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A Level Divinity Paper 1|Revision Questions|2016 May| Part 30

QN. "Prophecy might have originated in Israel" Examine this view? (25)

- The question is bit controversial, this is due to number of theories which have been brought forward by
different Old Testament Commentators in trying to trace where exact prophecy might have originated
earlier.

The above question has given lot of people problems and I hope the writer will do justice on this
ongoing article.

ANSWERS

PROPHECY MIGHT HAVE ORIGINATED IN ISRAEL.

® - The first argument is that Abraham the father of all nations is regarded as a prophet in Genesis 20:7
for interceding for Abimelech.

".. for he is a prophet, and he will pray for you, and you shall live.." -The above text proves that Abraham
was a prophet.

-The above view is well supported by Traditional theory. In other words this means that prophecy was
part and parcel of Israelites, hence, it originated in Israel.

-B.W Anderson define a prophet as someone who communicate the will of God .This defination qualifies
Abraham as a prophet.

® - Moses is regarded as the father of all prophets in Due 18:18 & Due 18:34. Due 18:18 "I will raise up
for them a prophet like you from among your…". Due 34:10 "And there has not arisen a prophet since in
Israel like Moses which I knew face to face"

The above text indicate that prophecy originated among Israelites and Moses being the originator,this
has been further supported by Grossman who submitted that when we talk of Old testament we are
talking about the prophet Moses,this means that without Moses there would have no Old testament,
hence,Moses played significant role.

® - Samuel has been further regarded as the first prophet, the evolutionary theory scholars regards
Samuel as the first prophet because in 1Samuel 9:7-9 is labelled as seer and it is recorded that seer was
an old title of a prophet. In other words Samuel was the first prophet.

-Their argument about Moses and Abraham is that, it might be the works of Deuteronomists historians
who exaggerated their prophetic duties, hence, they were not prophets.
® - Israelites experienced ecstasy, J Lindblom submitted that inspiration "ecstasy" was one of the earliest
forms of prophecy. In other words anyone who experienced ecstasy was regarded as a prophet. -
Abraham experienced ecstasy when he encountered deep sleep "tardema" in Genesis 15:12.The deep
sleep has been interpreted as "tardema"word tardema has been interpreted as ecstasy by Wood. In
other words Abraham regardless that he received a call or experienced visions he can be regarded as a
prophet.

- The seventy elders in Numbers 11:22 prophesy ecstatically and once after being possessed by the spirit
of God, Scholar Lois submitted that prophesying once its called administrative type of prophecy. In other
words this proves to us that prophecy was part and parcel of the lives of the Israelites, hence, it
originated in Israelite.The following biblical extract will support the above view.

Num 11:25 "…. and when the spirit rested upon them, they prophesied. But they did so no more"

® - Prophecy of the Israelites was unique, this simply means that the Israelites practised their own type
of prophecy which is not recorded to have been existed among the surrounding nations.For instance
Israel prophets received calls(Exodus 3:1), fought for monotheism and Yahwehism(Exodus 32:20 & 1
Kings 18:32-42) advised Kings, anointed judges and interceding .As such this shows us ,prophecy might
have originated in Israel as they practised their own type of prophecy.

- Basing on the above arguments one will be tempted to suggest that prophecy originated in Israel.

- As much it can be pointed out that prophecy might have originated in Israel, it will be inaccurate if one
ignore the other theories.

PROPHECY BEING BORROWED BY ISRAEL FROM SURROUNDING NATIONS

® - Due to number of similarities between Israel prophecy and that of surrounding nations, many
scholars have been tempted to conclude that Israel might have copied prophecy.

- These nations include Arabia, Mesapotamia,Asia-minor, Egypt, Canaan and Phoenicia

- In this article I won't write much information on the arguments pertaining the above named nations.

ARABIA -Scholar Cornil submitted that prophecy might have been borrowed by Israel from Arabia, He
went on to state that the name of a prophet "nabi" is derived from Arabian language. In Israel we
understand that Israel prophets were regarded as "Nabi",As such this has led moot among scholars, but
some have went on to conclude that Israel copied the name of a prophet and its prophecy as
well ,hence,prophecy originated in Arabia.

NB.The other nations which the author ignored will be available on the next work.But you can still add
them.

PROPHECY AROSE SIMULTANEOUSLY

- It can be also argued that prophecy arose simultaneously among all Ancient Near East Countries ,the
reason being that since all Ancient countries were sharing same culture it might happen that when
prophecy originated in Egypt it also arose in Canaan,Israel, Arabia at the same time through the process
of diffusion.

- We all know how does the process of diffusion happen. Generally perfume spray can be an example.

ent Near East (ANE) societies before the nationhood of Israel. This group of scholars therefore view
prophecy as a borrowed phenomenon. While this paper does not dispute the fact that prophecy was not
unique in Israel, that is, it existed in the ANE communities surrounding and pre-dating Israel; it does
contest the view that Israel borrowed prophecy from these nations.

The paper will further contest that prophecy in Israel was unique in many respects despite sharing some
similarities and co-existing with these communities. The naivety of Israel and the similarities between
prophetism in both ANE and Israel does not in any way suggest one community borrowed from the
other, and Israel for that matter. There are significant differences between the two strands of prophetic
activities; prophetic activities Israel and uniquely Yahwistic and monotheistic

To start with, we will attempt to define prophecy. It is worthy pointing out that the Bible does not define
prophecy as it takes it for granted that it is a well-known phenomenon. Etymologically, a prophet was
known as a nabi which means a divine messenger. According to Routledge (2008:209-210), “the usual
word for ‘prophet’ in the OT is nabi. This is probably linked with the verb ‘to call’. It can be invariably
noticed that from OT perspective that a prophet was one who had a clear sense of God’s call.

The significance of such a call cannot be over-emphasised; “it validated the prophet’s ministry and gave
authority to his message” (:210). A simpler definition is given by Scott (1968:2) who defines a prophet as
“one who speaks on behalf of someone else”. If we do not mention Goldingay’s (2003) view of prophets
as dual servants, we would have misrepresented the nature of the servanthood of the prophet, both to
the Yahweh and the king. “Prophets are Yhwh’s aides and Yhwh’s servants. Often they are also servants
of the human king. As servants of two masters, they stand in an unenviable position” (:685).

Overall, the characteristic features of prophecy included the following. Firstly, it generally involved a
calling by a deity (God in Israel’s case) hence, unlike priesthood which fell into corruption, this office was
non-hereditary. Scott (1968:95) is emphatic in spelling out the importance of call (and rightly so) when
he says: “the assurance of having a divine call and commission was a primary element in prophetic
consciousness”. It emboldened the proclamation of the messenger.

Further, the prophetic message had both elements of forth-telling or foretelling by nature. Commenting
on this, Motyer (2001:10) suggest that “foretelling was part of their forthtelling. They were inspired to
proclaim the truth about God, recalling his past revelation of himself in word and deed, and appealing
for obedience in the light of the predicted future”.

Thus foretelling was done in the context of forthtelling and never in isolation. As shall be shown below,
such basic characteristics of prophecy cannot be exclusively claimed to be the domain of Israel but were
prevalent in ANE communities and religions that pre-dated Israel as a nation. This as has been suggested
above, does not however mean that Israel borrowed this phenomenon from ANE.

In addition, the naivety of Israel as a nation is one factor that is used to argue that prophecy was not
unique to Israel and that because of that it is a borrowed phenomenon. It is argued that in the 1,000
years before Israel became a nation there were prophetic activities that were prevalent. Such prophetic
activities did not come to an end with the creation of the nation of Israel.

As noted above such activities continued side-by-side with those of Israel. The bible also, by citing
examples of non-Israelite prophets like Balak, does attest to the existence of prophetism outside the
physical and spiritual boundaries of Israel. This is therefore used to argue that prophetism in Israel was
not unique to Israel as it existed side by side with prophetism outside its boundaries.

We will now turn to explore evidence of the existence of prophetism in ANE communities. One must
admit that such existence of prophetia activities in ANE is undisputed. Such attestation is by documents
from Mari in the 18th century (Kaltner & Stulman 2004).

These examples include the Legend of Wen-Ammon, the Stele of Zakhi and the Legend of Zimri- lim. The
legend of Wen-Ammon talks of ecstatic delivery of a message by a youth who was messenger of a deity
in 1100BC at Babylos (Scott 1968). This is also attested to by Anderson (1966:191) who talks of “the god
seized one of [the] youths and he possessed”. This is ecstasy which was synonymous with early Hebrew
prophecy.

The Stele of Zhaki relates a story of a “prophet” who spoke on behalf of a deity called Hadad. This
prophet called the king to obey this deity in order for the king to prosper. Failure to obey would result in
dethronement of the king. This legend talks about ANE prophets “associated with royal court or the
ruling class (much as in Israel’s later history)” (Alexander & Baker 2003:663).

Such kind of prophecy is very prevalent in Israel. The argument advanced in view of this evidence is that
Abraham (the father of Israel) was called out of a culture and a context. Israel is not founded in a
vacuum. Naturally, people would therefore expect Abraham to carry over some things that were from
their previous setting with him and hence, prophecy in Israel largely borrowed from ANE where
Abraham came from.

Having explored the evidence above, it is noteworthy to mention at this juncture that there were several
similarities between ANE prophecy and that of Israel. Some of these similarities as stated by Alexander
& Baker (2003) and other scholars included the media used in communicating the message from a deity
(orally or written); there was existence of both male and female prophets, ecstatic activity
accompanying prophetism (e.g. request for music to be played and Saul prophesying ecstatically naked).
As a matter of fact, Anderson (1966:191) contends that “the Hebrew word translated as ‘prophesy’…
means to prophesy ecstatically”. Hence similarities with ANE prophetism.

Further, the Stele of Zhaki would draw many similarities with prophecy in Israel. Kings were always
reminded that their positions were through God’s gracious provision and their obedience would ensure
their wellbeing and that of their people. God would build them dynasties and kingdoms that will survive
both internal and external threats. However, much should not be made of these

similarities (Anderson 1966:663) as they do not prove much.

We will now turn to view the evidence presented by scholars who claim prophecy was unique to Israel
therefore not a borrowed phenomenon. This paper, as already stated above, attests to the existence of
prophecy in ANE (and therefore, prophecy not being unique to Israel).

It however doesn’t attest to the claim that prophecy was borrowed from ANE. The evidence supplied
above does not warranty such an attestation as this will also be shown in the exploration of the
uniqueness of Israelite prophecy. Israel had its unique brand of Yahwistic-centred and monotheistic
prophecy.

There are various theories that have been coined to support the view. These include the following: the
unique phenomenon theory, chronological theory, covenant specific theory, evolutionary theory, and
political origins theory, among others. This paper will go along with the chronological theory as
accounting for the rise of prophecy in Israel. Other theories are not rivals of this theory but help to
complement it in many ways as will be shown below.

The scholars who vouch for the chronological theory contend that prophecy rose simultaneously with
the rise of the nation of Israel. While there is contestation as to when the Israel became a nation, this
paper would agree with scholarly thinking that equates the calling and separation of Abram to the rise
of the nation of Israel. As such, Abraham becomes the first prophet and Moses and others followed in
line as great prophets (cf Gen 20v7, Num. 18v5).

As already noted above, other theories vouching for the uniqueness of prophecy in Israel do
complement and do not rival this theory. For instance, the political origins theory associates the rise of
prophecy with the rise of the Monarchy.

It political origins theory associates the rise of prophecy with the Monarchy. it ho were hopelessly
polytheistic. equates the callis the contestation of this paper that this theory does not account for the
genesis of prophecy in Israel but simply states that at this stage of the (chronological) history of Israel,
the office obtained a more public theocratic background for its activity in the newly-established
kingdom.

After its introduction, the monarch quickly turned oppressive, with such oppression expressed in the
neglect of the poor, widows and the fatherless in most cases. Thus prophecy to play the role of a
‘watchdog’ over the monarch.

Thus “the key role of Israel’s prophets after the monarchy was to call the nation back to the ways of
God, by challenging political and spiritual leaders… they out against immorality and social injustice…
particularly the oppression and exploitation of the weak by the strong” (Routledge 2008:215).
 The prophets therefore attended to the “internal sickness of Israel” ((Bright 1980:259). It is noteworthy
that these prophets carried so much authority that the kings feared them and at some instances kings
were dethroned by them. It will be unfair to paint all Israel’s prophets with one brush as some of them
spoke a message because “it is the message the king wants to hear (1 Kings 22).” (Goldingay 2003:685-
686).

It will be unfair to concentrate on the similarities without pronouncing the notable differences that
existed as well. These differences included the ones discussed below. The Yahwistic and Monotheistic
nature of prophecy in Israel finds no match in ANE who were hopelessly polytheistic. There is no
attested evidence in ANE literature to suggest that there were standards to evaluate or judge prophesy.
On the contrary, there were a number of laws that regulated prophetism in Israel (Alexander & Baker
2003).

It was not a free for all kind of activity and not every prophet had to be believed by the people. Ecstasy
(which was common in prophetic activities in both ANE and Israel) was not enough to prove the veracity
of prophecy for the Israel (or Yahweh’s prophets); Torah was the ultimate the yardstick.

This is affirmed by Motyer (2001:18) who concludes basing on Jeremiah 23v9-40, that a prophet had to
be judged by “his personal life”; “the moral rigour of his ministry and message” and “the secret reality of
his relationship with the Lord”. Thus existence of similarities and should not make us blind to the glaring
differences between the two forms of prophecy.

To affirm the position that this paper has taken all along, it is noteworthy to consider this argument by
Scott (1968:1)

Hebrew prophecy was and is not altogether unique, but it remains incomparable in its spiritual quality
and permanent significance for religion. ‘The prophets’ par excellence are the prophets of Israel, and
their words are the standard of prophecy…

Another area of significance and uniqueness of Israel’s prophecy again, is that unlike that of ANE, it
touched other nations beyond Israel; “the world of the prophets had a wider horizons than the kingdom
of David at its greatest ideal extent” (:33). Such is the uniqueness and the significance of Israel’s
prophetism as compared to its ANE neighbours.

Further, Robert R. Wilson’s assessment in essay entitled Current Issues in the Study of Prophecy in
Kaltner & Stulman (2004:45) is worth noting:

Although Israelite prophecy certainly shared much with similar phenomena in other cultures, both
ancient and modern, the notion of a chain of interpretations of both fulfilled and unfilled prophecies
seems to have been peculiar to ancient Israel and its successor communities.

This paper concurs with both assertions above that; while there are similarities with ANE prophetic
phenomena, there is some degree of uniqueness and significance of Israel’s prophecy in comparison
with the ANE sources from whom it is claimed to have borrowed.
In conclusion, while it is true that Israel was predated by the ANE communities, and that prophetic
phenomena were not only limited to Israel, it is untrue (as contested in this paper) that Israel copied
prophecy from the ANE communities. Prophecy in Israel, while it has similarities with that which
obtained in ANE had its unique distinguishing marks that cannot be ignored. It was uniquely
monotheistic and Yahwistic in nature.

Reference List

Alexander, D T & Baker, D W 2003. Dictionary of the Old Testament- Pentateuch. A Compendium of
Contemporary Biblical Scholarship. England: Inter-Varsity Press.

Anderson, B W 1966. Understanding the Old Testament- 2nd Edition. London: Prince-Hall International.

Goldingay, J 2003. Old Testament Theology- Israel’s Gospel. Vol 1. Illinois: Inter-Varsity Press.

Kaltner, J & Stulman, L (eds) 2008. Inspired Speech- Prophecy in the Ancient Near East- Essays in Honour
of Hebert B. Huffman. New York: T & T Clark.

Motyer, A 2001. The Story of the Old Testament. Michigan: Baker Book House Company.

Routledge, R 2008. Old Testament Theology- A Thematic Approach. Illinois: Inter-Varsity Press.

Scott, R B Y 1968. The Relevance of the Prophets- An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophets and
their Message. Revised edition. New York: Mcmillan Company.

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A'Level: Daily Divinity Questions and Answers with Witness Dingani

by Witness Dingani

18 May 2016 at 06:37hrs | 12804 Views

QN Compare and Contrast the roles of Israel prophets with Zimbabwean prophets? (25)

COMMENTS

•In order for one to execute the above question ,it is prudent at this stage to understand the KEY words
or answer different fundamental questions. For instance

~What is a prophet?

~What is a role?

~What's the difference between role and character?

•Israel prophets this include the following

~Moses

~Samuel

~Ahijah of Shiloah, Gad,Nathan,Ben Imlah.

~Amos the country prophet

~Hosea

~Isaiah the prophet of Jerusalem

~Jeremiah the prophet of Judah

•The Zimbabwean prophets include the following

~Magaya "the man of cloth".

~Fodric Fodric "the apple prophet".

~Johane Masowe.

~Blessing Chiza of Eagle ministries.

~Madzibaba Godfrey Nzira.

~Samuel Mutendi of ZCC .

ANSWERS

®Israel prophets fought for social justice ,For instance Moses fought for justice when he confronted King
Pharaoh so as to free the Israelites which were being oppressed by Pharaoh, this evidenced in Exodus
5:1.Elijah fought for justice when he confronted King Ahab over Naboth's vineyard ,this is recorded in 1
Kings 21:17.Amos condemned the women of Samaria who were oppressing the poor, this is recorded in
Amos 4:1.Amos advocated for fairness as well in Amos 5:24.In Zimbabwean context, it is recorded that
Zimbabwean prophets have fought social justice, Samuel Mutendi is believed to have criticized the
oppression of blacks by the whites during the colonization of Southern Rhodesia .(note that so many
examples can be added )Basing on the above text it is clear that there are similarities between Israel and
Zimbabwean prophets when fighting for social justice is concerned.

®•Israel prophets fought for worshipping of one God.Moses for worshiping of one God when he
destroyed the golden calf which had been made by the Israelites, this is recorded in Exodus. 32:20.Elijah
butchered the baal prophets during the Mt Carmel Contest, this is recorded in 1 Kings 18:36-42.In
Zimbabwean context, it is documented by number of authors that Zimbabwean prophets fights for
worshipping of one God, Isabel Mukonyora citing Dillon, says Masowe during his days had tendency of
destroying "mishonga" and burning the fetishes.Makandiwa recorded by Christ Tv undated, discouraged
his church to partake in evil practices. Magaya recorded by Newsday newspaper and Bulawayo24.com in
14 February 2015 , he condemned the use of water as a way of exorcism by the white church garment
which is led by Johannes Ndanga as evilness and encouraging them to change, this is further supported
by his book entitled "The marine spirit"(the point in this case is that Magaya fights for worshipping of
one God).Similarities can be noticed, hence, one will be making violence on a plain text if one totally
ignore the view there are similarities between Israel and Zimbabwean prophets when fighting for
worshiping of one God is concerned.

®•Israel prophets predicted the future events. Samuel predicted the dangers of having a King ,this is
recorded in 1 Samuel 8:6-17.Elijah predicted the death of King Ahab "the dogs will lick your blood". This
is recorded in 1 Kings 21:17-22.Ahijah of Shiloh predicted the death of the son of Jeroboam, this is
recorded in 1Kings 14:12.In Zimbabwean context, it is documented that Zimbabwean prophets
predicted the future events. For instance, Bulawayo well known prophet predicted about the status of
Zimbabwe in his 2016 prophecies (prophecy number 2 of Chiza says Zimbabwean dollar will be re-
introduced ).Makandiwa in his article Volume 11 undated prophesied about the next coming big
prophet, he says ("…..I see another man of God coming in Zimbabwe…but the time he comes I will be an
old man….". He went on to say "I see another city coming"). Daily News newspaper on 28 April 2016
published that Makandiwa had predicted the Zambia Xenophobia attacks.All this indicates that
Zimbabwean prophets predict the future just like Israel prophets, hence,similarities can be noticed.

®•Israel prophets had schools of prophecy, Samuel is recorded to be the father of prophetic guilds (1
Sam 19:20) and his followers were regarded as "sons of prophets",Bishau page 41,Chapter 6 ,says these
prophets were normally taught how to perform prophetic duties for instance prophesying ecstatically. In
Zimbabwean context it is also recorded that the professional prophets leaders teach their followers how
to prophesy ,this is supported by Bishau and Mazodze page 43,line 1 ,it is said that the white church
garment go to "Mativi reMana" where they will be taught how to prophesy. The point in this case is
teaching each other how to prophesy.Basing on this it is clear that there are some similarities between
Israel an Zimbabwean prophets.

NB So many prophetic duties which the writer ignored ,can be added

.This include

~performing miracles

HOWEVER PART

®•As much as there are similarities between Israel and Zimbabwean prophets, one will be short cited if
the writer ignores the other side of the coin which proves to us that there are minor differences which
can be noticed between Israel and Zimbabwean prophets. For instance. Israel prophets anointed kings,
Samuel anointed Saul and David .This is recorded in 1 Samuel 10:1 & 1 Samuel 16:13-23.Elijah was
suppose to anoint Jehu and Hazel, This is recorded in 1 Kings 19:15-16.In Zimbabwean context, it is not
documented that Zimbabwean prophets anoint Kings and the reason being that Zimbabwe is a
Republican Gvt but not monarchy. As such this indicate that there are some differences between Israel
and Zimbabwean prophets when anointing Kings is concerned.
•There are so many differences which can be added, this include the following

~advising Kings

~anointing judges

~championing holy wars.

DEMANDS OF THE QUESTION

-Compare and contrast

•Using writers angle ,one will understand that there are more

similarities than differences.

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Prophecy, a religious phenomenon generally associated with Judaism and Christianity, is found
throughout the religions of the world, both ancient and modern. In its narrower sense, the term prophet
(Greek prophetes,

"forthteller") refers to an inspired person who believes that he has been sent by his god with a message
to tell. He is, in this sense, the mouthpiece of his god. In a broader sense, the word can refer to anybody
who utters the will of a deity, often ascertained through visions, dreams, or the casting of lots; the will of
the deity also might be spoken in a liturgical setting. The prophet, thus, is often associated with the
priest, the shaman (a religious figure in primitive societies who functions as a healer, diviner, and
possessor of psychic powers), the diviner (foreteller), and the mystic.

In a much broader sense, the term prophet has been used in connection with social and religio-political
reformers and leaders.

3.8.1 NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE

A primary characteristic of prophetic self-consciousness is an awareness of a call, which is regarded as

the prophet's legitimization. This call is viewed as ultimately coming from a deity and by means of a
dream, a vision, an audition, or through the mediation of another prophet. The Old Testament prophet
Jeremiah's call was in the form of a vision, in which Yahweh (the God of Israel) told him that he had
already been chosen to be a prophet before he was born (Jer. 1:5). When the call of the deity is
mediated through a prophet who is the master of a prophetic group or an individual follower, such a call
can be seen as a mandate. Furthermore, such mediation means that the spirit of the prophet master has
been transferred simultaneously to the disciple. In the case of cult prophets, such as the prophets of the
gods Baal and Yahweh in ancient Canaan, the call may be regarded as a mandate of the cult. (see also
religious experience )

Prophets were often organized into guilds in which they received their training. The guilds were led by a
prophet master, and their members could be distinguished from other members of their society by their
garb (such as a special mantle) or by physical marks or grooming (such as baldness, a mark on the
forehead, or scars of self-laceration). (see also

religious education)

The nature of prophecy is twofold: either inspired (by visions or revelatory auditions), or acquired (by
learning certain techniques). In many cases both aspects are present. The goal of learning certain
prophetic techniques is to reach an ecstatic state in which

revelations can be received. That state might be reached through the use of music, dancing, drums,
violent bodily movement, and self-laceration. The ecstatic prophet is regarded as being filled with the
divine spirit, and in this state the deity speaks through him. Ecstatic oracles, therefore, are generally
delivered by the prophet in the first-person singular pronoun and are spoken in a short, rhythmic style.
(see also inspiration,

ecstasy )

That prophets employing ecstatic techniques have been called madmen is accounted for by descriptions
of their loss of control over themselves when they are "possessed" by the deity. Prophets in ecstatic
trances often have experienced sensations of corporeal transmigration (such as the 6th-century-BC Old
Testment prophet Ezekiel and the 6th-7th-century-AD founder of Isla m, Muhammad). Such prophets
are believed to have a predisposition for such unusual sensations. (see also possession )
The functions of the prophet and priest occasionally overlap, for priests sometimes fulfill a prophetic
function by uttering an oracle of a deity. Such an

oracle often serves as part of a liturgy, as when ministers or priests in modern Christian churches read
scriptural texts that begin with the proclamation: "Thus says the Lord." The priest, in this instance, fulfills
the prophetic function of the cult. Not only do the roles of the prophet and priest overlap but so do the
roles of the prophet and shaman . A shaman seldom remembers the message he has delivered when
possessed, whereas the prophet always remembers what has happened to him and what he "heard."
(see also priesthood )

The diviner, sometimes compared with the prophet, performs the priestly art of foretelling. His art is to

augur the future on the basis of hidden knowledge discerned almost anywhere, as in the constellations
(astrology), the flight of birds (auspices), in the entrails of sacrificial animals (haruspicy), in hands
(chiromancy), in casting lots (cleromancy), in the flames of burning sacrifices (pyromancy), and other
such areas of special knowledge (see also OCCULTISM:

Divination: astrology and

Divination: other forms ;

SACRED OFFICES AND ORDERS: e="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">Shamanism ). (see also divination )

Mystics and prophets are similar in nature in that they both claim a special intimacy with the deity. The
mystic, however, strives for a union with the deity, who usurps control of his ego, whereas the prophet
never loses control of his ego. On occasion mystics have delivered messages from the deity, thus acting
in the role of a prophet, and have been known to use ecstatic trances to reach the divine or sacred
world; e.g., many Roman Catholic saints and Muslim

Su fi s (see below Saint ; see also RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE: e="mso-bidi-font-style:normal">The

experience of mysticism ). (see also mysticism )

In the Western world, Israelite prophecy is regarded as unique, for not only did it oppose
institutionalized religion but it is understood as having propagated an ethical religion emphasizing
individual freedom, a religion not dependent on mechanical ritual and legalism.

The term prophecy also has been used in a strictly predictive sense, not necessarily dealing with
religious themes. In this sense, The Communist Manifesto, by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, was
viewed as a "prophecy" of things to come; a new approach that goes against the traditional in literature,
art, politics, and other areas may--in this wider sense--be termed "prophetic."

3.8.2 TYPES OF PROPHECY

Types of prophecy can be classified on the basis of inspiration, behaviour, and office. Divinatory
prophets include seers, oracle givers, soothsayers, and mantics (diviners), all of whom predict the future
or tell the divine will in oracular statements by means of instruments, dreams, telepathy, clairvoyance,
or visions received in the frenzied state of ecstasy. Predictions and foretellings, however, may also be
the result of inspiration, or of common sense by the intelligent observation of situations and events,
albeit interpreted from a religious point of view.

Of broad importance to the religious community is the

cult prophet, or priest-prophet. Under the mandate of the cult, the priest-prophet (who may be an
ordinary priest) is part of the priestly staff of a sanctuary, and his duty is to pronounce the divine
oracular word at the appropriate point in a liturgy. As such, he is an "institutional" prophet. The
difference between a cult prophet and a prophet in the classical sense is that the latter has always
experienced a divine call, whereas the cult prophet, pronouncing the word of the deity under cultic
mandate, repeats his messages at a special moment in the ritual. Because of the timeless character of
cultic activity, however, every time he prophesies, his message is regarded as new.

Missionary (or apostolic) prophets are those who maintain that the religious truth revealed to them is
unique to themselves alone. Such prophets acquire a following of disciples who accept that their
teachings reveal the true religion. The result of this kind of prophetic action may lead to a new religion;
e.g.,

Zoroaster, Jesus, and Muh ammad. The founders of many modern religious sects also should be included
in this type.

Another type of prophet is of the reformative or revolutionary kind (looking to the past and the future),
closely related to the restorative or purificatory type (looking to the past as the ideal). The best
examples are the Old Testament classical prophets; e.g., Amos and Jeremiah. Many of these so-called
literary prophets were working to reform the religion of Yahweh, attempting to free it from its Canaanite
heritage and accretions. In the Arab world Muh ammad is included in this category. The social sympathy
found among such prophets is rooted in their religious conscience. What may have been preached as
religious reform, therefore, often took on the form of social reform. This kind of prophecy is also found
in India and Africa, where prophets in modern times have arisen to restore or purify the old tribal
religious forms, as well as the customs and laws that had their sources in the older precolonial religious
life. Many of these movements became revolutionary not only by force of logic but also by force of
social and political pressure (see above,

Eschatology ).

Though there may be several categories of prophecy according to scholars, no sharp line of demarcation
differentiates among these different types. Any given prophet may be both predictive and missionary,
ecstatic as well as reformative.

3.8.3 PROPHECY IN THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST AND ISRAEL

3.8.3.1 The ancient Middle East.

In ancient Egypt, charismatic prophecy apparently was not commonplace, if it occurred at all, though
institutional prophecy was of the greatest importance because life was regarded as depending upon
what the gods said. Some ancient texts contain what has sometimes been regarded as prophetic
utterances, but these more often are considered to be the product of wise men who were well
acquainted with Egyptian traditions and history. Among Egyptian sages, historical events were thought
to follow a pattern, which could be observed and the laws of which could be discerned. Thus, times of
hardship were always thought to be followed by times of prosperity, and predictions were made
accordingly. (see also

Egyptian religion)

In Egyptian mantic (divinatory) texts there are prophetic sayings, but the particular concerns of these
texts are more political than religious. Some are fictitious, and many are considered to have been
prophesied after the event has already taken place. The papyrus text "The Protests of the Eloquent
Peasant" is considered by some authorities as a prophecy, since the peasant is forced to deliver
speeches, saying: "Not shall the one be silent whom thou hast forced to speak." This compulsion to
speak in the name of the divine is called by some scholars the "prophetical condition." (see also

scripture )

In a Hittite text King Mursilis II (reigned c. 1334- c. 1306 BC) mentions the presence of prophets, but
there is no information about the type of prophecy. More informative are texts from

Mari (Tall al-H ariri , 18th century BC) in northwest Mesopotamia, where some striking parallels to
Hebrew prophecy have been discovered. The Mari prophets--believed to be inspired--spoke the word of
the god Dagon just as Israelite prophets spoke the word of Yahweh.

In Mari, the two key words for prophet are muhhum (an ecstatic, a frenzied one) and

apilum (the one who responds). Both may be connected with the cult, but there are incidents indicating
that the muhhum was not bound to the cultic setting but received his message in a direct revelation
from his god. The apilum usually acted within a group of fellow prophets. Many of their sayings are
political in nature, but there are also oracles that deal with the king's duty to protect the poor and
needy, indicating that an ethical dimension was present among the Mari prophets. The messages could
also contain admonitions, threats, reproofs, accusations, and predictions of either disaster or good
fortune.

The Mari texts are important in the history of prophecy because they reveal that inspired prophecy in
the ancient Middle East dates back 1,000 years before Amos and Hosea (8th century BC) in Israel. From
Mesopotamia there is evidence of the mahhu, the frenzied one, known in Sumerian texts as the lú-gub-
ba. Mention also is made of some prophets who spoke to Assyrian kings, and their message is
sometimes introduced with the clause: "Do not fear." Omina (omens) texts containing promises or
predictions are also known. In one of the
maqlu ("oath") texts, in which an asipu priest is being sent forth by his god, the deity first asks "Whom
shall I send?" (see also

Mesopotamian religion,

Syrian and Palestinian religion )

The baru (a divinatory or astrological priest) declared the divine will through signs and omens, and thus
by some is considered to have been a prophet. Though he might possibly have had visions, he was not in
actuality an ecstatic. The art of divination became very elaborate in the course of time and required a
long period of training.

Zoroaster, the 7th-6th-century-BC Iranian founder of the religion that bears his name, is one of the least
well-known founders of a religion because of the character of the existing textual materials and because
some scholars have advocated that Zoroaster is a mythical figure. He may have been, however, an
ecstatic priest-singer, or

zaotar, who used special techniques (especially intoxication) to achieve a trance. Zoroaster found the
priests and cult of his day offensive, and opposed them. He preached the coming of the kingdom of the
god Ahura Mazda (Ormazd), who is claimed to have revealed to Zoroaster the sacred writings, the

Avesta . In the Yasna (a section of the Avesta), Zoroaster refers to himself as a Saoshyans, a saviour.
Messianic prophecies of the end of the world are found in Zoroastrian literature, but these are more a
literary product than actual prophetic utterance (see also

ZOROASTRIANISM AND PARSIISM ). (see also

Zoroastrianism)

Prophets were a common phenomenon in Syria-Palestine. In an Egyptian text (11th century BC), Wen-
Amon (a temple official at Karnak) was sent by the pharaoh to Gebal ( Byblos) to procure timber. While
there, a young noble of that city was seized by his god and in frenzy gave a message to the king of Gebal
that the request of Wen-Amon should be honoured. In another instance, an Aramaic inscription from
Syria records that the god Ba'al-shemain told King Zakir (8th century BC) through seers and diviners that
he would save the king from his enemies. These chapters reveal the close connection between sacrificial
rites and divine inspiration. In the Old Testament book of Numbers , chapters 22-24, the Mesopotamian
prophet Balaam (who may have been a mahhu ) from Pethor, whom the Moabite king Balak had asked
to curse the invading Israelites, is mentioned. In chapter 27, verse 9, of Jeremiah , another Old
Testament book, it is said that prophets, diviners, and soothsayers were in the neighbouring countries of
Judah: in Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Sidon. Since so little is known about these prophets, the
question of the uniqueness of Hebrew prophecy is difficult to assess (see also MIDDLE EASTERN
RELIGIONS, ANCIENT ).

3.8.3.2 Origins and development of Hebrew prophecy.

The Hebrew word for prophet is navi`, usually considered to be a loan word from Akkadian nabu,
naba`um, "to proclaim, mention, call, summon." Also occurring in Hebrew are hoze and ro`e, both
meaning "seer," and nevi`a

("prophetess").

