the false prophets will be exiled
– in the second part Jeremiah has remained faithful to his vocation, even to celibacy (15:17), so why did
God not fulfill his word (15:18)?
– Jeremiah twists the fountain of living water from 2:13 into accusing God of being a deceitful brook in
15:18
– the Lord unexpectedly responds that Jeremiah needs conversion (15:19-21) just as the nation needed
conversion (3:1-4)

= third confession: 17:14-18

– need to consider some details of the preceding context, because some people make this confession
began at v. 9
– Jer 17 begins by underlining the fixation of Judah in sin... vv. 3-4 contain words which later will be
used by God towards Jeremiah (15:13-14)
– using an image found in Psa 1, the person who trusts in public opinion is compared to a desert shrub,
whereas the person trusting in the Lord is like a verdant tree by water
– the Lord does not pay attention to appearances, but judges the heart (17:9-11)
– note the important image of the Lord as a fountain of living water (17:13)
– 17:14 a wound the Lord must heal
– the people (false prophets) scoff at Jeremiah, because they do not see the response of the Lord
(17:15)... a preparation for Mat 27:44 were people challenge Jesus to come down from the cross

= fourth confession: 18:18-23

– Jeremiah stands in the way of those who want to trust in traditional religious means: the priest, wise
man, prophet
– cf. Mic 3:11 where these religious people are corrupt, yet people still think the Lord is with them
– the prophet has interceded (18:20), but the time for this has passed (cf. 15:1)
– Jeremiah does not ask punishment upon those who oppose him, but he prays that what he has spoken
will come to pass (6:11-12)
– the imprecatory psalms use some of these images, and appear harsh to us..... and they are, asking the
Lord not to repent from his wrath (18:23)... the Lord’s pardon would invalidate the word Jeremiah spoke

= fifth confession: 20:7-18

– the harshest of the confessions, the apex of the interior breaking of the prophet
– usually divided into three parts: 7-10; 11-13; 14-18...
– first part is what the enemies desire, permitted by the Lord... the height of seduction, referred to God,
is present in Jeremiah (4:10; 15:18; 38:22; cf. 1Kgs 22)... the prophet complains about having to cry out
“violence and destruction” ... having to endure such intrigue because of his message... not being able to
remain silent when he would like to (cf. 5:14; 23:29)... continuous traps and bad luck (6:25; cf. 20:3;
46:5; 49:29)
– the third part expresses the prostration of Jeremiah... gives the impression that he courts the idea of
self-destruction... yet he continues to identify himself with the life of a prophet
– the central part expresses confidence in God for future salvation and past intervention
– similar cries are heard from Job; the servant of the Lord in Isa 52:13 – 53:12; Jonah... remember Jesus
on the cross quoting Psa 22:1 “my God, my God...”
– understand the complaint as some proof of faith: one needs faith to experience the distancing of God...
this is a paradoxical experience of the presence of God

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5. Preaching and message of Jeremiah

a) the nucleus of his message

he began preaching the necessity of conversion (4:4; 4:14; 6:8; 7:3, 5)... the purpose of the first book
he wrote (36:1-8)... communicates hope that it is still possible that the Lord change his opinion and
avoid the chastisement
– but a moment arrives when Jeremiah believes the time is past for conversion... 15:1-4, 5-9; 7:16-20... a
summary phrase is 36:29: “the king of Babylon will certainly come” (cf. 20:4; 21:7, 10; 22:25; 25:9;
27:6 [5-11]; 29:21; 32:28; etc.)... wickedness has reached both great and small alike (5:1-9)
– given the circumstances, God urges submission to Babylon as a form of acceptance of his chastisement
and a way of saving themselves
– other prophets surround Jeremiah and oppose his message... they insist that God will continue to offer
shalom, peace to this nation... it becomes difficult to know who is speaking truly God’s message
throughout chapters 23 – 29, esp. ch. 28.
– even after the deportation, the main leaders in Babylon, including the prophets of salvation, promote
the hope that there will be a quick return....
– Jeremiah does not negate a return, but he makes the stay lengthy (ch. 29)
– Jeremiah has always opposed rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar (28:1-16) as a way of saving the city
and Kingdom (37:17-18; 27:17), the fields and the Temple (40:9-10)
– not accepting his word leads the nation to Egypt (chs. 42 – 43) and the disappearance of the Lord’s
name (ch. 44)... total disaster has occurred.
– this people had consider themselves freed by God (2:14), so Jeremiah’s words seemed to be
blasphemy, and he was considered worthy of death (26:9; Deu 18:20)

b) a message of salvation
– Justice Job is considered the epitome of patients, so Jeremiah is spoken of today as the prophet of
calamities, as well as the tearful, suffering prophet... perhaps the traditional attribution of Lamentations
to him has helped with this as well... there are still some prophecies of salvation in Jeremiah (30:10-11;
46:27-28; cf. Isa 41:8, 10)
– building and planting was also a part of Jeremiah’s mission (1:10; 24:6; 31:28; 42:10; 45:4)
– furthermore 24:4-10 describes the exiles to Babylon as good figs which the Lord will plant again
– also 29:4-7 encourages them to plant gardens, build homes, etc.... even to pray for the good of Babylon
so that they themselves experience good
– but salvation is not automatic; rather it’s a consequence of obedience (7:23), also with the result of
accepting chastisement (29)
– “you will live” repeated in 21:9; 27:12, 17; 38:2
– it is the false prophets whose hope is not paradoxical, but linear, and therefore false... they are called
preachers of rebellion (29:32), seducers of the nation (38:22; cf. 4:10; 6:13-14; 8:10-11)
– since the words of chastisement come true, Jeremiah can also be sure about the words of return (16:14-
15 = 23:7-8)

c) the book of restoration (Jer 30 – 31)

– these two chapters presuppose two positive historical periods
– just after Josiah finishes re-establishing the boundaries of the Kingdom of David, Jeremiah is a young
Benjaminite, familiar with traditions of the North

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– later the two kingdoms will be united in disgrace, because in sin (3:6-13)
– these chapters really focus on a reunification hope... words about Judah have been purified out (30:4;
31:27, 31)... these chapters directed towards Israel... saying that Judah would have to receive Israel back
as a prodigal son with good disposition, joy (31:7)
– key ideas repeated: change of fortune (29:14; 30:3, 18; 31:23 related to Deu 30:2)... sensation of joy
(30:19; 31:13... connected with Deu 28:63; 30:9)... build (30:18; 31:4, 28, 38).... plant (31:5, 28)
– paradoxical realism in the midst of the greatest joy: the great multitude which returns is a strange
procession of blind, lame, pregnant, giving birth (31: 8)
– reference to the new covenant (31:31-34) normally considered an appendix to the book of
restoration ... the new covenant ratifies the faithfulness of the Lord, since the covenant of Sinai has
broken... the idea of Sinai being broken has never come up before... passages from a couple other
prophets can help balance this boldness, passages speaking of the permanence of God’s Word (Isa 40:8;
55:10; Eze 36:22ff)

d) Jeremiah, the prophet like Moses

– many details about Jeremiah, and much discussion among scholars about the historical Jeremiah as he
relates to these details... very important is his connection to the figure of Moses in Deuteronomy
– some scholars think that Jeremiah lived this image consciously... others say it is a reinterpretation of
Jeremiah done by his disciples who compiled the book... a discussion we will not enter
– as a young man in Jeremiah knew the Deuteronomic reform of Josiah (2Kgs 22 – 23), the
proclamation of the book of the law
– must understand the story of the burning of the book in Jer 36 as the antithesis of the book of the law
in Josiah’s times... also remember the royal obligation to have a written copy and read it every day (Deu
17:14-20)
– also remember the double writing of the law in Deuteronomy (Exo 24:4; 34:1; Deu 10:1)
– also some antithetical connections between Moses in Jeremiah:... Moses the model intercessor (Exo
32:30-35), Jeremiah prohibited from interceding (Jer 7:16; 11:14; 14:11;cf. 15:1)..... Moses carried to
people from Egypt, was mediator of the covenant and considered a prophet (Deu 18:15; 34:10),
Jeremiah was carried with the people to reject, to him is given the preaching of a new covenant and he is
considered a prophet like Moses.... the chapters relating events occurring between the fall of Jerusalem
and the flight to reject (36, 37 – 45) are narrated like an anti-Exodus, where the canonical events of the
Exodus occur in inverse order: a) destruction of the temple, city, Dynasty of David and abandonment of
the land (Jer 36:30; 37 – 39; 41:10)... b) a stop in the way near Bethlehem [the names “house of bread”
(41:17) and “abundant waters” (41:12) bring to mind the memory of the rib, complaint of the people
against God in the desert when they lacked bread and water] provides a location for disobedience
(41:21) which... c) leads to the flight to Egypt (43:7) where .... d) the name of the Lord disappears from
the mouth of the Jews (44:26)...
– in the book of Jeremiah the prophet appears repeatedly as the incarnation of the Deuteronomic promise
of a new prophet like Moses (Deu 18:20)
– “what I command you you will speak” is found only in Exo 7:2 (P) and Deu 18:18, Jer 1:7
– “I will put my words in your mouth” is found in Jer 1:9 and Deu 18:18
– putting all this evidence [still more which is too detailed to mention here] together we seem to have an
irrefutable relationship between Jeremiah and Moses... it seems that at least the last redaction of the
book of Jeremiah considered the figure of Jeremiah to be a realization of the Deuteronomic promise
about a prophet like Moses

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e) the “book” in Jeremiah: written preaching
hy was the book of Jeremiah written? Or why was it written again after the oracles were burned by
Johoiakim?
– the mention of a book in Jeremiah appears in a significant place... prescinding from the mention of the
book (act of divorce) in 3:8, all the other occurrences happen after Jer 25... paying attention to the dates
in the text itself, the following structure appears:
A. Jer 25 “Fourth year of Jehoiakim”, (nations) book (25:13)
B. Jer 26 – 35
26: “Beginning of Jehoiakim”
27 – 31: “fourth year of Zedekiah” [28:1], books (29:1, 25, 29; 30:2)
32 – 34: “10th year of Zedekiah”, book (32:10-15, 44)
35: “In the days of Jehoiakim”
C. Jer 36 – 45:
36: “Fourth year of Jehoiakim”, book
37 – 39: “Zedekiah”
40 – 44: “Gedaliah”
45: “Fourth year of Jehoiakim”, book
D. Jer 46 – 51:“Fourth year of Jehoiakim” (nations), book (51:59)

– the term “book” is found in important positions in this scheme

– not including the books which record the purchase of the field (Jer 32) and contain correspondence
between Jerusalem and Babylon (Jer 29)
– among the remaining references:
= a book (25:13) which announces chastisement of Babylon (25:12) in obvious structural
correspondence with the book which Seraiah carries to Babylon in order to read it and cast it into the
Euphrates (51:59ff). Casting the book into the water represents the chastisement which awaits Babylon
= the book written fourth year of Jehoiakim opens and closes the arc of destruction of Jerusalem
and abandonment of the land. No chronological correspondence is mentioned with Nebuchadnezzar.
Only interest in the people, personified in a king who “does not listen”. The book and its content must
remain, be rewritten, so that the condemnation of Judah stands. Trying to destroy the book was an
attempt to destroy the line between word and history, announcement and fulfillment.
– fulfillment of the word is an essential theme of the narrative (cf. 44:28 re: whose word will stand)...
the unexpected challenge puts the reader before a struggle between two words: that of the nation,
historical actor, and that of the Lord of history.
– fulfillment of the word of chastisement is not the only fulfillment... there is also fulfillment of the
Lord’s promises (33:14), the message of the book of consolation (30:2ff)... a newness which comes
about through the chastisement... need to rejuvenate fecundity, corresponding to a mysterious initiative
of the woman (31:22)... need to return to wipe the tears of Rachel (31:15)
– fulfillment of the condemnation, described a in the book, serves as proof for hope in salvation

6. Practical exercises
– try to establish dates of the national events according to a low chronology
– look again at what was said earlier about “the location narratives” and check this with Jer 1
– compare the vocations of Jeremiah and Moses (Exo 3– 4; 6– 7)
– compare Jer 27 – 29 with Deu 18:9-22 regarding the theme of false prophets

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 Chapter V
FROM NAHUM TO ZEPHANIAH

I. The Prophet Nahum and His Work

Bibliography: K.J. Cathart, Nahum in Light of Northwest Semitic, Rome 1973; A. Haldar, Studies in the
Book of Nahum, Upsala 1947; M.A. SWEENEY, Concerning the Structure and Generic Character of the
Book of Nahum, in ZAW 104 (1992) 364-376; A.S. VAN DER WOUDE, The Book of Nahum. A Written
Letter in Exile, in OTS 20 (1977) 108-126.