Though the origins of Israelite prophecy have been much discussed, the textual evidence gives no
information upon which to build a reconstruction. When the Israelites settled in Canaan, they became
acquainted with Canaanite forms of prophecy. The structure of the prophetic and priestly function was
very much the same in Israel and Canaan. Traditionally, the Israelite seer is considered to have
originated in Israel's nomadic roots, and the navi`

is considered to have originated in Canaan, though such judgments are virtually impossible to
substantiate. In early Israelite history, the seer usually appears alone, but the navi` appears in the
context of a prophetic circle. According to I Samuel, there was no difference between the two categories
in that early time; the terms navi`

and ro`e seem to be synonymous. In Amos, hoze

and navi` are used for one and the same person. In Israel, prophets were connected with the
sanctuaries. Among the Temple prophets officiating in liturgies were the Levitical guilds and singers: the
"sons" of Asaph, Heman, Jeduthun, who are said to "prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals"
(I Chronicles). Other prophetic guilds are also mentioned. Members of these guilds generally prophesied
for money or gifts and were associated with such sanctuaries as Gibeah, Samaria, Bethel, Gilgal, Jericho,
Jerusalem, and Ramah. Jeremiah mentions that the chief priest of Jerusalem was the supervisor of both
priests and prophets, and that these prophets had rooms in the Temple buildings. In pre-Exilic Israel
(before 587/586 BC), prophetic guilds were a social group as important as the priests. Isaiah includes the
navi` and the qosem

("diviner," "soothsayer" ) among the leaders of Israelite society. Divination in the pre-Exilic period was
not considered to be foreign to Israelite religion. (see also

Samuel, Books of ,

Jerusalem, Temple of , Isaiah, Book of )

In reconstructing the history of Israelite prophecy, the prophets Samuel, Gad,

Nathan, and Elijah (11th to 9th centuries BC) have been viewed as representing a transitional stage from
the so-called vulgar prophetism to the literary prophetism, which some scholars believed represented a
more ethical and therefore a "higher" form of prophecy. The literary prophets also have been viewed as
being antagonistic toward the cultus. Modern scholars recognized, however, that such an analysis is an
oversimplification of an intricate problem. It is impossible to prove that the
nevi`im did not emphasize ethics simply because few of their utterances are recorded. What is more,
none of the so-called "transitional" prophets was a reformer or was said to have inspired reforms.
Samuel was not only a prophet but also a priest, seer, and ruler ("judge") who lived at a sanctuary that
was the location of a prophetic guild and furthermore was the leader of that navi` guild. In the cases of
Nathan and Gad there are no indications that they represented some new development in prophecy.
Nathan's association with the priest Zadok, however, has led some scholars to suspect that Nathan was
a Jebusite (an inhabitant of the Canaanite city of Jebus).

Elijah was a "prophet father" (or prophet master) and a prophet priest. Much of his prophetic career
was directed against the Tyrian

Baal cult, which had become popular in the northern kingdom (Israel) during the reign (mid-9th century
BC) of King Ahab and his Tyrian queen, Jezebel. Elijah's struggle against this cult indicated a religio-
political awareness, on his part, of the danger to Yahweh worship in Israel; namely, that Baal of Tyre
might replace Yahweh as the main god of Israel.

The emergence of classical prophecy in Israel (the northern kingdom) and

Judah (the southern kingdom) begins with Amos and Hosea (8th century BC). What is new in classical
prophecy is its hostile attitude toward Canaanite influences in religion and culture, combined with an old
nationalistic conception of Yahweh and his people. The reaction of these classical prophets against
Canaanite influences in the worship of Yahweh is a means by which scholars distinguish Israel's classical
prophets from other prophetic movements of their time. Essentially, the classical prophets wanted a
renovation of the Yahweh cult, freeing it from all taint of worship of Baal and

Asherah (Baal's female counterpart). Though not all aspects of the Baal-Asherah cult were completely
eradicated, ideas and rituals from that cult were rethought, evaluated, and purified according to those
prophets' concept of true Yahwism. Included in such ideas was the view that Yahweh was a jealous God
who, according to the theology of the psalms, was greater than any other god. Yahweh had chosen
Israel to be his own people and, therefore, did not wish to share his people with any other god. When
the prophets condemned cultic phenomena, such condemnation reflected a rejection of certain kinds of
cult and sacrifice--namely, those sacrifices and festivals not exclusively directed to Yahweh but rather to
other gods. The prophets likewise rejected liturgies incorrectly performed. The classical prophets did not
reject all cults, per se; rather, they wanted a cultus ritually correct, dedicated solely to Yahweh, and
productive of ethical conduct. Another important concept, accepted by the classical prophets, was that
of Yahweh's choice of Zion (Jerusalem) as his cult site. Thus, every cult site of the northern kingdom of
Israel and all the sanctuaries and bamot ("high places") were roundly condemned, whether in Israel or
Judah .

Amos, whose oracles against the northern kingdom of Israel have been misunderstood as reflecting a
negative attitude toward cultus per se, simply did not consider the royal cult of the northern kingdom at
Bethel to be a legitimate Yahweh cult. Rather, like the prophet Hosea after him, Amos considered the
Bethel cult to be Canaanite.
Prophets of the ancient Middle East generally interjected their opinions and advice into the political
arena of their countries, but in this regard the classical Hebrew prophets were perhaps more advanced
than other prophetic movements. They interpreted the will of God within the context of their particular
interpretation of Israel's history, and on the basis of this interpretation often arrived at a word of
judgment. Important to that interpretation of history was the view that Israel was an apostate people--
having rejected a faith once confessed--from the very earliest times, and the view that Yahweh's acts on
behalf of his chosen people had been answered by their worship of other gods. In this situation, the
prophets preached doom and judgment, and even the complete destruction of Israel. The source of
prophetic insight into these matters is the cultic background of liturgical judgment and salvation,
wherein Yahweh judged and destroyed his enemies, and in so doing created the "ideal" future. What is
totally unexpected is that the prophets would go so far as to include Israel itself as among Yahweh's
enemies, thus using these ideas against their own people. Usually, however, the prophets allowed some
basis for hope in that a remnant would be left. The future of this remnant (Israel) lay in the reign of an
ideal king (as described in Isaiah), indicating that the prophets were not antiroyalists. Though they could
and did oppose individual kings, the prophets could not make a separation between Yahweh and the
reign of his chosen king or dynasty. Their messianic ideology, referring to the messiah, or anointed one,
is based on old royal ideology, and the ideal king is not an eschatological figure (one who appears at the
end of history). In this respect, the prophets were nationalistic; they believed that the ideal kingdom
would be in the promised land, and its centre would be Jerusalem.

With the Exile of the Judaeans to Babylon of 586 BC, prophecy entered a new era. The prophecies of
what is called Deutero-Isaiah ( Isaiah 40-45), for instance, were aimed at preserving Yahwism in
Babylonia. His vision of the future went beyond the pre-Exilic concept of a remnant and extended the
concept into a paradisiacal future wherein Yahweh's new creation would be a new Israel. This tone of
optimism is continued in the prophetic activity (late 6th century BC) of Haggai and Zechariah , prophets
who announced that Yahweh would restore the kingdom and the messianic vision would come to pass.
Prerequisite to this messianic age was the rebuilding of the Temple (which was viewed as heaven on
earth). When, however, the Temple had been rebuilt and long years had passed with neither the
kingdom being restored nor the messianic age initiated, Israelite prophecy declined. (see also
Babylonian Exile )

There is a tendency in prophetic preaching to spiritualize those aspects of religion that remain
unfulfilled; herein lie the roots of eschatology, which is concerned with the last times, and apocalyptic
literature, which describes the intervention of God in history to the accompaniment of dramatic,
cataclysmic events. Since the predictions of the classical prophets were not fulfilled in a messianic age
within history, these visions were translated into a historical apocalypse, such as Daniel. Why prophecy
died out in Israel is difficult to determine, but Zechariah offers as good an answer as any in saying that
the prophets "in those days" told lies. Prophets did appear, but after Malachi none gained the status of
the classical prophets. Another reason may be found in

Ezra's reform of the cult in the 5th century BC, in which Yahwism was so firmly established that there
was no longer any need for the old polemics against Canaanite religion. (see also
apocalypticism, history, philosophy of )

3.8.3.3 Prophecy and apocalyptic literature.

With the advent of post-Exilic Judaism (Ezra and after), including its emphasis on law and cult, there was
not much room left for prophecy. The prophetic heritage was channelled through the teaching of their
words. What remained of prophetic activity was expressed in various literary works that claimed
esoteric knowledge of the divine purpose. The apocalyptic writers saw themselves as taking over and
carrying on the prophetic task, but they went beyond the prophets in their use of old mythological
motifs. The events they described had usually occurred long ago, but their recounting of these events
was for the purpose of hinting and even predicting the events of the future. There was a far greater
emphasis upon predictive speculation about the future than on the prophetic analysis and insight into
history. The apocalyptic authors wrote pseudonymously, using the names of ancient worthies (such as
Adam, Enoch, Abraham, Daniel, and Ezra). The literature is predominantly prose, but that of the classical
prophets was predominantly poetry. Apocalyptic language is lavish in its use of fantastic imagery,
frequently using riddles and numerical speculations. In apocalyptic literature angelology came into full
blossom, with accounts of fallen angels (fallen stars) caught up in the forces opposed to God, frequently
pictured in the old mythological motif of the struggle between darkness and light. Wild beasts
symbolized peoples and nations, and there were esoteric calculations and speculations about the
different eras through which history was passing as the world approached the eschaton (the
consummation of history). (see also

Pseudepigrapha, demon,

animal )

Dominant in apocalyptic literature is the theme of God's sovereignty and ultimate rule over all the
universe. The message of the apocalyptic writers is one of both warning of the doom to come at the end
of history, and hope in the new age beyond history under the rule of God, when the righteous will be
vindicated (see above, Eschatology ).

3.8.3.4 Prophecy and prophetic religion in postbiblical Judaism.

Though prophecy did not cease functioning in early

Judaism, rabbinical Judaism --that influenced by rabbis, scholars, and commentators of the Bible--sought
to limit it by advocating the pre-Exilic era as the classical time of prophecy. Prophecy was not
suppressed, but it came to be encircled by the law (

Torah ) in that all prophecy had to be in harmony with Torah, which was the definitive revelation of
God's will. Thus, rabbinical Judaism gave prophecy its place of importance, but only as a phenomenon of
the past. Such a theological stricture could not restrain the charismatic, eschatologically oriented
patriots who arose during the time of Roman hegemony (mid-1st century BC-4th century AD). One
rabbi, Akiba ben Joseph , joined with a messianic pretender, Bar Kokhba (originally Simeon ben Koziba)
in a revolt (132-135) and functioned as a prophet within that movement.
Some prophets are known from the period of

Hellenistic Judaism . I Maccabees, chapter 14, relates that Simon Maccabeus , who finally secured
political independence for Judaea in 142 BC, was chosen as "leader and high priest forever, until a
trustworthy prophet should arise." The same notion of a prophet soon to appear is expressed in chapter
1 of I Maccabees. The Hasmonean (Maccabean) prince John Hyrcanus (reigned 135/134-104 BC) was
regarded as fulfilling these expectations and was called a prophet by the 1st-century AD Jewish historian
Josephus ( Jewish War). Josephus also mentions some Zealots (Jewish revolutionaries) as prophets and
also one Jesus, son of Ananias, who in AD 62 predicted the destruction of the Temple and the defeat of
the Jews. Josephus also mentions the seer Simon, a prophet leader ( Antiquities), and Menahem, who
prophesied in the 1st century BC. Among the followers of Judas Maccabeus , the leader of the 2nd-
century-BC revolt, there apparently were persons who divined knowledge of the future. These and other
notations indicate that seers and prophets played an important role in the intertestamental and
postbiblical periods. (see also Maccabees, The Books of the, Hasmonean dynasty )

Jewish theology in Alexandria (Egypt) took up early rabbinical ideas and postulated that the will of God
was to be discerned in the Torah and affirmed that the interpretation of law succeeded both the
prophetic office and the role of sages. The law was thus considered to be superior to prophetic teaching.
The Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria (c. 30 BC-after AD 40) affirmed that the Jews are a people of
prophets. He also asserted that when a prophet has reached the fourth and final stage of ecstasy he is
ready to become an instrument of divine power. Though Philo was influenced by Hellenistic concepts of
prophecy, his basic foundation was still the Old Testament. Later rabbis believed that prophecy, though
it was a gift from the world beyond, still required some knowledge. In rabbinic discussions of the nature
of truth, it was generally held that reason alone was necessary but insufficient; prophecy could supply
what was missing.

The medieval Jewish philosopher Maimonides understood prophecy as an emanation from God to the
intellect of man. Thus, prophecy could not be acquired by human effort. The divine gift of prophecy was
bestowed upon those with both mental and moral perfection, combined with the presence of superior
imagination. Opponents of this view advocated that Maimonides' concept of prophecy was not Jewish
because Jewish prophecy always showed itself to be miraculous (see also

JUDAISM ). (see also

Judaism )

3.8.4 PROPHECY IN

CHRISTIANITY

3.8.4.1 Divination and prophecy in the Hellenistic world.

The problem of false prophets that occurred in Old Testament times also occurred in the early Christian
communities. Prophets and diviners were widespread throughout the Hellenistic world. The Greek
prophetes was not only a forthteller but also an interpreter of divine messages. In addition, there were
mantics (from the Greek mantis)-- i.e., visionary seers--whose visions were interpreted by prophets,
soothsayers, diviners of all kinds, and especially astrologers. The impetus for much of this activity came
from Babylonia. The influx of new religions from the East brought a profusion of astrologers and
prophets. Many schools of astrology were founded throughout the Hellenistic world, and old schools of
philosophy became very much occupied with astrology. (see also

Greek religion )

3.8.4.2 New Testament and early Christianity.

Prophecy in the New Testament is seen as both a continuation of Old Testament prophecy as well as its
fulfillment. For New Testament authors, the correct interpretation of Old Testament prophecy is that it
speaks in toto of Christ . To prove their point, they often cite passages of Old Testament prophecy that
are then elucidated as the words of God about Christ. New Testament writers follow Jesus himself in this
matter, and Jesus is taken to be the prophet that was promised in Deuteronomy (see John 1:45, cf. 5:39,
6:14; Acts 3:22

ff. ). Jesus regarded himself as a prophet, and so did some of his contemporaries. One special aspect of
the prophetic image, however, is missing in Jesus: he was not an ecstatic, although supernatural
revelations are found in connection with him; e.g., the transfiguration of Jesus as witnessed by some of
his Apostles on Mt. Tabor. In these New Testament descriptions of the transfiguration, Jesus is
proclaimed to be the Son of God in words borrowed directly from Old Testament enthronement ritual.
As a prophet, Jesus predicted his own death, his return as the Son of man at the end of the world, and
the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple. At many points, Jesus is compared with and interpreted by the
classical prophets in New Testament writings: his death--seen as the martyrdom of a prophet, his
sufferings, and even his identity. (see also messiah)

Though the New Testament describes Jesus as a prophet, he is at the same time believed to be more
than a prophet: he is the expected Messiah (Greek christos,

"anointed one"), predicted by prophets of old, who should reign as the Son of David and the Son of God.
The royal ideology of the Old Testament was most important to early Christianity, for herein lay the
seeds of its doctrines of Christ (see above,

Eschatology ).

Several prophets are mentioned in the New Testament. One, Zechariah, is said to have perished
"between the altar and the sanctuary" (Luke). Reference to his death is included by the Gospel writers
because he was the last prophet before Jesus to have been killed by the Jews. Zechariah, the father of
John the Baptist, uttered the Benedictus ("Blessed," the initial Latin word of the prophetic song) under
the inspiration of the spirit. His wife, Elizabeth, also was described as being inspired by the spirit.
Others are Simeon, the prophetess Anna, and John the Baptist. These prophets are conceived by the
New Testament writers as the termination of Old Testament prophecy, a concept also expressed by
Jesus with reference to John the Baptist.

The New Testament mentions several prophetic figures in the early church. Among them are Agabus of
Jerusalem; Judas Barsabbas and Silas, who also were elders of the Jerusalem Church; the four
prophesying daughters of Philip the evangelist; and John, the author of Revelation. The term prophet is
used with reference to an office in the early church along with evangelists and teachers, and the
recipient of the letter bearing his name, Timothy, is called both a minister and a prophet. The prophet's
role in the early church was to reveal divine mysteries and God's plan of salvation.

Paul instructed his followers in the correct use of prophecy, and evaluated it as more beneficial to the
life of congregations than ecstatic glossolalia (speaking in tongues). He considered prophecy to be the
greatest spiritual gift from God, and in his view a prophet therefore ranks ahead of evangelists and
teachers. With all this prophetic activity, the problem of false prophecy was crucial, and warnings
against it abound in the New Testament. The most dangerous of the false prophets is predicted in the
book of Revelation to John as yet to come. Many of these prophets, viewed as magicians and exorcists,
are condemned for inducing chaos and for leading people astray. Therefore all prophetic activity had to
be examined. (see also

apostolic church )

In the period immediately after the Apostles, prophets continued to play an important leadership role in
the church, sometimes being called high priests. They were the only ones permitted to speak freely in
the liturgy because of their inspiration by the Holy Spirit. Gradually, however, the liturgy became more
and more fixed, and less freedom and innovation was permitted; this change, combined with the threat
of false prophecy, eliminated these charismatic personalities. Among the heretical sects that advocated
a return to prophetic activity,

Montanism (2nd century), led by the prophet

Montanus , advocated that the spirit of truth had come through Montanus. The freedom of doctrinal
innovation that Montanus advocated could well have led to doctrinal anarchy, and the result of the
struggle against this heresy was the suppression of charismatic prophecy, wherein ecstatic inspiration
came to be viewed by the church as demonic.

Another prophet who created a problem in the early church was Mani --the 3rd-century founder of a
dualistic religion that was to bear his name (Manichaeism)--who considered himself to be the final
messenger of God, after whom there was to be no other.

3.8.4.3 Prophetic and millenarian movements in later Christianity.

In Western medieval church doctrines and rituals, active prophecy had no place. Prophetic activity was
carried on, however, through holy orders. Mystically oriented holy men would sometimes appear as
prophets with a special message, and even ecstatics found their places within the monasteries. In
Eastern

Christianity, monastic life stressed training in mystical experience. (see also

monasticism)

Throughout Christian history there have been millenarian movements, usually led by prophetic-type
personalities and based on the New Testament belief in Christ's return. Their basic doctrine is chiliasm
(from Greek

chilioi, "thousand"), which affirms that Christ will come to earth in a visible form and set up a theocratic
kingdom over all the world and thus usher in the millennium, or the 1,000-year reign of Christ and his
elect. (see also

millennialism)

The early and medieval church hierarchy generally opposed chiliasm because such movements often
became associated with nationalistic aspirations. Though the key leaders of the Protestant Reformation
opposed chiliasm, and therefore minimized its effects upon the emergent denominations ( e.g.,

Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican), chiliasm did influence Anabaptist circles (radical reformation groups),
and through them chiliastic ideas influenced Protestant Reformed theology and have appeared in
reform movements, such as Pietism in Lutheran churches, and various revivalistic movements. (see also

Protestantism)

3.8.5 PROPHECY IN ISLA M

3.8.5.1 The centrality of prophecy in Islam.

Pre-Isla mic prophecy in Arabia was no different in character from other Semitic prophecy. Pre-Isla mic
terms for prophet are 'arraf and

kahin ("seer," cognate to Hebrew kohen, "priest"). The

kahin could often be a priest, and as a diviner he was an ecstatic. The kahin was considered to be
possessed by a jinni("spirit"), by means of whose power miracles could be performed. Also, poets were
considered to be possessed by a jinni through whose inspiration they composed their verses. The
importance of the seers and diviners was noted in all aspects of life. Any problem might be submitted to
such men, and their oracular answers were given with divine authority. It is not surprising, therefore, to
find that a kahin often became a sheikh, a temporal leader, and there were instances in which the
position of kahin

was hereditary. (see also

Arabian religion )
It was against this background that the founder of Islam, Muhammad , appeared. During his early career
in Mecca (in Arabia) he was considered by his tribesmen, the Quraysh, to be only another jinni-
possessed kahin. His utterances during this time were delivered in the same rhymed style as that used
by other Arab prophets and were mostly the products of ecstatic trances. At about 40 years of age Muh
ammad experienced the promptings of the one god, Allah, and retreated into the solitude of the
mountains. These retreats served psychologically as preparations for his later revelations. The central
religious problem of Muh ammad was the fact that Jews had their sacred scriptures in Hebrew, and
Christians had theirs in Greek, but there was no written divine knowledge in Arabic. Muhammad's
preoccupation with this concern, along with a sense of the coming Day of Judgment , became the seeds
of his new religion. Contemplation had matured Muh ammad, and biographers point out that, as one
may conclude from the Qur'a n, Muhammad received the divine call in a

vision . His ecstatic revelations were in the form of auditions, usually involving the angel Gabriel reading
the divine message from a book. The illiterate Muh ammad had his wife Khadi jah, who was 15 years his
senior, record them, and they are preserved in the

Qur`an . Because this is believed to be a verbatim copy of the Heavenly Book, literally the words of Alla h
himself, it cannot be questioned.

Muh ammad considered himself to be more than a mere prophet ( nabi); he thought of himself as the
messenger ( rasul ) of Alla h, the final messenger in a long chain that had begun with Noah and run
through Jesus. As Alla h's rasul, Muhammad saw his first mission to be that of warning the Arab peoples
of the impending doomsday. No doubt Muh ammad was influenced by the Judeo-Christian tradition in
his concept of the Day of Judgment, as well as in his concept of himself as a prophet. Muhammad, who
had felt at one time that Arabs were religiously inferior to Jews and Christians, became the medium of
revelations that created Islam and raised the Arabs in Muh ammad's own evaluation to a status equal
with that of the other two religions.

After AD 622, when Muh ammad left Mecca and found refuge in Medina, ecstatic revelations began to
play a secondary role in his prophecy--due to his political concerns--and not only does the rhymed prose
of his message give way to more conventional prose but the content is more obviously the product of
reasoned reflection on all aspects of life.

3.8.5.2 The Qur`a nic doctrines of prophecy.

An official Islamic view, and also that of Muhammad himself, was that Muh ammad was the final
Prophet. The Qur`a n mentions those men who are considered to have imparted divine knowledge:
Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, David, and Jesus. None of these revealed Alla h's message
in full, since they were sent only to one nation. Muhammad, on the other hand, was sent to all nations
and also to the jinn.

The messages of the prophets before Muh ammad were believed to have been either forgotten or
distorted, but Isla m claims that the Qur`a n both corrects and confirms the sayings of the earlier
prophets; Muh ammad is the "seal of the prophets"; i.e., the end of prophecy. All prophecy before Muh
ammad is incomplete and points to the coming of the final revelation.

The prophetic activity of Muh ammad serves as the foundation of Isla m and Muslim society. The
incomparable revelations of Muh ammad are believed to have brought true monotheism into the world,
to which nothing can be added or taken away. Thus, there is no more need of prophets or revelations.

3.8.5.3 Later theological and philosophical doctrines.

After the death of Muh ammad, the expansion of Islam brought it into contact with the world at large,
and a Muslim culture (involving science, philosophy, and literature) emerged, partially as a result of the
Muslim acquisition of Byzantine culture. Christians and Jews became advisers and officials in Muslim
courts. Christian philosophers introduced Muslim students to the works of the 4th-century-BC Greek
philosopher Aristotle and to Neoplatonism (a philosophical system concerning the complex levels of
reality), to theories about the nature of man, to theology, to the nature of existence, and to cosmology.
Philosophical discussions about God, however, leave little or no room for prophets, and the savant
displaced the prophet as the one proclaiming the will of God. As religious leaders, the savants were the
keepers of

sunnah (the life and habits of the prophet) and hadith

(traditions about Muh ammad's utterances and actions), which are supplements to the Qur`a n. Study of
hadith and sunnah

contributed to the beginning of scholarly and scholastic activities in Isla m, from which study emerged
the Muslim system of duties and obligations (figh ). Muslim theology began in the formulation of the
doctrine of the general consensus ( ijma' ), which was used to determine what was genuine

sunnah. None ventured to question that Alla h was the only God, that Muhammad was his prophetic
messenger, or that the Qur`a n was Allah's word; to have done so would have been tantamount to
admitting that one was not a Muslim.

Scholastic philosophy was first introduced openly into Muslim theology by al-Ash'ari (10th century) who
was the first to give Isla m a systematic exposition. Another theologian, Ibn Si na ( Avicenna), considered
prophecy still to be a fundamental aspect of Islam, but for him, a prophet was not the spirit-possessed
spokesman of God but rather an intelligent, intuitive man whose insight results in a place of leadership
in society. Another philosopher, Ibn Rushd ( Averroës ), denied the belief that man's knowledge could
ever be the same as God's knowledge; he also denied doctrines of predestination and corporeal
resurrection, both of which were aspects of Muhammad's message.

3.8.5.4 Prophetic figures after Muh ammad.

The fact that Muh ammad was considered to be the final prophet did not end prophecy in Islam. After
Muh ammad's death, several seers proclaimed themselves his successors. Muh ammad had designated
no one to succeed himself, and left no sons. Abu Bakr , the father of Muh ammad's wife 'A`ishah, was
chosen caliph (Arabic

khalifah, "substitute, deputy"), but this did not discourage others from claiming that they were called of
Alla h and thus trying to lead their own tribes as Muh ammad had led his. Such movements were
crushed by force, which contributed to the rapid expansion of Isla m.

Some prophets claimed that they were long-awaited saviour-deliverers ( mahdi"restorer of the faith")
and even gained some following beyond their own local tribes. Muh ammad Ah mad ibn as-Sayyid 'Abd
Alla h of the Sudan preached a holy war against Egypt (1881) and fought and defeated the British
governor-general C.G. Gordon at Khartoum in 1885. In India (Punjab), Mirza Ghulan Ah mad claimed that
he had received the spirit of Jesus and that he was a prophet- messiah . He recorded his revelations
from Alla h in a book. Considering himself to be the Christ to his generation, he set out to reform Isla m
by liberalizing strict orthodoxy, yet avoiding the extremes of the pro-Western movements of his time.
He gained a large following among middle-class Muslims, but was soon disowned by orthodox Islam. His
sect ( Ahmadiyah), though small in numbers, has through its missionary activities spread over much of
the world. Its sociopolitical stance is similar to that of the Black Muslims of the United States (see also
ISLAM ).

3.8.6 PROPHECY IN OTHER RELIGIONS

3.8.6.1 Prophetic movements and figures in the Eastern religions.

Buddhist literature contains predictions of a certain Buddha Maitreya , who will come as a kind of
saviour-messiah to inaugurate a paradisaical age on earth. Gautama the Buddha himself, the 6th-
century-BC founder of Buddhism, mentioned this prediction. Among the Hindus, the

Purana literature ("old history") contains prophetic passages, but these are to be understood as
predictions after the event has occurred. Hindu religion has had many prophetic reformers, and the
tribes of India, in their struggle for freedom, have produced prophets who combined the ideas of
religious freedom with the hope of political and social freedom. The Oraons , a tribe in Chota Na gpur,
saw several prophets ( bhagats) appear around the turn of the 20th century. Their intent was to free
their people from foreign culture and political rule, returning to the older Hindu culture and religion.
Such efforts often led to armed rebellion and ended in disaster. (see also

Hinduism, scripture)

In ancient China, divination was commonplace. One Confucian book involving divination, the "Classic of
Changes," may have been connected with pre-Han Confucianism (before the 3rd century BC). Classical
Confucian religion, however, emphasized the importance of rational process over inspiration and
divination. Autocratic governments eliminated any such revolutionary, prophet-led movements as
occurred in India, and any prophecy against the establishment was regarded as heretical. Inspired
prophecy found little place in the official state religion. This situation did not rule out prophecy in folk
religion, in which prophets appeared and promised their followers the good life in this world and in the
next. In modern times, some of these movements became religio-political movements, as when Hung
Hsiu-Ch'üan , an ecstatic epileptic noble of the middle 19th century, started a movement called the
Taiping ("Great Peace"), a sect claiming that it was establishing the correct political order anew. Hung's
movement--perhaps under the impact of Protestant missions--was quite austere, and it opposed magic,
idols, and belief in spirits. He considered the New Testament to be authoritative for his new sect, and its
rapid growth--aided by connections with other revolutionary movements--soon resulted in a genuine
danger to the Manchu ruler of China. The

Taiping Rebellion was crushed by Gordon in 1864. (see also Chinese religion ,

Confucianism)

Diviners and shamans (male and female) are well represented in old Japanese

Shinto. Japanese shamanism, which was closely related to Korean shamanism, often played a role in
political disturbances and still does. Among old Japanese Buddhist sects is that founded by Nichiren
(13th century AD), a prophetic enthusiast, religious revivalist, and zealous nationalist who taught that
the Japanese people were the chosen people of God. In the Shinto revival movements of the 18th and
19th centuries, inspired persons with eschatological concepts founded movements that became
messianic in character, and drew many of their followers from among the farmers, many of whom had
practiced a Buddhist folk piety.

3.8.6.2 Prophetic movements and figures in the religions of nonliterate cultures.

In many nonliterate cultures, especially those of Africa , shamans, seers, and prophets are quite
common. The same distinction between technical divination and charismatic prophecy is to be found in
these cultures as in the ancient Middle East. When it is possible to trace the history of prophetic activity
in Africa, scholars usually find that it arises in times of confrontations with foreign cultures and with the
advent of new religions. A sharp distinction between the diviner and the prophet cannot always be
maintained, for diviners sometimes appear as prophets. A diviner may hear the voice of a god or spirit in
his dreams and visions (in Zulu he is called a "dreamhouse") and receive a message. Some prophets,
avowing a call, deny any training in prophecy. There are many parallels with the "rebel" prophets of
India. Ecstatic prophets have played an important role not only in chiliastic and messianic movements
but also in those movements opposing imperialism and European colonization of Africa. Their goal was
and is a return to the old African culture and religion. Eschatological motifs have often been used in the
prophetic preaching of tribal and national movements aspiring for freedom. Many of these prophets
took up Christian ideas. Nxele, a 19th-century prophet of the Sout mih African Xhosas, preached the
return of the dead on a certain day, and his successor, Mlandsheni, claimed to be the reincarnation of
Nxele. He and others like him were healers and miracle workers. (see also primitive religion )

Some of the prophetic founders of reform movements, which often were more political than religious,
became messianic figures. Other prophets started out as Christian converts but came to a strong
awareness that God had destined them to separate from their churches and lead syncretistic
movements (fusions of various sources), all of which incorporate aspects of old African religion and,
often, allow polygamy. In all these movements, syncretistic or not, there are also many prophetesses.

Prophets also have been found among American Indians. In 1675 a medicine man, Popé , arose as a
prophetic leader among the

Pueblo Indians. He preached the end of Spanish tyranny and a restoration of Indian sovereignty. At the
height of the movement, several massacres took place, along with the burning of various church
buildings.

( G.W.A. )

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A Level: Daily Divinity Questions and Answers with Dingani Witness

by Dingani Witness

26 Apr 2016 at 14:47hrs | 5118 Views

QN " More than any figure he ,kept Yahweh worship alive in Israel".In your view is this more true of
Samuel or Elijah.To what extent do Zimbabwean prophets keep the spirit of Yahweh living in
Zimbabwean society?(25)- pt 17

- The above question requires one to have deep knowledge about the contributions of two different
prophets in the society of Israel. Their contributions will be fully outlined on the ongoing article .

ANSWERS

©To begin with Samuel. Samuel as a prophet played number of prophetic duties which led Yahweh
worship to be alive in Israel.
 - Samuel received his call when the word of the Lord was rare ,this is indicated in 1 Sam 3:1.Therefore,
this indicate that Samuel is the one who revived it ,hence, this will lead one to suggest that Samuel kept
Yahweh worship alive in Israel.

- Samuel instituted the school of prophecy ,number of so many scholars state that the major role of the
sons of prophets was to force people to maintain the Mosaic Covenant. The mosaic covenant got sets of
laws which guide people to worship Yahweh, hence, Samuel can be included among the people who
kept Yahweh worship alive since he was the head of prophetic guilds.

- The story of Saul when he practised necromancy is well known by so many people. Necromancy is the
use of the dead spirit to predict the future. Saul tried to practice the necromancy, Samuel met him.As
such,this led Saul to notice that Yahweh was the only God who guided people. It cannot be disputed that
Samuel kept the worship of Yahweh alive in Israel by this act.

- Samuel is placed as the transitional bridge between seer and prophet. We all know the roles of
prophets ,championing monotheism being one of the roles. All prophets who came after Samuel they
went on to fight for the worshipping of one God. Honour would be granted to Samuel who started
prophecy ,hence,this shows us that Samuel kept Yahweh worship alive in Israel.

ELIJAH'S CONTRIBUTIONS

- Elijah as a prophet, butchered the 850 false prophets during the Mt Carmel, this is evidenced in 1 Kings
18:36-43.As such this led people to abandon apostasy and syncretism,hence, it will be a loss if one
ignore the view that Elijah kept Yahweh worship alive in Israel.

- The reasons why Elijah went to Mt Horeb is a debate among scholars .Some state that he went to
Horeb so as to renew the Mosaic covenant.Worshiping of one God is one of the rule.Therefore this
means that Elijah went to Horeb so as to campaign the worshipping of one God,hence, this will lead one
to state that Elijah kept Yahweh worship alive .

- Elijah anointed the prophet Elisha,1Kings 19:15-16 who later upholded the prophetic duties,he
performed number of miracles which later eye opened people that Yahweh was alive in Israel.Honour
would be given to Elijah who did justice by annointing.

ZIMBABWEAN CONTEXT

- In Zimbabwean context ,they are number of so many prophets who have kept or keep the spirit of
Yahweh living.This is true to Johane Masowe who burnt the fertishes and destroyed mishonga.Thus
leading one to state that Masowe kept the spirit of Yahweh alive in Zimbabwe.

- Magaya and Makandiwa ,have been recorded by media teaching the church to keep on worshiping
Yahweh, in result the two churches are having a following of more than 6 million. As such this indicate
that the Zimbabwean prophets keep the spirit of God alive in Zimbabwean society.
- Anointed materials have been sold by number of so many prophets .People now believe that the spirit
of God can be placed anywhere ,hence,leading one to state that the society is now believing the
worshipping of Yahweh alive in Zimbabwe .

N.B There are number of so many examples which can be added

HOWEVER PART

- There is no prophet who haven't kept the spirit of Yahweh living in Zimbabwean society. All prophets
keep the spirit of Yahweh alive as the writer highlighted above.

DEMANDS OF THE QUESTION

- Show the prophet who kept much the worship of Yahweh alive between Samuel and Elijah - Using
writers angle Samuel contributed much.

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QN Compare and Contrast the roles of Israel prophets with Zimbabwean prophets? (25)

COMMENTS

•In order for one to execute the above question ,it is prudent at this stage to understand the KEY words
or answer different fundamental questions. For instance

~What is a prophet?

~What is a role?

~What's the difference between role and character?

•Israel prophets this include the following

~Moses

~Samuel

~Ahijah of Shiloah, Gad,Nathan,Ben Imlah.

~Amos the country prophet

~Hosea

~Isaiah the prophet of Jerusalem

~Jeremiah the prophet of Judah

•The Zimbabwean prophets include the following

~Magaya "the man of cloth".

~Fodric Fodric "the apple prophet".

~Johane Masowe.

~Blessing Chiza of Eagle ministries.

~Madzibaba Godfrey Nzira.

~Samuel Mutendi of ZCC .

ANSWERS

®Israel prophets fought for social justice ,For instance Moses fought for justice when he confronted King
Pharaoh so as to free the Israelites which were being oppressed by Pharaoh, this evidenced in Exodus
5:1.Elijah fought for justice when he confronted King Ahab over Naboth's vineyard ,this is recorded in 1
Kings 21:17.Amos condemned the women of Samaria who were oppressing the poor, this is recorded in
Amos 4:1.Amos advocated for fairness as well in Amos 5:24.In Zimbabwean context, it is recorded that
Zimbabwean prophets have fought social justice, Samuel Mutendi is believed to have criticized the
oppression of blacks by the whites during the colonization of Southern Rhodesia .(note that so many
examples can be added )Basing on the above text it is clear that there are similarities between Israel and
Zimbabwean prophets when fighting for social justice is concerned.

®•Israel prophets fought for worshipping of one God.Moses for worshiping of one God when he
destroyed the golden calf which had been made by the Israelites, this is recorded in Exodus. 32:20.Elijah
butchered the baal prophets during the Mt Carmel Contest, this is recorded in 1 Kings 18:36-42.In
Zimbabwean context, it is documented by number of authors that Zimbabwean prophets fights for
worshipping of one God, Isabel Mukonyora citing Dillon, says Masowe during his days had tendency of
destroying "mishonga" and burning the fetishes.Makandiwa recorded by Christ Tv undated, discouraged
his church to partake in evil practices. Magaya recorded by Newsday newspaper and Bulawayo24.com in
14 February 2015 , he condemned the use of water as a way of exorcism by the white church garment
which is led by Johannes Ndanga as evilness and encouraging them to change, this is further supported
by his book entitled "The marine spirit"(the point in this case is that Magaya fights for worshipping of
one God).Similarities can be noticed, hence, one will be making violence on a plain text if one totally
ignore the view there are similarities between Israel and Zimbabwean prophets when fighting for
worshiping of one God is concerned.
®•Israel prophets predicted the future events. Samuel predicted the dangers of having a King ,this is
recorded in 1 Samuel 8:6-17.Elijah predicted the death of King Ahab "the dogs will lick your blood". This
is recorded in 1 Kings 21:17-22.Ahijah of Shiloh predicted the death of the son of Jeroboam, this is
recorded in 1Kings 14:12.In Zimbabwean context, it is documented that Zimbabwean prophets
predicted the future events. For instance, Bulawayo well known prophet predicted about the status of
Zimbabwe in his 2016 prophecies (prophecy number 2 of Chiza says Zimbabwean dollar will be re-
introduced ).Makandiwa in his article Volume 11 undated prophesied about the next coming big
prophet, he says ("…..I see another man of God coming in Zimbabwe…but the time he comes I will be an
old man….". He went on to say "I see another city coming"). Daily News newspaper on 28 April 2016
published that Makandiwa had predicted the Zambia Xenophobia attacks.All this indicates that
Zimbabwean prophets predict the future just like Israel prophets, hence,similarities can be noticed.

®•Israel prophets had schools of prophecy, Samuel is recorded to be the father of prophetic guilds (1
Sam 19:20) and his followers were regarded as "sons of prophets",Bishau page 41,Chapter 6 ,says these
prophets were normally taught how to perform prophetic duties for instance prophesying ecstatically. In
Zimbabwean context it is also recorded that the professional prophets leaders teach their followers how
to prophesy ,this is supported by Bishau and Mazodze page 43,line 1 ,it is said that the white church
garment go to "Mativi reMana" where they will be taught how to prophesy. The point in this case is
teaching each other how to prophesy.Basing on this it is clear that there are some similarities between
Israel an Zimbabwean prophets.

NB So many prophetic duties which the writer ignored ,can be added

.This include

~performing miracles

—Biblical Data and Critical View:

Though many ancient peoples had their prophets, the term has received its popular acceptation from
Israel alone, because, taken as a class, the Hebrew prophets have been without parallel in human
history in their work and influence. This brief article will consider, first, the historical development of
prophecy, and, second, the extant utterances of the Prophets.

I. Historical Development of Prophecy:

Terms Used for the Prophetic Function. The name "prophet," from the Greek meaning "forespeaker"
(πρὸ being used in the original local sense), is an equivalent of the Hebrew , which signifies properly a
delegate or mouthpiece of another (see Ex. vii. 1), from the general Semitic sense of the root, "to
declare," "announce." Synonymous to a certain degree was the word "seer" ( ), which, as I Sam. ix. 9
indicates, was an earlier designation than "prophet," at least in popular speech. The usage of these
words gives the historical starting-point for inquiring as to the development of true prophetism in Israel.
But there is an earlier stage still than that of, "seeing," for it may be observed that while Samuel was
currently called "the seer," a prominent part of his manifold work was divining. There are several
Hebrew terms for divination of one kind or another; but none of these is used as a synonym for
"prophesying." Moreover, the words for "seer" are used quite rarely, the probable explanation being
that the bulk of the canonical writings proceed from a time when it was considered that the special
function of declaring or announcing characterized prophecy in Israel better than the elementary offices
of divining or seeing. At the same time it must be remembered that "seeing" is always an essential
condition of true prophecy; hence the continued use of the term "vision" to the last days of prophetic
history, long after the time when seeing had ceased to be the most distinctive function of the prophet.

Moses and Samuel.

The historic order of Hebrew prophecy begins with Moses ( c. 1200 B.C.). He was not a mere prototype
of the canonical prophets, but a sort of comprehensive type in himself, being the typical combination of
civil and religious director in one. His claim to be considered the first and greatest of the Prophets is
founded upon the fact that he introduced the worship of Yhwh among his people, and gave them the
rudiments of law and a new sense of justice wider and deeper than that of the tribal system. By him
"direction" (Torah) was given to Israel; all later true prophets kept Israel in the same right course along
the line of religious and moral development.

Samuel ( c. 1050 B.C.) was the first legitimate successor of Moses. He was, it is true, characteristically a
"seer" (I Sam. ix.), but the revelation which he gave referred to all possible matters, from those of
personal or local interest to the announcement of the kingdom. Like Moses, he was a political leader or
"judge." That he was also a priest completes his fully representative character.

Prophetic Gilds.

But there was a new development of the highest significance in the time of Samuel. There were bands,
or, more properly, gilds of "prophets" (doubtless in large part promoted by him), and these must be
considered as the prototypes of the professional prophets found all through the later history. They seem
to have been most active at times of great national or religious peril. Thus, after the critical age of the
Philistine oppression, they are most prominent in the days of the Phenician Ba'al-worship, the era of
Elijah and Elisha. They are not merely seers and diviners, but ministers and companions of leading
reformers and national deliverers. That they degenerated in time into mere professionals was inevitable,
because it is of the very nature of true prophetism to be spontaneous and, so to speak, non-
institutional; but their great service in their day is undeniable. The viewis probably right which traces
their origin to the necessity felt for some organized cooperation in behalf of the exclusive worship of

Yhwh and the triumph of His cause.

After the establishment of the kingdom under David no prophet was officially a political leader, and yet
all the existing prophets were active statesmen, first of all interested in securing the weal of the people
of Yhwh. Naturally, they watched the king most closely of all. Nathan and Gad to David and Solomon,
and Ahijah of Shiloh to Jeroboam, were kingly counselors or mentors, to whom these monarchs felt that
they had to listen, willingly or unwillingly.

Elijah, Reformer and Preacher.

The next new type of prophecy was realized in its first and greatest representative, Elijah, who is found
maintaining not merely a private, but a public attitude of opposition to a king displeasing to Yhwh, ready
even to promote a revolution in order to purify morals and worship. In Elijah is seen also the first
example of the preaching prophet, the prophet par excellence, and it was not merely because of
religious degeneracy, but mainly because of the genuinely and potentially ethical character of prophecy,
that a firmer and more rigorous demand for righteousness was made by the Prophets as the changing
times demanded new champions of reform.

Written Prophecy.

But the final and most decisive stage was reached when the spoken became also the written word,
when the matter of prophecy took the form of literature. It was no mere coincidence, but the result of a
necessary process that this step was taken when Israel first came into relation with the wider political
world, with the oncoming of the Assyrians upon Syria and Palestine. Many things then conspired to
encourage literary prophecy: the example and stimulus of poetical and historical collections already
made under prophetic inspiration; the need of handbooks and statements of principles for the use of
disciples; the desire to influence those beyond the reach of the preacher's voice; the necessity for a
lasting record of and witness to the revelations of the past; and, chief of all, the inner compulsion to the
adequate publication of new and all-important truths.

Foremost among such truths were the facts, now first practically realized, that God's government and
interests were not merely national, but universal, that righteousness was not merely tribal or personal
or racial, but international and world-wide. Neither before nor since have the ideas of God's immediate
rule and the urgency of His claims been so deeply felt by any body or class of men as in the centuries
which witnessed the struggle waged by the prophets of Israel for the supremacy of Yhwh and the rule of
justice and righteousness which was His will. The truths then uttered are contained in the writings of the
Later Prophets. They were not abstractions, but principles of the divine government and of the right,
human, national life. They had their external occasions in the incidents of history, and were thus strictly
of providential origin; and they were actual revelations, seen as concrete realities by the seers and
preachers whose words both attest and commemorate their visions.

II. Utterances of the Prophets:

Amos.

The first of the literary prophets of the canon was Amos. His brief work, which may have been recast at
a later date, is one of the marvels of literature for comprehensiveness, variety, compactness, methodical
arrangement, force of expression, and compelling eloquence. He wrote about 765 B.C., just after
northern Israel had attained its greatest power and prosperity under Jeroboam II., and Israel had at last
triumphed over the Syrians. In the midst of a feast at the central shrine of Beth-el, Amos, a shepherd of
Tekoah in Judah, and not a member of any prophetic gild, suddenly appeared with words of
denunciation and threatening from Yhwh. He disturbed the national self-complacency by citing and
denouncing the sins of the people and of their civil and religious rulers, declaring that precisely because
God had chosen them to be His own would He punish them for their iniquity. He rebuked their
oppression of the poor, their greed, their dishonesty, as sins against Yhwh Himself; assured them that
their excessive religiousness would not save them in the day of their deserved punishment; that, as far
as judgment was concerned, they stood no better with Him than did the Ethiopians, or the Arameans, or
the Philistines. The most essential thing in his message was that the object of worship and the
worshipers must be alike in character: Yhwh is a righteous God; they must be righteous as being His
people. The historical background of the prophecy of Amos is the dreadful Syrian wars. His outlook is
wider still; it is a greater world-power that is to inflict upon Israel the condign punishment of its sins (v.
27).

Hosea.

Hosea, the next and last prophet of the Northern Kingdom, came upon the scene about fifteen years
after Amos, and the principal part of his prophecy (ch. iv.-xiv.) was written about 735 B.C. Amos had
alluded to the Assyrians without naming them. Hosea is face to face with the terrible problem of the
fate of Israel at the hands of Assyria. To him it was beyond the possibility of doubt that Israel must be
not only crushed, but annihilated (ch. v. 11, x. 15, etc.). It was a question of the moral order of Yhwh's
world, not merely a question of the relative political or military strength of the two nationalities. To the
masses in Israel such a fate was unthinkable, for Yhwh was Israel's God. To Hosea, as well as to Amos,
any other fate was unthinkable, and that also because Yhwh was Israel's God. Everything depended
upon the view taken of the character of

Yhwh; and yet Hosea knew that God cared for His people far more than they in their superstitious
credulity thought He did. Indeed, the love of Yhwh for Israel is the burden of his discourse. His own
tragic history helped him to understand this relation. He had espoused a wife who became unfaithful to
him, and yet he would not let her go forever; he sought to bring her back to her duty and her true home.
There was imaged forth the ineradicable love of Yhwh for His people; and between the cries and
lamentations of the almost broken-hearted prophet can be heard ever and anon strains of hopeand
assurance, and the divine promise of pardon and reconciliation. Thus while prophecy in Northern Israel
came to an end with this new and strange lyrical tragedy, the world has learned from the prophet-poet
that God's love and care are as sure and lasting as His justice and righteousness.

Isaiah.

The career of the next great prophet, Isaiah, is connected with the kingdom of Judah. Here the historical
conditions are more complex, and the prophetic message is therefore more profound and many-sided.
Isaiah deals much with the same themes as did Amos and Hosea: the sins of luxury, fashion, and frivolity
in men and women; land-grabbing; defiance of
Yhwh (ch. ii., iii., v.). To his revelation he adds the great announcement and argument that Yhwh is
supreme, as well as universal, in His control and providence. Ahaz makes a dexterous alliance with
Assyria, against the prophetic counsel, for the sake of check-mating Samaria and Damascus. Let him
beware; Yhwh is supreme; He will dissolve the hostile combination; but Judah itself will ultimately fall
before those very Assyrians (ch. vii.). The Ethiopian overlord of Egypt sends an embassy to the Asiatic
states to incite them against Assyria. Isaiah gives the answer: God from His throne watches all nations
alike, and in His good time Assyria shall meet its fate (ch. xviii.). The great revolt against Assyria has
begun. The Assyrians have come upon the land. Again the question is taken out of the province of
politics into that of providence. Assyria is God's instrument in the punishment of His people, and when it
has done its work it shall meet its predestined doom (ch. x.). So the trumpet-tone of providence and
judgment is heard all through the prophetic message till Jerusalem is saved by the heaven-sent plague
among the host of Sennacherib.

Habakkuk and Jeremiah.

While in the next century written prophecy was not entirely absent, another sort of literary activity—
whose highest product is seen in Deuteronomy—was demanded by the times and occasions. Assyria had
played its rôle and had vanished. The Chaldean empire had just taken its place. The little nations,
including Israel, become the prey of the new spoiler. The wondrous seer Habakkuk (c. 600 B.C.) ponders
over the situation. He recognizes in the Chaldeans also God's instrument. But the Chaldeans are even
greater transgressors than Yhwh's own people. Shall they escape punishment? Are militarism and
aggressive warfare to be approved and rewarded by the righteous God? (ch. i.). Climbing his watch-
tower, the prophet gains a clear vision of the conditions and a provision of the issue. The career and fate
of Chaldea are brought under the same law as the career and fate of Israel, and this law is working
surely though unseen (ch. ii.). Habakkuk thus proclaims the universality of God's justice as well as of His
power and providence.

In Jeremiah (626-581) prophecy is at its highest and fullest. His long and perfectly transparent official life
full of vicissitudes, his protracted conferences and pleadings with

Yhwh Himself, his eagerness to learn and do the right, his more than priestly or military devotion to his
arduous calling, his practical enterprise and courage in spite of native diffidence, make his word and
work a matchless subject for study, inspiration, and imitation. The greatest religious genius of his race,
he was also the confessor and martyr of the ancient Covenant, and he still wields a moral influence
unique and unfailing. What then did his life and word stand for and proclaim? Among other things,
these: (1) the nature and duty of true patriotism: oppose your country's policy when it is wrong; at the
peril of liberty and life, set loyalty to God and justice above loyalty to king and country; (2) the
spirituality of God and of true religion (ix. 23 et seq. , xxxi. 31); (3) the perpetuity and continuity of
Yhwh's rule and providence (xvi. 14, 15; xxiii. 7, 8); (4) the principle of individual as opposed to tribal or
inherited responsibility (xxxi. 29, 30).

These are a selection of the leading truths and principles announced by the Prophets. It will be
observed: (1) that they are the cardinal truths of Old Testament revelation; (2) that they were given in
the natural order of development, that is, according to the needs and capacities of the learners; (3) that
they were evoked by certain definite, historical occasions. From the foregoing summary it may also be
learned how the function as well as the scope of the prophet was diversified and expanded. In the most
rudimentary stage are found traces of the primitive arts and practises of soothsaying and divination; and
yet in the very beginnings of the prophetic work in Israel there can be discerned the essential elements
of true prophecy, the "seeing" of things veiled from the common eye and the "declaring" of the things
thus seen. If Israel presents the only continuous and saving revelation ever vouchsafed to men, the
decisive factor in the unique revelation is the character of the Revealer. It was the privilege of the
Prophets, the elect of humanity, to understand and know Yhwh (Jer. ix. 24), and it still remains
profoundly true that "Adonai Yhwh doeth nothing unless He has revealed His secret to His servants the
Prophets" (Amos iii. 7, Hebr.).

Bibliography:

Besides the standard introductions and commentaries to the Old Testament and the prophetic
literature: Knobel, Prophetismus der Hebräer, 1837;

Tholuck, Die Propheten und Ihre Weissagungen, 1860;

Baur, Gesch. der Alttest. Weissagung, 1860: Oehler, Das Verhältniss der Alttest. Propetic zur Heidnischen
Mantik, 1861;

Kuenen, Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, 1877;

Duhm, Theologie der Propheten, 1875;

F. E. König, Der Offenbarungsbegriff des A. T. 1882;

W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel, 1882;

C. G. Monteflore, The Religion of Israel (the Hibbert Lectures for 1892): Darmesteter, Les Prophètes
d'Israël, 1892;

Kirk-patrick. The Doctrine of the Prophets, 1892;

Smend, Lehrbuch der Alttest. Religionsgesch. 1893;

Cornill, Der Israelitische Prophetismus, 1894;

McCurdy, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, 1894-1901;

Kittel, Profetie und Weissagung, 1899.

Views of Philo.

—In Post-Biblical Literature:

The first to reflect upon the phenomena of prophecy and to suggest that certain states, either mental or
moral, are prerequisite to the reception or exercise of the prophetic gift was Philo of Alexandria. As in
many others of his conceptions and constructions, so in his explanation of prophecy, he follows the lead
of Plato, accepting his theory concerning mantic enthusiasm ("Phædrus," p. 534, ed. Stephanus). In
order that the divine light might rise in man the humanmust first set altogether. Under the complete
emigration of the mortal or human spirit and the inpouring of the immortal or divine spirit the Prophets
become passive instruments of a higher power, the voluntary action of their own faculties being entirely
suspended (Philo, "Quis Rerum Divinarum Hæres Sit," § 53). The prophet "utters nothing of his own": he
speaks only what is suggested to him by God, by whom, for the time, he is possessed. Prophecy includes
the power of predicting the future; still the prophet's main function is to be the interpreter of God, and
to find out, while in the state of ecstasy, enthusiasm, or inspired frenzy in which he falls, things that the
reflective faculties are incompetent to discover (Philo, l.c. §§ 52-53; "De Vita Mosis," ii. 1; "Duo de
Monarchia," i. 9; "De Justitia," § 8; "Prœmiis et Pœnis," § 9; Drummond, "Philo Judæus," ii. 282;
Hamburger, "R. B. T." ii. 1003, s.v. "Religionsphilosophie").

Yet this inspiration is held not to be the effect of a special and arbitrary miracle. Communion between
God and man is permanently possible for man. Every truly good and wise man has the gift of prophecy:
the wicked alone forfeit the distinction of being God's interpreters. The Biblical writers were filled with
this divine enthusiasm, Moses possessing it in a fuller measure than any others, who are not so much
original channels of inspired revelation as companions and disciples of Moses (Drummond, l.c. i. 14-16).

Talmudic Views.

As might be expected from the method of the Tannaim and the Amoraim, no systematic exposition of
the nature of prophecy is given by any of the Talmudic authorities. Still, mixed with the homiletic
applications and interpretations of Biblical texts, there are a goodly number of observations concerning
the Prophets and prophecy in general. Of these the following seem to be the more noteworthy.

The prophetic gift is vouchsafed only to such as are physically strong, mentally wise and rich (Shab. 92a;
Ned. 38a). In fact, all the Prophets were "rich" (Ned. 38a). Prophets are distinguished by individual traits.
In their language, for instance, they display the influence of environment. Ezekiel is like a rural provincial
admitted to the royal presence, while Isaiah resembles the cultured inhabitant of the large city (Ḥag.
13b). Moses, of course, occupies an exceptional position. He beheld truth as if it were reflected by a
clear mirror; all others, as by a dull glass (Yeb. 49b). This thought is present in the observation that all
other prophets had to look into nine mirrors, while Moses glanced at one only (Lev. R. i.). With the
exception of Moses and Isaiah none of the Prophets knew the content of their prophecies (Midr. Shoḥer
Ṭob to Ps. xc. 1). The words of all other prophets are virtually mere repetitions of those of Moses (Ex. R.
xlii.; see also Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." i. 164, 500); in fact, but one content was in all prophecies. Yet no
two prophets reproduced that content in the same manner (Sanh. 89a). Unanimity and concordance of
verbal expression betray the false prophet (ib. ). The Prophets, however, are worthy of praise because
they employ phraseology that is intelligible, not even shrinking from using anthropomorphic similes and
comparisons drawn from nature (Midr. Shoḥer Ṭob to Ps. i. 1; Pesiḳ. 36a; J. Levy, "Ein Wort über die
Mekilta von R. Simon," pp. 2l-36; Bacher, l.c. iii. 191, note 4).
Mingled Censure and Consolation.

All prophecies were included in the revelation at Sinai (Ex. R. xxviii.; Tan., Yitro). Still, the "holy spirit"
that descended upon individual prophets was not the same in degree in each case; some prophets
received sufficient for one book, others enough for two books, and others only so much as two verses
(Lev. R. xv.; comp. Bacher, l.c. ii. 447, note 1). Prophecy was sometimes contingent upon the character of
the generation among whom the potential prophet lived (Sanh. 11a; Ber. 57a; Suk. 28a; B. B. 134a). All
written prophecies begin with words of censure, but conclude with phrases of consolation (Yer. Ber. 8d;
Midr. Shoḥer Ṭob to Ps. iv. 8; Pesiḳ. 116a; Jeremiah is in reality no exception to the rule). Only those
prophecies were published that were valid for future days; but God will at some time promulgate the
many prophecies which, because dealing only with the affairs of their day, remained unpublished (Cant.
R. iv. 11; Meg. 14a; Eccl. R. i. 9). In connection with this the statement is made that in Elijah's time there
lived in Israel myriads of prophets and as many prophetesses (Cant. R. l.c. ). The prediction of peace
must come true if made by a true prophet; not so that of evil, for God can resolve to withhold
punishment (Tan., Wayera, on xxi. 1).

Judah ben Simeon attributes to Isaiah the distinction of having received immediate inspiration, while
other prophets received theirs through their predecessors (Pesiḳ. 125b et seq. ; Lev. R. xiii.); and,
referring to such repetitions as "Comfort ye, comfort ye," he ascribes to him a double portion of
prophetic power. A very late midrashic collection (Agadat Bereshit xiv.) designates Isaiah as the greatest,
and Obadiah as the least, of the Prophets, and imputes to both the knowledge of all spoken languages.
The prophetic predictions of future blessings were intended to incite Israel to piety; in reality, however,
only a part of future glory was shown to the Prophets (Yalḳ. ii. 368; Eccl. R. i. 8). Where the prophet's
father is mentioned by name, the father also was a prophet; where no place of birth is given, the
prophet was a Jerusalemite (Meg. 15a). A chaste bride is promised that prophets shall be among her
sons ( ib. 10b). It is reckoned that forty-eight prophets and seven prophetesses have arisen in Israel. On
the other hand, the statement is made that the number of prophets was double the number of those
that left Egypt (ib. 14a). Eight prophets are said to have sprung from Rahab (ib. ). Fifty is the number
given of the prophets among the exiles returning from Babylon (Zeb. 62a). Every tribe produced
prophets. With the death of the Former Prophets the urim and thummim ceased in Israel (Suk. 27a;
Soṭah 48a).

Since the destruction of the Temple prophecy has passed over to the wise, the semidemented (fools),
and the children, but the wise man is superior to the prophet (B. B. l2a). Eight prophets are mentionedas
having filled their office after the destruction of the First Temple, Amos being among them. In the same
passage Joel is assigned a postexilic date (Pesiḳ. 128b). The elders are, like the ḥakamim (see B. B. 12a),
credited with superiority over the Prophets (Yer. Ber. 3b; Yer. Sanh. 30b).

"Prophets of the Nations."

Prophecy was not regarded as confined to Israel. The "nations of the world" had seven prophets (B. B.
15b; comp. Eccl. R. iii. 19). Before the building of the Tabernacle, the nations shared the gift with Israel
(Lev. R. i.; Cant. R. ii. 3). The restriction of prophecy to Israel was due to Moses' prayer (Ex. xxxi. 16; Ex.
R. xxxii.; Ber. 7a). To "the nations" the prophets come only at night (Gen. R. lii.; Lev. R. i.) and speak only
with a "half" address (Lev. R. ix.); but to Israel they speak in open daylight. The distinction between the
manner in which God speaks to the prophets of Israel and those of the "nations" is explained in a
parable about a king who spoke directly to his friend (Israel), but to strangers only from behind a curtain
(Gen. R. lii.). Again, to the "prophets of the nations" God discloses His will only as one stationed afar off;
to those of Israel as one standing most close (Lev. R. i.). Balaam is regarded as the most eminent of the
non-Jewish prophets (see Geiger's "Jüd. Zeit." vol. i.).

Views of Saadia.

Under the stress of controversy Saadia was compelled to take up the problem of prophecy more
systematically than had the Rabbis of the Talmudic period. As the contention had been raised that
prophecy in reality was unnecessary, since if the message was rational reason unaided could evolve its
content, while if it was irrational it was incomprehensible and useless, Saadia argued that the Torah
contained rational and revealed commandments. The latter certainly required the intervention of
prophecy, otherwise they could not be known to men. But the former? For them prophecy was needed
first because most men are slow to employ their reason, and secondly because through prophecy
knowledge is imparted more rapidly ("Emunot we-De'ot," p.12, ed. Berlin). The third argument is that
reason can not evolve more than general principles, leaving man dependent upon prophecy for details.
Men can, for instance, reason out the duty of thankfulness, but can not know, through mere reason,
how to express their gratitude in a way that would be acceptable in God's sight. Hence the Prophets
supplied what human reason could not supply when they established the order of prayers and
determined the proper seasons for prayer. The same applies to questions of property, marriage, and the
like.

But what is the criterion of true prophecy? The miracles which the prophet works and by which he
attests the truth of his message (ib. iii. 4), though the degree of probability in the prophet's
announcement is also a test of its genuineness, without which even the miracle loses its weight as
evidence. The Prophets, indeed, were men, not angels. But this fact renders all the more obvious the
divine wisdom. Because ordinary men and not angels are chosen to be the instruments of God's
revelation, what of extraordinary power they exhibit must of necessity arouse their auditors and the
witnesses of the miracles wrought to a realization that God is speaking through them. For the same
reason the ability to work miracles is temporary and conditioned, which again demonstrates that the
Prophets do not derive their power from themselves, but are subject to a will other and higher than
their own.

To meet the difficulties involved in the assumption that God speaks and appears, so as to be heard and
seen, Saadia resorts to the theory that a voice specially created ad hoc is the medium of inspiration, as a
"light creation" is that of appearance (ib. ii. 8). This "light creation," in fact, is for the prophet the
evidence of the reality of his vision, containing the assurance that he has received a divine revelation. It
is thus apparent that Saadia denies the cooperation of the mental and moral qualifications of the
prophet in the process of prophecy.
Baḥya and Ibn Gabirol.

Baḥya repeats, to a certain extent, the arguments of Saadia in proof of the insufficiency of reason and
the necessity of prophecy. Human nature is two-fold, and the material elements might not be held in
due control were prophecy not to come to the rescue. Thus reason alone could not have arrived at
complete truth. That miracles are the evidence of prophecy Baḥya urges with even greater emphasis
than did his predecessor ("Ḥobot ha-Lebabot," iii. 1, 4). Nevertheless, he contends that purity of soul
and perfection of rational knowledge constitute the highest condition attainable by man, and that these
make one "the beloved of God" and confer a strange, superior power "to see the sublimest things and
grasp the deepest secrets" ( ib. x.; Kaufmann, "Die Theologie des Bachya," p. 228, Vienna, 1875).

Solomon ibn Gabirol regards prophecy as identical with the highest possible degree of rational
knowledge, wherein the soul finds itself in unity with the All-Spirit. Man rises toward this perfect
communion from degree to degree, until at last he attains unto and is united with the fount of life (see
Sandler, "Das Problem der Prophetic," p. 29, Breslau, 1891).

Judah ha-Levi.

Judah ha-Levi confines prophecy to Palestine. It is the

and the ("Cuzari," i. 95). Prophecy is the product of the Holy Land ( ib. ii. 10), and Israel as the people of
that land is the one people of prophecy. Israel is the heart of the human race, and its great men, again,
are the hearts of this heart ( ib. ii. 12). Abraham had to migrate to Palestine in order to become fit for
the receiving of divine messages ( ib. ii. 14). To meet the objection that Moses, among others, received
prophetic revelations on non-Palestinian soil, Judah gives the name of Palestine a wider interpretation:
"Greater Palestine" is the home of prophecy. But this prophecy, again, is a divine gift, and no speculation
by philosopher can ever replace it. It alone inspires men to make sacrifices and to meet death, certain
that they have "seen" God and that God has "spoken" to them and communicated His truth to them.
This is the difference between "the God of Abraham and the God of Aristotle" (ib. iv. 16). The prophet is
endowed by God with a new inner sense,the (= "hidden [inner] eye"), and this "inner eye" enables the
prophet to see mighty visions ( ib. iv. 3). The test of the truth is the unanimity of the Prophets, who
alone can judge of prophetic truth. The agreement of the "seers" as against the "blind" is the finally
decisive factor. Judah ha-Levi demands of the prophet, lest he mistake mere imagination for genuine
vision, purity of conduct, freedom from passion, an equable temperament "of identical mixture," a
contemplative life, an ardent yearning toward the higher things, and a lasting, almost complete,
absorption in God. Upon such as fulfil these conditions in their entirety the divine spirit of prophecy is
poured out ( ib. v. 12). This "outpouring" or "irradiation" is meant by the Prophets when they speak of
"God's glory," "God's form," the "Shekinah," "the fire-cloud," etc. ( ib. iii. 2). It is called also the "divine"
or "effulgent" Light ( ib. ii. 14). So inspired, the prophet is "the counselor, admonisher, and censor of the
people"; he is its "head"; like Moses, he is a lawgiver ( ib. ii. 28). Joseph ben Jacob ibn Ẓaddiḳ ("'Olam
Ḳaṭôn") regards prophecy as an emanation of the divine spirit, of which all, without distinction, may
become recipients.
The philosophers so far presented consider prophecy a gift from without. Abraham ibn Daud was the
first among Jewish schoolmen to insist that prophecy is the outgrowth of natural predispositions and
acquired knowledge. He links prophecy to dreams (see Ber. 57b). An Aristotelian, he invokes the "active
intellect" to connect the natural with the supernatural. He also attributes to "imagination" a share in the
phenomena of prophecy. He assumes two degrees of prophetic insight, each with subdivisions: the
visions given in dreams, and those imparted to the prophet while he is awake. In dreams imagination
predominates; when the prophet is awake the "active intellect" is dominant ("Emunah Ramah," ed.
Weil, pp. 70-73). Soothsaying as distinct from prophecy results in accordance with the extent to which
the "intellect" is under the control of imagination. Imagination produces the sensuous similes and
allegories under which the prophet conceives the content of his message. As the intellect succeeds in
minimizing imagination, revelation is imparted in clearer words, free from simile and allegory. Inner
reflection is potent in prophecy grasped by the waking mind. Palestine is for Abraham the land of
prophecy, Israel its predestined people. In Israel they attain this power who lead a morally pure life and
associate with men of prophetic experience. Otherwise prophecy is within the reach of all, provided God
consents to bestow it.

The Maimonidean View of Prophecy.

Abraham ibn Daud's theories are, with characteristic modifications, restated by Maimonides. He
enumerates three opinions: (1) that of the masses, according to which God selected whom He would,
though never so ignorant; (2) that of the philosophers. which rates prophecy as incidental to a degree of
perfection inherent in human nature; (3) that "which is taught in Scripture and forms one of the
principles of our religion." The last agrees with the second in all points except one. For "we believe that,
even if one has the capacity for prophecy and has duly prepared himself, he may yet not actually
prophesy. The will of God" is the decisive factor. This fact is, according to Maimonides, a miracle.

The indispensable prerequisites are three: innate superiority of the imaginative faculty; moral
perfection; mental perfection, acquired by training. These qualities are possessed in different degrees by
wise men, and the degrees of the prophetic faculty vary accordingly. In the Prophets the influence of the
active intellect penetrates into both their logical and their imaginative faculties. Prophecy is an
emanation from the Divine Being, and is transmitted through the medium of the active intellect, first to
man's rational faculty and then to his imaginative faculty. Prophecy can not be acquired by a man,
however earnest the culture of his mental and moral faculties may be. In the course of his exposition, in
which he discusses the effect of the absence, or undue preponderance, of one of the component
faculties, Maimonides analyzes the linguistic peculiarities of the Biblical prophecies and examines the
conditions (e.g. , anger or grief) under which the prophetic gift may be lost. He explains that there are
eleven ascending degrees in prophecy or prophetic inspiration, though Moses occupies a place by
himself; his inspiration is different in kind as well as in degree from that of all others ("Moreh," ii., xxxii.-
xlviii.; "Yad," Yesode ha-Torah, vii. 6). For the controversies that were aroused by Maimonides' views the
articles Alfakar , Moses ben Maimon , and Moses ben Naḥman should be consulted (see also
Naḥmanides on Gen. xviii. 1).

Later Views.
Isaac ben Moses Arama ("Aḳedat Yiẓḥaḳ," xxxv.) declares Maimonides' view that the prophetic gift is
essentially inherent in human faculties, and that its absence when all prerequisite conditions are present
is a miracle, to be thoroughly un-Jewish. Precisely the contrary is the case, as prophecy is always
miraculous.

Joseph Albo ("'Iḳḳarim," iii. 8), though arguing against Maimonides, accepts ( ib. iii. 17) Maimonides'
explanation that Moses' prophecy is distinct and unique because of the absence therefrom of
imagination.

Isaac Abravanel (on Gen. xxi. 27) maintains the reality of the visions of the Prophets which Maimonides
ascribed to the intervention of the imaginative faculties. Among the writers on prophecy Gersonides
( Levi ben Gershon ) must be mentioned. Dreams, for this writer, are not vain plays of fancy; neither are
the powers of soothsayers fictitious; the latter merely lack one element essential to prophecy, and that
is wisdom. Moreover, prophecy is always infallible. It is an emanation from the all-surveying, all-
controlling, universal active intellect, while the soothsayer's knowledge is caused by the action of a
"particular" spheric influence or spirit on the imagination of the fortune-teller ("Milḥamot ha-Shem," ii.).

Ḥasdai Crescas regards prophcey as an emanation from the Divine Spirit, which influences the rational
faculty with as well as without the imaginative faculty ("Or Adonai," ii. 4, 1).

Modern Jewish theologians have contributed but little to the elucidation of the phenomenon of
prophecy. Most of the catechisms are content to repeat Maimonides' analysis (so with Einhorn's "Ner
Tamid"); others evade the question altogether. Maybaum ("Prophet und Prophetismus im Alten Israel")
has not entered into a full discussion of the psychological factors involved. The views of the critical
school, however, have come to be adopted by many modern Jewish authors.