1. The Prophet and his Epoch

– the Hebrew name “Nahum” calls to mind the “comfort” of the Lord
– born in Elkosh, an unknown place, which some scholars situate in Galilee, but most in Judah (1:1)
– we know very little about this Prophet himself
– his book puts us directly in the middle of the fall of Nineveh, 612 B.C.
– Nineveh, capital of the Assyrian Empire, was constructed by Sennacherib (704-681) on the shores of
the Tigris... an empire with far stretching borders
– the most intense enemies of Assyria were Babylon and Egypt, which both paid dearly for this
– Babylon was destroyed 689 and Ashurbanipal easily dissolved Thebes in 663 or 668
– Thebes was reconstructed in 654, Babylon in 626... and then began the end of Assyria
– the date of the book of Nahum is quite contested, oscillating from 663 or 654 and down to 612
– 3:8 mentions Thebes as destroyed, and Nineveh is about to be destroyed by the Assyrians
– the comparison with these two cities is probably because of their alliance, which happened only at the
end of the Assyrian Empire

2. The Book of Nahum

– the short heading of the book (1:1) is significant because:
= the use of a technical term for oracles against the nations (massa’) supports the belief in
Nineveh as the authentic referent
= explicit acknowledgment as a “book” is unique in the prophets
= designating the content as a vision puts emphasis on the messenger as one who has
experienced what he is saying (2:1)
– we can distinguish various sections and chapters
a) the book begins with an alphabetic/acrostic psalm... although not well preserved... can
distinguish about the first eight verses... then some transitional verses (1:9-10), then a concluding oracle
of salvation to Judah (1:11-14)
b) chapters 2 – 3 bracketed by an inclusio: evil of Nineveh filling the whole world (3:19), but not
succeeding in Judah (2:1)... these two sections adhere by mention of insatiable voraciousness of Assyria
in 2:13, 14; 3:1
c) ch. 2 coheres with two signs: the lack of the voice of messengers of Nineveh (2:13)... “cutting
off” (krt) as the form of destruction (1:15; 2:13)
d) ch. 3 opens with a strong set of epithets against the city (e.g. 3:1) and closes with a reflexive
affirmation about the universal scope (3:19)
– the psalm of ch. 1 has celebritive tone with theophany of the Lord who comes to punish the nation,
doing justice and saving Judah
– ch. 2 contains a messenger’s invitation to joy in Judah (2:1-3; cf. Isa 52:7)

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– the text is poorly conserved and has some very difficult passages to translate
– great color and clamor in the description of the war (2:4-5; 3:3), continuous movement in the city (2:2,
4-11)
– start utilization of images: voracious lion (2:12-14), numerous locusts (3:15-17)

3. The message of Nahum

– commentators note great poetic value, but little prophetic value
– hypothesis that the book was composed to celebrate in the temple the fall of Nineveh... made this a
cultic prophetic book
– still the very secular tone of this book (beginning especially in Chapter 2) makes it fit with difficulty
into liturgy
– the psalm of Chapter 1 about the Lord’s Dominion helps us to read the book in this light
– the anger, wrath, jealousy and vengeance of the Lord come together in the victory
– still his patience can be seen (1:3a), also his consolation for the poor afflicted (1:12b-14)
– a nationalist cry from Jerusalem is transcended as the destruction of Nineveh becomes only one
example of the Lord’s power against arrogance which repeats in history

4. Practical exercises
– gather all the terms used to describe the war and assault
– discuss the action of God in this historical event

II. THE PROPHET HABAKKUK AND HIS WORK

Bibliography: M.A. SWEENEY, Structure, Gender and Intent in the Book of Habakkuk, in VT 41 (1991)
63-83.

1. Habakkuk and his prophetic book

– we know very little about this Prophet, his place of birth, the name of his father
– the book of Daniel says there was a prophet Habakkuk who participated in miraculous feeding of
Daniel in the lion’s den (Dan 14:33-39)... but this still does not clear much up about him
– uncertainty about his dates of activity... putting together some slight clues (1:6, 14-17) and a gloss in
the MT citing Babylonians, we could situate Habakkuk in the time of Johoiakim (609-597 B.C.) Or even
after the first deportation (597)... but there have also been theories identifying the invading nation as
Assyrians, Egyptians, Arabs, Persians, Greeks, Seleucids, etc.
– everybody acknowledges the relationship of Habakkuk with cult prophecy... the psalm of Chapter 3
highlights this most... also some commentators recognize a liturgy for a penitential day in the first two
chapters
– lamentation, prayer, direct divine allocution spoken through a minister of the cult are ordinary
elements of ancient Israel’s liturgy
– question about whether some of the original oracles have been altered for the liturgy
– division of the book is obvious into three parts: a) a dialogue between the Prophet and God (1:2 – 2:5);
b) a series of five “woes” (2:6b-20); and c) the psalm (3:1-19)
– the psalm is the easiest to discern with its musical annotations and clear beginning and end
– the dialogue between the Prophet and the Lord is comprised of two lamentations of the Prophet (1:2-4;
1:12-17) and two responses of the Lord (1:5-11; 2:1-4)... the relationships between the lamentations and
the responses are not really clear

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– the expression “how long?” (1:1) is a juridical complaint... brings to mind the confessions of Jeremiah
and the book of Job
– the response places the problem on the international order: the Lord raising up a people who will cause
destruction, yet his people end up being saved
– the second response sets the theme of time and reception and fulfillment of the divine word
– great discussion about the contents of the tablets
– divine patience keeps allowing continuation of ages, despite oppression involved... still security in the
fulfillment of God’s plan at the end
– series of five “woes” (2:6b-20): the last presents some difficulties of language and content (2:18-20)...
theme of idolatry takes on typical formulation from postexilic time
– structure of the rest of the woes:

Woe! Vv. 6 9 12 15 19
Will not...? 7 13
Because 8 11 14 17

– thematically each of the woes contains a tension between initial personal reference and international
application of the explanation

2. Message of the book of Habakkuk

– the message depends greatly upon the key used for interpretation... international application so that
God appears as the Lord of history who can be understood only by means of faith (2:4)... opposition
between the arrogant and for just, the nations and Judah, will be resolved only in the last moment
– Hab 3:18 leads right into the recitation of the “magnificat” in which God casts down the proud and
lifts up the lowly

3. Practical exercises
– note and discuss the tension between individual and international application in the dialogue (1:2 –
2:4) and in the “woes” (2:6b-20).... what’s textual reasons can be given in favor of either interpretation?
– note to the points of polarity in the text: e.g., wicked-innocent, arrogant-just....

III. THE PROPHET OBADIAH AND HIS WORK

Bibliography:J. NOGALSKI, Redactional Processes in the Book of the Twelve (BZAW 218), Berlin –
New York 1993.

1. Problem of authorship and unity of the book

– various characteristics which make Obadiah quite unique as a prophet
– the smallest book of the OT... 21 verses
– the text follows closely Jer 49:7-22
– the predominant literary genre... only oracle against the nations
– in both Hebrew and Greek traditions precedes the book of Jonah
– the title calls it a vision (v.1)
– the name of the book means “servant of YHWH”, found 11 times in the OT
– a Jewish tradition identifies the Prophet with Ahab’s minister, a devoted yahwist (1Kgs 18:3-16)... but
most scholars say there is no foundation for this

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 this book pertains properly to anti-Edomite literature we know: Gen 27:39-40; Psa 137:7; Isa 34:5ff;
63:1-6; Eze 25:12-17; 35; Amo 1:11-12; Mal 1:2-4; Jer 49:7-22... Edom a Semitic nation located in the
mountains around the Valley of the Arabah... a history of war with Judah... after many years of
submission to Judah (since David, cf. 2Sam 8:13-14) Edom gained independence in the IX c., times of
Jehoram (2Kgs 8:20-22)... in 587 B.C. Edom united with Babylonian troops to accomplish the ruin of
Judah, establishing its center in Hebron... the tradition attempts to found the fraternal relationship
between Edom and Judah when it connects Edom with Esau and Esau with Jacob (Gen 25ff; 32ff)
– also thematically related to texts which announce the day of the Lord (Isa 2:6-22; Eze 7; Joel 1:15 –
2:11; Amo 5:18-20; Zeph 1:7, 14-18)
– structural indicators: the formulas “oracle of the Lord” (vv. 4, 8) and “thus says the Lord” (v.18)... 11-
fold repetition of “the day” in vv. 8-15... eight negative imperatives in vv. 12-14... a double inclusio
with the double mention of “mountain of Esau” in vv. 8-9 and 19-21.... the similarity of Oba with Jer 49
is limited to Oba 1-7 where Oba 1-4 parallels Jer 49:14-16 and Oba 5-7 parallels Jer 49:9-10.... all
leading to the following structure overall
Oba 1a: title of the book
1) Oba 1b-7 chastisement of Edom
2) Oba 8-21 the day of the Lord and establishment of his reign (of course, requires taking out
of vv. 19-20 the various later additions)

– first section formed by smaller units, vv. 1-4 and 5-7, centered on historical punishment of Edom by
the nations, closely related to Jer 49
– second section centered on 8 imperatives (vv.12-14)... remembrance of the terrible disgrace of
Jerusalem and rejoicing of Edom on that day gives reason for general punishment according to the lex
talion and gives way to the day of the Lord (v.15) when Edom is definitively punished (vv. 8-11) and all
the nations also (vv. 15-21)

2. Date of composition
– biblical anti-Edomite tradition centered fundamentally around the date of the destruction of Jerusalem
and the cruelty of the Edom taking advantage of Judah’s weakness
– Oba 10-14 and seems to refer to this, thus some authors say years following 586 B.C. most probable
composition date

3. The message of Obadiah

– the shortest book of the OT announces punishment of Edom and other nations as fulfillment of the law
of talion (v.15b, “as you have done it shall be done to you”)
– and message hard to accept in believers’ ears, and which must be revisited for people who have
experienced pardon
– but the message here is not totally one of vengeance... includes a message of hope for the holy remnant
(v.17)
– the day of the Lord is near (v.15; cf. Zep 1:7-14; Jl 4:14)... on this day a small remnant will celebrate
universal justice on Mount Zion... evildoers will perish (vv. 8-10, 16, 19-20)
– Mount Zion although victorious seems small, given the four repetitions of “Mount of Esau” or the
initial images of clefts of rock (v.3)

4. Practical exercises
– compare the text of Obadiah with Jer 49:7-22

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– gather the anti-Edomite texts and extract the two or three most important themes in them against Edom

IV. The Prophet Zephaniah and His Work

Bibliography: E. BEN ZVI, A Historical-Critical Study of the Book of Zephaniah (BZAW 198), Berlin –
New York 1991; D.L. CHRISTENSEN, Zephaniah 2,4-15. A Theological Basis for Josiah’s Program of
Political Expansion, in CBQ 46 (1984) 669-682; P.R. HOUSE, Zephaniah, a Prophetic Drama, Sheffield
1988; A.S. KAPELRUD, The Message of the Prophet Zephaniah: Morphology and Ideas, Oslo 1975; M.A.
SWEENEY, A Form-Critical Reassessment of the Book of Zephaniah, in CBQ 53 (1991) 388-408.

1. The Prophet and His Times

– the introduction (1:1) situates Zephaniah in the time of Josiah... no reason to doubt this... most
commentators admit that his preaching fits well in the first part of Josiah’s reign.... perhaps the decade
640-630 B.C.
– at this point and Judah fulfilled a century of submission to Assyria, from the time of Ahaz in 734 and
the Syro-Ephraimite war.
– the reform of Hezekiah implemented a brief restoration, and the long reign of Manasseh stands as a
grave marker for the capitol and the nation
– the customs of the foreigners who were spreading (1:8), foreign star cults, idolatry, apostasy (1:4),
habitual violence of the powerful (1:8, 11; 3:3), princes, judges, profits and priests become oppressors
(3:3-4)... leading to the atheistic saying “neither good nor evil can the Lord do” (1:12)
– the mention of various parts of the capital (second quarter, fish gate, mortar, 1:10-11) make it seem
that he preached in Jerusalem
– regarding the genealogy (1:1): an attempts to relate it to a king of Judah like Hezekiah... or an attempt
to prove Jewish ancestry in light of the name of his father which could seem problematic (Cushites are
the Ethiopians of the OT)... but this second reason seems unnecessary, because the name of the Prophet
himself is clearly yahwist, meaning something like “God protects, guards”

2. The Book of Zephaniah

– usually divide the book into three sections: a) 1:2 – 2:3 oracles against Judah; b) 2:4 – 3:8 oracles
against the nations; c) 3:9-20 oracles of salvation
– first section centered on “day of the [wrath of the] Lord” (1:7, 9, 10, 14-16, 18; 2:13)... refers to a
sacrificial banquet (zbh, 1:7) the Lord has prepared to punish sinners (1:17)... judgment of the Lord will
become a dark and terrible day... eliminating idolatry and injustice (1:4)... still time for conversion (2:1-
3)
– second section brief oracles against nations, concluding with one against a Judah (3:1-8)... collection
of Philistine cities (2:4-7), Moab and Amon (2:8-11), Ethiopia (v.12), Assyria (2:13-15)... organized
according to periods of the day (2:4, 7; 3:5)
– third section is not uniform... rather collects other themes from the book... conversion of the nations
(3:9-10)... purification of Jerusalem (3:11-13)... joy as the tyrant gives way to the king (3:14-15)...
presence of the Lord in the city (3:15-18a)... the nations open and close the section: at the beginning
with conversion, at the end with witness (3:9-10, 20)

3. The Message of Zephaniah

– centered on Jerusalem, the presence of the Lord there as source of justice and hope
– a tension between Jerusalem and the nations in this book: destruction of humanity and the earth (1:2-3)

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culminates in punishment of Judah (1:4)...
– restoration of Jerusalem (3:11-18a) is the summit of the conversion of the nations (3:9-10)
– sin is idolatry (1:4-5; 3:1-2) and injustice (1:12-13; 3:14) and arrogance (2:10; 3:11)
– the theme of a remnant, initiated by Amos, acquires in Zephaniah shades of humility and poverty,
which make possible a search for the Lord and welcoming him (2:3; 3:12-13)

4. Practical Exercises
– discuss the era in which we could place the book of Zephaniah. What arguments leads to putting him
in seventh century B.C.?
– collect the historical and theological information regarding Jerusalem