Bibliography:

A. Schmidl, Studien, über Jüdische Religionsphilosophie. Vienna, 1869;

Neumann Sandler, Das Problem der Prophetie in der Jüdische Religionsphilosophie, Breslau, 1891;

Emil G. Hirsch, Myth, Miracle, and Midrash, Chicago, 1899.

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THE SEER AND THE PROPHET: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

Jim W. Goll

Apr 13, 2000

Note from Steve Shultz,

I've been wanting to send this OUTLINE out for some time and have

been trying to get it formatted for email. Several articles have now appeared about the differences and
similarities between the prophetic and seer gifts. When you study several approaches, then the full
tapestry of the similarities and differences emerge. I believe you can contact Jim Goll's ministry at the
web site below for the complete study guide found at:
http://www.ministrytothenations.org/bookstore_3a.htm

THE SEER AND THE PROPHET: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

The below taken from: "Prophetic Maturation"

http://www.ministrytothenations.org/bookstore_3a.htm

USED BY PERMISSION OF JIM GOLL

Note from Steve Shultz, Publisher, THE ELIJAH LIST

JIM AND ANN GOLL HAVE SEVERAL GREAT BOOKS (and more besides these)

1) "Father Forgive Us" By Jim Goll

2) "Kneeling on the Promises" By Jim Goll

3) "Encounters with a Supernatural God--Angelic Visitation in the Night" -- By Jim and Michal Ann Goll (I
can't wait to get my own hands on this book! --Steve Shultz)

4) "Women on the Front Lines" By Michal Ann Goll (My wife, Derene, LOVED this book!!--Steve Shultz)

THE SEER AND THE PROPHET: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES - A Study Guide Outline by Jim W. Goll

I. DEFINING OUR TERMS

A. Three Hebrew Words

The word "prophet" is used 300 times in the Old Testament and 100 times in the New Testament.

1. Nahbi

(naw-bee) is translated prophet. a. Young - "the function of a Nahbi was to speak a message on behalf of
a superior. In the case of Aaron, this superior was Moses, although ultimately, of course, it was God. As
far as the prophets were concerned, the superior was God Himself. It was He with whom the word to be
spoken originated. He placed that word in the mouth of the prophets, and they in turn declared it unto
the people...we conclude then, that upon the basis of Old Testament usage, the Nahbi was a speaker
who declared the word that God had given him."11 b. Scriptures: i. Dt. 18:18. ii. Ex. 7:1. iii. Ex. 4:15-16.
iv. Jer. 1:5,9.

2. Ro'eh

(raw-aw) and hozeh (khaw-zah) or chozeh is translated "seer". a. Young - "The word Nahbi stresses the
active work of the prophet, in

speaking forth the message from God. The word Raw-aw on the other

hand, brings to the fore the experience by means of which the prophet

was made to "see" that message. One word lays the emphasis upon the prophet's relation to the
people; the other upon his relation to

God."12 b. Hengsteuberg - "These were not so much chronological

historians so much as describers of pictures."13 c. Scriptures: i. I

Sam. 9:9. ii. II Chr. 29:30 - Asaph. iii. II Sam. 24:11 - Gad. iv. II Sam. 7:2 - Nathan.

3. General Conclusion:

a. Prophecy is God communicating His will by word (sometimes by action) through chosen persons. It
includes whatever God desires to say about past, present, and future. Some have inclined to confine it
to the future, but this is inaccurate.

The prophet was, and is, a forth teller as well as a foreteller.

Indeed, he speaks whatever God wants said!

b. The "Seer" is the receptive dimension and the "Prophet" is

the communicative dimension.

c. Bill Hamon, founder of Christian International made a statement

about two prophetic streams in the 1940's-50's that have re-emerged a

generation later. "Two streams of restoration came forth in 1947-48.

One was the Latter Rain Movement, which restored the practice of...the laying on of hands...as well as
extensive congregational

prophesying... They emphasized moving into the prophetic realm by

faith, grace and gifting. The other restoration stream was what was

termed "The Healing and Deliverance Movement." Their restorational

emphasis was laying on of hands for healing, deliverance and world

evangelism by preaching with signs and wonders. Both groups were of

God and were valid ministries."14

B. Words Describing How the Prophetic Comes

1. Nataf - This means "to let drop like rain." It comes upon us little by little and is accumulated in our
buckets over a period of time. 2. Massa - This is used to refer to the "hand of the Lord" that releases the
"burden of the Lord." When God's hand comes upon us, it imparts something to us. When His hand lifts
His burden remains. 3. Nahbi - This word refers to the action of "flowing forth." It also carries with it the
thought "to bubble forth like a fountain, to let drop, to lift up, to tumble forth, and to spring forth." 4.
Propheteia - This New Testament Greek word means "speaking forth the mind and the counsel of God."
It simply means "to speak for another."

C. Levels and Terms of "Seeing"

1. Visual - Insights, revelations, warnings, and prophecies from the

Spirit of God may come in supernatural visual dreams. Herein one sees

God's revelation while his spirit simply observes and receives the

message. One might even see the heavens opened, as Ezekiel did (in

Ezekiel 1:1), even though he's asleep. In an open heaven type of a

vision, the higher ethers (celestial realms) are disclosed, and views,

patterns, and heavenly sights of God become seeable. 2. Actual -

Supernatural actual dreams are those in which God's tangible presence

is evident. To see the Lord in a dream is visual, but for the Lord to

manifest Himself to you in a dream is actual.

II. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF THE STREAMS

A. The Prophet - Nahbi

1. Often uses plurality of eldership or seasoned, gifted individuals

(men and women) with the "laying on of hands" to minister. 2. Will

utilize giftings of tongues and interpretation of tongues. 3. Spontaneous, faster flow with inspiration
being the tone. 4. Often

"hears" and repeats as spoken to. 5. Steps out to prophesy according

to his portion of faith. 6. The prophetic presbytery is a common

approach.

B. The Seer - Ro'eh

1. Tends to be more single in ministry versus the plurality of a

team. 2. Emphasizes visions and the revelatory gifts versus the

audible, speaking gifts. 3. Often operates at a slower pace due to

describing pictures in their own words. 4. Is dependent upon the

angelic and the manifested presence of God. 5. These prophetic

vessels appear to have limitations until they sense the anointing. 6.

Often gets information ahead of time and tells it later.

III. CONCLUSION

A. A Word in a Dream

In a clear dream, Paul Cain came to me and said: "The seer hears as much as he sees; it's just a different
deep touch from the same dear Jesus."
B. The Manifold Purpose

The purpose of both the Prophet and the Seer is to reveal the glorious wonders of Jesus Christ, God's
purpose in a generation, eternity, heaven and hell, and the Father's great presence.

C. Prayer

Pray for your eyes to be opened. According to Eph. 1:17-19 and II Ki. 6:17a - O Lord...open his eyes that
he (the servant) may see...

What Is The Difference Between A Seer and A Prophet In The Bible?

1 COMMENT 

Are there any differences between a seer and a prophet? If so, what are the differences?

A Seer and a Prophet

There was a man named Benjamin who had a son named Saul and he sent him out to find his lost
donkeys so Saul took some young men with him to go and find them (1st Sam 9:1-3) and when Saul
couldn’t find them one of Saul’s servants said, “ there is a man of God in this city, and he is a man who is
held in honor; all that he says comes true. So now let us go there. Perhaps he can tell us the way we
should go” (1st Sam 9:6). At this time in Israel’s history, “ when a man went to inquire of God, he said,
“Come, let us go to the seer,” for today’s “prophet” was formerly called a seer” (1st Sam 9:9). This
shows that at one time, a seer was the same thing as a prophet as one who also inquired of God. Only
the name was different but both the seer and the prophet could inquire directly to God and could also
say what is to come but this was not from their own ability but from God alone Who knows the future.

A Seer is…

Samuel was a prophet of God but he was also called a seer as we read in 1st Chronicles 26:28 where it
says, “ Also all that Samuel the seer and Saul the son of Kish and Abner the son of Ner and Joab the son
of Zeruiah had dedicated—all dedicated gifts were in the care of Shelomoth and his brothers.”
Apparently the seer also wrote down or chronicled all the events that occurred in this time period of
Israel as it was written that “ the acts of King David, from first to last, are written in the Chronicles of
Samuel the seer, and in the Chronicles of Nathan the prophet, and in the Chronicles of Gad the seer,
with accounts of all his rule and his might and of the circumstances that came upon him and upon Israel
and upon all the kingdoms of the countries” (1st Chron 29:29-30). Samuel was not around to complete
this chronicle of David’s passing on the throne to Solomon but Gad was as he was also a seer.

A Seer is God’s Spokesman

A seer in not only a prophet but also one that speaks for God as we read in 2nd Chronicles 19:2 where it
says “Jehu the son of Hanani the seer went out to meet him and said to King Jehoshaphat, “Should you
help the wicked and love those who hate the Lord? Because of this, wrath has gone out against you
from the Lord .” This is just what all the other prophets did in the Old Testament; they warned Israel’s
kings and peoples about what was to come to pass. Jeremiah did this as well as Ezekiel and Isaiah.

A Prophet is…

Who determines who a prophet is and who isn’t? God alone determines who a prophet is. He called
Jeremiah to be one (Jer 1:4-5) as well as Ezekiel, Isaiah, Daniel, and every other prophet of God. We see
who calls a man to be a prophet in Exodus 7:1 where it says “ See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh,
and your brother Aaron shall be your prophet.” God made Aaron a prophet, Aaron didn’t make himself
one. When Miriam and Aaron opposed Moses they asked “Has the Lord indeed spoken only through
Moses? Has he not spoken through us also ” (Num 12:2) and then “ the Lord came down in a pillar of
cloud and stood at the entrance of the tent and called Aaron and Miriam, and they both came forward.
And he said, “Hear my words: If there is a prophet among you, I the Lord make myself known to him in a
vision; I speak with him in a dream. Not so with my servant Moses. He is faithful in all my house. With
him I speak mouth to mouth, clearly, and not in riddles, and he beholds the form of the Lord. Why then
were you not afraid to speak against my servant Moses?” And the anger of the Lord was kindled against
them, and he departed” (Num 12:5-9).

False Prophets

We can tell who is a true prophet of God and who is a false prophet in Deuteronomy 13:1-3 where it
says “ If a prophet or a dreamer of dreams arises among you and gives you a sign or a wonder, and the
sign or wonder that he tells you comes to pass, and if he says, ‘Let us go after other gods,’ which you
have not known, ‘and let us serve them,’ you shall not listen to the words of that prophet or that
dreamer of dreams. For the Lord your God is testing you, to know whether you love the Lord your God
with all your heart and with all your soul.” The point is that a true prophet of God never contradicts
Scripture and the will of God. To tell if a prophet is really a prophet of God look at the evidence; “ when
a prophet speaks in the name of the Lord, if the word does not come to pass or come true, that is a
word that the Lord has not spoken; the prophet has spoken it presumptuously. You need not be afraid
of him ” (Duet 19:22).

Conclusion

There are no shortages of self-proclaimed prophets today. Why do we still need new revelation from
men or women who claim to be a prophet or prophetess of God? We have all the revelation we need
from Genesis one to Revelation twenty two. God has provided us with His Word and it is sufficient for all
we need to know and it is efficient enough for us to know how to be saved. Why would we need to
inquire of anyone else outside of the BBible

Were prophets unique in Israel ,or are there links between prophecy in Israel and the rest of the Ancient
Near East ? (25) [article 123]

DIVINITY QUESTIONS | 11 September 2016

COMMENT OVERVIEW

- The above question requires one to have deep knowledge, concerning the origins of prophecy, number
of so many books have been authored by various authors ,in other words this means that there is no
excuse of failing to understand the origins of prophecy .I have also authored number of articles
concerning origins of prophecy, you can make use of them .Any challenge which will encounter ,you can
reach me through my WhatsApp number which will be displayed after the presentation. Teachers ,can
assist you as well to understand the origins of prophecy. The origins of prophecy has been an unending
debate among scholars ,so many different theories have been brought forward ,still there is confusion.
On this ongoing article the author seeks to answer the above question.

ANSWERS

- Prophets in Israel were unique ,as they received calls ,number of so many prophets in Israel received
calls from Yahweh ,this is true in the case of Samuel ,who is believed to have received a call when the
voice of Yahweh was rare .Samuel encountered a theophanic experience when he heard a voice ,this is
recorded in 1st Samuel 3:1 .Some of the Israelite prophets ,they are believed to have experienced calls.
This was unique in Israel as it indicated that Yahweh was responsible for appointing his own prophets as
it is documented in Deuteronomy 18:18 .The extra-biblical sources ,there are silent about the view
prophets of surrounding nations received calls, hence, this indicates that prophets of Israel were
unique .

N.B There are so many points which can be added .

HOWEVER PART

- In as much as it can be stated that prophets of Israel were unique, this should not be emphasized as
there are links between prophecy of Israel and surrounding Ancient Near East Countries .For
instance ,Israelites experienced ecstasy, this idea was first experienced by the 70 elders during the
exodus event ,this is recorded in Numbers 11 :22-26 .The type of ecstasy which they experienced has
been interpreted by different scholars ,some believe that it was contagious type of ecstasy .This has
been supported by Constable in page 41 ,paragraph 4 in his NUMBERS notes who submitted that this
type of prophecy was selective and temporary. This type of prophecy was also common in surrounding
nations ,this has been supported by Pritchard quoted by B.W.Anderson in his book entitled the "The
Living World of Old Testament", who recorded the story of Wen -Amon [the story is well known ]The
sons of prophets in Israel experienced absorption ecstasy; absorption ecstasy is whereby an individual
prophesy ecstatically after being induced or absorbed by music ,this is recorded in 1st Samuel 10:6-10
has been supported by J Lindblom quoted by Ewbank page 9 ,paragraph 6.Elisha summoned music in
order for him to prophesy ,this is recorded in 2rd Kings 3:15 [The point in this case is that Israelites
experienced ecstasy]. Extra biblical sources proves that ecstasy was common in surrounding nations ,it
was common in Syria ,this can be supported by the story of STELLE ZAKIR ,who was answered by a seer
who delivered the visions in trance .The story of Mt Camel Contest is well known by so many people,
what cannot be noticed is that the Baal prophets which were exported by Jezebel from Phoenicia
experienced ecstasy in 1st Kings 18:28,this type of ecstasy is also believed by B.W.Anderson in his book
entitled "The Living word of Old Testament" to have existed in Asia -Minor (orges of Dionysus) .All
this ,indicates that there is a link between prophecy of Israel and that of surrounding nations ,as it
evidenced by the above information which the writer fully highlighted.

- The prophetic titles of Israel prophets ,there believed to be similar to those of surrounding
nations ,Israel prophets named their prophets as man of God, this trend started with Moses ,this is
evidenced in Joshua 14:6,Samuel was also regarded as a man of God in 1st Samuel 9:7-9 ,Elijah the
Tishbite was regarded as a man of God by the widow of Zerapath in 1st Kings 17:12-20.The young
prophet from Judah is named as man of God in the bible (1st Kings 13:1) even though scholars like
Josephus named him as Jadon .In surrounding nations they were prophets who were named as man of
God ,this has been supported by Martin North citing the story of Andrew Parrot the French
archaeologist who discovered 20 000 tablets with names and inscriptions of prophets which were quite
similar to those of Israel prophets [Sometimes the story is well known as the story of ZIMRI LIM ) .Basing
on this one will be left with no choice ,but to suggest that there is a link between prophecy of Israel and
that of surrounding nations considering the above similarities.

MORE POINTS CAN BE ADDED

- Advising Kings (Gad and Nathan ): Similar to the story of Balaam the Moabite who advised the King of
Moab Baalak to offer the sacrifices [read Numbers 23 :1 to get full information]

- Israel prophets experienced visions, the prophets of surrounding nations also experienced visions this
can be supported by the story of Zakir.

- The issue of sacrifices should not be neglected as Balaam the Moabite prophet offered sacrifices .[Read
Numbers 22 and 23:1]

QUESTION DEMANDS

- Check the demands

CONCLUSION

Basing on the totality of the mentioned points ,it can be concluded that prophets of Israel were unique
to certain degree, when receiving class and inspiration from the deity is concerned. However, totality of
the raised points indicate that there is a great connection between prophecy of Israel and that of
surrounding nations .

The 1st day of the first month (Abib/Nisan) was the first day of the Jewish religious year. It would begin
at the new moon of our March / April and coincides with the latter rains (Joel 2:23). Each month began
with a new moon. (Num 10:10, 28:11, 1 Sam 20:5, Psa 81:3, Isa 66:23, Ezek 46:3, Amos 8:5, Col. 2:16.)
The 1st day of Tishri, in the Fall, customarily begins the new civil year.

Jewish month New moon of Bible references

1. Abib* / Nisan March-April Ex 13:4, 23:15, Neh 2:1

2. Zif* / Iyyar April-May 1 Ki 6:1, 37

3. Sivan May-June Est 8:9

4. Tammuz June-July -

5. Ab / Av July-August -

6. Elul August-September Neh 6:15

7. Ethanim* / Tishri September-October 1 Ki 8:2

8. Bul* / Marheshvan / Heshvan October-November 1 Ki 6:38

9. Chisleu / Chislev / Kislev November-December Neh 1:1

10. Tebeth / Tevet December-January Est 2:16

11. Shebat / Shevat January-February Zec 1:7

12. Adar February-March Est 3:7

13. 2nd Adar (7 of 19 years) March 14,15

* Pre-exilic names

THE SABBATHS OF THE JEWISH YEAR

1. The seventh day (Saturday) Sabbath - (Shabbat)

Gen 2:1-3, Lev 23:3, Num 28:9-10, Exo 20:8-11, Deut 5:12-15

A convocation day. No work to be done.

Not a feast day (moed—H4150) as it is not set by the new moon.

The 4th of the Ten Commandments, this is the only convocation day that occurs more than once a year.
It was not a day that originated with the Jews and the Ten Commandments at Sinai, it preceded them.
The seventh day (weekly) Sabbath is the Sabbath of the Lord (Lev 23:3), a memorial to creation and the
Creator established in Eden before the fall (Gen 2:1-3). Because it began at creation, before sin, with no
intrinsic animal sacrifices associated with it, it is separate and distinct from the sabbaths of the yearly
sacrificial feast calendar of the temple (Lev. 23:37-38) that ended with Christ's crucifixion, and were a
shadow or type of some future event that would be their fulfillment, or antitype. When one of the
yearly sabbaths fell on the seventh day Sabbath, it was referred to as a high Sabbath day (John 19:31).

2. Feast of Passover (Erev Pesah or Ta'anit Bechorim)

The 14th day of the 1st month (Abib / Nisan)

Exo 12, Exo 13:6-8, Lev 23:5, Deut 16:3-8, Num 28:16

Note: this was not a convocation day (no public gatherings) or a sabbath day.

The Jews consider this day to be the day before Passover (Pesah), which to them is the same as the
Feast of Unleavened Bread. The type was the Passover in Egypt, with the blood of the lamb being
smeared on the door posts. Jesus and the disciples ate the Passover meal (Matt 26:18-20, Mark 14:12-
16) of unleavened bread and wine in the early hours of this day (Exo 12:18), which would have been our
Thursday evening (the biblical day begins and ends at sunset). Jesus was crucified, and died the
afternoon of the 14th (Friday, the preparation day), at the time the Paschal lambs were being slain (Exo
12:6), at the ninth hour (3 pm.). Passover is a shadow or type of the sacrifice of Jesus (the antitype), the
lamb of God, at the cross (1 Cor 5:7).

(Ta'anit Bechorim is a fast observed only by the first born. It is to commemorate being spared from the
last plague to fall on Egypt- the death of the first born.)

3. Feast of Unleavened Bread (Pesah) - a week long observance.

THE FIRST OF THREE COMPULSORY PILGRIMAGE FEASTS:

Travel to the Sanctuary in Jerusalem required of all men, to present themselves before the Lord (Exo
23:14,17, Exo 34:22, Deut 16:16).

First day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread

15th day of the 1st month (Abib/Nisan)

Lev 23:7, Num 28:17-18

A convocation / sabbath day. No servile work.

First born dedicated to the Lord's service.

A celebration of release from bondage in Egypt (Exo 13:6-10). All leaven bread (hametz) removed and
replaced by unleaven bread (matzah). This day fell on the seventh day Sabbath, the day after the
crucifixion, making it a high Sabbath day -

(John 19:31). Jesus spent the entire day in the tomb, at rest on this Sabbath.

The Feast of Unleavened Bread, was a type of the sinless nature of Jesus releasing us from the bondage
of sin (if we we have faith in His atoning death). Jesus is the sinless bread of life (John 6:32, 48-51) and
leavened bread represented the corruption of sin in your life, that Jesus overcomes - (1 Cor 5:8). Putting
away the sin in your life (leavened bread / hametz), and replacing it by accepting sinless Jesus Christ
(unleaven bread / matzah) in its place, is the Gospel Message symbolized in the Passover meal, known
today as the Lord's Supper or Communion. You participate in the Lord's Supper to remember the
sacrifice that Jesus made for you at the cross (Luke 22:19).
This was the time of year of the latter rain (March/April).

On this day Israel began to eat from the old corn and the manna ended the following day (Josh 5:11)

The Day of First Fruits (The Omer)

The 16th day of the 1st month (Abib / Nisan)

Exo 34:25-26, Lev 23:10-14, - Late Passover Num 9:10-11

Not a convocation day. No restriction on servile work.

Barley harvest - Firstfruits presented to the Lord (Lev 23:10-11)

This was the day of first sheaf waving (type), the first fruit of the barley harvest. The antitype was
Resurrection Sunday which also occurred on 16 Abib / Nisan. Jesus was the first fruits of the
resurrection, (1 Cor 15:20, 23, 2 Tim 2:6-8), the antitype. At His resurrection, Jesus also resurrected the
saints whose tombs were opened (marked) at the moment of His death (Mat 27:52-53) as a type of the
resurrection at the second coming. These saints were presented to the Father for His approval by Jesus
in heaven (John 20:17) at the moment the barley sheaf was symbolically waved at the temple at the
time of the morning sacrifice, the third hour (9 am).

It is important to note that it was not a day of convocation (NOT A SABBATH) to the Jews, so there is no
reason for it to be a sabbath in antitype (post-resurrection) to Christians. This is because the yearly
festivals were not just commemorative in nature, but also prophetic, pointing to future holy events as
fulfillments. To suggest a new Sunday holy day was instituted on resurrection day, is to say the yearly
festival calendar appointed by God was in error, since it omits a weekly 1st day observance.

In Jewish Tradition, the period called the Omer begins on 16 Nisan and extends for the count of 50 days
to Pentecost or Shavuot

Manna ceased to fall on this day (Josh 5:12)

7th and last day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Yom Tov)

The 21st day of 1st month (Abib / Nisan)

Exo 12:18, 13:6, Lev 23:8, Num 28:25

A convocation / sabbath day. No servile work.

Traditional celebration of the crossing of the Red Sea.

Passover Feast of Unleavened Bread

14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st

Paschal
Lamb

Slain 1st Day

Feast of

Unleaven Bread The Omer

(First Fruits) - - - - 7th Day

Feast of

Unleaven Bread

Not

a sabbath A sabbath

No servile work Not

a sabbath - - - - A sabbath

No servile work

Unleaven Bread Eaten

All Leaven Removed From the House

Crucifixion In the tomb Resurrection - - - - -

1st Day 2nd Day 3rd Day

4. Feast of Pentecost (Shavuot)

THE SECOND OF THREE COMPULSORY PILGRIMAGE FEASTS:

Travel to the Sanctuary in Jerusalem required of all men, to present themselves before the Lord (Exo
23:14,17, Exo 34:22, Deut 16:16).

Exo 34:22, Lev 23:15-21, Acts 2:1, Acts 20:16, 1 Cor 16:8

Occurs 50 days after the day of first fruits / barley sheaf waving (16 Nisan), on or about the 6th day of
the third month (Sivan).

A convocation / sabbath day. No servile work done.

Wheat harvest - Firstfruits presented to the Lord (Lev 23:17, 20)

Also called Feast of Weeks (Ex 34:22), the day of First Fruits
(Exo 23:16, Num 28:26) Feast of the Harvest (Ex 23:16) and in the New Testament - Pentecost (Acts 2:1)
A festival that celebrated the first fruits of the wheat harvest with the offering of two wave loaves of
leavened bread (Lev 23:17, 20). This feast was also a shadow or type because fifty days after the
resurrection, at the third hour morning offering at the temple (9 am - Acts 2:15), the firstfruits of the
resurrection of saints on 16 Nisan were again presented by Jesus before the Father in heaven, and there
was the first outpouring of the Holy Spirit, that resulted in three thousand souls being added to the
church in one day (Acts 2:41), this rapid growth being symbolized by the loaves of leavened bread.

This was the day that Jesus was anointed in heaven with the Holy Spirit as our High Priest, which was
also prefigured by the anointing of Aaron (Exo. 40:13) as mentioned in Psalms 133:1-3. Having finished
His ministration in the outer court of the sanctuary (the work of justification by His sacrifice, Rom 5:9),
Christ then began the priestly work of sanctification in the heavenly temple that was typified by the holy
place, the first apartment of the earthly sanctuary . This outpouring of the Holy Spirit is also known as
the early rain (Antitype) and reached from heaven down to the Apostles gathered in the upper room on
mount Zion. There will also be a latter rain, the greater outpouring of the Holy Spirit near the end of
time (Joel 2:23, Zech 10:1, James 5:7) for the proclamation of the three angels messages (Rev 14).

The Jews do not recognize the outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the second chapter of Acts as a fulfillment
of Pentecost/Shavuot, so they are consequently unsure about the true prophetic meaning of the
festival, commemorating instead the revelation of the Torah to Moses on Sinai.

5. Trumpets (Rosh Ha-shanah)

The 1st day of the 7th month (Ethanim / Tishri)

Lev 23:24, Num 29:1

A convocation / sabbath day. Not called a feast day. No servile work done.

The first day of the Jewish civil year.

This was an announcement to Israel of impending judgment, which occurred on the Day of Atonement,
nine days later. The antitype of Trumpets was the worldwide proclamation of the second coming in
1843, during the "Great Awakening" revival, which was based on the 2300 days/years prophecy in Dan
8:14, which began in 457 B.C. and ended in 1844. This was mistakenly interpreted, by William Miller and
others, to predict the time of the second coming and end of the world in 1844, when in fact it was the
cleansing of the heavenly sanctuary and the beginning of the pre-advent investigative judgment .

6. Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur)

The 10th day of the 7th month (Ethanim / Tishri)

Lev 23:27, Num 29:7, Lev 16

A convocation / sabbath day. No work to be done.

Not called a feast day, but a day to "afflict your soul" which involved fasting that day (Joel 1:14-15, Acts
27:9).

This was the holiest day of the year and signified a cleansing of sins and reconciliation with God
(Judgment day). The people were to afflict their souls and fast. On this day only the High Priest entered
the Holy of Holies to atone for the sins of the people (Lev 16). This was a shadow or type of Jesus
carrying out his role as our High Priest (Heb 9) and entering the Holy of Holies in the heavenly sanctuary
when he began the investigative judgment at the end of the 2300 days / years of Dan 8:14 on October
22, 1844. This was the beginning of the antitype or fulfillment of the Day of Atonement, which is still
underway in heaven today. This judgment begins with the righteous dead and will end with the
righteous living. At the end of this period of judgment, probation for humanity will have closed, and the
7 plagues of God will then fall on the wicked. Soon after will be the second coming, to gather the
righteous to join the kingdom of God in heaven for 1000 years.

The Jubilee year begins on this day (Lev 25:9).

7. Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkoth) - An eight day feast of ingathering.

THE LAST OF THREE COMPULSORY PILGRIMAGE FEASTS:

Travel to the Sanctuary in Jerusalem required of all men, to present themselves before the Lord (Exo
23:14,17, Exo 34:22, Deut 16:16).

The first day was the 15th day of the 7th month (Ethanim / Tishri)

Exo 34:22, Lev 23:34-36, 39-43, Num 29:12

A convocation / sabbath day. No servile work done.

Travel to the Sanctuary in Jerusalem required of all men (Exo 23:14,17, Exo 34:22, Deut 16:16).

Fruit Harvest - Firstfruits presented to the Lord (Exo 23:19, 14:1-5)

For seven days all Israel moved out of their homes and lived in temporary shelters called "Sukkah" as a
reminder of their wanderings in the desert for forty years. The branches cut from palm (Rev. 7:9), willow
and other trees were to be waved in celebration to the Lord during the first seven days of the feast (Lev
23:40).

This final feast of the year is a celebration of ingathering at the end of the harvest (Exo 23:16) and is a
time of rejoicing and fellowship. It symbolizes the gathering or harvest of God's people, who leave earth
for the week long marriage supper of the Lamb, to be celebrated at the Father's house in heaven after
the second coming of Jesus (Rev. 19:7-9). This begins the millennium, where the saints will dwell
temporarilly until the earth is made new, after the judgment of the wicked (Rev. 20).

The 7th day of the Feast of Tabernacles, Festival of Willows (Hoshana Rabbah)

21st day of the seventh month.

Considered by Jewish custom to be the final day of judgment. A ritual of beating willow branches on the
ground is practiced, which is thought to symbolize the casting away of sin.

The 8th day of the Feast of Tabernacles (Shemini Atzeret)

22nd day of the seventh month.

Lev 23:36,39, Num 29:35

A convocation / sabbath day. No servile work done.

The final day of Tabernacles was also a sabbath, a day of solemn assembly. At this time of year the
former or early rains fell (late October / November), when the fields were plowed and sown.

Spring Festivals Fall Festivals

The First Coming The Second Coming

Passover Unleaven Bread Pentecost Trumpets Atonement Tabernacles

14th Day

1st Month

(Abib/Nisan) A Week Long Festival

15th to 21st Day

1st Month

(Abib/Nisan) 50 days

from

15 Nisan

(6 Sivan) 1st day

7th Month

(Tishri) 10th Day

7th Month

(Tishri) An Eight Day Festival

15th to 22nd Day

7th Month
(Tishri)

Erev Pesah Pesah

1st Day

of Festival Omer

Firstfruits Yom Tov

7th Day

of Festival Shavuot

Feast of Weeks

or Firstfruits Rosh

Ha-shanah Yom Kippur Sukkoth

1st Day

of Festival Shemini Atzeret

8th Day of Festival

15th Day

1st Month

(Abib/Nisan) 16th Day

1st Month

(Abib/Nisan) 21st Day

1st Month

(Abib/Nisan) 15th Day

7th Month

(Tishri) 22nd Day

7th Month

(Tishri)

Not a sabbath A sabbath

No servile work Not a sabbath A sabbath

No servile work A sabbath

No servile work A sabbath

No servile work A sabbath

No work A sabbath

No servile work A sabbath

No servile work

Crucifixion Resurrection Outpouring

Of Holy Spirit Warning Pre-Advent

Judgment Second Coming

Ingathering

In Jerusalem In Jerusalem In Jerusalem

Barley Harvest Wheat

Rites Of Passage:JewishRites

Encyclopedia of Religion COPYRIGHT 2005 Thomson Gale

RITES OF PASSAGE: JEWISH RITES

Jewish rites of passage are diverse in their historical development and reflect the dynamic relation
between social conditions, local customs, and the continued reinterpretation of classic texts. Only one
rite, that of circumcision, derives explicitly from a commandment, or mitzvah (pl.mitzvot ),in the Hebrew
Bible, but images from the Bible linked to marriage and death have been mobilized in the evolution of
weddings and funerals. Bar mitzvah is not mentioned in the Bible, Mishnah, or Talmud, and the Bible has
no ritual of conversion. In some circumstances rites of passages have been linked to other biblical- based
celebrations such as festivals and pilgrimages. Jews' involvement in the wider society has shaped rites of
passage from antiquity through the Middle Ages under Christianity and Islam and continuing into the
contemporary world. A modern development is the explicit attention to life-passagerituals for women,
and the greater place of women in ritual life in general.The notion of "life cycle" was not traditionally an
explicit principle organizing rabbinic discussions of halakhah , or law concerning rituals: bar mitzvah
appeared in discussions of the daily prayer routine, while weddings appeared in considerations of laws
of marriage and divorce. An awareness of the life cycle appears in the early modern period in Europe
and grew within both the orthodox and liberal streams of Judaism that evolved in the nineteenth
century. With the personalization of religion that has characterized Western culture, much attention is
now paid to the different ways life milestones may be linked to Jewish tradition.

Circumcision, Naming, and Redemption of the Firstborn

The commandment that Israelite males be circumcised is presented in Genesis 17 as part of God's
evolving relationship with Abraham and his descendants. The set date of eight days is unusual in the
world's cultures, where ritual operations on male genitals usually takes place closer to puberty. This very
low age, coupled with the story of the great age of Abraham and Sarah when Isaac was born,
emphasizes that fertility is not dependent on circumcision but on Divine will. The biblical text builds
upon existing cultural associations, mobilizing them for its purposes. It turns circumcision into a sign of a
covenant between God and the Abrahamid line.The notion of covenant ( brit ) also emerges from the
context of mundane kin relations and protective alliances, stressing that Abraham is ultimately
dependent on God rather than on human patronage. The narrative assumes that the procedure of
circumcision is known and stresses its Israelite meaning.

Some neighboring groups in the biblical world may have practiced circumcision, while the Philistines
were marked as those who did not. In the Hellenistic period, the ritual came to symbolize Jewish
particularity, and this meaning was later reinforced by Christianity. Literature from the Mishnah and
Talmudic periods describes the procedure as consisting of three stages: (1)milah , the removal of the
foreskin; (2)periʿah , the tearing off and folding back of the mucous membrane to expose the glans;
(3)and metsitsah , the suction of the blood from the wound. The latter step probably was accepted
surgical procedure of the day. A passage from Luke (1:59) indicates that circumcision was also the
occasion of naming a boy.

The standard form of the circumcision ceremony took shape in the Middle Ages. Tradition views the
father as being obligated to circumcise his son, but it allows him to appoint a specialist, the mohel . In
the Middle Ages the synagogue became the preferred site for the occasion, typically at the end of
morning prayer. Both these developments extended communal authority into family celebrations and
restricted the participation of women. Auxiliary roles emerged, such as the sandaq , typically a
grandfather to the child, who held the baby on his lap during the procedure. Other roles, entailing both
women and men, ceremoniously brought the infant from his mother and the circle of women into the
main ritual arena. A series of texts were made standard, such as the formula for praying for the health of
the mother and naming the boy. Some practices lacked ancient authority, such as drinking and reciting
the blessing for wine on the occasion. In medieval Europe the blood drawn in circumcision took on
meanings that competed with understandings of sacramental blood in Christianity. In general,
circumcisions were occasions in which popular notions coexisted with or strained against halakhic
norms. During the eighth century an idea appeared—that Elijah the Biblical prophet, viewed as the
protector of children, is present at every circumcision, and the practice emerged of setting aside an
honorary chair for him. Later, there is evidence of an elaborate celebration or vigil taking place
throughout the night preceding a circumcision, in which the presence of many people guarded the child.
At first these were raucous occasions,but rabbinic influence subdued them and inserted readings from
sacred texts, like the Zohar. This basic configuration was common both in European communities, where
circumcision was a mark of being Jewish, and in Middle Eastern settings, where Muslims circumcised as
well, but at a different age and with different theological claims.

The modern era and emancipation created new perceptions of circumcision. As Jews became citizens of
European nation-states,they became subject to laws regulating the recording of births and deaths, and
to laws regarding health.New concepts of disease raised the question of whether metsitsah , normally
carried out by the mohel directly sucking blood from the wound,had to be maintained as part of the
ceremony, but it was defended by the nineteenth-century movement of Orthodoxy. Some spokesmen
for Reform, which developed at the same period, claimed that circumcision was no longer required, but
the majority of Jews maintained the custom even as new hygienic procedures for carrying it out became
common and new theories as to the health-basedrationale of the operation became popular. These
ideas became widespread among Gentiles in the United States, in comparison to Europe, and in the
course of the twentieth century it became common for the training of a mohel to include both ritual and
medical preparation.

Feminism,which rose in the mid-twentieth century, both critiqued the male-oriented connotations of
the rituals and suggested practices whereby baby girls could "enter the covenant" and be named
publicly. There had been various ways of naming girls in the past. In European (Ashkenazi)tradition, the
father would be called to recite the blessings over the public reading of the Torah on a Sabbath soon
after the birth. On that occasion, a prayer for the mother's convalescence was read and the baby was
given a name, even if the mother were not present. An alternative or complementary practice,
holekreish , took place at home after the mother was strong.The baby was raised in its cradle while
surrounded by people and given a name. Girls often had Yiddish names rather than Hebrew ones, and
the same ceremony might give boys a Yiddish name to complement the Hebrew one from his
circumcision. Holekreish appears to stem from a local custom warding off a monster that threatened
babies. A similar tradition may have existed in Spain, where rabbis established a home naming-
ceremonyfor girls, including a liturgical component in Hebrew called zeved ha-bat , the gift of a
daughter. From Spain it has spread to other areas of the Spanish-Jewish (Sephardi)world and now
constitutes one model for contemporary girl- naming ceremonies.

Innovations for naming girls have appeared in all streams of Judaism. Orthodox Jews have introduced
changes within the framework of halakhah , while a Hebrew neologism, britah , suggesting the feminine
of brit , has emerged among secular Israelis. The timing of the ceremony has been derived from
different spheres of practice, such as the Sabbath or the New Moon, which traditionally was important
to women. Liturgical content has been taken from such diverse sources as circumcision or marriage.
Some have introduced a physical gesture in girls' ceremonies to parallel circumcision: an example is
"washingthe feet," based on Abraham and Sarah welcoming harbingers of her giving birth ( Gn . 18).
Innovations regarding girls have influenced the way circumcisions are treated.The Reform movement
now trains women to be a mohel , and discussions arise as to whether modern anesthesia should be
used in circumcisions. Both contemporary circumcision and baby girl- naming reflect the contemporary
diversity of Jewish life.
Another infancy rite, based on Exodus 13:12– 13, is the redemption of the firstborn male. The term
redemption, padoh in Hebrew, refers to an exchange that moves a person or thing from one category to
another, and firstborn is here defined as a male who has "openedthe womb" of his mother. This
definition highlights the holiness attributed to "firstness"in the Bible, because if a male baby is born after
his mother has given birth to a girl, or after she has miscarried, the redemption commandment does not
apply to him. A father does not apply to fetuses who are not carried to term but are lost in a
miscarriage, highlighting the holiness attributed to "firstness"in the Biblical view. The father redeems his
firstborn son by transferring a sum of money, "fivesheqalim ," to a person from the priestly Aaronid line
(a kohen ), and in exchange the son is removed from the category of being holy. Rabbinic Judaism gave
shape to the biblical injunction by adding texts and a formal blessing. In the Geonic period (c. seventh–
eleventh centuries), a blessing for the mother to recite was composed but did not gain wide acceptance
and disappeared from tradition.In some versions of the rite today,a mother is asked to testify that this
baby is the first to "escape" her womb. Because it applies only to a fraction of children, the ceremony
continues today,but it has attracted less general attention than has circumcision. Some strictly orthodox
Jews seek opportunities of carrying out the redemption of firstlings of domestic animals.

Bar and Bat Mitzvah and Rituals of Education

The obligation to both obey and love God's words was expressed in Deuteronomy 6:4–9, where there
also is a demand to write and recite them. The Deuteronomic text may represent a stage in which
involvement with divine instructions and teachings, which with time collectively came to be called
Torah, was being expanded beyond the priesthood and directed to all Israelites. The textual world of
Torah and its evolving interpretations became a hallmark of Jewish life, and entrance into that world by
male children constituted a significant passage. There are hints in the Bible, as in the beginning of 1
Samuel , that weaning was viewed as a significant transition that could thrust a youngster into a setting
of education. There is no clear evidence of rituals accompanying the entrance into the realm of Torah
within Talmudic literature, but such rituals are known from France and the Rhineland (Ashkenaz) in the
Middle Ages. They involved:

1. Carrying the child from his home to the synagogue; 2. The synagogue teacher's exposing the child to
Hebrew letters that he in some form ingests as sweets; 3. Engaging in incantations intended to ward off
forget- fulness; 4. Walking to the river from the synagogue.

A difference between the French and German sources is that in France the ceremony took place
whenever a child reached the appropriate age, while in the Rhineland it was prescribed for the festival
of Shavuʿot,the date to which tradition assigned the revelation at Sinai. Both in textual references
mobilized within the ceremony and in one illuminated manuscript depicting it, the child's entrance into
the realm of instruction is portrayed as analogous to the Israelites receiving the Torah at Sinai and then
traveling to the next stage on the banks of the Jordan River. Some of the illuminated material shows the
child on the knee of a teacher in a manner parallel to the way the infant Jesus sits on Mary's lap in
contemporary art, suggesting that there was polemic content to the ceremony as well. In the medieval
European setting, the ritual was important to the whole community, for which it recapitulated its sacred
history and reinforced its identity. Aspects of the ceremony, such as associating the text of the
Pentateuch with sweetness, survive in customs today,but toward the end of the Middle Ages this
custom declined in centrality in comparison to the growing importance of bar mitzvah.

The age of thirteen appears in some classic sources; for example, males from that age must fast on the
Day of Atonement, while females fast from the age of twelve. In the late Middle Ages in Europe, with
the growing sense of the individual and the cultural recognition of stages of life, this was systematized
into a general rule as to when a young person was obligated to observe the mitsvot . For a male, the
salient expression of reaching this stage was the donning of phylacteries,or tefillin (containing the
Deuteronomic passage discussed above, and related verses),during morning prayer and being counted
in a prayer quorum. In the late sixteenth century the personal and communal elements now associated
with bar mitzvah coalesced into a pattern. The year before a boy's thirteenth birthday was devoted to
instruction in synagogue skills, and teachers exhorted him about his new moral and religious duties. The
obligation to observe all the commandments was made public in his donning tefillin and being called to
recite the blessings over the reading of the Torah. Families began to celebrate the event, and rabbis
considered whether the occasion was appropriate for an official mitzvah feast like those accompanying a
circumcision or wedding. The practice spread throughout Europe and beyond it.

In many Sephardi regions the practice was accepted, but the details differed. The name given the
occasion varied; often it included the term tefillin . In some settings the celebration had two phases: the
first of donning the tefillin on a weekday, and the second on the following Sabbath, when an extensive
reading of the Torah and the Prophets in the synagogue gave the initiate more opportunity to
demonstrate his skills. In North Africa the idea and the celebration were accepted, but into the
twentieth century it was common to stage the occasion as soon as a youngster had the ability to go
through the ceremony successfully, even if this preceded his thirteenth birthday. A bar mitzvah ritual
never evolved among the Jews in Yemen.

A religious majority celebration for girls, now referred to by the feminine form bat mitzvah, first arose in
the nineteenth century. It is linked to the creation of the confirmation ceremony first appearing in
Central Europe early in that century as a complement to bar mitzvah. This stemmed from the critique
that boys went through bar mitzvah ceremonies on a rote basis without adequate knowledge or
personal commitment. Confirmation was to reflect further study and took place later in the teenage
years in a public setting. Youths in the synagogue were quizzed on their knowledge and beliefs in a
manner parallel to catechism, after which their joining the adult community was "confirmed." Classes
preparing for this event began to include girls as well as boys. Most Orthodox leaders opposed the
innovation, which initially was shaped on a Christian model, but with time some accepted it as it was
embellished with traditional symbolism, such as taking place on the festival of Shavuʿot.The inclusion of
girls in public rituals also evolved into various and occasional forms of celebrating bat mitzvah, reported
in the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century both in Europe and the Middle East. Both
confirmation and bat mitzvah became regularized in Reform and Conservative synagogues in North
America in the twentieth century. In Conservative synagogues, bat mitzvah celebrations were different
from bar mitzhah, taking place on Friday nights rather than Saturday mornings. They featured elements
traditionally associated with women, such as lighting the Sabbath candles, but also included reading
from the Prophets, as with boys. Feminism influenced all streams of Judaism to expand the education of
women, and bar and bat mitzvah ceremonies were identical by the start of the twenty-first century in
liberal branches of Judaism. This trend also led to the training of women cantors and rabbis in non-
Orthodox rabbinic seminaries. In these matters, religious leadership responded to expectations that had
become accepted among contemporary Jews.

A development in the late twentieth century was organized travel among young people to supplement
Jewish education. Travel to Israel is a central destination, but the purpose typically is to reinforce Jewish
identity among those in the Diaspora. Travel to sites of the European Holocaust by Israeli high school
students has become a standard practice in the Jewish state for reinforcing national culture. Identity-
bolstering travel also is utilized for people in later stages of life.

Another ritual connected to study is the convening of a siyyum , a celebration of conclusion, when an
individual or group finishes studying a sacred book, traditionally a tractate of the Talmud. An ancient
theme in Jewish symbolism likens a Torah scroll or a sacred book to a person. Thus, when a sacred book
is no longer usable, it is not treated as refuse but should be buried in a manner parallel to burying
human beings.Different practices evolved in relation to this norm. One was to bury worn-out books on
the occasion of the burial of a sage, and another took place on a set date in the year, linked to one of
the festivals. The overall notion links the individual to sacred texts throughout life and even in death.

Marriage

As in many societies, marriage was the occasion of the most elaborate life-cycle rituals among Jews. The
biblical blessing to humankind to "befruitful and multiply"( Gn . 1:28)was a value taken for granted, and
rabbinic writings assumed that marriage was the normal state for adults. In premodern times, weddings
and the accompanying celebrations were the first occasion on which a woman was central in a public
celebration. In various locales, the onset of menarche was recognized by traditional gestures within the
family, but these were never linked to textual traditions. By contrast, the Bible and especially rabbinic
law pay close attention to menstruation with regard to married women and their husbands' access to
them. In the latter, a strict set of procedures evolved in which a woman terminates menstrual impurity
after two weeks with immersion in a ritual bath,or miqveh .

The Bible and rabbinic law also portray men as the active partner in initiating and terminating marriage.
Feminist literature debates how to interpret these texts and the historic developments behind them.
The "patriarchal period" portrayed in Genesis features men in the public sphere, but the "matriarchs"are
not passive actors, even though institutions like polygamy are taken for granted.

Talmudic literature provided detailed principles regulating marriage and divorce. These are based on the
notion that a man acquires rights with regard to a woman, while she agrees to his acquisition of those
rights. Contemporary weddings consist of two phases that were separated in time during antiquity. The
first is called kiddushin , or erusin , and the second is nisuʾin.Nisuʾinis normally translated as
"marriage,"while kiddushin means "engagement"in modern Hebrew.In the context of formal marriage
procedures, however, kiddushin establishes a ritual and legal relationship between a woman and man
who perform the act. Related to the Hebrew term kadosh , or holy, the Talmud interprets kiddushin as a
woman being "set aside"for a single sacred purpose; after that, no other man may have sexual access to
her. Kiddushin takes place when a man gives a women an object of defined minimum value (now
typically a ring) while he declares his intention to "consecrate"her and she agrees. Once this occurs, a
permanent relationship is established, and if there is a decision not to continue with the marriage, a
get , or bill of divorce, must be written. In antiquity, months or more passed between kiddushin and
nisuʾin , after which a woman could permanently co- reside with her husband. In eleventh-century
France it became the practice to combine both phases of the ceremony, and this was widely adopted in
Europe and later became common elsewhere. In several Middle Eastern communities, the separation of
the phases continued until much more recent times.

The ketubba , or marriage contract,is also a post-biblical institution. It states the economic obligations of
a man to a woman if the marriage relationship terminates. Its contents have varied over time and place.
It might specify the dowry brought into the marriage by a woman or contain specific conditions. For
example, within Sephardi tradition,where polygamy remained a theoretical option, it might stipulate
that a man may take a second wife only with the permission of the first. Traditionally a ketubba is
written in Aramaic and signed by two witnesses. Often, parts of it are read or explained at wedding
ceremonies between the kiddushin and nisuʾinphases, but this is not required to make it binding. At
various times, artistic traditions of ketubba illumination developed.Today, in liberal branches of Judaism,
opportunities are offered to a couple to formulate their own mutual commitments in written form, and
they may choose to place an elaborately decorated ketubba on a wall in their new home. These
practices both hold on to and reinterpret aspects of an ancient halakhic pattern.

The nisuʾinphase in antiquity entailed a woman moving permanently into her husband's home. The
wedding canopy, or ḥuppa , which became common in the Ashkenazi Middle Ages, is seen as
symbolizing this stage.Another pattern, still common in some Sephardi traditions, is for the groom to
spread his prayer shawl over the head of the bride. Liturgically, nisuʾin is marked by the recital of seven
blessings from Talmudic literature.They may be summarized as follows:

1. A blessing over wine; 2. Three blessings citing God's fashioning humankind with the power of
procreation; 3. A blessing over the ingathering of Jews to Jerusalem; 4. Two blessings citing the joy of
the bride and groom.

This order moves from the most inclusive category of humanity through Jewish peoplehood and then
highlights the single couple. The fifth and the last blessings mention, respectively, Zion and Jerusalem,
with the latter expressing the hope that the joy of weddings will soon be heard again in that city. This
theme is also associated with the well- known feature of Jewish weddings of breaking a glass, which now
typically concludes the ceremony. Formally,it is only a custom, but for many it marks the high point of
Jewish weddings. It carries many general meanings, such as breaking the hymen, severance from the
natal family, and the irreversibility of passage, which energize the now standard rabbinic gloss that it
reminds people of the destroyed ancient Temple in Jerusalem. This illustrates how rabbinic rules and
interpretations interlace with popular practices and understandings that traditionally featured festivities
taking place during the days preceding and following the wedding itself.
At the turn of the twenty-firstcentury, a major factor embellishing basic marriage ritual is the
expectation of equality between the partners, and in liberal branches of Judaism rabbis may encourage
couples to suggest their own innovations. Orthodox rabbis open to this trend have also found ways to
express equality, such as including women friends among the those who hold up the ḥuppa or having
the bride give the groom a ring in addition to the formal kiddushin . A personally formulated ketubba ,
viewed either as the essential marriage contract in liberal ceremonies or as a supplementary document
in some Orthodox instances, is another feature that is spreading.

Divorce, while discouraged in Jewish tradition, has always been a possibility and is explicitly mentioned
in Deuteronomy 24:1. There is symmetry between divorce and marriage in rabbinic law; they are both
actions taken by the man to which a woman acquiesces (or refuses).The necessity of having a woman
agree to accept a bill of divorce was instituted by authorities in medieval Ashkenaz. A get is a short
document, addressed to a woman from her husband, which releases her from her commitment to him
and makes her "permissible to any man."In contrast to a ketubba , it cannot be a standard form in which
the names and date are filled in, but must be prepared expressly for the divorce in question. After it is
written, a get must be delivered to a woman, and it must be clear that she received and accepted it. If
there are mistakes in a get , or a lack of clarity, it may be claimed that a woman is not formally divorced.
If she then enters into a relationship with another man, she is committing adultery. Rabbis have always
been concerned with the exactitude of the get procedure, not only with regard to the "morality"of
women but with reference to potential illegitimate children ( mamzerim ) issuing from an adulterous
union, who themselves would be severely restricted as to whom they could marry.

This has given rise to the problem of the aguna , an "anchored" women who is no longer in an active
marriage but has not received a get , making it impossible for her to remarry within a Jewish framework.
Classically, this concerns women whose husbands have disappeared without proof of death. In modern
times this problem has become acute in places where Jews live under civil law within a nation- state
while their marital status is also subject to rabbinic law either because they are Jewish citizens of Israel
or because they choose to follow halakhah . Cases exist of husbands who effectively have separated
from their wives but refuse to give them a get out of indifference or hostility. This critical life-cycle issue
is now discussed within organizations and networks that span the Jewish world,in the attempt to find
both halakhic and practical solutions for women in the status of aguna .

Death, Mourning,and Memory

The Hebrew Bible contains only a few explicit rules concerning death and mourning, but many practices
and attitudes are reflected throughout it that became models for customs and regulations that were
systematized later. These include repugnance over delay in burying corpses,the rending of garments by
a mourner, eulogies, a meal initiating the process of reconciliation with loss,and the expectation that
friends visit and console a mourner.Part of the rabbinic liturgy during burial is a quote from the Book of
Job (1:21): "TheLord gave, and the Lord hath taken away: blessed be the name of the Lord."Several rules
separate the realms of sacrificial sanctity and of a kohen from death: a priest should not have contact
with the dead except with regard to his immediate family ( Lv . 21:1–3). A tendency in Pentateuchal law
is to encourage ordinary Israelites to adopt priestlike standards, as in the prohibition against gashing
one's skinwhen hearing news of death ( Dt . 14:1–2). This practice, violating the prohibition, still took
place in the twentieth century among women from some communities in the Middle East.

Rabbinic laws were systematized in an extra- Talmudic compilation that acquired the euphemistic name
Semaḥot , or rejoicings.It opens by asserting that a person who is dying is to be considered alive in every
respect: nothing should be done to hasten death. It also defines periods of mourning: the first intense
week ( shivʿah ), thirty days, and a year. During shivʿah , one should stay at home and refrain from
washing, anointing oneself, wearing shoes, and sexual intercourse.Friends are obligated to visit and
console a mourner during this period. The Bible and early rabbinic writings did not provide elaborate
images of life after death. Some claim that such notions grew subsequent to the devastation that
followed the second-century ce revolt against Roman power. Much later, beginning in the late eleventh
century, the suffering associated with the Crusades in Western Europe were the context for a liturgical
development that has become central in Jewish mourning and commemoration: the kaddish prayer.

Communities in Ashkenaz compiled memory books with the names of people murdered during the
Crusades,including the names of women, and created ritual occasions ( yizkor ), upon which these
names were read aloud. This created a nexus between personal and communal memorialization. The
notion also developed, based on Talmudic and extra- Talmudic sources, that a person could assist the
soul of a deceased parent by bringing the community to declare, in Aramaic, "May the name of God be
blessed forever and ever" ( Dn . 2:20). This is the kernel of the kaddish that exists in various versions and
came to fulfill various liturgical functions, but which is saliently associated with memorialization. It is
recited by a mourner in daily prayer during the first year after death, on the anniversary of death, and
on yizkor occasions. Some Sephardi scholars resisted the notion of an impact upon the soul of the
deceased, but the idea spread throughout the Jewish world. Traditionally, it was associated with males
only, but in liberal streams of Judaism women also recite kaddish .

Late medieval Ashkenaz was also the site of the evolution of the ḥevra kaddisha , the burial society
charged with dealing with sick people on their death bed and making funeral arrangements. It emerged
at a time when traditional communal authority was weakening and concerned itself with many matters
like collecting and distributing charity or providing funds for the dowries and weddings of orphans. Its
power derived from vivid images of the afterlife of the soul that were developing with the diffusion of
qabbalistic notions through wide social circles, with the ḥevra kaddisha becoming the gatekeeper for the
correct ritual transition from this world to the next.At this point, specialized manuals dealing with the
soul, death, and burial began to appear and may reflect a step in the explicit recognition of "the"life
cycle. Similar developments occurred elsewhere, and a professional ḥevra kaddisha is still the main
framework for dealing with death. In smaller communities in North America where there is no ḥevra
kaddisha , many funeral homes send morticians to train someone so that proper last rites are provided
for local Jews. A late-twentieth-century development in such communities is that "ordinary"Jews have
banded together to form a ḥevra kaddisha on a voluntary basis.

Modern science and emancipation created some clashes between rabbinic norms regarding burial and
the nation-statesof which they became citizens. The traditional expectation was that a person would be
buried as soon after death as possible. Late in the eighteenth century there was growing concern over
the possibility of "false death"—that a person would appear to be dead and mistakenly be buried
alive.Rabbinic criteria of establishing death had to be coordinated with prevailing secular concepts and
laws. Issues of difference and possible coordination continue to exist over matters such as "braindeath,"
organ transplants, and mercy killing. Another example concerns the death of infants under thirty days
old. Traditional halakhah does not provide for any burial ceremony, while pregnancies assisted by
modern prenatal examinations often imbue an unborn fetus with individual characteristics resulting in a
personal sense of loss even in the case of a prefers miscarriage. In all these areas contemporary rabbis
within both liberal and orthodox streams of Judaism have forged a variety of approaches to abandoning
some burial and mourning practices, maintaining and reinterpreting others, and in some cases shaping
new ones.

Practices of memorialization have also accommodated to modern circumstances. The anonymous death
of millions in the Nazi Holocaust meant that the date of death of close relatives often was not known.
Israel's chief rabbinate selected the tenth of the Hebrew month of Tevet, a fast day marking the siege of
Jerusalem in the sixth century bce, as a date appropriate for the recital of kaddish on behalf of these
Holocaust victims. Individual mourning thus continues to be linked to collective definitions. Within the
United States, suburban synagogues built in the second half of the twentieth century often incorporated
within them memorial boards, carrying the names of deceased individuals, that had been removed from
defunct synagogues in areas where Jews no longer lived. One example concerns Jews in South Africa,
from which there is continued out-migration. Cremation is not permitted by halakhah , but some Jews
there have requested to be cremated in order to make their remains transportable, because they realize
that there will be no children nearby to visit their graves. Here is an example of one traditional pattern
clashing with another in changed circumstances.

Conversion

While not an inevitable phase of the life cycle, conversion ritual can be viewed as a rite of passage: the
Talmud states that a proselyte is like a newborn child. The Bible envisions the possibility of foreigners
joining the Israelites and participating in rituals but does not provide a single marker of that
process.Exodus (12:48) insists that foreigners among the Israelites be circumcised in order to partake of
the Passover sacrifice, and Deutoronomy (21:10–14) specifies how a woman captured in war may
become a legitimate wife. The Mishnah does not contain a tractate dealing with proselytes, or gerim ,
but Talmudic literature includes debates over which conversion rituals are the most critical ones:
circumcision, immersion in amiqveh, or both together.One source states that a proselyte must be
informed about some of the weightier mitzvot , along with some less central ones, but there is little
stress on understanding the motivations of the individual proselyte. None of the sources emphasizes
conversion as a personal religious transformation, but they do stress the affiliation with a new
collectivity and its norms. The notion of examining the motives of a potential convert began to emerge
only in the Middle Ages. For much of the medieval period, the actual likelihood of Christians or Muslims
converting to Judaism was minimal, so the rabbinic legal tradition in this area was not tested by the
crucible of historical experience. With emancipation in Europe, issues of intermarriage and potential
conversion arose with a new poignancy.
As with other ritual issues, diverse approaches developed toward conversion. Orthodox rabbis have
been hesitant to accept converts on the grounds that their motives may be extraneous, and do so only
when convinced that the proselyte will lead an orthodox life. The liberal streams have been more open,
but Conservative Judaism demands preparatory study, circumcision, and immersion, while Reform
Judaism does not insist upon the ritual requirements. In the wake of widespread intermarriage in the
United States in the late twentieth century, Reform Judaism also decided that a person can claim Jewish
status through descent either from a father or a mother, while traditional halakhah sees only the
mother as determinative. The small Reform movement in Israel did not encourage this innovation
because the situation in that country, where the state privileges Orthodoxy, raises questions of whether
ritual matters that effect personal status might create permanent splits within the Jewish
population.Given the links between Israel and Jews all over the world, life-cycle events can become
global political issues. On the background of growing choice in all cultural realms, questions of
community and of religious authority at the beginning of the twenty-first century often appear as
aspects of individual life cycles.

See Also

Conservative Judaism ; Orthodox Judaism; Reconstructionist Judaism ; Reform Judaism .

Bibliography

Boyarin, Daniel. Carnal Israel: Reading Sex in Talmudic Culture . Berkeley, Calif., 1993.

Goldberg, Harvey E. Jewish Passages: Cycles of Jewish Life . Berkeley, Calif., 2003.

Goldberg, Sylvie-Anne.Crossing the Jabbok: Illness and Death in Ashkenazi Judaism in Sixteenth-through-
Nineteenth-Century Prague . Translated by Carol Cosman. Berkeley, Calif., 1996.

Hoffman, Lawrence A. Covenant of Blood: Circumcision and Gender in Rabbinic Judaism . Chicago, 1996.

Horowitz, Elliot. "The Eve of Circumcision: A Chapter in the History of Jewish Nightlife." Journal of Social
History 23 (1989): 45–69.

Klein, Isaac. A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice . New York, 1979.

Lamm, Maurice. The Jewish Way in Death and Mourning . New York, 1969.

Marcus,Ivan. Rituals of Childhood: Jewish Acculturation in Medieval Europe . New Haven, Conn., 1996.

Orenstein, Debra, ed. Lifecycles: Jewish Women on Life Passages and Personal Milestones . Woodstock,
Vt., 1994.

Rubin,Nisan. The Beginning of Life: Rites of Birth, Circumcision and Redemption of the First-Bornin the
Talmud and Midrash . Tel Aviv, Israel, 1995. In Hebrew.

Wasserfall,Rahel R.,ed. Women and Water: Menstruation in Jewish Life and Law . Hanover, N.H., 1999.
Weissler,Chava. Voices of the Matriarchs: Listening to the Prayers of Early Modern Jewish Women .
Boston, 1998.

Harvey E. Goldberg (2005)

The , or Jewish Written Law, consists of the five books of the Hebrew Bible - known more commonly to
non-Jews as the "

" - that were given by G-d to on and include within them all of the biblical laws of Judaism. The Torah is
also known as the Chumash, Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses.

The word "Torah" has multiple meanings including: A scroll made from kosher animal parchment, with
the entire text of the Five Books of Moses written on it; the text of the Five Books of Moses, written in

any format; and, the term "Torah" can mean the entire corpus of Jewish law. This includes the Written
and the

Origin & Preexistence

Jewish tradition holds that "Moses received the Torah from Sinai," yet there is also an ancient tradition
that the Torah existed in heaven not only before God revealed it to Moses, but even before the world
was created.

In rabbinic literature, it was taught that the Torah was one of the six or seven things created prior to the
creation of the world. According to Eliezer ben Yose the Galilean, for 974 generations before the
creation of the world the Torah lay in God's bosom and joined the ministering angels in song. Simeon
ben Lakish taught that the Torah preceded the world by 2,000 years and was written in black fire upon
white fire. Akiva called the Torah "the precious instrument by which the world was created". Rav said
that God created the world by looking into the Torah as an architect builds a palace by looking into
blueprints. It was also taught that God took council with the Torah before He created the world.

Other Jewish sages, however, disregard the literal belief that the Torah existed before all else.

rejected this belief on the grounds that it contradicts the principle of creation ex nihilo. Judah Barzillai of
Barcelona raised the problem of place. Where could God have kept a preexistent Torah? While allowing
that God could conceivably have provided an ante-mundane place for a corporeal Torah, he preferred
the interpretation that the Torah preexisted only as a thought in the divine mind. Similarly, the

raised the problem of time. He wrote that it is impossible for the Torah to have preceded the world by
2,000 years or even by one moment, since time is an accident of motion, and there was no motion
before God created the celestial spheres; rather, he concluded, the teaching about the Torah's
preexistence must be a metaphoric riddle.

attempts to alleviate the argument by explaining that the Torah precedes the world in terms of
teleology; God created the world for the purpose of revealing the Torah; therefore, since, as the
philosophers say, "the first of thought is the end of the work," the Torah is said to have existed before
the world.

Nature, Message & Purpose

In the Bible, the Torah is referred to both as the "Torah of the Lord" and as the "Torah of Moses," and is
said to be given as an inheritance to the congregation of Jacob- the Jewish people. Its purpose seems to
be to make Israel "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation."

The Septuagint rendered the Hebrew torah by the Greek nomos ("law"), probably in the sense of a living
network of traditions and customs of a people. The designation of the Torah by nomos , and by its Latin
successor lex (whence, "the Law"), has historically given rise to the misunderstanding that Torah means
legalism.

It was one of the very few real dogmas of rabbinic theology that the Torah is from heaven; i.e., the
Torah in its entirety was revealed by God. According to biblical stories, Moses ascended into heaven to
capture the Torah from the angels. In one of the oldest mishnaic statements it is taught that Torah is
one of the three things by which the world is sustained. Eleazar ben Shammua said: "Were it not for the
Torah, heaven and earth would not continue to exist".

The Torah was often compared to fire, water, wine, oil, milk, honey, drugs, manna, the tree of life, and
many other things; it was considered the source of freedom, goodness, and life; it was identified both
with wisdom and with love. summarized the entire Torah in one sentence: "What is hateful to you, do
not to your fellow". Akiva said: "The fundamental principle of the Torah is the commandment, 'Love thy
neighbor as thyself '".

The message of the Torah is for all mankind. Before giving the Torah to Israel, God offered it to the other
nations, but they refused it; and when He did give the Torah to Israel, He revealed it in the
extraterritorial desert and simultaneously in all the 70 languages, so that men of all nations would have
a right to it. Alongside this universalism, the rabbis taught the inseparability of Israel and the Torah. One
rabbi held that the concept of Israel existed in God's mind even before He created the Torah. Yet, were
it not for its accepting the Torah, Israel would not be "chosen," nor would it be different from all the
idolatrous nations. expounded a rationalist theory according to which the ethical and religious-
intellectual beliefs imparted by the Torah are all attainable by human reason. He held that the Torah is
divisible into two parts:

(1) commandments which, in addition to being revealed, are demanded by reason (e.g., prohibitions of
murder, fornication, theft, lying); and
(2) commandments whose authority is revelation alone (e.g., Sabbath and dietary laws), but which
generally are understandable in terms of some personal or social benefit attained by their performance.

In the period between and , most Jewish writers who speculated on the nature of the Torah continued
in this rationalist tradition.

, however, opposed the rationalist interpretation. He allowed that the Torah contains rational and
political laws, but considered them preliminary to the specifically divine laws and teachings which
cannot be comprehended by reason, e.g., the laws of the Sabbath which teach the omnipotence of God
and the creation of the world. The Torah makes it possible to approach God by awe, love, and joy. It is
the essence of wisdom, and the outcome of the will of God to reveal His kingdom on earth as it is in
heaven.

While Judah Halevi held that Israel was created to fulfill the Torah, he wrote that there would be no
Torah were there no Israel. emphasized that the Torah is the product of the unique prophecy of Moses.
He maintained that the Torah has two purposes:

(1) The welfare of the body, which is a prerequisite of the ultimate purpose, is political, and "consists in
the governance of the city and the well-being of the state of all its people according to their capacity.

(2) The welfare of the soul (intellect), which consists in the true perfection of man, his acquisition of
immortality through intellection of the highest things.

held that the Torah is similar to other laws in its concern with the welfare of the body; but its divine
nature is reflected in its concern for the welfare of the soul. Maimonides saw the Torah as a rationalizing
force, warring against superstition, imagination, appetite, and idolatry. He cited the rabbinic dictum,
"Everyone who disbelieves in idolatry professes the Torah in its entirety", and taught that the
foundation of the Torah and the pivot around which it turns consists in the effacement of idolatry. He
held that the Torah must be interpreted in the light of reason.

While generally restricted analysis of the nature of the Torah to questions of its educational, moral, or
political value, the Spanish kabbalists engaged in bold metaphysical speculation concerning its essence.
The kabbalists taught that the Torah is a living organism. Some said the entire Torah consists of the
names of God set in succession or interwoven into a fabric. Ultimately, it was said that the Torah is God.
This identification of the Torah and God was understood to refer to the Torah in its true primordial
essence, and not to its manifestation in the world of creation.

Influenced by Maimonides,

took the position that the Torah is an exclusively political law, however he broke radically with all
rabbinic tradition by denying its divine nature, by making it an object of historical-critical investigation,
and by maintaining that it was not written by Moses alone but by various authors living at different
times. Moreover, he considered the Torah primitive, unscientific, and particularistic, and thus subversive
to progress, reason, and universal morality. By portraying the Torah as a product of the Jewish people,
he reversed the traditional opinion according to which the Jewish people are a product of the Torah.
considered the Torah a political law, but he affirmed its divine nature. He explained that the Torah does
not intend to reveal new ideas about deism and morality, but rather, through its laws and institutions, to
arouse men to be mindful of the true ideas attainable by all men through reason. By identifying the
beliefs of the Torah with the truths of reason, Mendelssohn affirmed both its scientific respectability and
its universalistic nature. By defining the Torah as a political law given to Israel by God, he preserved the
traditional view that Israel is a product of the Torah, and not, as Spinoza claimed, vice versa.

With the rise of the science of Judaism (Wissenschaft des Judentums ) in the 19th century, and the
advance of the historical-critical approach to the Torah, many Jewish intellectuals, including ideologists
of Reform like

, followed Spinoza in seeing the Torah, at least in part, as a product of the primitive history of the Jewish
nation.

The increasing intellectualization of the Torah was opposed by

. He contended that the belief that God revealed the Torah is the starting point of Judaism, and that this
belief, with its momentous implications concerning the nature of God and His relation to man, cannot be
attained by philosophy. Luzzatto held that the foundation of the whole Torah is compassion.

In their German translation of the Bible,

translated

torah as Weisung or Unterweisung ("Instruction") and not as Gesetz ("Law"). In general, he agreed on
the purpose of the Torah - to convert the universe and God from It to Thou - yet differed on several
points concerning its nature. Buber saw the Torah as the past dialogue between Israel and God, and the
present dialogue between the individual reader, the I, and God, the Thou. He concluded that while one
must open himself to the entire teaching of the Torah, he need only accept a particular law of the Torah
if he feels that it is being spoken now to him.

The secular Zionism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries gave religious thinkers new cause to define
the relationship between the Torah and the Jewish nation. Some defined the Torah in terms of the
nation. Thus,

translated sociological theory of the evolution of Jewish civilization into a religious, though naturalistic,
theory of the Torah as the "religious civilization of the Jews."