Chapter VI
EZEKIEL AND SECOND ISAIAH

I. HISTORY OF THE ERA AND ITS DIFFICULTIES

1. Fundamental historical data

– various problems of interest... first because it’s difficult to synchronize chronologically various extra-
biblical witnesses
– the figure of Nebuchadnezzar fills the period up to the arrival of Cyrus, since the successors to the
throne of Babylon lacked such political dynamic... Evil Merodach in 2Kgs 25:27-30 reigned two years
(562-560 B.C.)... his brother-in-law Nergalsharezer (Jer 39:3, 13) range for years (560-556)... finally
Nabonid (556-539) reigned until taken out by Cyrus
– nations received Cyrus well... reestablished religious and cultural traditions of each nation...
– the nation of Judah at this time is divided into three principal zones: new colonies of Egypt and
Babylonia, then the few who remained in Palestine
– those in Egypt were fleeing Babylonians and rejecting Ammonite support... the Jewish colony in
Egypt became important eventually, but now it was enough simply to survive
– with Johanan and companions, also Jeremiah against his will (Jer 41:11-18; cf. 2Kgs 25:25-26; Jer 41
– 44)
– reduction in population... not a total abandonment, but certainly instability
– Ammon intervened in the death of Gedaliah and provoked a flight of Jews to Egypt
– Edom expanded its territory through Judah including up to Hebron
– the northern kingdom directly administered as a province of Babylon... not sure about this in Judah
– despite the ruin of the capital in Temple, a popular piety sometimes brought pilgrims (Jer 41:5)
– Jewish religion lacked order it previously had, and yahwism sometimes undermined
– the northern kingdom did not help to maintain the tradition in its purity...
– some biblical texts from this era, especially lamentations (Psa 74; Isa 63:7 – 64:12)
– the political, religious and intellectual aristocracy of the people was now moved to Babylon... three
deportations: 597, 587, 582
– King Jeconiah, his family and the most influential priests and political leaders arrived in the first
deportation... they were not very numerous
– among the deportees arose a new form of religion which we now know as Judaism, based on prayer
gatherings – since the sacrificial cult of the temple was impossible – and in differentiating elements such
as circumcision and Sabbath
– the grandiosity of Babylon and the splendor of its cult provoked in nostalgia for Jerusalem... but also

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 aced some temptations for the faith
– literary and religious richness of the exile primarily because of these deportees
– priestly re-reading of the original traditions brought about the Torah
– the history gets re-written with a Deuteronomistic mentality, maintaining prophetic traditions and
adapting them to the situation
– over all a great and intends catechetical and literary achievement

2. Theological Problems
– the fact that the most critical moment of the existence of the Jewish people gets turned into one of the
most fruitful regarding its faith is due to the audacity with which the group of faithful approached the
crisis... important to look closely at some basics about prophetic preaching of the time

= a) radical monotheism
– the fall of Jerusalem and destruction of the temple was much more than a simple ruin of historical
hopes of the people
– survivors presumed it as a historical testing of the falsity of their faith... so many dogmas of the faith
were dashed: Davidic promise, covenant, the gift of the land, births into liberty, the unity/uniqueness of
God
– the splendor of Babylonian cult, despite difficulties occurring in the reign of Nabonides, made them
think that although God was once powerful and strong, in the present it seems the glory and power of
Marduk was more; Yahweh was overcome
– but prophecy maintained that it was the fault of the people, that God himself had punish them, that
Marduk was not stronger than the God of Israel, that the gods of the idols are nothing (Jer 10:3-5, 14;
Letter of Jeremiah; Eze 7:20; Isa 41:24; 44:9-20)
– such audacious preaching kept the people alive with hope at such a critical moment and opened into a
universalist vision of Judaism

= b) geographical origin of salvation

– not all Jews had hopeful thoughts at this time... some gave themselves totally to the religions around
them... others resigned themselves to mere existence... not many actually intoned the salvific action of
the Lord
– the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 certainly put a damper on any hopes... very difficult for those who
eventually were called to tell the people to return at a decisive moment (Ezr 2; Neh 7; Hag 1:2-11; Zec
5:1-5)... to animate them (Isa 40:27; 43:18; 49:14)... and insist that they leave (Isa 48:20; 52:11)
– for those still hoping, quite a problem of salvation: after 597 B.C two possibilities to grasp at it... some
people thought that Jeconiah, the king exiled in Babylon, was legitimate and that he should wait for the
restoration of the Davidic monarchy... others accepted Zedekiah as king and believed salvation resided
with those who remained in Judah.... Jeremiah clearly aligned himself with the latter (Jer 22:24-30; 24;
32).. Ezekiel with the former (Eze 17:11-15... his oracles probably from the time of Jeconiah, and he
fails to call Zedekiah a king)
– it seems Jeremiah always hoped for the salvation of those still in Palestine (Jer 42:10)
– obvious theological difficulties to deal with in the midst of this crisis
– also sociological difficulties, as various strata became evident in the community (Jer 39:10)
= c) individual retribution
– the problem of evil and pain has always been a problem for Israel and other monotheistic religions...
without some evil divinity upon whom to throw the blame, other explanations must be found

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 culpability ends up with the people because of sin in Israel... the solution offered by prophetic
preaching and Deuteronomic catechesis
– the corporate nature of the punishment, however, caused problems: a punishment of the whole nation
looks like the just man is being punished for the unjust man’s deeds. Both Jeremiah and Ezekiel had to
deal with this mentality (Jer 31:29-30; Eze 18:2). Both of these prophets spoke continually about God’s
justice in his dealings, but intellectually never quite satisfied the difficulty.
– the theme of evil affecting the just man reaches its literary culmination in the book of Job.
– also the audacious solution of a suffering servant in II-Isa... an individual whose corporate value
functions in a great and mysterious salvific way

3. Chronological note on the fall of Jerusalem

– various chronological difficulties studying this era historically
– some precise concrete dates can be discerned, even month and day... but still some difficulty putting
the whole puzzle together correctly... e.g. the dates given by Jer and Kgs follow the years of Zedekiah,
while the dates of Eze, e.g., cover the years of the deportee Jeconiah.
– E. Vogt suggests pertinent questions:
= various documents about Nebuchadnezzar show that Jerusalem submitted March 16, 597, i.e.,
four weeks before the beginning of the new year (April 13, 597). For various reasons more than four
weeks passed before Zedekiah began to reign and the deportation took place.
= Zedekiah therefore began to reign once the new year already had begun. The year 597/6 was
still incomplete and, therefore, considered as “the year of ascension to the throne”; his “first year” began
in April of 596. In fact the year of ascension to the throne of Zedekiah is mentioned in Jer 49:34.
= but this way of counting years did not serve for the deportees, for whom 597/6 was the first
year of the deportation. This difference in numeration shows up in various OT places. The following
synoptic calendar of E. Vogt helps to interpret the dates found in biblical texts:

* April 597-April 596: the 8th year of Nebuchadnezzar (2Kgs 24:12), year Zedekiah takes his
throne (Jer 49:34), and 1st year of the deportation
* April 596-April 595: 9th year of Nebuchadnezzar, first of Zedekiah, 2nd of the deportation
* April 588-April 587: 17th year of Nebuchadnezzar, 9th of Zedekiah (according to 2Kgs 25:1,
the siege of Jerusalem began January 5, 587), 10th of the deportation
* April 587-April 586: 18th year of Nebuchadnezzar, 10th of Zedekiah, 11th of the deportation
* April 586-April 585: 19th year of Nebuchadnezzar (2Kgs 25:8 fall of Jerusalem), 11th year of
Zedekiah (2Kgs 25:2 [07/18/586]), 12th of the deportation (Eze 33:21 [the fugitive arrives
January 5, 585])
* April 573-April 572: 32nd year of Nebuchadnezzar, 25th of the deportation (Eze 40:1), 14th after
the fall of Jerusalem (Eze 40:1)
* therefore the siege of Jerusalem lasts from January 5, 587 to July 18, 586, i.e., 1 ½ years.
* therefore the first prophetic activity of Ezekiel goes from July 31, 593 to July 18, 586, i.e. 7
years
* the paralysis of Ezekiel and his silence goes from July 18, 586 to January 5, 585, i.e. 25 weeks
* the date of the fall of Jerusalem appears in Jer 52:4. Most scholars believe that it happened in
587, but in order to maintain this date four biblical dates must be corrected.
II. THE PROPHET EZEKIEL AND HIS WORK

Bibliography: W. BRÜGGEMANN, The Prophetic Imagination, Santander 1986; TH. CARLEY, Ezekiel Among

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the Prophets, London 1975; M.A. CORRAL, Ezekiel’s Oracles against Tyre. Historical Reality and
Motivations (Biblica et Orientalia 46), Roma 2002; J. GALAMBUSH, Jerusalem in the Book of Ezekiel.
The City as Yahweh’s Wife (SBL Diss. Series 130), Atlanta/GA 1992; A. HURVITZ, A Linguistic Study of
the Relationship between the Priestly Source and the Book of Ezekiel, Paris 1982; P. JOYCE, Divine
Initiative and Human Response in Ezekiel, Sheffield 1989; R.W. KLEIN, Ezekiel: The Prophet and His
Message, Columbia 1988; J.E. LAPSLEY, Can These Bones Live? The Problem of the Moral Self in the
Book of Ezekiel (BZAW 301), Berlin – New York 2000; J. LUST, Ezekiel and His Book, Louvain 1986;
L.J. MCGREGOR, The Greek Text of Ezekiel, Atlanta/GA 1985; M. MULDER, Ezekiel. The Old
Testament in Syriac according to the Peshitta Version, Leiden 1993; H.V.D. PARUNAK, Structural
Studies in Ezechiel, diss. Harvard 1978; T. RENZ, The Rhetorical Function of the Book of Ezekiel (VT.S
76), Leiden 1999; M.F. ROOKER, Biblical Hebrew in Transition. The Language of the Book of Ezekiel
(JSQT.S 90), Sheffield 1990; S.S. TUELL, The Law of the Temple in Ezekiel 40-48 (HSM 49),
Cambridge 1992; F. VAN DIJKS-HEMMES, The Metaphorization of Woman in the Prophetic Speech. An
Analysis of Ez 23, in VT 43 (1993) 162-170; H. VAN DYKE PARUNAK, “The Literary Architecture of
Ezechiel’s Mar’ot ‘elohîm”, JBL 99 (1980) 61-74; J.W. WEVERS – D. FRAENKEL, Studies in the Text
Histories of Deuteronomy and Ezekiel (MSU 26), Göttingen 2003; K.L. WONG, The Idea of Retribution
in the Book of Ezekiel (VT.S 87), Leiden 2001.

1. The Priest Prophet

– among the exiles of 597 traveling with the king Jeconiah, there was the young man and Ezekiel, son of
a priest of Jerusalem named Buzi (Eze 1:3)
– Ezekiel received his prophetic vocation one day during exile by the river Chebar (1: 3)... fifth day of
the fourth month of fifth year of the deportation of king Jeconiah, i.e., July 31, 593... the text mentions a
mysterious 30th year (Eze 1:1) which scholars believe refers to his age at the time of the vocation. This
means he would’ve been born the same year as Josiah’s reform, 622. The last dated oracle that we have
in the book corresponds to April 26, 571 (Eze 29:17). Everything appears to be between 593-571
therefore.
– 2 steps in his preaching, divided by notice of the destruction of Jerusalem in 586
– first part focuses on hard message explaining the exile as chastisement for sin of Judah, and
announcing a still greater punishment
– the second part focuses on a message of hope after 586, reconstruction which the Lord will cause
– some Priestly themes are evident, such as purity or holiness (22:26; 24:13-14) and interest in the
temple... when he is not allowed to mourn the sudden death of his wife, he understands this to have
symbolic connection to the destruction of the sanctuary (24:15-16, 21).
– regarding Ezekiel’s personality, psychologists have had a heyday... visions regarding the hand of the
Lord (1:1 – 3:15; 3:16, 22; 8 – 11; 37:1-14; 40 – 48), also various actions lead them to think about
psychic pathologies: eating a book (3:3), losing his speech on two occasions (3:26; 24:17), remaining 80
days lying on one side or the other (4:48), dancing (6:11), clapping (6:11; 21:9), shaving his head (5:1),
packing his bags and leaving in front of everybody with his face covered (12:3-7)

2. The book of Ezekiel

a) chronology or theology?
– the book lacks defined historical contours, a clear geographical location, defined audience
– but most peculiar when compared with other profits is the abundance of dates and an almost strict
order among them (except those marked by an asterisk* below)

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 = events begin with the deportation of Jeconiah/Jehoiachin.
= the prophet’s vocation takes place fifth year of the first to deportation (593 B.C.; cf. Gloss on
1:2)
= the vision of sin in the temple takes place sixth year of deportation (8:1)
= seventh year is the date of reflection about Judah’s rebellion (20:1)
= ninth year the vision of the pot (24:1)
= 10 year the first oracle against Egypt (29:1)
= 11th year oracle against Tyre (*26:1) and two against the Pharoah (30:20; 31:1)
= 12 year and Oracle against Egypt (32:1) and the arrival of the messenger from Jerusalem
(33:21)
[a gap of 13 or so years]
= 25th year a description of the new temple and the new land (40:1)
= 27th year an oracle about the conquest of Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar (*29:17)
– no reason to doubt the dates, but we do not know exactly to which passage they refer in every case...
perhaps the book is ordered according to a theological criterion more than a chronological one, and we
don’t know exactly how to interpret the theological criterion.
– some indication in the fact that the oracles against the nations (chapters 25 – 32) appear between the
announcement of and then the actual arrival of the messenger from Jerusalem (24:25-27; 33:21-22)...
also the fact that the historical presentation of God’s plan (chapters 12, 16, 20) clearly transcends
chronological time

b) structure of the text

– clearly divided into three sections
– chapters 1 – 24 dominant are oracles against Judah and Jerusalem
– chapters 25 – 32 oracles against the nations
– chapters 33 – 48 dominant are oracles of salvation for the new Israel... chapters 38 – 39 have an
eschatological character dedicated to mythical enemies Gog and Magog... chapters 40 – 48 situate the
new Israel around the new temple
– scholars usually note some texts which seemed to be misplaced: 33:23-33; 34:1-10, 17-19 seemed to
belong in the first part of the book... 35:1 – 36:15 contain oracles against the nations... 11:17-20; 17:22-
25; 20:40-44 contain oracles of salvation
– in general the oracles of the first part pertain to the era before destruction of Jerusalem and those of the
third part to the era afterwards

c) formation of the book

– a complicated history... moreso than in the other prophets, this book has undergone much
reinterpretation... most evident in the chronological structure given
– presentation of the prophet as a watchman probably original in Eze 33, but combined with discussion
of Eze 18 and picked up again in 3:17 as a general category by which to interpret the whole ministry of
this prophet
– the placement of the oracles against nations (25 – 32) interrupting the literary sequence noted above,
reinterprets the material
– the nations are accused for reasons different than Israel, generally for vengeance and arrogance against
Israel, and judged before the restoration of Israel with similar images (sword, desolation)... and for the
same purpose (knowing he is the Lord, 25:11, 17)... curious that oracles against Gog and Magog (38 –
39) are not included in this section, rather placed explicitly attacking Jerusalem restored and pardoned