Other thinkers defined the nation in terms of the Torah. Thus,

taught that the purpose of the Torah is to reveal the living light of the universe, the suprarational
spiritual, to Israel and, through Israel, to all mankind. While the Written Torah, which reveals the light in
the highest channel of our soul, is the product of God alone, the

, which is inseparable from the Written Torah, and which reveals the light in a second channel of our
soul, proximate to the life of deeds, derives its personality from the spirit of the nation. The Oral Torah
can live in its fullness only when Israel lives in its fullness – in peace and independence in the Land of
Israel. Thus, according to Kook, modern Zionism, whatever the intent of its secular ideologists, has
universal religious significance, for it is acting in service of the Torah.

In the

, most writers and educators have maintained the secularist position of the early Zionists, namely, that
the Torah was not revealed by God, in the traditional sense, but is the product of the national life of
ancient Israel. Those who have discussed the Torah and its relation to the state from a religious point of
view have mostly followed Kook or Buber. However, a radically rationalist approach to the nature of the
Torah has been taught by Yeshayahu Leibowitz who emphasizes that the Torah is a law for the worship
of God and for the consequent obliteration of the worship of men and things; in this connection, he
condemns the subordination of the Torah to nationalism or to religious sentimentalism or to any
ideology or institution.

Eternality (Non-Abrogability)

In the Bible there is no text unanimously understood to affirm explicitly the eternity or nonabrogability
of the Torah; however, many laws of the Torah are accompanied by phrases such as, "an everlasting
injunction through your generations."

Whereas the rabbis understood the preexistence of the Torah in terms of its prerevelation existence in
heaven, they understood the eternity or nonabrogability of the Torah in terms of its postrevelation
existence, not in heaven; i.e., the whole Torah was given to Moses and no part of it remained in heaven.
When Eliezer ben Hyrcanus and Joshua ben Hananiah were debating a point of Torah and a voice from
heaven dramatically announced that Eliezer's position was correct, Joshua refused to recognize its
testimony, for the Torah "is not in heaven", and must be interpreted by men, unaided by the
supernatural. It was a principle that "a prophet is henceforth not permitted to innovate a thing." The
rabbis taught that the Torah would continue to exist in the world to come, although some of them were
of the opinion that innovations would be made in the messianic era.

With the rise to political power of Christianity and Islam, two religions which sought to convert Jews and
which argued that particular injunctions of the Torah had been abrogated, the question of the eternity
or "nonabrogability" of the Torah became urgent.

Saadiah Gaon stated that the children of Israel have a clear tradition from the prophets that the laws of
the Torah

are not subject to abrogation. Presenting scriptural corroboration for this tradition, he appealed to
phrases appended to certain commandments, e.g., "throughout their generations, for a perpetual
covenant." According to one novel argument of his, the Jewish nation is a nation only by virtue of its
laws, namely, the Torah; God has stated that the Jewish nation will endure as long as the heaven and
earth; therefore, the Torah will last as long as heaven and earth. He interpreted the verses, "Remember
ye the Torah of Moses… Behold, I will send you Elijah…" , as teaching that the Torah will hold valid until
the prophet Elijah returns to herald the resurrection.

Maimonides listed the belief in the eternity of the Torah as the ninth of his 13 principles of Judaism, and
connected it with the belief that no prophet will surpass Moses, the only man to give people laws
through prophecy. He contended that the eternity of the Torah is stated clearly in the Bible, particularly
in the passages "thou shalt not add thereto, nor diminish from it" and "the things that are revealed
belong unto us and to our children for ever, that we may do all the words of this Torah". He offered the
following explanation of the Torah's eternity, based on its perfection and on the theory of the mean:
"The Torah of the Lord is perfect" (Ps. 19:8) in that its statutes are just, i.e., that they are equibalanced
between the burdensome and the indulgent; and "when a thing is perfect as it is possible to be within its
species, it is impossible that within that species there should be found another thing that does not fall
short of the perfection either because of excess or deficiency."

Joseph Albo criticized Maimonides for listing the belief in the eternity of the Torah as an independent
fundamental belief of Judaism. In a long discussion he contended that nonabrogation is not a
fundamental principle of the Torah, and that moreover, no text can be found in the Bible to establish it.
Ironically, his ultimate position turned out to be closer to Maimonides' for he concluded that the belief
in the nonabrogation of the Torah is a branch of the doctrine that no prophet will surpass the excellence
of Moses.

After Albo, the question of the eternity of the Torah became routine in Jewish philosophical literature.
However, in the Kabbalah it was never routine. In the 13th-century

Sefer ha-Temunah a doctrine of cosmic cycles (or

shemittot ; cf. Deut. 15) was expounded, according to which creation is renewed every 7,000 years, at
which times the letters of the Torah reassemble, and the Torah enters the new cycle bearing different
words and meanings. Thus, while eternal in its unrevealed state, the Torah, in its manifestation in
creation, is destined to be abrogated. This doctrine became popular in later kabbalistic and ḥasidic
literature, and was exploited by the heretic Shabbetai Ẓevi and his followers, who claimed that a new
cycle had begun, and in consequence he was able to teach that "the abrogation of the Torah is its
fulfillment!"

Jewish philosophers of modern times have not concentrated on the question of the eternity or
nonabrogability of the Torah. Nevertheless, it is not entirely untenable that the main distinction
between Orthodox Judaism and non-Orthodox Judaism is that the latter rejects the literal interpretation
of the ninth principle of Maimonides' Creed that there will be no change in the Torah. Bookstore

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Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, known as the Patriarchs, are both the physical and spiritual ancestors of
Judaism. They founded the religion now known as Judaism, and their descendants are the Jewish
people. Of course, technically, it is incorrect to refer to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as Jews, because the
terms "Jew" and "Judaism" were not used generally to refer to this nation until hundreds of years after
their time; nevertheless, for convenience and in accordance with common practice, I will use these
terms.

The history below is derived from written Torah , Talmud,

Midrash and other sources. Modern scholars question the existence of the Patriarchs and the historical
accuracy of this information; however, it is worth noting that scholars also questioned the existence of
Babylonia and Troy... until archaeologists found them.
Abraham

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According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was born under the name Abram in the city of Ur in Babylonia in
the year 1948 from Creation (circa 1800 BCE). He was the son of Terach, an idol merchant, but from his
early childhood, he questioned the faith of his father and sought the truth. He came to believe that the
entire universe was the work of a single Creator, and he began to teach this belief to others.

Abram tried to convince his father, Terach, of the folly of idol worship. One day, when Abram was left
alone to mind the store, he took a hammer and smashed all of the idols except the largest one. He
placed the hammer in the hand of the largest idol. When his father returned and asked what happened,
Abram said, "The idols got into a fight, and the big one smashed all the other ones." His father said,
"Don't be ridiculous. These idols have no life or power. They can't do anything." Abram replied, "Then
why do you worship them?"

Eventually, the one true Creator that Abram had worshipped called to him, and made him an offer: if
Abram would leave his home and his family, then G-d would make him a great nation and bless him.
Abram accepted this offer, and the b'rit (covenant) between G-d and the Jewish people was established.
(Gen. 12).

The idea of b'rit is fundamental to traditional Judaism: we have a covenant, a contract, with G-d, which
involves rights and obligations on both sides. We have certain obligations to G-d, and G-d has certain
obligations to us. The terms of this b'rit became more explicit over time, until the time of the Giving of
the Torah (see below). Abram was subjected to ten tests of faith to prove his worthiness for this
covenant. Leaving his home is one of these trials.

Abram, raised as a city-dweller, adopted a nomadic lifestyle, traveling through what is now the land of
Israel for many years. G-d promised this land to Abram's descendants. Abram is referred to as a Hebrew
(Ivri), possibly because he was descended from Eber (Gen. 11) or possibly because he came from the
"other side" (eber) of the Euphrates River.

But Abram was concerned, because he had no children and he was growing old. Abram's beloved wife,
Sarai, knew that she was past child-bearing years, so she offered her maidservant, Hagar, as a wife to
Abram. This was a common practice in the region at the time. According to tradition, Hagar was a
daughter of Pharaoh, given to Abram during his travels in Egypt. She bore Abram a son, Ishmael, who,
according to both Muslim and Jewish tradition, is the ancestor of the Arabs. (Gen 16)

When Abram was 100 and Sarai 90, G-d promised Abram a son by Sarai. G-d changed Abram's name to
Abraham (father of many), and Sarai's to Sarah (from "my princess" to "princess"). Sarah bore Abraham
a son, Isaac (in Hebrew, Yitzchak), a name derived from the word "laughter," expressing Abraham's joy
at having a son in his old age. (Gen 17-18). Isaac was the ancestor of the Jewish people . Thus, the
conflict between Arabs and Jews can be seen as a form of sibling rivalry!
Isaac was the subject of the tenth and most difficult test of Abraham's faith: G-d commanded Abraham
to sacrifice Isaac as a burnt offering. (Gen 22). This test is known in Jewish tradition as the Akeidah (the
Binding, a reference to the fact that Isaac was bound on the altar).

But this test is also an extraordinary demonstration of Isaac's own faith, because according to Jewish
tradition, Isaac knew that he was to be sacrificed, yet he did not resist, and was united with his father in
dedication.

At the last moment, G-d sent an angel to stop the sacrifice. It is interesting to note that child sacrifice
was a common practice in the region at the time. Thus, to people of the time, the surprising thing about
this story is not the fact that G-d asked Abraham to sacrifice his child, but that G-d stopped him!

Judaism uses this story as evidence that G-d abhors human sacrifice. In fact, I have seen some sources
indicating that Abraham failed this test of faith because he did not refuse to sacrifice his son! Judaism
has always strongly opposed the practice of human sacrifice, commonplace in many other cultures at
that time and place.

Isaac later married Rebecca (Rivka), who bore him fraternal twin sons: Jacob (Ya'akov) and Esau. (Gen
25).

Jacob (Israel)

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Jacob and his brother Esau were at war with each other even before they were born. They struggled
within Rebecca's womb. Esau was Isaac's favorite, because he was a good hunter, but the more
spiritually-minded Jacob was Rebecca's favorite.

Esau had little regard for the spiritual heritage of his forefathers, and sold his birthright of spiritual
leadership to Jacob for a bowl of lentil stew. When Isaac was growing old, Rebecca tricked him into
giving Jacob a blessing meant for Esau. Esau was angry about this, and about the birthright, so Jacob fled
to live with his uncle, where he met his beloved Rachel. Jacob was deceived into marrying Rachel's older
sister, Leah, but later married Rachel as well, and Rachel and Leah's maidservants, Bilhah and Zilphah.
Between these four women, Jacob fathered 12 sons and one daughter.

After many years living with and working for his uncle/father-in-law, Jacob returned to his homeland
and sought reconciliation with his brother Esau. He prayed to G-d and gave his brother gifts. The night
before he went to meet his brother, he sent his wives, sons, and things across the river, and was alone
with G-d. That night, he wrestled with a man until the break of day. As the dawn broke, Jacob demanded
a blessing from the man, and the "man" revealed himself as an angel. He blessed Jacob and gave him the
name "Israel" (Yisrael), meaning "the one who wrestled with G-d" or "the Champion of G-d." The Jewish
people are generally referred to as the Children of Israel, signifying our descent from Jacob. The next
day, Jacob met Esau and was welcomed by him.

Children of Israel
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Jacob fathered 12 sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebulun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher, Naphtali,
Joseph and Benjamin. They are the ancestors of the tribes of Israel, and the ones for whom the tribes
are named. Joseph is the father of two tribes: Manasseh and Ephraim.

Joseph's older brothers were jealous of him, because he was the favorite of their father, and because he
had visions that he would lead them all. They sold Joseph into slavery and convinced their father that
Joseph was dead. But this was all part of G-d 's plan: Joseph was brought into Egypt, where his ability to
interpret visions earned him a place in the Pharaoh's court, paving the way for his family's later
settlement in Egypt.

The Exodus and the Giving of the Torah

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As centuries passed, the descendants of Israel became slaves in Egypt. They suffered greatly under the
hand of later Pharaohs. But G-d brought the Children of Israel out of Egypt under the leadership of
Moses.

G-d led them on a journey through the wilderness to Mount Sinai. Here, G-d revealed Himself to the
Children of Israel and offered them a great covenant: if the people would hearken to G-d and observe
His covenant, then they would be the most beloved of nations, a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.
(Ex 19). G-d revealed the Torah to his people, both the written and

oral Torah, and the entire nation responded, "Everything that the L-rd has spoken, we will do!"
According to Jewish tradition, every Jewish soul that would ever be born was present at that moment,
and agreed to be bound to this covenant.

Level: Basic

A Jewish "church" is called a synagogue, shul or temple

A synagogue is a place of worship and study, and a "town hall"

Synagogues are run by laypeople and financed by membership dues

There are several important ritual items found in the synagogue

Non-Jews may visit a synagogue, but dress and should behave appropriately

The Temple is the ancient center of Jewish worship where sacrifices were performed
The synagogue is the Jewish equivalent of a church, more or less. It is the center of the Jewish religious
community: a place of prayer, study and education, social and charitable work, as well as a social center.

What's in a Name?

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Throughout this site, I have used the word "synagogue," but there are actually several different terms
for a Jewish "church," and you can tell a lot about people by the terms they use.

The Hebrew term is beit k'nesset (literally, House of Assembly), although you will rarely hear this term
used in conversation in English.

The Orthodox and Chasidim typically use the word "shul," which is Yiddish . The word is derived from a
German word meaning "school," and emphasizes the synagogue's role as a place of study.

Conservative Jews usually use the word "synagogue," which is actually a Greek translation of Beit
K'nesset and means "place of assembly" (it's related to the word "synod").

Reform Jews use the word "temple," because they consider every one of their meeting places to be
equivalent to, or a replacement for, The Temple in Jerusalem.

The use of the word "temple" to describe modern houses of prayer offends some traditional Jews,
because it trivializes the importance of The Temple. The word "shul," on the other hand, is unfamiliar to
many modern Jews. When in doubt, the word "synagogue" is the best bet, because everyone knows
what it means, and I've never known anyone to be offended by it.

Functions of a Synagogue

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At a minimum, a synagogue is a beit tefilah, a house of prayer. It is the place where Jews come together
for community

prayer services. Jews can satisfy the obligations of daily prayer by praying anywhere; however, there are
certain prayers that can only be said in the presence of a minyan (a quorum of 10 adult men), and
tradition teaches that there is more merit to praying with a group than there is in praying alone. The
sanctity of the synagogue for this purpose is second only to

The Temple. In fact, in rabbinical literature, the synagogue is sometimes referred to as the "little
Temple."

A synagogue is usually also a beit midrash, a house of study. Contrary to popular belief, Jewish
education does not end at the age of bar mitzvah . For the observant Jew, the study of sacred texts is a
life-long task. Thus, a synagogue normally has a well-stocked library of sacred Jewish texts for members
of the community to study. It is also the place where children receive their basic religious education.
Most synagogues also have a social hall for religious and non-religious activities. The synagogue often
functions as a sort of town hall where matters of importance to the community can be discussed.

In addition, the synagogue functions as a social welfare agency, collecting and dispensing money and
other items for the aid of the poor and needy within the community.

Organizational Structure

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Synagogues are, for the most part, independent community organizations. In the United States, at least,
individual synagogues do not answer to any central authority. There are central organizations for the
various movements of Judaism, and synagogues are often affiliated with these organizations, but these
organizations have no real power over individual synagogues.

Synagogues are generally run by a board of directors composed of lay people. They manage and
maintain the synagogue and its activities, and hire a rabbi and chazzan (cantor) for the community.

Yes, you read that right: Jewish clergy are employees of the synagogue, hired and fired by the lay
members of the synagogue. Clergy are not provided by any central organization, as they are in some
denominations of Christianity. However, if a synagogue hires a rabbi or chazzan that is not acceptable to
the central organization, they may lose membership in that central organization. For example, if an
Orthodox synagogue hires a Reform rabbi, the synagogue will lose membership in the Orthodox Union .
If a Conservative synagogue wishes to hire a Reconstructionist rabbi, it must first get permission from
the USCJ . The rabbi usually works with a ritual committee made up of lay members of the synagogue to
set standards and procedures for the synagogue. Not surprisingly, there can be tension between the
rabbi and the membership (his employers) if they do not have the same standards, for example if the
membership wants to serve pepperoni pizza (not kosher) at a synagogue event.

It is worth noting that a synagogue can exist without a rabbi or a chazzan: religious services can be, and
often are, conducted by lay people in whole or in part. It is not unusual for a synagogue to be without a
rabbi, at least temporarily, and many synagogues, particularly smaller ones, have no chazzan. However,
the rabbi and chazzan are valuable members of the community, providing leadership, guidance and
education.

Synagogues do not pass around collection plates during services, as many churches do. This is largely
because Jewish law prohibits carrying money on holidays and Shabbat .

Tzedakah (charitable donation) is routinely collected at weekday morning services, usually through a
centrally-located

pushke , but this money is usually given to charity, and not used for synagogue expenses. Instead,
synagogues are financed through membership dues paid annually, through voluntary donations, through
the purchase of reserved seats for services on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur (the holidays when the
synagogue is most crowded), and through the purchase of various types of memorial plaques. It is
important to note, however, that you do not have to be a member of a synagogue in order to worship
there. If you plan to worship at a synagogue regularly and you have the financial means, you should
certainly pay your dues to cover your fair share of the synagogue's costs, but no synagogue checks
membership cards at the door (except possibly on the High Holidays mentioned above, if there aren't
enough seats for everyone).

Ritual Items in the Synagogue

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The portion of the synagogue where prayer services are performed is commonly called the sanctuary.
Synagogues in the United States are generally designed so that the front of the sanctuary is on the side
towards Jerusalem, which is the direction that we are supposed to face when reciting certain prayers.

Probably the most important feature of the sanctuary is the Ark, a cabinet or recession in the wall that
holds the

Torah scrolls . The Ark is also called the Aron Kodesh ("holy cabinet"), and I was once told that the term
"ark" is an acrostic of "aron kodesh," although someone else told me that "ark" is just an old word for a
chest. In any case, the word has no relation to Noah's Ark, which is the word "teyvat" in Hebrew.

The Ark is generally placed in the front of the room; that is, on the side towards Jerusalem. The Ark has
doors as well as an inner curtain called a parokhet. This curtain is in imitation of the curtain in the
Sanctuary in The Temple, and is named for it. During certain prayers, the doors and/or curtain of the Ark
may be opened or closed. Opening or closing the doors or curtain is performed by a member of the
congregation, and is considered an honor. All congregants stand when the Ark is open.

In front of and slightly above the Ark, you will find the ner tamid, the Eternal Lamp. This lamp symbolizes
the commandment to keep a light burning in the Tabernacle outside of the curtain surrounding the Ark
of the Covenant. (Ex. 27:20-21).

In addition to the ner tamid, you may find a menorah (candelabrum) in many synagogues, symbolizing
the menorah in the Temple. The menorah in the synagogue will generally have six or eight branches
instead of the Temple menorah's seven, because exact duplication of the Temple's ritual items is
improper.

In the center of the room or in the front you will find a pedestal called the bimah. The Torah scrolls are
placed on the bimah when they are read. The bimah is also sometimes used as a podium for leading
services. There is an additional, lower lectern in some synagogues called an amud.

In Orthodox synagogues, you will also find a separate section where the women sit. This may be on an
upper floor balcony, or in the back of the room, or on the side of the room, separated from the men's
section by a wall or curtain called a mechitzah. Men are not permitted to pray in the presence of
women, because they are supposed to have their minds on their prayers, not on pretty girls. See
The Role of Women in the Synagogue for details.

Finding a Synagogue

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If you are interested in finding an Orthodox synagogue or minyan (prayer group) in your area, check out
Go Daven, a searchable worldwide database of Orthodox minyans. Just tell them where you want to
daven (pray), and they'll find you an Orthodox minyan, complete with service times and even a link to a
map! Chabad , a division of the Lubavitcher Chasidic movement, also has a good searchable directory of
their prayer and learning centers. Although Chabad is strictly and uncompromisingly Orthodox, they are
very open to those at a different level of observance who are interested in learning.

If you would prefer a Conservative synagogue, try the USCJ's Find a Kehilla page (this page is currently
not working! I will provide an updated link as soon as I find one!) . If you prefer

Reform, try the URJ's Directory of Congregations . For

Reconstructionist synagogues, try the JRF's directory of

Reconstructionist Congregations and Havurot.

Non-Jews Visiting a Synagogue

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The Temple

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When we speak of The Temple, we speak of the place in Jerusalem that was the center of Jewish
worship from the time of Solomon to its destruction by the Romans in 70 C.E. This was the one and only
place where sacrifices and certain other religious rituals were performed. It was partially destroyed at
the time of the Babylonian Exile and rebuilt. The rebuilt temple was known as the Second Temple. The
famous "Wailing Wall" (known to Jews as the Western Wall or in Hebrew, the Kotel) is the remains of
the western retaining wall of the hill that the Temple was built on. It is as close to the site of the original
Sanctuary as Jews can go today. You can see a live picture of the Kotel and learn about it at KotelCam.
The Temple was located on a platform above and behind this wall.

Today, the site of The Temple is occupied by the Dome of the Rock (a Muslim shrine for pilgrims) and
the Al-Aqsa Mosque (a Muslim house of prayer). The Dome of the Rock is the gold-domed building that
figures prominently in most pictures of Jerusalem.

Traditional Jews believe that The Temple will be rebuilt when the Mashiach (Messiah) comes. They
eagerly await that day and pray for it continually.
Modern Jews, on the other hand, reject the idea of rebuilding the Temple and resuming sacrifices . They
call their houses of prayer "temples," believing that such houses of worship are the only temples we
need, the only temples we will ever have, and are equivalent to the Temple in Jerusalem. This idea is
very offensive to some traditional Jews, which is why you should be very careful when using the word
Temple to describe a Jewish place of worship.

Level: Intermediate

There are 613 commandments, not 10

The "Ten Commandments" are categories

The 10 are divided into duties to G-d and duties to people

Different religions divide the 10 in different ways

According to Jewish tradition, G-d gave the Jewish people

613 mitzvot (commandments) . All 613 of those mitzvot are equally sacred, equally binding and equally
the word of G-d. All of these mitzvot are treated as equally important, because human beings, with our
limited understanding of the universe, have no way of knowing which mitzvot are more important in the
eyes of the Creator. Pirkei Avot, a book of the Mishnah , teaches "Be as meticulous in performing a
'minor' mitzvah as you are with a 'major' one, because you don't know what kind of reward you'll get for
various mitzvot." It also says, "Run after the most 'minor' mitzvah as you would after the most
'important' and flee from transgression, because doing one mitzvah draws you into doing another, and
doing one transgression draws you into doing another, and because the reward for a mitzvah is a
mitzvah and the punishment for a transgression is a transgression." In other words, every mitzvah is
important, because even the most seemingly trivial mitzvot draw you into a pattern of leading your life
in accordance with the Creator's wishes, rather than in accordance with your own.

But what about the so-called "Ten Commandments," the words recorded in Exodus 20, the words that
the Creator Himself wrote on the two stone tablets that Moses brought down from Mount Sinai (Ex.
31:18), which Moses smashed upon seeing the idolatry of the golden calf (Ex. 32:19)? In the Torah ,
these words are never referred to as the Ten Commandments. In the Torah, they are called Aseret ha-
D'varim (Ex. 34:28, Deut. 4:13 and Deut. 10:4). In rabbinical texts, they are referred to as Aseret ha-
Dibrot. The words d'varim and dibrot come from the Hebrew root Dalet-Beit-Reish , meaning word,
speak or thing; thus, the phrase is accurately translated as the Ten Sayings, the Ten Statements, the Ten
Declarations, the Ten Words or even the Ten Things, but not as the Ten Commandments, which would
be Aseret ha-Mitzvot.

The Aseret ha-Dibrot are not understood as individual mitzvot; rather, they are categories or
classifications of mitzvot. Each of the 613 mitzvot can be subsumed under one of these ten categories,
some in more obvious ways than others. For example, the mitzvah not to work on Shabbat rather
obviously falls within the category of remembering the Sabbath day and keeping it holy. The mitzvah to
fast on Yom Kippur fits into that category somewhat less obviously: all holidays are in some sense a
Sabbath, and the category encompasses any mitzvah related to sacred time. The mitzvah not to stand
aside while a person's life is in danger fits somewhat obviously into the category against murder. It is not
particularly obvious, however, that the mitzvah not to embarrass a person fits within the category
against murder: it causes the blood to drain from your face thereby shedding blood.

List of the Aseret ha-Dibrot

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According to Judaism, the Aseret ha-Dibrot identify the following ten categories of mitzvot . Other
religions divide this passage differently. See

The "Ten Commandments" Controversy below. Please remember that these are categories of the 613
mitzvot, which according to Jewish tradition are binding only upon Jews. The only mitzvot binding upon
gentiles are the seven

Noahic commandments .

1. Belief in G-d

This category is derived from the declaration in Ex. 20:2 beginning, "I am the L-rd , your G-d ..."

2. Prohibition of Improper Worship

This category is derived from Ex. 20:3-6, beginning, "You shall not have other gods..." It encompasses
within it the prohibition against the worship of other gods as well as the prohibition of improper forms
of worship of the one true G-d, such as worshiping G-d through an idol.

3. Prohibition of Oaths

This category is derived from Ex. 20:7, beginning, "You shall not take the name of the L-rd your G-d in
vain..." This includes prohibitions against perjury, breaking or delaying the performance of vows or
promises, and speaking G-d's name or swearing unnecessarily.

4. Observance of Sacred Times

This category is derived from Ex. 20:8-11, beginning, "Remember the Sabbath day..." It encompasses all
mitzvot related to Shabbat, holidays , or other sacred time.

5. Respect for Parents and Teachers

This category is derived from Ex. 20:12, beginning, "Honor your father and mother..."

6. Prohibition of Physically Harming a Person

This category is derived from Ex. 20:13, saying, "You shall not murder."

7. Prohibition of Sexual Immorality

This category is derived from Ex. 20:13, saying, "You shall not commit adultery."

8. Prohibition of Theft

This category is derived from Ex. 20:13, saying, "You shall not steal." It includes within it both outright
robbery as well as various forms of theft by deception and unethical business practices. It also includes
kidnapping, which is essentially "stealing" a person.

9. Prohibition of Harming a Person through Speech

This category is derived from Ex. 20:13, saying, "You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor."
It includes all forms of lashon ha-ra (sins relating to speech).

10. Prohibition of Coveting

This category is derived from Ex. 20:14, beginning, "You shall not covet your neighbor's house..."

The Two Tablets: Duties to G-d and Duties to People

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Judaism teaches that the first tablet, containing the first five declarations, identifies duties regarding our
relationship with G-d, while the second tablet, containing the last five declarations, identifies duties
regarding our relationship with other people.

You may have noticed, however, that the fifth category, which is included in the first tablet, is the
category to honor father and mother, which would seem to concern relationships between people. The
rabbis teach that our parents are our creators and stand in a relationship to us akin to our relationship
to the Divine. Throughout Jewish liturgy, the Creator is referred to as Avinu Malkeinu, our Father, our
King. Disrespect to our biological creators is not merely an affront to them; it is also an insult to the
Creator of the Universe. Accordingly, honor of father and mother is included on the tablet of duties to G-
d.

These two tablets are parallel and equal: duties to G-d are not more important than duties to people,
nor are duties to people more important than duties to G-d. However, if one must choose between
fulfilling an obligation to G-d and fulfilling an obligation to a person, or if one must prioritize them,
Judaism teaches that the obligation to a person should be fulfilled first. This principle is supported by the
story in Genesis 18, where Abraham is communing with G-d and interrupts this meeting to fulfill the
mitzvah of providing hospitality to strangers (the three men who appear). The Talmud gives another
example, disapproving of a man who, engrossed in prayer, would ignore the cries of a drowning man.
When forced to choose between our duties to a person and our duties to G-d, we must pursue our
duties to the person, because the person needs our help, but G-d does not need our help.

The "Ten Commandments" Controversy

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In the United States, a controversy has persisted for many years regarding the placement of the "Ten
Commandments" in public schools and public buildings. But one critical question seems to have escaped
most of the public dialog on the subject: Whose "Ten Commandments" should we post?

The general perception in this country is that the "Ten Commandments" are part of the common
religious heritage of Judaism, Catholicism and Protestantism, part of the sacred scriptures that we all
share, and should not be controversial. But most people involved in the debate seem to have missed the
fact that these three religions divide up the commandments in different ways! Judaism, unlike
Catholicism and Protestantism, considers "I am the L-rd, your G-d" to be the first "commandment."
Catholicism, unlike Judaism and Protestantism, considers coveting property to be separate from
coveting a spouse. Protestantism, unlike Judaism and Catholicism, considers the prohibition against
idolatry to be separate from the prohibition against worshipping other gods. No two religions agree on a
single list. So whose list should we post?

And once we decide on a list, what translation should we post? Should Judaism's sixth declaration be
rendered as "Thou shalt not kill" as in the popular KJV translation, or as "Thou shalt not murder," which
is a bit closer to the connotations of the original Hebrew though still not entirely accurate?

These may seem like trivial differences to some, but they are serious issues to those of us who take
these words seriously. When a government agency chooses one version over another, it implicitly
chooses one religion over another, something that the First Amendment prohibits. This is the heart of
the controversy.

But there is an additional aspect of this controversy that is of concern from a Jewish perspective. In
Talmudic times, the rabbis consciously made a decision to exclude daily recitation of the Aseret ha-
Dibrot from the liturgy because excessive emphasis on these statements might lead people to
mistakenly believe that these were the only mitzvot or the most important mitzvot, and neglect the full
613 (Talmud Berakhot 12a). By posting these words prominently and referring to them as " The Ten
Commandments," (as if there weren't any others, which is what many people think) schools and public
buildings may be teaching a message that Judaism specifically and consciously rejected.

Kashrut is a set of biblical dietary restrictions

Certain foods cannot be eaten

Certain foods must be separated

Certification makes it easier to identify kosher food

See also:

Judaism and Vegetarians

Kashrut is the body of Jewish law dealing with what foods we can and cannot eat and how those foods
must be prepared and eaten. "Kashrut" comes from the Hebrew root Kaf-Shin-Reish, meaning fit, proper
or correct. It is the same root as the more commonly known word "kosher," which describes food that
meets these standards. The word "kosher" can also be used, and often is used, to describe ritual objects
that are made in accordance with Jewish law and are fit for ritual use.

Contrary to popular misconception, rabbis or other religious officials do not "bless" food to make it
kosher. There are blessings that observant Jews recite over food before eating it, but these blessings
have nothing to do with making the food kosher. Food can be kosher without a rabbi or priest ever
becoming involved with it: the vegetables from your garden are undoubtedly kosher (as long as they
don't have any bugs, which are not kosher!). However, in our modern world of processed foods, it is
difficult to know what ingredients are in your food and how they were processed, so it is helpful to have
a rabbi examine the food and its processing and assure kosher consumers that the food is kosher. This
certification process is discussed below .

Kosher dietary laws are observed all year round, not just during

Pesach (Passover) . There are additional dietary restrictions during Pesach, and many foods that are
kosher for year-round use are not "kosher for Passover." A bagel, for example, can be kosher for year-
round use but is certainly not kosher for Passover! Foods that are kosher for Passover, however, are
always kosher for year-round use.

There is no such thing as "kosher-style" food. Kosher is not a style of cooking. Chinese food can be
kosher if it is prepared in accordance with Jewish law, and there are many fine kosher Chinese
restaurants in Philadelphia and New York. Traditional Ashkenazic Jewish foods like knishes, bagels,
blintzes, and

matzah ball soup can all be non-kosher if not prepared in accordance with Jewish law. When a
restaurant calls itself "kosher-style," it usually means that the restaurant serves these traditional Jewish
foods, and it almost invariably means that the food is not actually kosher.

Food that is not kosher is commonly referred to as treif (lit. torn, from the commandment not to eat
animals that have been torn by other animals).

Why Do We Observe the Laws of Kashrut?

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Many modern Jews think that the laws of kashrut are simply primitive health regulations that have
become obsolete with modern methods of food preparation. There is no question that some of the
dietary laws have some beneficial health effects. For example, the laws regarding kosher slaughter are
so sanitary that kosher butchers and slaughterhouses have been exempted from many USDA
regulations.
However, health is not the only reason for Jewish dietary laws. Many of the laws of kashrut have no
known connection with health. To the best of our modern scientific knowledge, there is no reason why
camel or rabbit meat (both treif) is any less healthy than cow or goat meat. In addition, some of the
health benefits to be derived from kashrut were not made obsolete by the refrigerator. For example,
there is some evidence that eating meat and dairy together interferes with digestion, and no modern
food preparation technique reproduces the health benefit of the kosher law of eating them separately.

In recent years, several secular sources that have seriously looked into this matter have acknowledged
that health does not explain these prohibitions. Some have suggested that the prohibitions are instead
derived from environmental considerations. For example, a camel (which is not kosher) is more useful as
a beast of burden than as a source of food. In the Middle Eastern climate, the pig consumes a quantity
of food that is disproportional to its value as a food source. But again, these are not reasons that come
from Jewish tradition.

The short answer to why Jews observe these laws is: because the Torah says so. The Torah does not
specify any reason for these laws, and for a Torah-observant, traditional Jew, there is no need for any
other reason. Some have suggested that the laws of kashrut fall into the category of "chukkim," laws for
which there is no reason. We show our obedience to G-d by following these laws even though we do not
know the reason. Others, however, have tried to ascertain G-d's reason for imposing these laws.

In his book "To Be a Jew" (an excellent resource on traditional Judaism), Rabbi Hayim Halevy Donin
suggests that the dietary laws are designed as a call to holiness. The ability to distinguish between right
and wrong, good and evil, pure and defiled, the sacred and the profane, is very important in Judaism.
Imposing rules on what you can and cannot eat ingrains that kind of self control, requiring us to learn to
control even our most basic, primal instincts.

Donin also points out that the laws of kashrut elevate the simple act of eating into a religious ritual. The
Jewish dinner table is often compared to the Temple altar in

rabbinic literature . A Jew who observes the laws of kashrut cannot eat a meal without being reminded
of the fact that he is a Jew.

How Difficult is it to Keep Kosher?

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General Rules

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The Details

Animals that may not be eaten

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Of the "beasts of the earth" (which basically refers to land mammals with the exception of swarming
rodents), you may eat any animal that has cloven hooves and chews its cud. Lev. 11:3; Deut. 14:6. Any
land mammal that does not have both of these qualities is forbidden. The Torah specifies that the camel,
the rock badger, the hare and the pig are not kosher because each lacks one of these two qualifications.
Cattle, sheep, goats, deer and bison are kosher.

Of the things that are in the waters, you may eat anything that has fins and scales. Lev. 11:9; Deut. 14:9.
Thus, shellfish such as lobsters, oysters, shrimp, clams and crabs are all forbidden. Fish like tuna, carp,
salmon and herring are all permitted.