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– perhaps because of so much reinterpretation, the book with difficulty was admitted into the Jewish
canon... Jewish leaders united at Jamnia at the end of the first century A.D. thought it dangerous that
Ezekiel had seen the throne of YHWH (Eze 1 and 10) outside of Palestine.... the reading of this text was
prohibited to those younger than 30 years and was never read in the synagogue... also contradictions
discovered between the Torah of Ezra excepted by Judaism and some details of Eze 40 – 48.
– the existence of apocalyptic texts already recognized, such as Zechariah into Daniel helped in
accepting Ezekiel

3. Literary style of Ezekiel

– very personal... abundance of images: the prophet as a watchman/sentinel (33:2; 3:17); false prophets
as painters of a wall which will tumble (13:8-16); Jerusalem as a pot (11:3; 24:1-14); the kingdoms of
Judah and Israel as sticks (37:15-28); the image of wine used in chapters 15, 17, 19; the sword in 11, 21;
cedars in 17, 31... a burned vine represents Jerusalem (15); the story of a girl abandoned (16) or two
sisters (23) explains the history of this people; figures of the eagle and cedar (17,31)...
– great visions and strength... the glory of the Lord (1:1-3:15; 8 – 11; 40 – 48)... the dry bones which get
put back together (37:1-14)
– the image of God’s hand as a way of speaking about his action (1:1-3:15; 3:16, 22; 8 – 11; 14:9; 37:1-
14; 40 – 48)
– [note earlier references to the hand of the Lord in 1Kgs 18:46; 2Kgs 3:15; Isa 11; Jer 15:17]
– use of juridical language... not the same as forensic language of Amos; no legal plaint (rîb, except in
the addition 44:24), nor judgement (dîn), nor other previous prophetic terms.... rather it is priestly
language since Ezekiel is a prophet-priest... responding to questions of purity or holiness (14; 18; 33:1-
20) [specific: 4:14; 6:13; 8:6; 18:5-7; 36:17; 44:23-27]... some similarity with Lev 13 – 16... some
casuistic approach, studying a particular case as in 18:1ff.... resulting in priestly judgments, and just or
unjust action (13:1ff; 36:17)
– particular literary formulas:... “son of man” probably underlining the contrast between human creature
(lowly, connected to the earth, mortal) and divine majesty (2:1 and 93 other occurrences)... “know that I
am Lord” (“recognition formula”, 6:7, 13, etc.) explaining the purpose of God’s actions at times, 54
times in this book..... “I, the Lord, have spoken” (5:13, 17; 17:24; 37:14)....... “the word of the Lord
came to me” occurs many times
– controversies in which the prophet dialogues with his listener, real or fictitious (12:21-28; 16:44; 18;
20:32; 26:2; 28:2; 29:3; 33:10-11, 17-20; 36:13)

4. A reading of some texts

= a) the vocation: 1:1 – 3:15

– scholars say there is much editing done to this account... especially an attempt to explain mysterious
aspects by relating them to details of the temple... e.g., identifying the living creatures with cherubim
covering the arc.... or marking the absence of God’s glory from the temple with a procession
– 5 elements to the vision:
1) 1:5-12: living creatures with four wings
2) 1:13-21: fire
3) 1:22-26a: firmament or platform with throne
4) 1:26b-27a: human figure on the throne
5) 1:27b-28a: splendor like a rainbow
conclusion: “Such was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the LORD.” (1:28b)

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– the vocation (auditory and mandatory/mission)
auditory: 1:28c – 2:2 “I heard a voice.... and I heard him speaking to me.”

mandatory: 2:3 – 3:11 (three parts and return of the deportees)

1) announce the sending
a) 2:3-5: sending a prophet to a rebellious people
b) 2:6-7: don’t be afraid; you will say my words
2) prophetic ordination
a) 2:8-10: eat the book I give you which contains lamentation and woes
b) 3:1-3: eating the book and sweet flavor
3) actual commissioning
a) 3:4-9: order to go and speak; rebels will not obey; be strong
b) 3:10-11: order to receive the words and speak them to the deportees

return of the deportees (3:12-15)

– the audacity to communicate his vocation by means of a vision of the glory of God caused problems
with later Judaism... just as it did with his own contemporaries... perhaps this explains the repeated
qualification of people as rebellious and the need to be strong before them (cf. Jer 1:17-19)
– Ezekiel sees a great vision containing what is above and below; receives his prophetic vocation; has to
announce oracles which are difficult; knows in advance that he will have great resistance... no surprise
he is overwhelmed by all this (3:15)
– Ezekiel looks pretty passive, since all the initiative seems to be divine
– the Lord manifests himself wherever he wants, even in exile
– still Ezekiel does act as an historical witness to the divine action and faithfulness throughout history of
Israel (e.g., 16)

= b) the glory of the Lord abandons the temple: 10 – 11

– the abandonment of the temple by God is the conclusion of a narration which begins with profanation
of the temple in Chapter 8
– scholars say retouching of the text has made it one of the most difficult in the OT
– basic (original) structure:
first scene: punishment of Jerusalem (10:2, 7, connected to previous chapter)
second scene: the glory of the Lord abandons the temple (10:4, 18-19; 11:23)
conclusion of the entire vision: the vision ends and gets told (11:24-25)
– chastisement of the city ends once the innocent are marked and saved (Chapter 9)
– instrument of chastisement is fire, although the actual execution is not described
– the reality illuminated the very succinct notice of the prophet (cf. 2Kgs 25:9; Lam 2:3-4; 4:11; Jer
39:8)
– the account answers the pressing question: “how is it that the temple of the Lord could be
destroyed?”... it is because the glory of God had previously abandoned it because of the profanation in
Chapter 8.
– the glory departs along a linear track: from the inner court to the atrium to the Eastern door and to the
Mount of olives
– later on people have to ask what happened with the arc upon the destruction of the temple... the
procession of the glory gets identified with the procession of the arc in its corresponding carriage

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 = other texts of Ezekiel: 4 – 24
– some examples of his first three symbolic actions (4:1 – 5:4a) and the end of his first prophetic activity
c. 24)

+ initial symbolic actions

– he describes three moments of siege in Jerusalem and later explains with an oracle
– the beginning (4:1-2): engraved the siege on a brick. 8 imperative phrases and three words in each
phrase. Four describe preparation of siege, following four the attack itself... with an addition to describe
the severity
– hunger in the besieged city (4:9-11): six items which lack as a result of the siege. A critical moment.
(Also, Jeremiah is about to die... Jer 37:21)
– an element about purity during the exile is added (4:12-15) [seems to be added because of the
difference of content, and form... such as lack of an introduction]
– the inhabitants during the siege (5:1-2): Ezekiel has to shave his head and split the hair into three
parts. The shaving is a harsh action (cf. 2Sam 10:4), symbolically remembering the metaphor of Isa
7:20. The fate of the three groups of hair represents the fate of the inhabitants
– explanation of the three symbolic actions (5:4b-17): revealing that Jerusalem is the city meant (4b-
5a)... announcement of divine justice and an oracle (5b-6a) and a judgement (8-9, 14-15)... the dignity of
Jerusalem has depreciated, people not fulfilling with God or one another necessary commandments...
therefore she is to be depreciated among the nations.... difficult for a priest to hear this from a prophet,
so vv.13-17 make it clear that the Lord has spoken it

+ finale of the first prophetic activity: Ez 24

– a two-part structure revealed by the same formula, “the word of the Lord came to me” (vv.1-14 and
15-27)

– first part: the parable of a cook... occurs before the siege of Jerusalem (vv.1-2)
– structure of first part: the first parable (vv. 3-5) followed by the interpretation (vv. 9-10); another
author extends the parable (11-12) and interpreted (13-14)...... vv. 6-8 a later insertion
– Ezekiel begins as a popular troubadour singing a joyful “song of a cook”.... the listeners who would
know the refrain which said proudly “Jerusalem is the pot, we are the meat” (cf.11:3)
– they were sure to return to Jerusalem, because the temple would not be touched, and the song could
have ended this way (cf. Isa 22:13)
– they never would’ve expected the explanation of vv. 9-10: God set the fire...
– continuing the parable (11-12) a new author does not try to destroy the meat inside, but to destroy the
pot, representing the fate of the city... explained because of a state of uncleanness (13-14)

– second part: historical reference is the final moment of the siege (15-27)
– vv. 15-20 introduce two oracles, one for all Israel (21-24), the other for Ezekiel (25-27)
– strange that at the arrival of the fugitives it is announced that the prophet will be able to speak (v.27)
since it has not been said that he would be mute.
– the fugitive does not arrive on the day which Jerusalem is taken; this would contradict the date in
33:21... attempts at solutions... most simple is to suppose that 3: 25-26 got moved
– the death of his wife serves as a sign of the conquest of Jerusalem... the same day the city is taken...
the prophet’s passion is symbolic therefore
– for seven years he announced the fate to his fellow citizens, but they did not believe it... now his

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passion points to the actual fact... for six months he lives personally the destruction of Jerusalem... his
passion concludes in 33:21-22 upon hearing the news, and his mouth is opened to speak...
– from this point on he will speak of hope

5. The message of Ezekiel

– 2 specific eras divided by the fall of Jerusalem
– first one intends to justify the punishment suffered because of Jerusalem’s sin (and what must still be
punished). Only the just man will be saved (ch. 18)
– the second part announces salvation... such a chastisement will never reoccur
– in opposition to the predominant mentality of the time: euphoric and theologically sure (cf. 11:3; 12:20
2, 27)... or despairing and resigned on the other hand (37:11)
– the prophet’s job is to announce approaching danger (normally an enemy) and offer possibility of
preparation... including the possibility of conversion (ch. 18)
– the prophet will be held to account for how he fulfills his duties (33:6, 8, 9)
– traditional yahwistic conceptions:
= God’s holiness transcendent (glory) does not mix with sin, so he leaves the city
= his Holiness also causes restoration so that his name is not scoffed at among the nations (20:14,
22; 25:3,8; 26:2; 28:2; 35:10; 36:3-6, 20; etc.)
= idolatry: the profanation of the temple is the apex of sin, denounced in an allegorical way (cc.
16, 23) but also directly (cc. 8, 20)... this explains the total abandonment by the Lord and justifies the
disaster.
= the covenant is the basis of the relationship between the Lord and his people... the two are
connected so that a renewal in the relationship requires a renewal of the covenant, and vice versa... even
to the point of putting the covenant into hearts (16:60; 36:26-27; 37:26)
= the law – especially the priestly version of it – sustains the covenant and the life of the people
(11:12; 18:9, 17, 27; 20:13; etc.)...
= a fundamental theological change: the temple in the middle of Jerusalem was the privileged
place of relationship with the Lord (8–11)... now the Lord transcends geography... leading to a future of
a new order with a new city and temple (40 – 42) to which his glory will return (43:1-5)... a reunification
of kingdoms (37:15ff)... one pastor, David (34:23-24)

6. Practical exercises
– collect and put into order texts mentioning chronology... read some texts from his first prophetic
activity... remember there is an interval between the announcement of the destruction of Jerusalem and
its fulfillment... false prophecy happens at this point (cc. 13 – 14)... try to match historical allegories of
cc. 16 and 20 with the realities behind them... make a list of the sins Jerusalem is accused of in c.22.
– collect all of the symbolic actions of the book and allegories employed... consider their theology
– consider in chapters 18, 22, 34 questions of purity and themes of justice... it is impossible to
understand the profanation of the temple and city without seeing their connection to justice
– read some of the oracles of salvation from the second prophetic activity... cc. 34, 36 – 37... collect
repeated words or phrases, note the tense of the verbs, the subject and object of actions... showing the
formal and thematic division of each chapter

III. SECOND ISAIAH (Isa 40 – 55)

Bibliography: B.W. ANDERSON, “Exodus Typology in Second Isaiah”, in Israel’s Prophetic Heritage, Fs.

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MUILENBURG (London 1962) 177-195; W.A.M. BEUKEN, “Mishpat, The First Servant Song and its
Context”, VT 22 (1972) 1-30; D.J.A. CLINES, I, He, We, They: A Literary Approach to Isaiah 53,
Sheffield 1976, 19832; M.C.A. KORPEL – J.C. DE MOOR, The Structure of Classical Hebrew Poetry.
Isaiah 40-55 (OTS XLVI), Leiden 1998; A. LAATO, The Servant of JHWH and Cyrus. A
Reinterpretation of the Exilic Messianic Programme in Isaiah 40-55 (CB.OT 35), Stockholm 1992;
M.C. LIND, “Monotheism, Power and Justice: a Study in Isaiah 40-55”, CBQ 46 (1984) 432-446; R.F.
MELUGIN, “The Servant, God’s Call, and the Structure of Isaiah 40-48”, SBLSP Annual Meeting 1991
(Atlanta 1991) 21-39; T.N.D. METTINGER, A Farewell to the Servant Songs. A Critical Examination of
an Exegetical Axiom, Lund 1983; H.H. ROWLEY, The Servant of the Lord and Other Essays on the OT,
Oxford 1952, 19652; N.H. SNAITH, Isaiah 40-66: Study of the Teaching of Second Isaiah and its
Consequences, in Studies in the Second Part of Isaiah, Leiden 1977; C. STUHLMÜLLER, “Deutero-Isaiah:
Major Transitions in the Prophet’s Theology and in Contemporary Scholarship”, CBQ 42 (1980) 1-29;
R.N. WHYBRAY, Thanksgiving for a Liberated Prophet: An Interpretation of Isaiah Ch. 53, Sheffield
1978; ID., The Second Isaiah, Sheffield 1983; P. WILCON – PATTON-WILLIAMS, “The Servant Songs in
Deutero-Isaiah”, JSOT 42 (1988) 79-102.

1. The Times of the Prophet

– the exiles in Babylon dreamed from the start of a quick return to their land, but this hope was
undermined eventually
– a hatred began to grow for Babylon (cf. Jer 51:34-35; Psa 137; Isa 13; 21:5-10) among the exiles
– gatherings happened for prayer, chant the Psalms, remembering their ancient traditions
– eventually the majority succeeded in getting used to the situation, even losing hope about a return
– Jer 29 tells them to settle in to this land... at the same time it still holds out the return (Jer 29:10ff)
– Cyrus arises with political intelligence, and permits religious liberty... but many didn’t have the desire
to return by this point, even if they understood that the Lord would fulfill his plan for them through
Cyrus... few began the journey back
– still the prophet spoke his message of hope and return to the land
– the opening phrase of this section, “comfort, comfort” has given to the entire section the term “book of
consolation”.

2. The person of Second Isaiah

– we know nothing about him... hidden for 25 centuries under the name of Isaiah, the great prophet of
the 8th c. B.C.
– he would’ve preached slightly after Ezekiel... one can sense a certain disillusionment in the spirit of
the exiled community
– II-Isa knows the fate of the exiles, their despair and lack of faith (Isa 40:27; 41:10; 49:14ff), their
murmurings against the plan of God (45:9)
– he knows about the government of Cyrus (41:5-25; 44:1, 28; 45:1)
– opportunity now to contemplate the fall of Babylon (47:1; 48:14)
– all of this leads scholars to say that he preached near the end of the exile

3. The literary work of Second Isaiah

– a warm, majestic, passionate style... repetitions (40:1; 43:11; 48:11; 43:25; 48:15; 51:9, 12, 17; 57:6,

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14; 55:1; 51:10)
– various epithets for the name of the Lord (42:5; 43:15; 45:18; 43:14; 44:6, 24; 47:3)
– “all flesh” (40:5,6; 46:16, 23, 24; 49:26), “isles” (40:15; 41:1,5; 42:4, 10, 12, 15), “ends of the Earth”
(40:28; 41:5, 9; 42:10; 43:6; 45:22)
– the work divides into two unequal parts (40 – 48; 49 – 55)... so that some people say even these two
parts are written by two different authors
– various homogenous units within these divisions... e.g., the cycle of Cyrus (44:24 – 48:12)... the
servant songs within 49 – 55
– literary genres: oracles of salvation (41:8-13, 14-16), controversies (40:12-17, 21-24, 27-31), plaints
(especially polemical ones against other gods 41:1-5, 21-29; 43:8-13), eschatological hymns

4. The message of second Isaiah

– the principal theme of second Isaiah is, without doubt, the restoration of Israel, the end of exile
– themes about the future through which this main theme is carried: monotheism, second Exodus, the
servant

a) monotheism

– the one God is the theological base of second Isaiah’s hope

– the monotheistic confession par excellence: “there is no God except the Lord”
– at a moment when they thought the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem meant victory over their God
– also when magnificence of Babylonian worship caused nostalgia great... and this same cult tempted
them to make it their own
– boldness of Isaiah to preach the uniqueness of God at this moment... that the other gods are not really
true
– as proof he brings to mind creative activity and dominion over history (40:27-31; 41:21-29; 44:6-8;
46:1-7, 8-13)
– authentic hope in God the Creator (43:18-19), the Redeemer of Israel (41:14; 43:14; 44:6, 24; 47:4;
48:17; 49:7, 20; 54:5, 8)
– a monotheistic confession, yet still a universalistic understanding (40:5; 42:10; 45:14; cf. Gen 12:3)...
Israel mediator of salvation as were Abraham, Moses and David

b) the second exodus

– while imagining salvation, of course the tradition of the exodus will come to mind (43:16-17; 51:9...
passages which refer at the same time to creation)
– an Exodus structure: in order to take out his people, the Lord or his word goes forth (42:13; 55:11)...
preceding the people (52:12)... he liberates from slavery and forced labor (40:1-2; 42:7; 47:6; 49:9;
51:14; 52:2, 4)... the way is sure and rapid, the desert changes into Paradise (40:3; 41:17-19; 43:19-20;
44:3-4; 55:1)... the word of the Lord will conquer (40:8; 55:11... note the inclusio)... finally the people
enter (44:22; 52:8; 55:11)... Jerusalem is the center (41:27; 51:17-52:6; 54)

c) the servant songs

– very complicated questions about the servant

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– 21 times the word “servant” appears in Isaiah 40 – 55 (always singular except in 54:17)... 14 times
applies directly or indirectly to Israel... seven times seems to allude to an individual (42:1; 44:26; 49:5,
6; 50:10; 52:13; 53:11) in such a way that it seems to preclude a collectivity... sometimes the servant is
actually contrasted with the people (49:5-6; 53:8)
– 4 songs ordinarily identified: 42:1-4; 49:1-6; 50:4-9; 52:13 – 53:12
– debate falls into three categories: the songs as complete units perhaps separate from their context... the
interpretation most objective of the songs... the doctrine of the songs

= existence of the songs as units

– distinctions between the songs and their contexts...
~ difference in behavior: the servant Israel is a disobedient and sinful nation, chastised by the
prophets (40:2; 42:24-25; 43:25-28), blind and deaf (42:18-20)... in the songs the servant has great merit,
holiness, docility (50:4-6; 53:7), innocense (53:4-5, 9) and expiatory martyrdom (53:10)
~ difference in mission: Israel has a passive mode of mission as a witness (43:12; 44:8) when
liberation makes surrounding nations see God’s power... the anonymous servant has them at definition of
teaching which includes struggle, he even offering his life to fulfill the divine plan, a mission within the
people as a covenant to the people (42:6), which makes it difficult to identify this servant with Israel
~ difference in eschatological perspective: the prophet announces restoration in Palestine of the
nation, without treating conversion or moral improvement... the songs strictly distinguish spiritual and
political points of view

= origin of the songs and identity of the servant

– remember the confusion of the eunuch of Candace in Acts 8:26-40... to whom does the song refer?
– almost impossible to give a definitive answer to questions of authorship and the identity of the servant
– some commentators think that the author of the songs must be different than II-Isa; others say the
contrary
– in general four opinions about identity of the servant:
1) Israel.... a collective interpretation based on several uses as a collective... difficulty most
significant is the contraposition of Israel – servant in some places (49:5-6; 53:8).... to overcome this
difficulty commentators suggested that the servant is not all Israel, but rather a faithful and select group
2) a historical person... many individuals suggested, but most important among them is the
prophet himself... in which case the fourth song would have been composed by a disciple
3) a corporate personality... a complex figure which the previous options cannot cover... it is not
necessary to identify a concrete person... there are many innocent people who suffer for others... just as a
king personifies his people, these people incarnate the authentic Israel [thus this theory ends up being
quite similar to #1]
4) the Messiah... a theory which does not contradict the prior ones...the NT employs the figure of
the servant (Mat 12:18-21; 8:17; Luk 22:37; Act 8:32-33; etc.)... but text of Isa itself does not seem to
identify the servant with the Messiah explicitly
– Poggemeyer’s opinion is to combine #1 and #3... the genuine Israel is the faithful remnant and thus the
servant of the Lord... but the text remains ambiguous which means we do not have to definitively
capture the individual-corporate dynamic.... let meaning flow where it will in each case (stand in this
mystery of the text... don’t force a definition where the text does not allow you to do so... even as you try
your best to uncover the mystery)

= content of the songs

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 ~ first song (Isa 42:1-4, 5-9)
– Isa 42:1-4 is usually what authors call the first servant song... sometimes they include vv. 5-9. The
Lord introduces his servant as somebody chosen, clothed with his spirit (cf. Isa 11:2), given a mission to
set up righteousness in the nations, his will (cf. 2Kgs 17:26-27)... he will not break the weak, nor will he
be broken... patient endurance
– vv.5-9 seem to fit poorly since here the Lord directs the servant (as in Psa 2) rather than speaking
about the servant... he receives a vocation like the one received by Jeremiah, mediator of a covenant,
who stipulations he must announce

~ second song (Isa 49:1-6, 7, 8-12)

– the servant speaks, presents his credentials, remembers his vocation
– at v.5 reproduces the Lord’s words of direction
– the introductory phrase “thus says the Lord” throughout the rest of the verses make it difficult to
determine the end of the song
– if the mission of the servant begins in Israel and extends to the rest of the world (v.6) it is difficult to
equate the servant with the people of Israel
– an echo in this song of the patriarchal tradition of Jacob in Genesis: his election from the womb (Gen
25:23), his struggle with God for a name (Gen 32:29; 35:10), his work for a delayed reward (Gen 30 –
31), his return with the children and family (Gen 31,33)
– the outline of a prophetic vocation: primordial call, destined for the word, objection, divine
confirmation, announcement of the mission... paradox in the apparent failure in front of the nation... the
Lord comforts him announcing that he will receive glory and will be light and salvation for the whole
world

~ third song (Isa 50:4-7, 8-9, 10-11)

– the servant appears as a faithful disciple of the Lord, a victim of the evil of men
– he has characteristics of a prophet and sage
– his tongue speaks with the Lord indicates
– his teaching consoles the downtrodden (cf. 42:3)
– he accepts his mission without resistance (as a silent lamb, Jer 11:19)
– the mention of the “Lord God” (v.9) parallel to the previous two times suggests extending the song
until v.9, despite the triumphal tone
– the repetition of the word “servant” and mention of the Lord (v.10) encourages us to further extend the
song through verse 11

~ fourth song (Isa 52:13 – 53:12)

– the most exemplary poem of the servant, patient and glorified, martyred and exalted
– by means of the voice, and also the tense of verbs we can distinguish three parts:
a) introduction (52:13-15)
b) body of the poem (53:1-9)
c) epilogue (53:10-12)
– the servant remains unnamed
[– some textual difficulties (52:15; 53:3; 53:8,9)]

– the body consists of two sections: vv. 1-6; 7-9

– in the first section a group manifests its admiration in first-person plural voice before an innocent

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sufferer
– in the second section the group disappears, but the description of the mystery continues, with the
speaker of the message expressing the participation of the group, and giving testimony of profound
transformation... describing the innocence of the persecuted one, as well as the salvific sense of his
martyrdom

– the third part proclaims the exaltation of the servant

– Time and space opens to a universal victory
– God himself begins to speak in verse 11

5. The Servant in the NT

– not an exact science, not totally able to prove that this figure underlies some of the passages... but
some are clearer
– the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan before his mission remembers the presentation of the servant in the
first song, employing Isa 42:1, fused with Psa 2:7 to present Jesus
– in the synoptics predictions of the passion conclude with a partial failure of Jesus in Galilee and
inaugurate a new period in his ministry... Jesus like the servant in the second song announces that he
must suffer
– Transfiguration remembers the baptism, as Isa 49:1-9 remembers Isa 42:1-4
– the hitting and striking of the Gospels are a realization of the third song... echoes also in Luc 9:51 and
Rom 8:33-34
– the fourth song seems to predict Jesus’ own words about the purpose for his life and death
– certainly the early Christian church saw in his death and resurrection a fulfillment perfect of the
function of the servant

6. Reading Exercises
– read the servant songs underlining words or phrases which seem to be echoes of the book of Jeremiah
– read the fourth song, establishing its structure according to the tense of verbs and their subjects, also
comparing characteristics of universalism at the beginning and end of the song
– throughout this book, collect characteristics of false gods and the true God

Chapter VII
ERA OF RESTORATION AND THE LAST PROPHETS

I. THE HISTORICAL PERIOD

– common opinion would hold that all the remaining prophets belong to the post-exilic era
– very difficult to establish a chronological order among them however
– sometimes the chronological difference may be as small as the redactional period of the books
– more useful than chronology is to look at key themes relating to politics and religion of the time

1. Cyrus (550-530), founder of the Persian Empire

a) the figure of Cyrus

– in the last years of the Babylonian Empire the situation was so disastrous that Cyrus was even received
as a liberator in Babylon (538 B.C.).