For birds, the criteria is less clear. The Torah provides a list of forbidden birds (Lev. 11:13-19; Deut.
14:11-18), but does not specify why these particular birds are forbidden. All of the birds on the list are
birds of prey or scavengers, thus the rabbis inferred that this was the basis for the distinction. Other
birds are permitted, such as chicken, geese, ducks and turkeys. However, some people avoid turkey,
because it is was unknown at the time of the giving of the Torah, leaving room for doubt.

Of the "winged swarming things" (winged insects), a few are specifically permitted (Lev. 11:22), but the
Sages are no longer certain which ones they are, so all have been forbidden. There are communities that
have a tradition about what species are permitted, and in those communities some insects are eaten.

Rodents, reptiles, amphibians, and insects (except as mentioned above) are all forbidden. Lev. 11:29-30,
42-43.

Some authorities require a post-mortem examination of the lungs of cattle, to determine whether the
lungs are free from adhesions. If the lungs are free from such adhesions, the animal is deemed "glatt"
(that is, "smooth"). In certain circumstances, an animal can be kosher without being glatt; however, the
stringency of keeping "glatt kosher" has become increasingly common in recent years, and you would be
hard-pressed to find any kosher meat that is not labeled as "glatt kosher."

As mentioned above, any product derived from these forbidden animals, such as their milk, eggs, fat, or
organs, also cannot be eaten. Rennet, an enzyme used to harden cheese, is often obtained from non-
kosher animals, thus kosher hard cheese can be difficult to find.

Kosher slaughtering

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The mammals and birds that may be eaten must be slaughtered in accordance with Jewish law. (Deut.
12:21). We may not eat animals that died of natural causes (Deut. 14:21) or that were killed by other
animals. In addition, the animal must have no disease or flaws in the organs at the time of slaughter.
These restrictions do not apply to fish; only to the flocks and herds (Num. 11:22).

Ritual slaughter is known as shechitah, and the person who performs the slaughter is called a shochet,
both from the Hebrew root Shin-Cheit-Teit. The method of slaughter is a quick, deep stroke across the
throat with a perfectly sharp blade with no nicks or unevenness. This method is painless, causes
unconsciousness within two seconds, and is widely recognized as the most humane method of slaughter
possible.

Another advantage of shechitah is that it ensures rapid, complete draining of the blood, which is also
necessary to render the meat kosher.

The shochet is not simply a butcher; he must be a pious man, well-trained in Jewish law, particularly as it
relates to kashrut. In smaller, more remote communities, the rabbi and the shochet were often the
same person.

Draining of Blood

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The Torah prohibits consumption of blood. Lev. 7:26-27; Lev. 17:10-14. This is the only dietary law that
has a reason specified in Torah: we do not eat blood because the life of the animal (literally, the soul of
the animal) is contained in the blood. This applies only to the blood of birds and mammals, not to fish
blood. Thus, it is necessary to remove all blood from the flesh of kosher animals.

The first step in this process occurs at the time of slaughter. As discussed above, shechitah allows for
rapid draining of most of the blood.

The remaining blood must be removed, either by broiling or soaking and salting. Liver may only be
kashered by the broiling method, because it has so much blood in it and such complex blood vessels.
This final process must be completed within 72 hours after slaughter, and before the meat is frozen or
ground. Most butchers and all frozen food vendors take care of the soaking and salting for you, but you
should always check this when you are buying someplace you are unfamiliar with.

An egg that contains a blood spot may not be eaten. This isn't very common, but I find them once in a
while. It is a good idea to break an egg into a glass and check it before you put it into a heated pan,
because if you put a blood-stained egg into a heated pan, the pan becomes non-kosher. If your recipe
calls for multiple eggs, break each one into the glass separately, so you don't waste all of the eggs if the
last one is not kosher!

Forbidden Fats and Nerves

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The sciatic nerve and its adjoining blood vessels may not be eaten. The process of removing this nerve is
time consuming and not cost-effective, so most American kosher slaughterers simply sell the hind
quarters to non-kosher butchers.

A certain kind of fat, known as chelev, which surrounds the vital organs and the liver, may not be eaten.
Kosher butchers remove this. Modern scientists have found biochemical differences between this type
of fat and the permissible fat around the muscles and under the skin.
Fruits and Vegetables

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All fruits and vegetables are kosher (but see the note regarding Grape Products below). However, bugs
and worms that may be found in some fruits and vegetables are not kosher. Fruits and vegetables that
are prone to this sort of thing should be inspected to ensure that they contain no bugs. Leafy vegetables
like lettuce and herbs and flowery vegetables like broccoli and cauliflower are particularly prone to bugs
and should be inspected carefully. Strawberries and raspberries can also be problematic. The Star-K
kosher certification organization has a very nice overview of the fruits and vegetables prone to this and
the procedure for addressing it in each type.

Separation of Meat and Dairy

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On three separate occasions, the Torah tells us not to "boil a kid in its mother's milk." (Ex. 23:19; Ex.
34:26; Deut. 14:21). The Oral Torah explains that this passage prohibits eating meat and dairy together.
The rabbis extended this prohibition to include not eating milk and poultry together. In addition, the

Talmud prohibits cooking meat and fish together or serving them on the same plates, because it is
considered to be unhealthy. It is, however, permissible to eat fish and dairy together, and it is quite
common (lox and cream cheese, for example). It is also permissible to eat dairy and eggs together.

This separation includes not only the foods themselves, but the utensils, pots and pans with which they
are cooked, the plates and flatware from which they are eaten, the dishwashers or dishpans in which
they are cleaned, the sponges with which they are cleaned and the towels with which they are dried. A
kosher household will have at least two sets of pots, pans and dishes: one for meat and one for dairy.
See Utensils below for more details.

One must wait a significant amount of time between eating meat and dairy. Opinions differ, and vary
from three to six hours after meat. This is because fatty residues and meat particles tend to cling to the
mouth. From dairy to meat, however, one need only rinse one's mouth and eat a neutral solid like
bread, unless the dairy product in question is also of a type that tends to stick in the mouth.

The Yiddish words fleishik (meat), milchik (dairy) and pareve (neutral) are commonly used to describe
food or utensils that fall into one of those categories.

Note that even the smallest quantity of dairy (or meat) in something renders it entirely dairy (or meat)
for purposes of kashrut. For example, most margarines are dairy for kosher purposes, because they
contain a small quantity of whey or other dairy products to give it a buttery taste. Animal fat is
considered meat for purposes of kashrut. You should read the ingredients very carefully, even if the
product is

kosher-certified .
Utensils

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Utensils (pots, pans, plates, flatware, etc., etc.) must also be kosher. A utensil picks up the kosher
"status" (meat, dairy, pareve, or treif) of the food that is cooked in it or eaten off of it, and transmits that
status back to the next food that is cooked in it or eaten off of it. Thus, if you cook chicken soup in a
saucepan, the pan becomes meat. If you thereafter use the same saucepan to heat up some warm milk,
the fleishik status of the pan is transmitted to the milk, and the milchik status of the milk is transmitted
to the pan, making both the pan and the milk a forbidden mixture.

Kosher status can be transmitted from the food to the utensil or from the utensil to the food only in the
presence of heat, (including hot spices) or prolonged contact, thus if you are eating cold food in a non-
kosher establishment, the condition of the plates is not an issue. I knew an Orthodox rabbi who would
eat ice cream at Friendly's, for example, because the ice cream was kosher and the utensils are
irrelevant for such cold food. Likewise, you could use the same knife to slice cold cuts and cheese, as
long as you clean it in between, but this is not really a recommended procedure, because it increases
the likelihood of mistakes.

Stove tops and sinks routinely become non-kosher utensils, because they routinely come in contact with
both meat and dairy in the presence of heat. It is necessary, therefore, to use dishpans when cleaning
dishes (don't soak them directly in the sink) and to use separate spoon rests and trivets when putting
things down on the stove top.

Dishwashers are a kashrut problem. If you are going to use a dishwasher for both meat and dairy in a
kosher home, you either need to have separate dish racks or you need to run the dishwasher in
between meat and dairy loads.

You should use separate towels and pot holders for meat and dairy. Routine laundering kashers such
items, so you can simply launder them between using them for meat and dairy.

Certain kinds of utensils can be "kashered" if you make a mistake and use it with both meat and dairy.
Consult a rabbi for guidance if this situation occurs.

Grape Products

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The restrictions on grape products derive from the laws against using products of idolatry. Wine was
commonly used in the rituals of all ancient religions, and wine was routinely sanctified for pagan
purposes while it was being processed. For this reason, use of wines and other grape products made by
non-Jews was prohibited. (Whole grapes are not a problem, nor are whole grapes in fruit cocktail).

For the most part, this rule only affects wine and grape juice. This becomes a concern with many fruit
drinks or fruit-flavored drinks, which are often sweetened with grape juice. You may also notice that
some baking powders are not kosher, because baking powder is sometimes made with cream of tartar, a
by-product of wine making. All beer used to be kosher, but this is no longer the case because fruity
beers made with grape products have become more common.

Additional Rules

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Kashrut Certification

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The task of keeping kosher is greatly simplified by widespread kashrut certification. Products that have
been certified as kosher are labeled with a mark called a hekhsher (from the same Hebrew root as the
word "kosher") that ordinarily identifies the rabbi or organization that certified the product.
Approximately 3/4 of all prepackaged foods have some kind of kosher certification, and most major
brands have reliable Orthodox certification.

The process of certification does not involve "blessing" the food; rather, it involves examining the
ingredients used to make the food, examining the process by which the food is prepared, and
periodically inspecting the processing facilities to make sure that kosher standards are maintained.

These symbols are widely-accepted hekhshers commonly found on products throughout the United
States. These symbols are registered trademarks of kosher certification organizations, and cannot be
placed on a food label without the organization's permission. Click the symbols to visit the websites of
these organizations. With a little practice, it is very easy to spot these hekhshers on food labels, usually
near the product name, occasionally near the list of ingredients. There are many other certifications
available, of varying degrees of strictness.

The most controversial certification is the K, a plain letter K found on products asserted to be kosher. A
letter of the alphabet cannot be trademarked, so any manufacturer can put a K on a product, even
without any supervision at all. For example, Jell-O brand gelatin puts a K on its product, even though
every reliable Orthodox authority agrees that Jell-O is not kosher. On the other hand, some very reliable
rabbis will certify products without having a trademark to offer, and their certifications will also have
only a "K." Most other kosher certification marks are trademarked and cannot legally be used without
the permission of the certifying organization. The certifying organization assures you that the product is
kosher according to their standards, but standards vary.

It is becoming increasingly common for kosher certifying organizations to indicate whether the product
is fleishik (meat), milchik (dairy) or pareve (neutral). If the product is dairy, it will frequently have a D or
the word Dairy next to the kashrut symbol. If it is meat, the word Meat may appear near the symbol
(usually not an M, because that might be confused with "milchik"). If it is pareve, the word Pareve (or
Parev) may appear near the symbol (Not a P! That means kosher for
Passover !). If no such clarification appears, you should read the ingredient list carefully to determine
whether the product is meat, dairy or pareve.

Kosher certification organizations charge manufacturers a fee for kosher certification. This fee covers
the expenses of researching the ingredients in the product and inspecting the facilities used to
manufacture the product. There are some who have complained that these certification costs increase
the cost of the products to non-Jewish, non-kosher consumers; however, the actual cost of such
certification is so small relative to the overall cost of production that most manufacturers cannot even
calculate it. The cost is more than justified by the increase in sales it produces: although observant Jews
are only a small fragment of the marketplace, kosher certification is also a useful (though not complete)
point of reference for many Muslims, Seventh Day Adventists and vegetarians. In addition, many people
prefer kosher products because they believe them to be cleaner, healthier or better than non-kosher
products. It is worth noting that kosher certifiers are not the only organizations that charge for the
privilege of displaying their on a product: some charitable organizations allow manufacturers to display
their logo in exchange for a donation, but unlike kosher certifiers, those charities do not perform any
service in exchange for that payment.

Do All Jews Keep Kosher?

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According to the 2000 National Jewish Population Survey (NJPS), 21% of American Jews report that they
keep kosher in the home. This includes the vast majority of people who identify themselves as
Orthodox , as well as many

Conservative and Reconstructionist Jews and some Reform Jews.

Part of that 21% keeps kosher at home, but eat non-kosher food out of the home to one degree or
another. Some will eat cooked food in a restaurant or a non-kosher home, as long as the meal is either
vegetarian or uses only kosher meat and no dairy products. Some will eat non-kosher meat in
restaurants, but only if the meat comes from a kosher animal and is not served with dairy products.
Some will go... dare I say? ... whole hog and eat bacon cheeseburgers out of the home while keeping a
strictly kosher household.

Even within the home, standards of kashrut that people employ vary. The strictest people will eat only
foods that have reliable Orthodox kosher certification, eating only glatt-kosher certified meats and
specially certified dairy products. They will not eat cooked food in a restaurant unless the restaurant has
reliable Orthodox certification, and they are unlikely to accept an invitation to dinner from anyone who
is not known to share their high standards. Others are more lenient, accepting less reliable certifications
without question or "ingredients reading," accepting grocery store items that have no certification but
do not contain any identifiably non-kosher ingredients.

As rabbi/humorist Jack Moline noted, "Everyone who keeps kosher will tell you that his version is the
only correct version. Everyone else is either a fanatic or a heretic." (Growing Up Jewish, 1987). There is a
lot of truth in this humorous observation. I have no doubt that some are calling me a heretic for even
acknowledging the existence of lower standards, because kosher is kosher, and if you don't live up to

my standards then you aren't keeping kosher at all.

Mezuzah, tzitzit and tefillin are reminders of the commandments

The menorah (candelabrum) is the ancient universal symbol of Judaism

The Jewish star (Magen David) is a modern universal Jewish symbol

Jews wear a skullcap (yarmulke) as a pious custom

Chai, found on jewelry, is the number 18, which is a favorable number

The Hamesh Hand is common in Jewish jewelry, but its connection to Judaism is questionable

See also:

Affixing a Mezuzah

Donning Tallit and Tefillin

Mezuzah

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And you shall write [the words that I command you today] on the doorposts of your house and on your
gates. -Deuteronomy 6:9, 11:19

On the doorposts of traditional Jewish homes (and many not-so-traditional homes!), you will find a small
case like the one pictured at left. This case is commonly known as a mezuzah (Heb.: doorpost), because
it is placed upon the doorposts of the house. The mezuzah is not, as some suppose, a good-luck charm,
nor does it have any connection with the lamb's blood placed on the doorposts in Egypt. Rather, it is a
constant reminder of G-d 's presence and G-d's mitzvot.

The mitzvah to place mezuzot on the doorposts of our houses is derived from Deut. 6:4-9, a passage
commonly known as the

Shema (Heb: Hear, from the first word of the passage). In that passage, G-d commands us to keep His
words constantly in our minds and in our hearts by (among other things) writing them on the doorposts
of our house. The words of the Shema are written on a tiny scroll of parchment, along with the words of
a companion passage, Deut. 11:13-21. On the back of the scroll, a name of G-d is written. The scroll is
then rolled up and placed in the case, so that the first letter of the Name (the letter Shin ) is visible (or,
more commonly, the letter Shin is written on the outside of the case).
The scroll must be handwritten in a special style of writing and must be placed in the case to fulfill the
mitzvah. It is commonplace for gift shops to sell cases without scrolls, or with mechanically printed
scrolls, because a proper scroll costs more than even an elaborately decorated case ($30-$50 for a valid
scroll is quite reasonable). According to traditional authorities, mechanically printed scrolls do not fulfill
the mitzvah of the mezuzah, nor does an empty case.

The case and scroll are then nailed or affixed at an angle to the right side doorpost as you enter the
building or room, with a small ceremony called Chanukkat Ha-Bayit (dedication of the house - yes, this is
the same word as Chanukkah, the holiday celebrating the rededication of the Temple). A brief blessing is
recited. See the text of the blessing at Affixing the Mezuzah .

Why is the mezuzah affixed at an angle? The rabbis could not decide whether it should be placed
horizontally or vertically, so they compromised!

Every time you pass through a door with a mezuzah on it, you touch the mezuzah and then kiss the
fingers that touched it, expressing love and respect for G-d and his mitzvot and reminding yourself of
the mitzvot contained within them.

It is proper to remove a mezuzah when you move, and in fact, it is usually recommended. If you leave it
in place, the subsequent owner may treat it with disrespect, and this is a grave sin. I have seen many
mezuzot in apartment complexes that have been painted over because a subsequent owner failed to
remove it while the building was painted, and it breaks my heart every time I see that sort of disrespect
to an object of religious significance.

For more information about mezuzot or to purchase valid scrolls for a mezuzah online, visit the S.T.A.M.
website.

Tzitzit and Tallit

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They shall make themselves tzitzit on the corners of their garments throughout their generations, and
they shall place on the tzitzit of each corner a thread of techeilet. And it shall be tzitzit for you, and you
will see it, and you will remember all the mitzvot of the L-RD and do them and not follow your heart or
your eyes and run after them. -Numbers 15:38-40

The Torah commands us to wear tzitzit (fringes) at the corners of our garments as a reminder of the
mitzvot, kind of like the old technique of tying a string around your finger to remember something. The
passage also instructs that the fringe should have a thread of "techeilet," believed to be a blue or
turquoise dye, but the source of that dye is no longer known, so tzitzit are today are all white. There is a
complex procedure for tying the knots of the tzitzit, filled with religious and numerological significance.

The mitzvah to wear tzitzit applies only to four-cornered garments, which were common in biblical times
but are not common anymore. To fulfill this mitzvah, adult men wear a four-cornered shawl called a
tallit (pictured above) during morning services , along with the tefillin. In some Orthodox
congregations , only married men wear a tallit; in others, both married and unmarried men wear one. In
Conservative , Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues, both men and women may wear a tallit, but
men are somewhat more likely than women to do so. A blessing is recited when you put on the tallit.
See the text of the blessing at Tallit and Tefillin .

Strictly observant Jewish men commonly wear a special four-cornered garment, similar to a poncho,
called a tallit katan ("little tallit"), so that they will have the opportunity to fulfill this important mitzvah
all day long. The tallit katan is worn under the shirt, with the tzitzit hanging out so they can be seen. If
you've ever seen a Jewish man with strings hanging out of his clothing, this is probably what you were
seeing.

There is no particular religious significance to the tallit (shawl) itself, other than the fact that it holds the
tzitzit (fringes) on its corners. There are also very few religious requirements with regard to the design of
the tallit. The tallit must be long enough to be worn over the shoulders (as a shawl), not just around the
neck (as a scarf), to fulfill the requirement that the tzitzit be on a "garment." Likewise, it should be
draped over the shoulders like a shawl, not worn around the neck like a scarf, though that is commonly
done (see illustration at right). A longer tallit is commonly folded over the shoulders, to prevent the
tzitzit from dragging on the ground. The tallit may be made of any material, but must not be made of a
combination of wool and linen, because that combination is forbidden on any clothing. (Lev. 19:19;
Deut. 22:11). Most tallitot are white with navy or black stripes along the shorter ends, possibly in
memory of the thread of techeilet. They also commonly have an artistic motif of some kind along the
top long end (the outside of the part that goes against your neck). This motif is referred to as an atarah
(crown). There is no particular religious significance to the atarah; it simply tells you which end is up! It is
quite common, however, to write the words of the blessing for putting on the tallit on the atarah, so you
can read the blessing while you are putting the tallit on.

If a blessing is written on your tallit, you should be careful not to bring the tallit into the bathroom with
you! Sacred writings should not be brought into the bathroom. For this reason, many synagogues have a
tallit rack outside of the bathroom. Conversely, if you see a room in a synagogue with a sign that tells
you to remove your tallit before entering, you can safely assume that the room is a bathroom!

Tefillin

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Bind [the words that I command you today] as a sign on your arm, and they shall be ornaments between
your eyes. -Deuteronomy 6:8

The Shema also commands us to bind the words to our hands and between our eyes. We do this by
"laying tefillin," that is, by binding to our arms and foreheads leather pouches containing scrolls of Torah
passages.

The word "tefillin" is usually translated "phylacteries," although I don't much care for that term.
"Phylacteries" isn't very enlightening if you don't already know what tefillin are, and the word
"phylacteries" means "amulet," suggesting that tefillin are some kind of protective charm, which they
are not. The word "tefillin," on the other hand, is etymologically related to the word "tefilah" (prayer)
and the root Pe-Lamed-Lamed (judgment).

Like the mezuzah , tefillin are meant to remind us of G-d 's

mitzvot. We bind them to our head and our arm, committing both our intellect and our physical strength
to the fulfillment of the mitzvot. At weekday morning services , one case is tied to the arm, with the
scrolls at the biceps and leather straps extending down the arm to the hand, then another case is tied to
the head, with the case on the forehead and the straps hanging down over the shoulders. Appropriate
blessings are recited during this process. The tefillin are removed at the conclusion of the morning
services. See a general outline of this process and its blessings at Tallit and Tefillin .

Jewish acupuncturist Steven Schram examined the positioning of the tefillin and the procedure for laying
them, and concluded that the laying of tefillin was "a unique way of stimulating a very precise set of
acupuncture points that appears designed to clear the mind and harmonise the spirit." Click here to see
his article from the Journal of Chinese Medicine.

Like the scrolls in a mezuzah, the scrolls in tefillin must be hand-written in a special style of writing . A
good, valid set of tefillin can cost a few hundred dollars, but if properly cared for they can last for a
lifetime.

For more information about tefillin or to purchase valid tefillin online, visit the S.T.A.M. website.

Menorah

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One of the oldest symbols of the Jewish faith is the menorah, a seven-branched candelabrum used in
the Temple. The

kohanim lit the menorah in the Sanctuary every evening and cleaned it out every morning, replacing the
wicks and putting fresh olive oil into the cups. The illustration at left is based on instructions for
construction of the menorah found in Ex. 25:31-40.

It has been said that the menorah is a symbol of the nation of Israel and our mission to be "a light unto
the nations." (Isaiah 42:6). The sages emphasize that light is not a violent force; Israel is to accomplish its
mission by setting an example, not by using force. This idea is highlighted in the vision in Zechariah 4:1-
6. Zechariah sees a menorah, and G-d explains: "Not by might, nor by power, but by My spirit."

The lamp stand in today's synagogues, called the ner tamid (lit. the continual light, usually translated as
the eternal flame), symbolizes the menorah. Many synagogues also have an ornamental menorah,
usually with some critical detail changed (for example, with only 6 candles) to avoid the sin of
reproducing objects of the Temple.
The nine-branched menorah used on Chanukkah is commonly patterned after this menorah, because
Chanukkah commemorates the miracle that a day's worth of oil for this menorah lasted eight days.

Yarmulke

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Cover your head so that the fear of heaven may be upon you. -Talmud Shabbat 156b

R. Huna son of R. Joshua would not walk four cubits bareheaded, saying: The Shechinah [Divine
Presence] is above my head. -Talmud Kiddushin 31a

R. Huna son of R. Joshua said: May I be rewarded for never walking four cubits bareheaded. -Talmud
Shabbat 118b

The most commonly known and recognized piece of Jewish garb is actually the one with the least
religious significance. The word yarmulke (usually, but not really correctly, pronounced yammica) is
Yiddish . According to Leo Rosten's The Joys of Yiddish, it comes from a Tartar word meaning skullcap.
According to some Orthodox and Chasidic rabbis I know, it comes from the Aramaic words "yerai malka"
(fear of or respect for The King). The Hebrew word for this head covering is kippah (pronounced key-
pah).

It is an ancient practice for Jews to cover their heads during prayer. This probably derives from the fact
that in Eastern cultures, it is a sign of respect to cover the head (the custom in Western cultures is the
opposite: it is a sign of respect to remove one's hat). Thus, by covering the head during prayer, one
showed respect for G-d . In addition, in ancient Rome, servants were required to cover their heads while
free men did not; thus, Jews covered their heads to show that they were servants of G-d. In medieval
times, Jews covered their heads as a reminder that G-d is always above them.

Whatever the reason given, however, covering the head has always been regarded more as a custom
rather than a

commandment . Although it is a common pious practice to cover the head at all times, it is not
religiously mandatory. For example, it is widely accepted that one may refrain from wearing a head
covering at work if your employer requires it (for reasons of safety, uniformity, or to reduce
distractions). You can take off your yarmulke for a job interview if you think it will hurt your chances of
getting the job. There is an amusing article about this dilemma, The Kippah Debate , at

Aish.com .

There is no special significance to the yarmulke as a specific type of head covering. Its light weight,
compactness and discreteness make it a convenient choice of head gear. I am unaware of any
connection between the yarmulke and the similar skullcap worn by the Pope.

Magen David
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The Magen David (Shield of David, or as it is more commonly known, the Star of David) is the symbol
most commonly associated with Judaism today, but it is actually a relatively new Jewish symbol. It is
supposed to represent the shape of King David's shield (or perhaps the emblem on it), but there is really
no support for that claim in any early rabbinic literature. The symbol is not mentioned in rabbinic
literature until the middle ages, and is so rare in early Jewish literature and artwork that art dealers
suspect forgery if they find the symbol in early Jewish works.

Scholars such as Franz Rosenzweig have attributed deep theological significance to the symbol. For
example, some note that the top triangle strives upward, toward G-d, while the lower triangle strives
downward, toward the real world. Some note that the intertwining makes the triangles inseparable, like
the Jewish people. Some say that the three sides represent the three types of Jews: Kohanim , Levites
and Israel. Some note that there are actually 12 sides (3 exterior and 3 interior on each triangle),
representing the 12 tribes. While these theories are theologically interesting, they have little basis in
historical fact.

The symbol of intertwined equilateral triangles is a common one in the Middle East and North Africa,
and is thought to bring good luck. It appears occasionally in early Jewish artwork, but never as an
exclusively Jewish symbol. The nearest thing to an "official" Jewish symbol at the time was the menorah.

In the middle ages, Jews often were required to wear badges to identify themselves as Jews, much as
they were in Nazi Germany, but these Jewish badges were not always the familiar Magen David. For
example, a fifteenth century painting by Nuno Goncalves features a rabbi wearing a six-pointed badge
that looks more or less like an asterisk.

In the 17th century, it became a popular practice to put Magen Davids on the outside of synagogues , to
identify them as Jewish houses of worship in much the same way that a cross identified a Christian
house of worship; however, I have never seen any explanation of why this symbol was chosen, rather
than some other symbol.

The Magen David gained popularity as a symbol of Judaism when it was adopted as the emblem of the
Zionist movement in 1897, but the symbol continued to be controversial for many years afterward.
When the modern state of Israel was founded, there was much debate over whether this symbol should
be used on the flag.

Today, the Magen David is the universally recognized symbol of Jewry. It appears on the flag of the state
of Israel, and the Israeli equivalent of the Red Cross is known as the Red Magen David.

Chai

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This symbol, commonly seen on necklaces and other jewelry and ornaments, is simply the Hebrew word
Chai (living), with the two Hebrew letters Cheit and Yod attached to each other. Some say it refers to the
Living G-d ; others say it simply reflects Judaism's focus on the importance of life. Whatever the reason,
the concept of chai is important in Jewish culture. The typical Jewish toast is l'chayim (to life). Gifts to
charity are routinely given in multiples of 18 (the numeric value of the word Chai).

Hamesh Hand

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The hamesh hand or hamsa hand is a popular motif in Jewish jewelry. Go into any Judaic gift shop and
you will find necklaces and bracelets bearing this inverted hand with thumb and pinky pointing outward.
The design commonly has an eye in the center of the hand or various Hebrew letters in the middle.

There is nothing exclusively Jewish about the hamesh hand. Arab cultures often refer to it as the Hand of
Fatima, which represents the Hand of G-d. Similar designs are common in many cultures. Why it has
become such a popular symbol among Jews? I haven't been able to find an adequate explanation
anywhere. My best guess: in many cultures, this hand pattern represents a protection against the evil
eye (a malignant spiritual influence caused by the jealousy of others), and the evil eye has historically
been a popular superstition among Jews.

For some lovely illustrations of Jewish variations on this design, see here

evel: Intermediate

Most areas of Jewish belief are open to significant dispute, but not the nature of the Creator

There are several well-accepted beliefs about the nature of the Creator

The nature of G-d is one of the few areas of abstract Jewish belief where there are a number of clear-cut
ideas about which there is little dispute or disagreement.

G-d Exists

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The fact of G-d's existence is accepted almost without question. Proof is not needed, and is rarely
offered. The Torah begins by stating "In the beginning, G-d created..." It does not tell who G-d is or how
He was created.

In general, Judaism views the existence of G-d as a necessary prerequisite for the existence of the
universe. The existence of the universe is sufficient proof of the existence of G-d.

G-d is One

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One of the primary expressions of Jewish faith, recited twice daily in prayer, is the Shema , which begins
"Hear, Israel: The L-rd is our G-d, The L-rd is one." This simple statement encompasses several different
ideas:

1. There is only one G-d. No other being participated in the work of creation.

2. G-d is a unity. He is a single, whole, complete indivisible entity. He cannot be divided into parts or
described by attributes. Any attempt to ascribe attributes to G-d is merely man's imperfect attempt to
understand the infinite.

3. G-d is the only being to whom we should offer praise. The Shema can also be translated as "The L-rd is
our G-d, The L-rd alone," meaning that no other is our G-d, and we should not

pray to any other.

G-d is the Creator of Everything

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Everything in the universe was created by G-d and only by G-d. Judaism completely rejects the dualistic
notion that evil was created by Satan or some other deity. All comes from G-d. As Isaiah said , "I am the
L-rd, and there is none else. I form the light and create darkness, I make peace and create evil. I am the
L-rd, that does all these things." (Is. 45:6-7).

G-d is Incorporeal

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Although many places in scripture and Talmud speak of various parts of G-d's body (the Hand of G-d, G-
d's wings, etc.) or speak of G-d in anthropomorphic terms (G-d walking in the garden of Eden, G-d laying
tefillin, etc.), Judaism firmly maintains that G-d has no body. Any reference to G-d's body is simply a
figure of speech, a means of making G-d's actions more comprehensible to beings living in a material
world. Much of Rambam 's Guide for the Perplexed is devoted to explaining each of these
anthropomorphic references and proving that they should be understood figuratively.

We are forbidden to represent G-d in a physical form. That is considered idolatry. The sin of the Golden
Calf incident was not that the people chose another deity, but that they tried to represent G-d in a
physical form.

G-d is Neither Male nor Female

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This follows directly from the fact that G-d has no physical form. As one rabbi explained it to me, G-d has
no body, no genitalia, therefore the very idea that G-d is male or female is patently absurd. We refer to
G-d using masculine terms simply for convenience's sake, because Hebrew has no neutral gender; G-d is
no more male than a table is.
Although we usually speak of G-d in masculine terms, there are times when we refer to G-d using
feminine terms. The Shechinah, the manifestation of G-d's presence that fills the universe, is conceived
of in feminine terms, and the word Shechinah is a feminine word.

G-d is Omnipresent

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G-d is in all places at all times. He fills the universe and exceeds its scope. He is always near for us to call
upon in need, and He sees all that we do. Closely tied in with this idea is the fact that G-d is universal. He
is not just the G-d of the Jews; He is the G-d of all nations.

G-d is Omnipotent

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G-d can do anything. It is said that the only thing that is beyond His power is the fear of Him; that is, we
have free will , and He cannot compel us to do His will. This belief in G-d's omnipotence has been sorely
tested during the many persecutions of Jews, but we have always maintained that G-d has a reason for
allowing these things, even if we in our limited perception and understanding cannot see the reason.

G-d is Omniscient

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G-d knows all things, past, present and future. He knows our thoughts.

G-d is Eternal

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G-d transcends time. He has no beginning and no end. He will always be there to fulfill his promises.
When Moses asked for G-d's name, He replied, "Ehyeh asher ehyeh." That phrase is generally translated
as, "I am that I am," but the word "ehyeh" can be present or future tense, meaning "I am what I will be"
or "I will be what I will be." The ambiguity of the phrase is often interpreted as a reference to G-d's
eternal nature.

G-d is Both Just and Merciful

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I have often heard Christians speak of Judaism as the religion of the strict Law, which no human being is
good enough to fulfill (hence the need for the sacrifice of Jesus). This is a gross mischaracterization of
Jewish belief. Judaism has always maintained that G-d's justice is tempered by mercy, the two qualities
perfectly balanced. Of the two Names of G-d most commonly used in scripture, one refers to his quality
of justice and the other to his quality of mercy. The two names were used together in the story of
Creation, showing that the world was created with both justice and mercy.
G-d is Holy and Perfect

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One of the most common names applied to G-d in the post-Biblical period is "Ha-Kadosh, Barukh Hu,"
The Holy One, Blessed be He.

Avinu Malkeinu: G-d is our Father and our King

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Judaism maintains that we are all G-d's children. A well-known piece of Jewish liturgy repeatedly
describes G-d as "Avinu Malkeinu," our Father, our King. The Talmud teaches that there are three
participants in the formation of every human being: the mother and father, who provide the physical
form, and G-d, who provides the soul, the personality, and the intelligence. It is said that one of G-d's
greatest gifts to humanity is the knowledge that we are His children and created in his image.

Humanity was created in the "image" of the Creator

The "image" of the Creator is the ability to discern and reason

Humanity has an inclination to both good and evil

Free will is the ability to choose which inclination to follow

On the question of human nature, as in most areas of abstract

belief in Judaism, there is a lot of room for personal opinion. There is no dogma on the subject, no
required belief about the nature of humanity. There are a variety of contrary opinions expressed on the
subject, and one is no less a Jew (and no less a good Jew) for disagreeing with any or all of these
opinions. Nevertheless, there are certain ideas that seem to reflect the majority opinion in Jewish
thought that are worth discussing.

In the Image of G-d

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The Bible states that humanity was created in the image of

G-d , but what does it mean to be created in the image of G-d?

Clearly, we are not created in the physical image of G-d, because Judaism steadfastly maintains that G-d
is incorporeal and has no physical appearance. Rambam points out that the Hebrew words translated as
"image" and "likeness" in Gen. 1:27 do not refer to the physical form of a thing. The word for "image" in
Gen. 1:27 is "tzelem," which refers to the nature or essence of a thing, as in Psalm 73:20, "you will
despise their image (tzel'mam)." You despise a person's nature and not a person's physical appearance.
The word for physical form, Rambam explains, is "to'ar," as in Gen. 39:6, "and Joseph was beautiful of
form (to'ar) and fair to look upon." Similarly, the word used for "likeness" is "damut," which is used to
indicate a simile, not identity of form. For example, "He is like (damuno) a lion" in Ps. 17:12 refers not to
similar appearance, but to similar nature.

What is it in our nature that is G-d-like? Rashi explains that we are like G-d in that we have the ability to
understand and discern. Rambam elaborates that by using our intellect, we are able to perceive things
without the use of our physical senses, an ability that makes us like G-d, who perceives without having
physical senses.