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– with him was born the Persian Empire, characterized by a warrior spirit, however also comprehensive
and tolerant (something it received from spirituality of Zoroastrianism)... great respect for religion and
and customs of subordinate peoples.... did not insist on imposing one religion
– the utensils for the temple which have been taken by Nebuchadnezzar in 598 are ordered returned
– an edict is promulgated in the first year of Cyrus in favor of the exiles (Ezr 6:3-5 [the original?]; cf.
2Chr 36:23ff and Ezr 1:2-4 which scholars see as Jewish reinterpretations of the original]
– perhaps the emperor’s interest in the Jewish people is a result of some of the key positions political
they held now in his kingdom... 50 years later, for example, Ezra and Nehemia will be influential there
– 3 parts to the edict: a) returned the utensils of the temple; b) permission to return to the land; c)
permission to reconstruct the temple (Ezr 1:5, 7-11)

b) Sheshbazzar and the return of the first exiles

– the mission of Sheshbazzar, a significant Babylonian functionary, is obscure at points related to the
reconstruction of the temple
– the Aramaic source used by the chronicler says he laid the foundation of the temple (Ezr 5:16), but the
chronicler himself says is Zerubbabel did (Ezr 3:6-11; cf.Zec 4:9)... perhaps Sheshbazzar was not Jewish
and for this reason the chronicler tried to reduce his influence and increase that of Zerubbabel.
– it does not appear that the permission to return produced a massive influx of exiles... it is estimated
that in 522 the land of Judah did not have over 20,000 inhabitants, and 75 years later Jerusalem will still
be in ruins (Neh 7:4)
– some large droughts reduced the available resources for those trying to rebuild (Hag 1)
– possibly Sheshbazzar limited himself to returning the utensils of the temple (although we don’t know
where they were left) with an offering, and also to restoring the altar of Holocaust (or incense)...
however, both Haggai and Zechariah mention Zerubbabel and Joshua, rather than Sheshbazzar.

2. Darius (522-485) and the reconstruction of the temple

a) Zerubbabel under Darius and the second temple

– Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses who eliminated other aspirants to the throne, even his
brother Smerdis
– Cambyses had to face a series of rebellions in his last years
– relationship with Egypt was turbulent
– in 522, returning from a campaign in order to stifle a rebellion by another brother he died near Mount
Carmel. Up until 521 there were five years of rebellion, lack of peace.
– it took Darius a couple years to fight for his throne, solidify it...
– the sixth month of the second year of Darius (520; Hag 1:1) Zerubbabel began his mission in
Palestine, supported by the prophet Haggai
– grandson of Jeconiah, and therefore a descendent of David, he is named local administrator, in line
with the tolerant political approach of Persia... a group of repatriots accompany him
– beginning with the seventh month he reestablished the altar and holocausts, although the temple did
not yet have its foundations
– the feast of Tabernacles is celebrated in the midst of opposition from people of the land (Ezr 3:3; 4:4)
– reconstruction work is paralyzed briefly until 516
– 24th day of the ninth month Haggai pronounces his blessing upon the future temple and Zerubbabel
(Hag 2:20-23)
– 2 months later Zechariah praises Zerubbabel in his visions (Zec 4:7ff)

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– however, November of 518 (fourth year of Darius) Zechariah does not mention him
– the year 515 (sixth of Darius; Ezr 5:15) the temple is initiated
– in the spring the Pasch is celebrated (Ezr 6:15), and Zerubbabel still is not mentioned... perhaps he was
victim of some of the political upheaval around 520 (cf. Zec 6:9-15)
– many internal and external difficulties for Zerubbabel reconstructing the Temple:... shortage of
manpower for the work, scanty resources/materials (despite help of Persian government, cf. Ezr 6:4)...
Jews who had remained in the land did not look kindly upon what was being undertaken by the exiles
who had returned (Ezr 4:4-5)... opposition from nearby Samaritans... suspicion raised especially in with
the walls reconstructed, but also with the rebuilding of the temple... work practically halted as the
authenticity of Cyrus’s decree examined (Ezr 5:5)
– it seems Zerubbabel was not able to be present at the inauguration of the temple in 515 B.C.

b) situation after reconstruction of the temple

– not everything was in order
– Malachi denounced inadequate offerings (1:6-14; 3:7-12), also mixed marriages which had been
contracted... only a liberal religious mentality could have entered into these mixed marriages, and they
probably had to do with also entering into high-class society... evidently there is a search for identity
because now the faith had lost some of the prior elements (temple, festivals, cult)... the present
generation did not know the temple which had been destroyed 70 years prior... blood now mixed with
Babylonian and Samaritan... it was not the ideal return from exile which prophets had predicted
– some prophets still inspired hope however with a return to messianic nationalism, forgetting the
universalist impulse of the exile... this messianic nationalism became the beginning of eschatology.

II. THIRD ISAIAH (Isa 56–66)

Bibliography: G.J. Polan, In the Ways of Justice Toward Salvation: A Rhetorical analysis of Isa 56–59,
Frankfurt 1986; B. SCHRAMM, The Opponents of Third Isaiah (JSOT.S 193), Sheffield 1995; P.A.
SMITH, Rhetoric and Redaction in Trito-Isaiah (VT.S 62), Leiden 1995..

1. Author and epoch

– since 1892, when B. Duhm attributed Isa 56 – 66 to a profit anonymous of 5 th c. B.C., these chapters
were called “third Isaiah”... although there was much argument about unity in authorship, and date of the
work
– difference in style between Isa 56–66 and 40 – 55: after ch.55, the theme of the return seems to be
forgotten, and the theme of reconstruction of the temple included... no longer is Babylon focused upon
as enemy... rather the difficulty is general despondency and religious perversion
– some have argued that 40 – 66 is a single unit, but they do this by focusing on cc. 60 – 62 which has
themes similar to 40 – 55... but the overall sense of II-Isa and III-Isa differs
– there are even those who insist that 56 – 66 should be divided still further... notable difference between
apocalyptic tone and of 63 – 65, the II-Isa feel of 60 – 62, the penitential liturgy of Isa 59, etc.
– the epoch... solutions vary according to theories of authorship: ranging from saying the entire book
belongs to Isaiah of VIII c. to those who put these last chapters in c.V. ... some consensus about post-
exile date... 538-510.

2. Text and message

a) structure of the text

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– K. Pauritsch says... 56:1-8 contains theme... universalism opening community to the outside... Central
corpus would be 56:9 – 60 5:24... chapter 66 a conclusion added for the entire book of Isaiah
– R. Lack says... studies frequency of certain vocabulary... the text advances in blocks which correspond
to each other around a central portion, Isa 60 – 62

A) 60 – 62
59:15-21 63:1-6
59:1-14 63:7 – 64:11
B) 56 – 58 65 – 66

– 2 related sections: A) Isa 56 – 58 + Isa 65 – 66....... B) Isa 59 – 64...

– A is structured around symbol of “exodus over the land” (not meaning Babylon-Zion, but good/evil
conduct which leads to possession of the land or losing it)....
– key is Isa 65:9 “I will bring forth descendants from Jacob, and from Judah inheritors of my mountains;
my chosen shall inherit it, and my servants shall dwell there.”
– also the theme of “ascent up the mountain”, with all its connotations about morality and ritual purity
(58:1-12, 13-14; 65:1-8; 66:1-4)...
– movement towards the central part (59 – 64) with great themes of judgment: the Spirit (59:21), the arm
(59:16-17; 63:5), worldly glorification of descendants (59:21; 61:9)
– chapters 59 – 64 are inserted between 56 – 58 and 65 – 66 in order to give them an eschatological
color
– the central passage of the whole section III-Isa would be Isa 61:1-2 (cf. Luk 4:18-19)... “The Spirit of
the Lord is upon me...”

b) description of the entirety

– Isa 56 – 58: first versus (56:1-8) announced the coming questions: the need to work and justly,
building up members of the community, sin delaying arrival of full salvation... three units follow... a)
56:9 – 57:21 and a tack against authorities (56:9 – 57:13) which leads to.... b) canticle of comfort
(57:14-19)... leading to ... c) requirement to fast (58:1-12; theme of Sabbath and 58:13-14 they say is a
later addition) which puts one in personal relationship with the poorest, in order to call down divine light

– Isa 59:1-21: penitential liturgy begins a triptych with 60 – 62 and 63 – 64... the Lord response to
critics, accusing the people of failure (vv. 1-8)... the people recognize them (9-15) as the reason for their
situation... finally the Lord intervenes with judgment (vv. 15-20)

– Isa 60 – 62: Central chapters, related to II-Isa... from Jerusalem salvation announced to all nations,
inviting them to recognize the Lord... in the middle the prophet’s vocation told (61:1-3; 62:1)... a
relationship between the vocation of the prophet and mission of the servant (Isa 42:1,3; cf. Luk 4:18-
19)... the poor and afflicted will be the ones receiving salvation of the Lord

– Isa 63 – 64: the first verses form a poem about God’s triumph (63:1-6)... the fight has been difficult...
Edom (’adam = red) the enemy; Bozrah (basar = to harvest) the field of battle... a song of limitation
follows, with comparison to divine portents in the past (63:7 – 64:11)

– Isa 65 – 66: echoes from the entire book of Isaiah... 65:25 cites 11:7,9... overall the theme of
eschatological judgment, division of good and evil, triumph of God (and Jerusalem), admission of all

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nations to hold the mountain... presupposes a new creation, birth of a new people – stability of
firmament (66:23-24)

c) message of the prophet

– most difficult is the delay in the Lord’s coming, and therefore in his justice... community is full of
tension and rupture (cf. c. 59 or 63)... sin of the people is the cause... only God’s future judgment will
fix things..
– characteristics of the restoration: establish the poor (65:13-16; 66:5)... centrality of Jerusalem and its
priesthood (65:18-20; 66:6; 66:10-14, 20-21)... not so much focus here on the Messiah, but on prophet
and priest... also nations coming with gifts (66:18-19)... hope for the future

III. THE PROPHET HAGGAI

Bibliography: R.A. MASON, The Purpose of the “Editorial Framework” of the Book of Haggai, in VT
27 (1977) 413-421.

1. The Prophet Haggai and his book

– as with many prophets of this period and following, almost nothing known for sure about personal
data: birthplace, family, etc.
– appears with Zechariah in Ezr 5:1; 6:14 engaged in rebuilding the temple
– relying on chronological information from the book itself, the prophecy is limited to four months in
the second year of Darius (520), from 1st day of the sixth month until 24th day of the ninth month
– he would’ve known the final turbulence which shook the Persian Empire, especially in the western
part
– no proper title to the book... two chapters long
– the prophet is spoken of in third person... which leads us to believe redaction on the book was
significant
– one suggestion is that the chronicler redacted it
– four chronological references divide the book into four sections: 1:1... 1:15-21
-- difficulties with the second chronological reference and with coherence in the third section… some
say that 1.15a is action the beginning of a lost section… various theories have been offered as solutions
-- first section is related to the third:… in 1:1-15 Haggai encourages Zerubbabel the governor and the
priest Joshua to reconstruct the temple…. Reason is the bad harvest and calamities which show that the
Lord is displeased that they have rebuilt their own houses but not the temple…. (remember how contrary
this thought is to what Nathan advised David in the same situation, cf. 2Sam 7)
-- the second section (2:1-9) also includes encouragement for rebuilding the temple… the Lord
remembers his commitment at the Exodus, confirms his presence and renews the eschatological
blessings… The result will be regaining riches of nations, glory of Lord, peace
-- fourth section (2:20-23) is an oracle directed at Zerubbabel, formally united to the third section by
phrase “once again”… a messianic tone, with future victory through work of Zerubbabel, God’s chosen
-- relation of the sections: first and third describe the difficult situation of the community, second and
fourth allude to eschatological promises of the Lord

2. Message of Haggai
-- centered in encouragement of the Jewish community in light of temple reconstruction… because of
bad economic conditions, division between those who remained and those who returned from exile

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-- overall the prophet attributes the problems to lack of true religion, manifested in fact by lack of
interest in rebuilding the temple… renewed labors on temple will prove their commitment to the Lord….
And their situation will improve
-- rebuilding the temple will also mean rebuilding the eschatological hopes in a messiah once held… a
great future for the people (2:7,9,20-23)
-- there will be great cosmological signs accompanying this future
3. Practical exercises
-- Into how many sections can the book be divided? Explain (using repeated formulas, verbs, etc.)

IV. THE PROPHET ZECHARIAH AND HIS PROPHETIC BOOK

Bibliography: P.R. ACKROYD, Exile and Restoration: A Study of Hebrew Thought of the Sixth Century
B.C., London 21972; M. BUTTERWORTH, Structure and the Book of Zechariah, Sheffield 1992; C.L. MEYERS
– E.M. MEYERS, Haggai–Zechariah 1–8, Garden City 1987; C. STUHLMÜLLER, Rebuilding with Hope: A
Commentary on the Books of Haggai and Zechariah, Grand Rapids 1988; J.E. TOLLINGTON, Tradition
and Innovation in Haggai and Zechariah 1-8 (JSOT.S 150), Sheffield 1993..

1. Problem of authorship
-- “God remembers (his promise) is the name
-- two distinct sections, cc.1—8, 9—14… differences of style and content make commentators
unanimously speak of a II-Zac
-- first section has (and second doesn’t): predominance of “vision”, use of first person and other
prophetic formulas, interest in reconstruction of temple, mention of Zerubbabel and Joshua
-- sections could come from different authors and epochs… but there are studies which connect the two
parts
-- compatibility would include: special protection of YHWH over Jerusalem (2:5 and 9:8; 14:11);
paradisiacal fertility (8:12 and14:6); covenant formula (8:8 and 13:9)… there is some unity between the
two parts

2. The person of Zechariah

-- more than 30 OT persons with this name
-- in this book, son of Berechiah, son of Iddo (1:1,7; 7:1,8)… in Ezr only “son [i.e., descendant] of Iddo”
(Ezr 5:1; 6:14)
-- perhaps Iddo is one of the priests who returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Neh 12:4,6) in which
Zechariah would belong to a famous priestly family… some connect Iddo with the seer mentioned in
2Chr 9:29; 12:15; 13:22
-- Zechariah is consulted regarding fasting (7:1-3; 8:18-19), the temple (1:16; 2:10ff; 4:9; 6:12-13)
-- identified with those prior to him who were prophets (1:4; 7:7)
-- chronological data of the book (Zec 1:1,7; 7:1) shows him prophesying from 8 th month of 2nd year of
Darius (520, as Haggai) up to the 9th month of 4th year (518); i.e., two years… remember how Haggai
and Zechariah are mentioned together in Ezr 5:1; 6:14

3. The book of Zechariah (Zec 1—8)

-- two distinct parts…. 1—6 centered around eight visions…. 7—8 about fasting the fifth month

a) the visions: Zec 1—6

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-- four night visions distinguished… then visions five through eight once awakened
-- all the night of the 24th day of 11th month of second year of Darius (cf. Zec 1:7, November-December
of 519 B.C.)

1st: Horsemen (1:7-17)

2nd: Horns and Smiths (2:1-4)
3rd: Measuring Line (2:5-9) (+2:10-13; + 2:14-17)
(+4th vision [3:1-7]; +3:8-10)
5 : Lampstand and Two Olive trees (4:1a—6:10a-14)
th

6 : Flying Scroll (5:1-4)

th

7th: Woman in a Basket (5:5-11)

8th: Four Chariots (6:1-8)

-- also an introduction inviting listeners to repentance (1:1-6)

– an epilogue with the coronation of Zerubbabel (Joshua?) (6:9-15)
– each of the seven visions has a bipartite structure:... the object of the vision is given... then a brief
dialogue asking explanation and giving a dynamic one
– an angel is intermediary and underlines the importance of Zerubbabel and Joshua constructing the
temple
– once Zerubbabel disappears from the political scene suddenly, it seems the fourth vision was added
and its accompanying oracles (Zec 3) in order to focus on the high priest Joshua (cf. the epilogue
coronation of Joshua, 6:9-15)... the change of scene also seems to explain why it is usually proposed in
the MT in 6:11 to read “Zerubbabel, son of Shealtiel” instead of “Joshua, high priest”... but the mention
of Joshua instead of Zerubbabel could also be as in Haggai an ideological current giving royal powers to
the priesthood
– the introduction separates the present community from the generation of the fathers
– repentance begins by accepting the disaster as consequence of disobedience to the prophets
– overall the visions intend to raise the spirit of the community... despite general lethargy (first vision),
the end of the repression approaches (second edition), and Jerusalem, protected by the Lord, will regain
its splendor (third vision) and power of anointing (fifth vision)... Justice will reign (six vision), evil be
driven out (seventh vision) and spirit of the Lord will come against the enemy of the North (eighth
vision)

b) The oracles: Zec 7–8

– dated chronologically two years later than the visions
– the promises of hope and small headway on reconstruction: to doubt whether they should undertake
the fast which commemorates the destruction of the temple (cf. 2Kgs 25:8-9)
– Zechariah, uncovering injustice which accompanied the fast (7:4-14) seems to suggest its
continuance... but along with moral improvement
– on the other hand he also announces a change in the fast... becoming feast and rejoicing (8: 18-19)
– a series of oracles of salvation finishes the section... all beginning with the formula “thus says the Lord
of hosts” (11 times after 7:9)... build a hope for the future of the people... some hints of future
messianism (8:20-23)

4. The message of Zechariah

– a interest in reconstruction of the temple is central

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– eschatological perspective differs from that of Haggai
– the present reality will turn into a future of splendor, the Lord’s work coming to completion... the
small beginnings will become great in the future
– Jerusalem will become for with exiles who returned, protected by the Lord
– the Lord’s presence guarantees good things (2:9, 14-16; 8:3, 23)
– the high priest Joshua, and Zerubbabel, son of Shealtiel, will govern with messianic echoes (4:14; 3:5;
6:13) as they accomplish their responsibility
– it will not suffice simply to reconstruct the temple: a conversion must accompany it (1:2-6)... Justice,
obedience to Commandments (5:3-4; 5:8; 7:5-7, 9-14; 8:5-7, 14-17)
– then begins a time of definitive blessing characterized by peace (3:10) and gathering the nations (2:15;
8:20-20 2, 23)

5. Practical exercises
– study the reasons why this book seems related to Malachi
– study the literary form of the five visions: similarities, differences
– explain the importance of the vision of the lampstands

V. THE PROPHET JOEL

Bibliography:L.C. ALLEN, The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah and Micah, Michigan 1976; J.
NOGALSKI, Redactional Processes in the Book of the Twelve (BZAW 218), Berlin – New York 1993, 3-
57; W.S. PRINSLOO, The Theology of the Book of Joel, Berlin 1985; ID., The Unity of the Book of Joel, in
ZAW 104 (1992) 66-81.

1. Unity of Authorship and Date of Composition

– study of this book has centered on two issues... unity of authorship and date of composition
– unfortunately, the book has not been studied enough for its own sake... rather it has always been for
the sake of arguing the contrary positions of single authorship or multiple authorship
– the majority of commentators however still maintain the unity of authorship and literary unity
– the entire book has a dynamic unity: a plague of locusts permits the author to foresee the power of the
day of the Lord, opening the horizon of ever more fully to universality and to eschatology
– some authors have tried to divide it into two parts: 1:1 – 2:17 and 3 – 4... but the central theme “Day of
the Lord”, as well as similarity of vocabulary and style between these two parts strongly argue in favor
of one author
– a theory about Joel being a “prophetic liturgy” has influenced many to think that Joel was a cult
prophet
– the range of dates suggested runs from c.IX to c.III.... but most consensus is that it is a post exilic
writing, about 400 B.C.
– 400 B.C. because: there is no king... the people are exiled (4:2-3)... the territory is unified (Judah and
Israel are synonymous, 2:27; 4:2, 16); the work of the priests is happening as normal (1:13-14; 2:12-
17)... the Greeks are known (4:6)... despite probable integration (3:5), the luck of the Jews is
distinguished from that of other nations on the day of the Lord... the preexilic prophets spoke of
chastisement of Israel because of sin, while Joel threatens the enemies of Israel and announces triumph
of the Jews (c.4)

2. Structure and content

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– division into two parts... a lament (1:4-10) corresponds to a promise (2:21-27)... announcement of
catastrophe (2:1-11) parallels promise for better days (4:1-3, 9-17) and invitation to penance (2:12-17)
and promise of the Holy Spirit (3:1-5)
– the same formula “you shall know that I am the Lord” in 2:27 and 4:17 establishes a relationship
– inspired by a plague of locusts, Joel takes up themes of Israel’s faith to fight against despair which is
growing in the nation
– invitation to conversion in light of the imminent judgment of the Lord... so that this day becomes
salvific rather than destructive
– the eschatological sequence: repentance of Israel (3:5), destruction of enemies of Israel (4:1ff), the
land returning to Paradise (4:18ff)
– similarity between cc.1 and 2, because both contain plagues of locusts
– tension between these chapters because in the first the plague has happened, while in the second it is
still in the future... keep the tension, rather than separating these two chapters
– in light of the coming judgment, Joel invites conversion (2:12)... this provokes fasting and intercession
of priests (2:15-18)... the Lord responds with pardon (2:19-27)
– “in those days” (3:1; 4:1) Israel, full of the Holy Spirit, acquires a new role in God’s plan... whoever
calls upon the Lord will be saved in the day of the Lord (3:5)
– significant for later (NT) reading of this book: the merciful essence of God, the prophetic role of Israel
in moment of judgment
– the definition of the Lord as compassionate, etc. (2:13) is taken from Exo 34:6 and repeated in Psa
86:15; 103:8; 145:8 as well as Jon 4:2 as well as penitential liturgy of Neh 9:17
– the general pouring out of the spirit over the people (3:1-5) for Joel is a prophetic mark of salvation,
assuring the permanence of the Lord among his people (4:17, 21)
– the day is near (1:15; 2:1; 4:4, 14)
– picked up in Act 2:17-21

VI. THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET JONAH

Bibliography: R.E. CLEMENTS, The Purpose of the Book of Jonah, Leiden 1975; T.E. FRETHEIM, The
Message of Jonah, Minneapolis 1977; J. MAGONET, Form and Meaning. Studies in Literary Techniques
in the Book of Jonah, Sheffield 1983; J.A. MILES, Laughing at the Bible. Jonah as Parodie, in JQR 65
(1974/1975) 168-181; Z. SHAZAR, Jonah – Transition from Seer to Prophet, DorleDor 7 (1978) 1-8.

1. Jonah, son of Amittai, and the date of the prophetic book

– Jonah seems to be mentioned in 2Kgs 14:25 because he had predicted the victories of Jeroboam II...
but this theme has nothing to do with the present book... critical scholarship distinguishes the two
Jonah’s
– consensus about a post exilic composition of the book:... the language is near to that of Qohelet–
Daniel... it seems that Jon 3:9; 4:2 builds upon Joel 2:13-14... the reference to Nineveh is vague and not
typical of a historical reference (3:3)... the theme of repentance in chapters 1 and 3 matches post-exilic
Deuteronomic theology... in c.3 B.C., Ben Sira (Sir 49:10) already knows the book of minor Prophets...
so it seems Jonah should be placed at the end of the Persian epoch or beginning of Hellenistic (332
B.C.), just after Joel.

2. The book of Jonah

– unique because does not employ the word nabi or the verb to prophesy, nor a messenger formula

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– the entire preaching summarized in “within 40 days Nineveh will be destroyed” (3:4)
– four short chapters narrating adventures of the Prophet Jonah, called to preach to Nineveh
– c.2 is a psalm
– three short scenes in other chapters... in the first (Jon 1) Jonah receives the mission, but he flees to
Tarsus to avoid it... a storm subsides when companions of the voyage throw him into the sea, where a
great fish saves him... in the second (Jon 3) he receives the same mission, and he fulfills it, and
repentance happens, and God’s pardon... in the third (Jon 4) God makes a plant with her to explain his
compassion
– many attempts to break the book into various stages, but the only consensus seems to be about second
chapter psalm and 4:5 which many authors think should come after 3:4..... but the book as it is seems to
present a complete literary structure...... no plausible explanation has come forth for the use of Elohim,
instead of YHWH, in 4:6-9.
– parallel structure: Jonah receives two commissionings to preach (1:1; 3:1)... each one takes interest in
Gentile reaction (sailors, Ninevites)... who respond to a threat (storm or potential chastisement) and
attain salvation... only Jonah acts inappropriately in each case (fleeing the mission and complaining in
the face of Mercy)
– two reasons for considering the psalm of chapter 2 secondary: it interrupts the narrative flow...
introduces a bit of confusion into the message of the book, because it gives thanks for having been
saved, and does not stay on task with the theme of his mission to Nineveh... but the parallelism with c.4
which was just noted prohibits a definitive decision about the secondary nature
– the argument that 4:5 should be after 3:4 is also not absolute... it is difficult to declare absolutely when
a piece of information should be given in a narrative... it is only necessary finally in chapter 4 to show
that Jonah leads the city in order to find himself under the plant... although after 3:4 would be logical, it
is not absolutely necessary to show him leaving the city then

3. The message of Jonah

– the literary genre argued: historical narrative (which nobody really holds any more) to allegory, fable,
didactic novel, parable, midrash, prophetic legend
– a narrative with a specific message... similar to Ruth, Tobit, etc.
– a certain strand of commentary (especially Jewish) says that Jonah is written to explain some aspects
of false prophecy, or to show difference between conditional prophecy and unconditional, since it shows
that prophecy against nations was not fulfilled (4:2)
– another strand of commentary (especially Christian) sees in Jonah the extension of salvation to the
Gentiles... this would have great influence if it were written shortly after Joel and the reform of Ezra
– ambiguous and 4:2 whether the Prophet expresses fear it to pronounce a message which will not be
fulfilled, or suspicion in causing conversion of Nineveh
– Jesus uses example of Ninevites to reproach Israel’s hardness of heart (Luk 11:32; Mat 12:41)
– also used in Matthew’s Gospel as a sign of death and resurrection of Jesus (Mat 12:39-41)

VII. SECOND ZECHARIAH (Zec 9–14) AND HIS WORK

Bibliography:

1. Epoch and authorship

– the double introduction (massa’ + messenger formula in 9:1 and 12:1) divides the work into two
sections

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– in the first predominates verse and geographic allusions...
– in the second prose, almost exclusive mention of Jerusalem and formula “that day”
– the problem of authorship (who?) is very disputed..... very wide range of theories about historical
leaders underlying the work (e.g., 9:1-8) and... some theorizing about Egypt and Syria (10:10-11) being
allusions to world powers of another epoch... somehow this suggested that Maccabean wars are
underneath
– it seems the attempt to find that history has eventually ceded its relevance to seeking theological
structure in order to understand the history or affirm eschatology... commentators no longer present
definitive solutions to the history underlying
– the epoch of Alexander the Great (332-300) receives most support

2. Text and message

a) Zec 9–11
– divided into three blocks:... a) 9:1 – 10:2... b) 10:3 – 11:3... c) 11:4-17 (+ 13:7-9)
– first part God’s Word comes upon the nations to begin his plan (9:1-8)... Jerusalem rejoices to receive
her messiah, humble and victorious, who will establish peace and liberation (9:9 – 10:2)
– in second part Israel and Judah are beneficiaries and instruments of salvation which looks like a new
exodus, with a procession joyful affecting even the nature around it
– third part is an allegory of pastors... the prophet is a pastor in the Lord’s name, because the people are
exploited by pastors who are unscrupulous

b) Zec 12–14
– most obvious is repetition (17 times) of the formula “on that day”
– usually divided into two blocks, 12 – 13 and 14
– in the first the failure of the nations organized against Jerusalem (12:1-8)... repentance of the people
and pardon from God (12:9-14)
– in the second, a new attack against Jerusalem (14:1-3) provokes God’s action in defense of the
nation... breaking mountains, elevating Jerusalem, instituting peace (14:4-15)... everybody recognizing
the Lord will gather on the Feast of Booths

c) Summary
– the text is filled with messianic hope which had been slowly deteriorating with the years... for this
reason it is one of the texts most used in the NT to describe the figure of the Messiah
– the images in this book are connected to older prophets like Isaiah and Ezekiel... although there is
originality in their use... nothing strange in a warrior savior who acquires victory... but salvation here
includes a pierced one (12:10), a humble king (9:9), a defeated pastor (11:4-17)

3. Practical exercises
– look at the passages of the NT where Zechariah is used

VIII. THE PROPHET MALACHI AND HIS WORK

Bibliography: B. GLAZIER-MCDONALD, Malachi: The Divine Messenger, Atlanta 1987.

– the prophetic corpus closes with this book... some Jewish tradition said that with the death of
Zechariah and Malachi the spirit of prophecy ended... although this was not shared by NT authors or

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Qumran community

1. Author and epoch

– the name Malachi in 1:1 not necessarily a specific person, but something more of a transposition of the
role and 3:1 (= “my messenger”)... so the book would be by an anonymous author... but if this is a
particular name, we do not know the place of birth or family name of the prophet
– an ancient Jewish tradition (found in a targum) identify the author with Ezra
– the text reflects very degenerated social conditions, and total hopelessness... God has forgotten his
people (1:2)... priests commit grave irregularities (2:1-9)... unacceptable victims are offered (1:7-14),
injustice abounds (3:5)... matrimonial difficulties (2:14-16)
– these conditions reflect the time immediately before the reform of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:10; Neh
5:1-13; 10:32; 13:10)... perhaps just before the first intervention of Nehemiah (445 B.C.)
– usually date the book about 460 B.C.

2. Content and Message of Malachi

– composed of six controversies with the form:... a) critique of the Prophet.... b) indirect, second person,
reply of the recipients... c) explanation of initial affirmation
a) 1:2-5
– shocking beginning... the Deuteronomic tradition knows the theme of love for Israel (Deu 7:7; 10:18),
but never was expressed hate for Edom. Esau (=Edom) fought with his brother, but he was not hated by
his father nor by God. Oracles against Edom found in Oba 1-15; Joel 4:19; Psa 137 or Jer 49:17-19... all
motivated because Edom took advantage of tragic moment of Judah

b) 1:6 – 2:9
– up until now the cult was criticized for not keeping up with Justice... now unworthy cultic acts, i.e.,
giving greater gifts to human lords than to the Lord... the foreign nations honor the Lord better than his
own people (1:11-14)... the covenant with Levi is blackened therefore
– the priestly caste is most responsible, even teaching such things (2:8-9)
– noteworthy that the temple seems to be relative in favor of incense offered universally (1:11)

c) 2:10-16
– the injustices committed negate the fatherhood of God... offenses against one’s brother break the
covenant of the fathers
– betrayal and abomination expressed especially in mixed marriages and easy divorce
– marriage with a foreign woman breaks paternal unity, undoes the unity created by God who makes
man and woman one in marriage

d) 2:17–3:5
– theme of divine retribution, God’s justice, prosperity of evildoers continues to be a grave problem in
monotheistic religion (Jer 12:1; Psa 37; 73; Job)... the solution is found in the future day which is to
come, with God’s “messenger”... then the injustice will be punished, etc.

e) 3:6-12
– God comes to defend his justice and push for conversion
– focus on fraud in the tithe... they want to defraud the Lord... which leads to a curse, bad harvests
– repentance will turn into blessing for them

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f) 3:13-20
– problem of retribution returns, because it seems it does not make a difference to serve the Lord
– a future day he will act (3:17, 20)
– the difference between evildoers and doers of good will be clear (cf. Isa 65:13-15)
– theme of paternal pardon forms an inclusio with beginning of book (1:2, 6)

– some diversity in the message of these six controversies:... three condemn concrete errors... three
others open hope for the day of the Lord... cult problems and injustice intermixed
– quite novel is the figure of a messenger preceding the Lord who gets identified with Elijah (3:1, 23-
24)... a figure much used in the NT (Mar 1:2; 9:11-12; Mat 17:10-11; Luk 1:17, 76; 7:19, 27; Joh 3:28)...
gets applied to John the Baptist as precursor of the Messiah

Chapter VIII
MEANING AND TRUTH OF THE BIBLICAL PROPHETS

– is there a particular characteristic which defines the prophets?

– what was their role within Israel’s religion?
– why were their writings preserved?

I. THE PROPHET AND HIS IMPORTANCE

1. The Biblical prophet

– classic practice to study relationship between the prophets and priests, kings, other prophets, prophecy
and history, law, etc.... prophets influence all of this
– need to distinguish them from those who practice divination... trying to know the future by
scrutinizing the flight of birds, and trails of animals, color of the sky, position of stars, etc.... he is not
somebody who primarily figures out the future, even if a small portion of his words pertain to future...
remember the words of some prophets against such diviners (Amo 7:14; Jer 27:9; Eze 13:7, 18)
– he is an interpreter of the present
– but the future is fundamentally something based on the present.... consider all the if-then situations
(Amo 5:7, 11-13; Hos 4:1-4; the rîb of Jer 2:1-4,4
– some reference to the future to negate false hopes (Amo 5:18-27)... or to ignite hope for the desperate
(Amo 9:11-12)

2. Importance of Prophecy
– very significant in the religion of Israel that prophets had such decisive influence
– Note the centrality of the prophetic corpus in the whole of the OT: law – prophets – writings...
symbolic
– G. Fohrer (Geschichte der israelitischen Religion, Berlin 1969), suggested the faith of Israel resulted
from an original nucleus subelements amplified by five later impulses in history.... first impulse, the
fundamental work of Moses (c.XIII B.C.) founding the Yahwist religion, with revelation of the divine
name (Exo 3)... second impulse is creation of the state, appearance of the monarchy (c.X), considering
state as salvific structure of the religion, in which is based future messianism.... third impulse is
prophecy (about c.VIII) by the great prophets... fourth impulse Deuteronomic reform (beginning c.VII),
producing a historiography, redacting writings already in existence, rethinking the whole religion of

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Israel from the point of view of calamity... fifth impulse exilic prophecy and initial eschatology, taking
place after the exile, at the threshold of Judaism – understood as something distinct..... much argument
perhaps about all of these moments, but it’s important that at least the last three are directly prophetic,
and the second intimately related with prophecy... the first is at least theologically related with the birth
of prophecy (cf. Num 11:25-27).
– where concretely is influence of prophecy in Israel’s religion?
= making sure religion was not limited simply to cult or ritual, but the rest of life
= keeping the religious feasts connected to history
= maintaining ethics in the religion
= insisting upon fulfillment of the law in connection to faith (e.g. re: Sabbath in Deu 5:15... cf.
Amo 8:5; Hos 4:1-3)... formulation of the law itself is influenced by prophetic preaching
= insisting upon justice
– prophets interpreted historic events in light of God
– prophets looked upon the poor in light of God... social reality was very concrete
– prophets practiced praise of God who “liberated the poor from power of the evil ones” (Jer 20:11-13)
– prophets did not invent Israel’s religion, but they maintained it alive with its original vigor

II. THE PROPHETIC BOOKS

– the relationship of the prophets with their “present” present a serious problem: why put their oracles
into writing? What value could this have for future generations?
– even more difficult if we realize that these writings have barely conserved chronological or social
details that allow us to put them into a concrete situation

1. The prophets as writers

– the prophets almost never wrote. Only few indications of writing:

a) writing by Isaiah: Isa 8:1, 16; 30: 8

– in 8:1 he is ordered to write the name of his son, which ends up being a sign when he has to separate
himself from the people (8:11, 16, 20)
– perhaps “teaching and testimony” alludes to the “memorial” of Isaiah (a work written because of the
Syro-Ephraimite war, primarily contained in 6:1 – 9:9)
– so there is a testimonial function to the Prophet, his sons, his writing... Ezekiel alludes to this (Eze 2:5;
12:6, 11; 24:24)
– later Isaiah is given command to write as a testimony for ever (30:8-17)... for a people that does not
obey the law of the Lord and is trying to block prophetic preaching (30:9-10)...
– after judgment happens the writing will be testimony of the faithfulness of the Lord to his covenant
obligations

b) the book of Jeremiah: Jer 36

– the existence of this book was first to facilitate getting where the word otherwise could not arrive
– the book became the Prophet, while the Prophet hid himself (36:20)
– God’s Word could not cease existing, so the book was reedited
– the book also mentioned in Jer 45 as a testimony
– so the book runs into the mission of the person called to witness, testify
– consider the book mentioned in Jer 51:59-64

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c) eating the book: Eze 2:8 – 3:3
– this text speaks of the relationship between a prophet and a book... the Prophet receives the command
to eat the book... the Word will nourish prophetic preaching
– the Prophet should not stop speaking, although he will not be listened to (Eze 2:5, 7)
– it seems the Prophet will receive from the book not only the content of his preaching, but also the
persistent nature in time that characterizes a written work

d) late prophets: Hab 2:2; Mal 3:16

– with a grave complaint the prophet protests the apparent immobility of God before injustice (Hab 1:
12-17)... get the Prophet waits patiently for the response which if eventually arrives
– the writing helps in order to await the fulfillment which could take some time... the writing will
acquire full validity once the event occurs
– the book cited in Malachi 3:16 seems to contain a list of faithful who should be pardoned and blessed
on the day that evil and good are separated
– the faithful protest before the Lord because of the injustice which seem to appear when the wicked
prospered (Mal 3:13, 15)... a book preserved their names for the necessary day... and it will be opened
on the day of judgment (cf. Dan 7:10) when the justice of God becomes obvious

e) conclusion
– the Hebrew mentality gives a lasting value to the word, which certainly becomes perceptible in a book
– the written text is meant to reproduce and fix the words which prophets pronounced
– the written text is meant to help orient the word towards a future fulfillment... once the moment of the
future arrives, the written word serves as a memory, testimony of God’s faithfulness for all time

2. Formation of prophetic books

– if the fulfillment of a prophetic word, it’s veracity, depends upon future events, it is not at all strange
that disciples of the prophets, groups conserving the prophetic preaching, continued actualizing the
word, prolonging its validity in new circumstances
– such groups also continued to augmented their prophetic treasure with new and similar words (Jer
36:32) which in their opinion prolonged the original prophetic experience
– this must be the purpose of the biographical narratives (source B) of the book of Jeremiah and much of
the rest of the prophetic heritage of the Bible
– we can imagine three stops in the formation of the books: oral tradition... the actual writing... further
redaction

a) oral tradition
– the desire to conserve and transmit to the oracles is evident
– we will never know how much actually got lost, however... we cannot suppose that everything ever
pronounced entered into the book by his name
– it’s curious that practically nothing was preserved of the works of false prophets against whom the
Biblical prophets argued
– individual literary units ended up at this stage being grouped by similar resonances, themes, or merely
formal aspects... for example, some oracles linked merely by keywords, or by similar themes such as
oracles against nations, or simply by repeated formulas
– we need not imagine that all the oracles were pronounced together

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b) consignment to writing
– this was very limited... although it seems that there were some prophetic words never spoken, but only
written
– the confessions of Jeremiah, also a poem of second Isaiah seemed to have been put directly into
writing... also the biographical narrations about the prophets, telling about their symbolic actions, for
example
– certain collections get put into writing to assure their conservation
– this involves some corrections, additions, accommodations for various places and times (e.g., the
differing textual traditions between Masoretic, Qumran and Greek)
c) final redaction of the prophetic books
– finally the collections written are joined into greater literary works
– this redactional stage is clear if we compare the order of the chapters of the book Jeremiah in the
Hebrew with the same in the Greek tradition... also various texts of Isaiah with different quantities of
chapters... or the texts of Zechariah which now seem to belong to a second Zechariah
– macro-redaction with these larger pieces of text
– also micro-redaction which is minuscule and subtle in such works as Obadiah (the smallest prophetic
work)... such redaction showing the desire for an overall unity and concrete dynamic
– a root problem is that we seldom know the criteria of the redactors, their methods, their intention... but
we must not assume that their work was casual and random
– often the fruit of a vast history of incarnation of prophetic word in the womb of the believing
community

3. Function of the prophetic books

– why were the oracles of the prophets preserved?
– we already said for future testimony... this is the case for every prophetic word, written or not
– this of course is not to negate the immediate value of causing conversion
– the word shows that God is not resigned to the various social, cultic, ethic realities which do not please
him
– the words of the prophets but greater responsibility on the community which has preserved them... the
oracles then become fruit of a continuous discernment between the true and false Word... remember how
the prophets fought so much against false prophecy, false words spoken on God’s behalf (e.g., Isa 49:4;
Amo 3:8)
– the presence of the Holy Spirit was necessary to help the community with this discernment (Jer 1:8,
19; 15:20)

III. THE PROBLEM OF FALSE PROPHECY

– 10 Biblical citations was very strong attacks against false prophets: Zec 13:2; Jer 6:13; 26:7, 8, 11, 16;
27:9; 28:1; 29:1, 8... other later attacks also, e.g. 1Kgs 13; 22; Jer 28
– prophetic literature reveals an acute division within the group of prophets
– the false prophet symbolically concretizes the incertitude and difficulty of prophetic existence
– both false and true are attributed to God
– to add confusion, sometimes the false is said to be desired by God in order to test Israel
– false prophecy can exist because of God’s own decision to act in history by means of weak language,
subject to manipulation or misunderstanding... the man entrusted with God’s Word could misunderstand
it, or not say it exactly and certainly so that the public can understand it... of course there’s the

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possibility of bad will seeking to pervert the content
– analysts have come up with five causes for false prophecy:
= the king:... the person confessing that the monarchy is instituted by God is less likely to speak
against the deviations in the monarchy... Remember Micah (1Kgs 22) having to preach against 400 false
prophets
= desire for fulfilment... desire to speak a word which will definitely be fulfilled, proof of divine
approbation

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