The Dual Nature

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In Genesis 2:7, the Bible states that G-d formed (vayyitzer) man. The spelling of this word is unusual: it
uses two consecutive Yods instead of the one you would expect. The

rabbis inferred that these Yods stand for the word "yetzer," which means impulse, and the existence of
two Yods here indicates that humanity was formed with two impulses: a good impulse (the yetzer tov)
and an evil impulse (the yetzer ra).

The yetzer tov is the moral conscience, the inner voice that reminds you of G-d's law when you consider
doing something that is forbidden. According to some views, it does not enter a person until his 13th
birthday, when he becomes responsible for following the commandments. See Bar Mitzvah .

The yetzer ra is more difficult to define, because there are many different ideas about it. It is not a desire
to do evil in the way we normally think of it in Western society: a desire to cause senseless harm.
Rather, it is usually conceived as the selfish nature, the desire to satisfy personal needs (food, shelter,
sex, etc.) without regard for the moral consequences of fulfilling those desires.

The yetzer ra is not a bad thing. It was created by G-d, and all things created by G-d are good. The
Talmud notes that without the yetzer ra (the desire to satisfy personal needs), man would not build a
house, marry a wife, beget children or conduct business affairs. But the yetzer ra can lead to wrongdoing
when it is not controlled by the yetzer tov. There is nothing inherently wrong with hunger, but it can
lead you to steal food. There is nothing inherently wrong with sexual desire, but it can lead you to
commit rape, adultery, incest or other sexual perversion.

The yetzer ra is generally seen as something internal to a person, not as an external force acting on a
person. The idea that "the devil made me do it" is not in line with the majority of thought in Judaism.
Although it has been said that Satan and the yetzer ra are one and the same, this is more often
understood as meaning that Satan is merely a personification of our own selfish desires, rather than that
our selfish desires are caused by some external force.
People have the ability to choose which impulse to follow: the yetzer tov or the yetzer ra. That is the
heart of the Jewish understanding of free will. The Talmud notes that all people are descended from
Adam, so no one can blame his own wickedness on his ancestry. On the contrary, we all have the ability
to make our own choices, and we will all be held responsible for the choices we make.

Level: Intermediate

The idea of mashiach (messiah) is an ancient one in Judaism

The Jewish idea of mashiach is a great human leader like King David, not a savior

There is much speculation about when the mashiach will come

The Bible identifies several tasks that the mashiach will accomplish

Jews do not believe in Jesus because he did not accomplish these tasks

I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the mashiach, and though he may tarry, still I await him
every day.

- Principle 12 of Rambam's 13 Principles of Faith

The Messianic Idea in Judaism

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Belief in the eventual coming of the mashiach is a basic and fundamental part of traditional Judaism. It is
part of Rambam

's 13 Principles of Faith, the minimum requirements of Jewish

belief . In the Shemoneh Esrei prayer, recited three times daily, we pray for all of the elements of the
coming of the mashiach: ingathering of the exiles; restoration of the religious courts of justice; an end of
wickedness, sin and heresy; reward to the righteous; rebuilding of Jerusalem; restoration of the line of
King David; and restoration of Temple service.

Modern scholars suggest that the messianic concept was introduced later in the history of Judaism,
during the age of the prophets. They note that the messianic concept is not explicitly mentioned
anywhere in the Torah (the first five books of the Bible).

However, traditional Judaism maintains that the messianic idea has always been a part of Judaism. The
mashiach is not mentioned explicitly in the Torah, because the Torah was written in terms that all
people could understand, and the abstract concept of a distant, spiritual, future reward was beyond the
comprehension of some people. However, the Torah contains several references to "the End of Days"
(acharit ha-yamim), which is the time of the mashiach; thus, the concept of mashiach was known in the
most ancient times.

The term "mashiach" literally means "the anointed one," and refers to the ancient practice of anointing
kings with oil when they took the throne. The mashiach is the one who will be anointed as king in the
End of Days.

The word "mashiach" does not mean "savior." The notion of an innocent, divine or semi-divine being
who will sacrifice himself to save us from the consequences of our own sins is a purely Christian concept
that has no basis in Jewish thought. Unfortunately, this Christian concept has become so deeply
ingrained in the English word "messiah" that this English word can no longer be used to refer to the
Jewish concept. The word "mashiach" will be used throughout this page.

Some gentiles have told me that the term "mashiach" is related to the Hebrew term "moshiah" (savior)
because they sound similar, but the similarity is not as strong as it appears to one unfamiliar with
Hebrew. The Hebrew word "mashiach" comes from the root Mem-Shin-Chet , which means to paint,
smear, or annoint. The word "moshiah" comes from the root Yod-Shin-Ayin, which means to help or
save. The only letter these roots have in common is Shin, the most common letter in the Hebrew
language. The "m" sound at the beginning of the word moshiah (savior) is a common prefix used to turn
a verb into a noun. For example, the verb tzavah (to command) becomes mitzvah (commandment).
Saying that "mashiach" is related to "moshiah" is a bit like saying that ring is related to surfing because
they both end in "ing."

The Mashiach

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The mashiach will be a great political leader descended from King David (Jeremiah 23:5). The mashiach
is often referred to as "mashiach ben David" (mashiach, son of David). He will be well-versed in Jewish
law, and observant of its commandments (Isaiah 11:2-5). He will be a charismatic leader, inspiring others
to follow his example. He will be a great military leader, who will win battles for Israel . He will be a great
judge, who makes righteous decisions (Jeremiah 33:15). But above all, he will be a human being, not a
god, demi-god or other supernatural being.

It has been said that in every generation, a person is born with the potential to be the mashiach. If the
time is right for the messianic age within that person's lifetime, then that person will be the mashiach.
But if that person dies before he completes the mission of the mashiach, then that person is not the
mashiach.

When Will the Mashiach Come?

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There are a wide variety of opinions on the subject of when the mashiach will come. Some of Judaism's
greatest minds have cursed those who try to predict the time of the mashiach's coming, because errors
in such predictions could cause people to lose faith in the messianic idea or in Judaism itself. This
actually happened in the 17th century, when Shabbatai Tzvi claimed to be the mashiach. When Tzvi
converted to Islam under threat of death, many Jews converted with him. Nevertheless, this prohibition
has not stopped anyone from speculating about the time when the mashiach will come.

Although some scholars believed that G-d has set aside a specific date for the coming of the mashiach,
most authority suggests that the conduct of mankind will determine the time of the mashiach's coming.
In general, it is believed that the mashiach will come in a time when he is most needed (because the
world is so sinful), or in a time when he is most deserved (because the world is so good). For example,
each of the following has been suggested as the time when the mashiach will come:

if Israel repented a single day;

if Israel observed a single Shabbat properly;

if Israel observed two Shabbats in a row properly;

in a generation that is totally innocent or totally guilty;

in a generation that loses hope;

in a generation where children are totally disrespectful towards their parents and elders;

What Will the Mashiach Do?

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Before the time of the mashiach, there shall be war and suffering (Ezekiel 38:16)

The mashiach will bring about the political and spiritual redemption of the Jewish people by bringing us
back to Israel and restoring Jerusalem (Isaiah 11:11-12; Jeremiah 23:8; 30:3; Hosea 3:4-5). He will
establish a government in Israel that will be the center of all world government, both for Jews and
gentiles (Isaiah 2:2-4; 11:10; 42:1). He will rebuild the Temple and re-establish its worship (Jeremiah
33:18). He will restore the religious court system of Israel and establish Jewish law as the law of the land
(Jeremiah 33:15).

Olam Ha-Ba: The Messianic Age

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The world after the messiah comes is often referred to in Jewish literature as Olam Ha-Ba (oh-LAHM
hah-BAH), the World to Come. This term can cause some confusion, because it is also used to refer to a
spiritual afterlife . In English, we commonly use the term "messianic age" to refer specifically to the time
of the messiah.

Olam Ha-Ba will be characterized by the peaceful co-existence of all people (Isaiah 2:4). Hatred,
intolerance and war will cease to exist. Some authorities suggest that the laws of nature will change, so
that predatory beasts will no longer seek prey and agriculture will bring forth supernatural abundance
(Isaiah 11:6-11:9). Others, however, say that these statements are merely an allegory for peace and
prosperity.

All of the Jewish people will return from their exile among the

nations to their home in Israel (Isaiah 11:11-12; Jeremiah 23:8; 30:3; Hosea 3:4-5). The law of the Jubilee
will be reinstated.

In the Olam Ha-Ba, the whole world will recognize the Jewish

G-d as the only true G-d, and the Jewish religion as the only true religion (Isaiah 2:3; 11:10; Micah 4:2-3;
Zechariah 14:9). There will be no murder, robbery, competition or jealousy. There will be no sin
(Zephaniah 3:13). Sacrifices will continue to be brought in the Temple, but these will be limited to

thanksgiving offerings, because there will be no further need for expiatory offerings.

Some gentiles have tried to put an ugly spin on this theology, claiming that Jews plan to force people to
convert to our religion, perhaps based on their own religion's history of doing exactly the same thing.
That is not at all how Jews understand the messianic age. We believe that in that future time, everyone
will simply know what the truth is, in the same way that we know that 2+2=4, and there will no longer
be any reason to argue about it. It is much like a situation I witnessed at work once: two computer
programmers were arguing loudly and at length about whether it was possible for a user to input data at
a certain point in a program. Finally someone pressed a key and they all saw that nothing happened.
Now they knew the truth, end of argument. When mashiach comes, theological truths will be equally
obvious to mankind, and there will be no reason to argue about it.

What About Jesus?

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Jews do not believe that Jesus was the mashiach. Assuming that he existed, and assuming that the
Christian scriptures are accurate in describing him (both matters that are debatable), he simply did not
fulfill the mission of the mashiach as it is described in the biblical passages cited above. Jesus did not do
any of the things that the scriptures said the messiah would do.

On the contrary, another Jew born about a century later came far closer to fulfilling the messianic ideal
than Jesus did. His name was Shimeon ben Kosiba, known as Bar Kokhba (son of a star), and he was a
charismatic, brilliant, but brutal warlord.

Rabbi Akiba , one of the greatest scholars in Jewish history, believed that Bar Kokhba was the mashiach.
Bar Kokhba fought a war against the Roman Empire, catching the Tenth Legion by surprise and retaking
Jerusalem. He resumed

sacrifices at the site of the Temple and made plans to rebuild the Temple. He established a provisional
government and began to issue coins in its name. This is what the
Jewish people were looking for in a mashiach; Jesus clearly does not fit into this mold. Ultimately,
however, the Roman Empire crushed his revolt and killed Bar Kokhba. After his death, all acknowledged
that he was not the mashiach.

Throughout Jewish history, there have been many people who have claimed to be the mashiach, or
whose followers have claimed that they were the mashiach: Shimeon Bar Kokhba, Shabbatai Tzvi, Jesus,
and many others too numerous to name. Leo Rosten reports some very entertaining accounts under the
entry for meshiekh in The New Joys of Yiddish . But all of these people died without fulfilling the mission
of the mashiach; therefore, none of them were the mashiach. The mashiach and the Olam Ha-Ba lie in
the future, not in the past.

Biblical Passages Referring to the Mashiach

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The following passages in the Jewish scriptures are the ones that Jews consider to be messianic in
nature or relating to the end of days. These are the ones that we rely upon in developing our messianic
concept:

Isaiah 2, 11, 42; 59:20

Jeremiah 23, 30, 33; 48:47; 49:39

Ezekiel 38:16

Hosea 3:4-3:5

Micah 4

Zephaniah 3:9

Zechariah 14:9

Daniel 10:14

If you want to know how Jews interpret the passages that Christians consider to be messianic, see Jews
for Judaism, a counter-missionary organization not associated with this website, especially their article
about Christian Proof-Texting .

bbalah and Jewish Mysticism

Level: Advanced

Judaism has ancient mystical teachings

Mysticism was taught only to those who had already learned Torah and Talmud

Jewish mysticism is known as kabbalah, and part of it was written in the Zohar
Kabbalah and its teachings have been distorted by mystics and occultists

One well-known teaching is the Ein Sof and the Ten Sefirot

When non-Jews ask about Judaism, they commonly ask questions like: Do you believe in heaven and
hell? In angels or the devil? What happens to the soul after death? What is the nature of G-d and the
universe? The answers to questions like these define most religions; in fact, I have heard some people
say that the purpose of religion is to answer these kinds of questions. Yet in Judaism, most of these
cosmological issues are wide open to personal opinion. The areas of Jewish thought that most
extensively discuss these issues, Kabbalah and Jewish mysticism, were traditionally not even taught to
people until the age of 40, when they had completed their education in Torah and Talmud .

Mysticism in Judaism

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Mysticism and mystical experiences have been a part of Judaism since the earliest days. The Torah
contains many stories of mystical experiences, from visitations by angels to prophetic dreams and
visions. The Talmud considers the existence of the soul and when it becomes attached to the body.
Jewish tradition tells that the souls of all Jews were in existence at the time of the Giving of the Torah
and were present at the time and agreed to the Covenant. There are many stories of places similar to
Christian heaven and purgatory, of wandering souls and reincarnation. The Talmud contains vague hints
of a mystical school of thought that was taught only to the most advanced students and was not
committed to writing. There are several references in ancient sources to ma'aseh bereishit (the work of
creation) and ma'aseh merkavah (the work of the chariot [of Ezekiel's vision]), the two primary subjects
of mystical thought at the time.

In the middle ages, many of these mystical teachings were committed to writing in books like the Zohar.
Many of these writings were asserted to be secret ancient writings or compilations of secret ancient
writings.

Like most subjects of Jewish belief, the area of mysticism is wide open to personal interpretation. Some
traditional Jews take mysticism very seriously. Mysticism is an integral part of

Chasidic Judaism, for example, and passages from kabbalistic sources are routinely included in
traditional prayer books. Other traditional Jews take mysticism with a grain of salt. One prominent
Orthodox Jew, when introducing a speaker on the subject of Jewish mysticism, said basically, "it's
nonsense, but it's Jewish nonsense, and the study of anything Jewish, even nonsense, is worthwhile."

The mystical school of thought came to be known as Kabbalah, from the Hebrew root Qof-Beit-Lamed,
meaning "to receive, to accept." The word is usually translated as "tradition." In Hebrew, the word does
not have any of the dark, sinister, evil connotations that it has developed in English. For example, the
English word "cabal" (a secret group of conspirators) is derived from the Hebrew word Kabbalah, but
neither the Hebrew word nor the mystical doctrines have any evil implications to Jews.
Kabbalah: The Misunderstood Doctrine

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Kabbalah is one of the most grossly misunderstood parts of Judaism. I have received several messages
from non-Jews describing Kabbalah as "the dark side of Judaism," describing it as evil or black magic. On
the other end of the spectrum, I receive many messages wanting to learn more about the trendy
doctrine popularized by various Jewish and non-Jewish celebrities.

These misunderstandings stem largely from the fact that the teachings of Kabbalah have been so badly
distorted by mystics and occultists. Kabbalah was popular among Christian intellectuals during the
Renaissance and Enlightenment periods, who reinterpreted its doctrines to fit into their Christian
dogma. In more recent times, many have wrenched kabbalistic symbolism out of context for use in tarot
card readings and other forms of divination and magic that were never a part of the original Jewish
teachings. Today, many well-known celebrities have popularized a new age pop-psychology distortion of
kabbalah (I have heard it derisively referred to as "crap-balah"). It borrows the language of kabbalah and
the forms of Jewish folk superstitions, but at its heart it has more in common with the writings of
Deepak Chopra than with any authentic Jewish source.

I do not mean to suggest that magic is not a part of Kabbalah. There are certainly many traditional
Jewish stories that involve the use of hidden knowledge to affect the world in ways that could be
described as magic. The Talmud and other sources ascribe supernatural activities to many great rabbis.
Some rabbis pronounced a name of G-d and ascended into heaven to consult with the G-d and the
angels on issues of great public concern. One scholar is said to have created an artificial man by reciting
various names of G-d. Much later stories tell of a rabbi who created a man out of clay (a golem) and
brought it to life by putting in its mouth a piece of paper with a name of G-d on it. However, this area of
Kabbalah (if indeed it is more than mere legend) is not something that is practiced by the average Jew,
or even the average rabbi. There are a number of stories that discourage the pursuit of such knowledge
and power as dangerous and irresponsible. If you see any books on the subject of "practical kabbalah,"
you can safely dismiss them as not authentic Jewish tradition because, as these stories demonstrate, this
kind of knowledge was traditionally thought to be far too dangerous to be distributed blindly to the
masses.

It is important to note that all of these magical effects were achieved through the power of G-d,
generally by calling upon the name of G-d. These practices are no more "evil" than the miracles of the
prophets, or the miracles that Christians ascribe to Jesus. In fact, according to some of my mystically-
inclined friends, Jesus performed his miracles using kabbalistic techniques learned from the Essenes , a
Jewish sect of that time that was involved in mysticism.

Ein Sof and the Ten Sefirot

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To give you an idea of the nature of Kabbalah, I will briefly discuss one of the better known, fundamental
concepts of kabbalistic thought: the concept of G-d as Ein Sof, the Ten Sefirot, and the kabbalistic tree of
life. This explanation is, at best, a gross oversimplification. I do not pretend to fully understand these
ideas.

According to Kabbalah, the true essence of G-d is so transcendent that it cannot be described, except
with reference to what it is not. This true essence of G-d is known as Ein Sof, which literally means
"without end," which encompasses the idea of His lack of boundaries in both time and space. In this
truest form, the Ein Sof is so transcendent that It cannot have any direct interaction with the universe.
The Ein Sof interacts with the universe through ten emanations from this essence, known as the Ten
Sefirot.

These Sefirot correspond to qualities of G-d. They consist of, in descending order, Keter (the crown),
Chokhmah (wisdom), Binah (intuition, understanding), Chesed (mercy) or Gedulah (greatness), Gevurah
(strength), Tiferet (glory), Netzach (victory), Hod (majesty), Yesod (foundation) and Malkut (sovereignty).
The middle five qualities are mentioned explicitly and in order at I Chronicles 29:11: Yours, O L-rd, is the
greatness (gedulah), the strength (gevurah), the glory (tiferet), the power (netzach), and the splendor
(hod). I have seen this passage translated in widely varying ways, but the Hebrew corresponds to the
names of the Sefirot in order.

The Ten Sefirot include both masculine and feminine qualities. Kabbalah pays a great deal of attention to
the feminine aspects of G-d.

The Sefirot are commonly represented as in the diagram at left. This diagram is commonly known as the
Tree of the Sefirot or the Kabbalistic Tree of Life. There is great significance to the position of these
various attributes and their interconnectedness.

The Sefirot are not separate deities, as some might think by taking this too literally. They are intimately a
part of G-d, and yet they are in contact with the universe in a way that the Ein Sof is not. The Sefirot
connect with everything in the universe, including humanity. The good and evil that we do resonates
through the Sefirot and affects the entire universe, up to and including G-d Himself.

Birth and the First Month of Life

Level: Basic

Life begins at birth

Baby showers are not held before birth

Children are given a Hebrew name, usually for a deceased relative

Male circumcision is performed on the 8th day after birth

Firstborn males are "redeemed" from a kohein

Jewish law has no procedure for adoption

Birth

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In Jewish law , although the human soul exists before birth, human life begins at birth, that is, at the
time when the child is more than halfway emerged from the mother's body. For more details about the
consequences of this doctrine, see Abortion .

Judaism completely rejects the notion of original sin. According to Judaism, a child is born pure,
completely free from sin. We pray daily "Oh G-d, the soul which you gave me is pure. You created it, you
fashioned it, you breathed it into me."

Birth by Caesarean section is permitted in Jewish law, as would be just about any procedure necessary
to preserve the

life of the mother or the child.

Immediately after birth, a woman is considered niddah and must remain sexually separated from her
husband for a period of seven days after the birth of a male child and 14 days after the birth of a female
child. Lev. 12:2. This separation is the same as the regular monthly niddah separation. In the days of the
Temple, when considerations of ritual purity were more important, a woman was considered partially
impure for an additional period of 33 days after the birth of a male child and 66 days after the birth of a
female child. No reason is stated why the period is longer for a female child than for a male child;
however, one of my resources emphasizes that a female child is not more defiling than a male child,
because the method of purification at the end of this period is the same for both genders.

After a child is born, the father is given the honor of an aliyah (an opportunity to bless the reading of the
Torah) in

synagogue at the next opportunity. At that time, a blessing is recited for the health of the mother and
the child. If the child is a girl, she is named at that time.

Baby Showers

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Although attitudes towards this are changing, Jews traditionally did not hold baby showers before the
baby was born. In fact, traditionally Jewish parents did not even purchase things for the baby or discuss
baby names until the baby was born. The usual reason given for this custom is pure superstition:
drawing attention to the baby also draws bad luck to the baby.
However, there are solid psychological reasons for this custom as well: the old proverb about not
counting your chickens before they've hatched. There was a time when miscarriages, stillborn babies
and infant mortality were quite common. Consider the pain of a parent who has lost a potential child
but is left with piles of gifts that the baby will never use, gifts that they have to return, reopening the
wound each time. Although this sort of thing is less common today than it was a century ago, it still
happens. Remember actress Katey Sagal (whose father is Jewish, though I don't know if she considers
herself Jewish). She became pregnant while she was starring in the TV series Married with Children and
the producers decided to incorporate her pregnancy into the storyline ... until her sudden miscarriage
required the writers to turn the already-aired pregnancy episodes into a dream sequence.

In general, you should be guided by the wishes of the parents in these matters. Many Jewish couples
today would not think twice about having a baby shower, might even be offended if their friends did not
throw one. But some Jewish couples feel strongly about the custom not to have one until after the baby
is born, and if that is what they want then you should respect their wishes and wait until after the baby
is born to give the new parents presents. If you find it difficult to restrain yourself, consider: how will
you feel if, G-d forbid, something should happen to the child after you throw a shower in violation of the
parents' wishes?

Naming a Child

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The formal Hebrew name is used in Jewish rituals, primarily in calling the person to the Torah for an
aliyah , or in the ketubah (marriage contract).

A girl's name is officially given in synagogue when the father takes an aliyah after the birth, discussed
above. A boy's name is given during the brit milah (ritual circumcision), see below .

The standard form of a Hebrew name for a male is [child's name] ben [father's name]. For a female, the
form is [child's name] bat [father's name]. If the child is a kohein, the suffix ha-Kohein is added. If the
child is of the tribe of Levi, the subject Ha-Levi is added.

There are no formal religious requirements for naming a child. The name has no inherent religious
significance. In fact, the child's "Hebrew name" need not even be Hebrew; Yiddish names are often
used, or even English ones.

It is customary among Ashkenazic Jews to name a child after a recently deceased relative. This custom
comes partly from a desire to honor the dead relative, and partly from superstition against naming a
child after a living relative. It is almost unheard of for an Ashkenazic Jew to be named after his own
father, though it does occasionally happen. Among Sephardic Jews, it is not unusual to name a child
after a parent or living relative.

Brit Milah: Circumcision

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Of all of the commandments in Judaism, the brit milah (literally, Covenant of Circumcision) is probably
the one most universally observed. It is commonly referred to as a bris (covenant, using the Ashkenazic
pronunciation). Even the most secular of Jews, who observe no other part of Judaism, almost always
observe these laws. Of course, until quite recently, the majority of males in the United States were
routinely circumcised, so this doesn't seem very surprising. But keep in mind that there is more to the
ritual of the brit milah than merely the process of physically removing the foreskin, and many otherwise
non-observant Jews observe the entire ritual.

The commandment to circumcise is given at Gen. 17:10-14 and Lev. 12:3. The covenant was originally
made with

Abraham . It is the first commandment specific to the Jews.

Circumcision is performed only on males. Although some cultures have a practice of removing all or part
of the woman's clitoris, often erroneously referred to as "female circumcision," that ritual has never
been a part of Judaism.

Like so many Jewish commandments, the brit milah is commonly perceived to be a hygienic measure;
however the

biblical text states the reason for this commandment quite clearly: circumcision is an outward physical
sign of the eternal covenant between G-d and the Jewish people. It is also a sign that the Jewish people
will be perpetuated through the circumcised man. The health benefits of this practice are merely
incidental. It is worth noting, however, that circumcised males have a lower risk of certain cancers, and
the sexual partners of circumcised males also have a lower risk of certain cancers.

The commandment is binding upon both the father of the child and the child himself. If a father does
not have his son circumcised, the son is obligated to have himself circumcised as soon as he becomes an
adult. A person who is uncircumcised suffers the penalty of kareit, spiritual excision; in other words,
regardless of how good a Jew he is in all other ways, a man has no place in the World to Come if he is
uncircumcised.

Circumcision is performed on the eighth day of the child's life, during the day. The day the child is born
counts as the first day, thus if the child is born on a Wednesday, he is circumcised on the following
Wednesday. Keep in mind that Jewish

days begin at sunset, so if the child is born on a Wednesday evening, he is circumcised the following
Thursday. Circumcisions are performed on Shabbat , even though they involve the drawing of blood
which is ordinarily forbidden on Shabbat. The Bible does not specify a reason for the choice of the eighth
day; however, modern medicine has revealed that an infant's blood clotting mechanism stabilizes on the
eighth day after birth. As with almost any commandment, circumcision can be postponed for health
reasons. Jewish law provides that where the child's health is at issue, circumcision must wait until seven
days after a doctor declares the child healthy enough to undergo the procedure.
Circumcision involves surgically removing the foreskin of the penis. The circumcision is performed by a
mohel (lit. circumciser; rhymes with oil), a pious, observant Jew educated in the relevant Jewish law and
in surgical techniques. Circumcision performed by a regular physician does not qualify as a valid brit
milah, regardless of whether a rabbi says a blessing over it, because the removal of the foreskin is itself a
religious ritual that must be performed by someone religiously qualified.

If the child is born without a foreskin (it happens occasionally), or if the child was previously circumcised
without the appropriate religious intent or in a manner that rendered the circumcision religiously
invalid, a symbolic circumcision may be performed by taking a pinprick of blood from the tip of the
penis. This is referred to as hatafat dam brit.

While the circumcision is performed, the child is held by a person called a sandek. In English, this is often
referred to as a godfather. It is an honor to be a sandek for a bris. The sandek is usually a grandparent or
the family rabbi. Traditionally, a chair (often an ornate one) is set aside for Elijah, who is said to preside
over all circumcisions. Various blessings are recited, including one over wine, and a drop of wine is
placed in the child's mouth. The child is then given a formal Hebrew name.

It is not necessary to have a minyan for a bris, but it is desirable if feasible.

As with most Jewish life events, the ritual is followed by refreshments or a festive meal.

The Circumcision Controversy

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In recent times, circumcision has become controversial. Some have hypothesized that infant
circumcision has harmful psychological effects and may cause sexual dysfunction. Many websites have
sprung up promoting this point of view, and even in Israel there are those who want to outlaw
circumcision as child abuse.

To the best of my knowledge, there is no concrete, scientific evidence that circumcision has any harmful
effect. The rate of complications from circumcision is one of the lowest of all surgical procedures, and
the most common complication is simply excessive bleeding. At most, the latest scientific evidence
indicates that the health benefits of circumcision are not as great as previously assumed, thus there is
no reason to perform routine circumcisions for the purposes of hygiene. However, as stated above,
Jewish circumcision is not performed for the purpose of hygiene.

In March 2007, the World Health Organization (WHO) and New York City recommended circumcision to
reduce the spread of AIDS after a large-scale study found that circumcision reduced the rate of HIV
infection of men through heterosexual sex by almost 60%. This finding isn't actually anything new; there
have been many studies for many years coming to the same conclusion. But even this finding is
controversial: anti-circumcision advocates reject these findings and claim that the studies are flawed. In
any case, circumcision is no substitute for safe sex!
From the traditional Jewish point of view, there is no controversy. The ritual of circumcision was
commanded by our Creator, and He certainly knows what is and is not good for us. The G-d who
commanded us not to harm ourselves certainly would not command us to do something harmful to
ourselves, and even if He did, the observant Jew would nonetheless heed His wishes.

For more information on the traditional Jewish response to the circumcision controversy, see Bris Milah:
Beautiful or Barbaric? at Aish ha-Torah's website.

Pidyon ha-Ben: Redemption of the First Born

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The first and best of all things belong to G-d . This is true even of the firstborn of children. Originally, it
was intended that the firstborn would serve as the priests and Temple functionaries of Israel; however,
after the incident of the Golden Calf, in which the tribe of Levi did not participate, G-d chose the tribe of
Levi over the firstborn for this sacred role. This is explained in Num. 8:14-18. However, even though
their place has been taken by the Levites, the firstborn still retain a certain degree of sanctity, and for
this reason, they must be redeemed.

The ritual of redemption is referred to as pidyon ha-ben, literally, Redemption of the Son.

A firstborn son must be redeemed after he reaches 31 days of age. Ordinarily, the ritual is performed on
the 31st day (the day of birth being the first day); however, the ritual cannot be performed on Shabbat
because it involves the exchange of money. The child is redeemed by paying a small sum (five silver
shekels in biblical times; today, usually five silver dollars) to a kohein (preferably a pious one familiar
with the procedure) and performing a brief ritual. This procedure is commanded at Num. 18:15-16.

It is important to remember that rabbis are not necessarily koheins and koheins are not necessarily
rabbis. Redemption from a rabbi is not valid unless the rabbi is also a kohein. See

Rabbis, Priests and Other Religious Functionaries for more information about this distinction.

The ritual of pidyon ha-ben applies to a relatively small number of Jews. It applies only to the firstborn
male child if it is born by natural childbirth. Thus, if a female is the firstborn, no child in the family is
subject to the ritual. If the first child is born by Caesarean section, the ritual does not apply to that child
(nor, according to most sources, to any child born after that child). If the first conception ends in
miscarriage after more than 40 days' term, it does not apply to any subsequent child. It does not apply
to members of the tribe of Levi, or children born to a daughter of a member of the tribe of Levi.

Adoption

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There is no formal procedure of adoption in Jewish law . Adoption as it exists in civil law is irrelevant,
because civil adoption is essentially a transfer of title from one parent to another, and in Jewish law,
parents do not own their children. However, Judaism does have certain laws that are relevant in
circumstances where a child is raised by someone other than the birth parents.

In most ways, the adoptive parents are to the child as any birth parent would be. The Talmud says that
he who raises someone else's child is regarded as if he had actually brought him into the world
physically. For those who cannot have children of their own, raising adoptive children satisfies the
obligation to be fruitful and multiply. The child may be formally named (see above ) as the child of the
adoptive parents, owes the adoptive parents the same duty of respect as he would a birth parent, and
observes formal mourning for the adoptive parents as he would for birth parents.

Matters relevant to the child's status are determined by the status of the birth parents, not by that of
the adoptive parents. The child's status as a Kohein , a Levi, a Jew, and/or a firstborn

, are all determined by reference to the birth parents.

This issue of status is particularly important in the case of non-Jewish children adopted by Jews.
According to traditional Jewish law, children born of non-Jewish parents are not Jewish unless they are
converted, regardless of who raises them or how they were raised. The status as a Jew is more a matter
of citizenship than a matter of belief. For more information about this issue, see Who is a Jew?

If Jewish parents adopt a non-Jewish child, the child must be converted. This process is somewhat
simpler for an infant than it is for an adult convert, because there is generally no need to try to talk the
person out of converting and no need for prior education. It is really more of a formality. The conversion
must be approved by a Beit Din (rabbinic court); a circumcision or hatafat dam brit must be performed;
the child must be immersed in a kosher mikvah and the parents must commit to educating the child as a
Jew. For more details about the process of conversion generally, See Conversion .

ar Mitzvah, Bat Mitzvah and Confirmation

Level: Basic

Jews become responsible for observing the commandments at the age of 13 for boys, 12 for girls

This age is marked by a celebration called bar (or bat) mitzvah

Some synagogues have an additional celebration called confirmation

Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah

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"Bar Mitzvah" literally means "son of the commandment." "Bar" is "son" in Aramaic, which used to be
the vernacular of the
Jewish people . "Mitzvah" is "commandment" in both Hebrew and Aramaic. "Bat" is daughter in Hebrew
and Aramaic. (The

Ashkenazic pronunciation is "bas"). Technically, the term refers to the child who is coming of age, and it
is strictly correct to refer to someone as "becoming a bar (or bat) mitzvah." However, the term is more
commonly used to refer to the coming of age ceremony itself, and you are more likely to hear that
someone is "having a bar mitzvah" or "invited to a bar mitzvah."

So what does it mean to become a bar mitzvah? Under Jewish Law, children are not obligated to
observe the commandments, although they are encouraged to do so as much as possible to learn the
obligations they will have as adults. At the age of 13 (12 for girls), children become obligated to observe
the commandments. The bar mitzvah ceremony formally, publicly marks the assumption of that
obligation, along with the corresponding right to take part in leading religious services , to count in a
minyan (the minimum number of people needed to perform certain parts of religious services), to form
binding contracts, to testify before religious courts and to marry.

A Jewish boy automatically becomes a bar mitzvah upon reaching the age of 13 years, and a girl upon
reaching the age of 12 years. No ceremony is needed to confer these rights and obligations. The popular
bar mitzvah ceremony is not required, and does not fulfill any commandment. It is certainly not, as one
episode of the Simpsons would have you believe, necessary to have a bar mitzvah in order to be
considered a Jew! The bar or bat mitzvah is a relatively modern innovation, not mentioned in the
Talmud, and the elaborate ceremonies and receptions that are commonplace today were unheard of as
recently as a century ago.

In its earliest and most basic form, a bar mitzvah is the celebrant's first aliyah . During Shabbat services
on a Saturday shortly after the child's 13th birthday, or even the Monday or Thursday weekday services
immediately after the child's 13th birthday, the celebrant is called up to the Torah to recite a

blessing over the weekly reading.

Today, it is common practice for the bar mitzvah celebrant to do much more than just say the blessing. It
is most common for the celebrant to learn the entire haftarah portion, including its traditional chant,
and recite that. In some congregations, the celebrant reads the entire weekly torah portion, or leads
part of the service, or leads the congregation in certain important prayers. The celebrant is also
generally required to make a speech, which traditionally begins with the phrase "today I am a man." The
father traditionally recites a blessing thanking G-d for removing the burden of being responsible for the
son's sins (because now the child is old enough to be held responsible for his own actions).

In modern times, the religious service is followed by a reception that is often as elaborate as a wedding
reception.

In Orthodox and Chasidic practice, women are not permitted to participate in religious services in these
ways, so a bat mitzvah, if celebrated at all, is usually little more than a party. In other movements of
Judaism, the girls do exactly the same thing as the boys.
It is important to note that a bar mitzvah is not the goal of a Jewish education, nor is it a graduation
ceremony marking the end of a person's Jewish education. We are obligated to study

Torah throughout our lives. To emphasize this point, some rabbis require a bar mitzvah student to sign
an agreement promising to continue Jewish education after the bar mitzvah.

Sadly, an alarming number of Jewish parents today view the bar or bat mitzvah as the sole purpose of
Jewish education, and treat it almost as a Jewish hazing ritual: I had to go through it, so you have to go
through it, but don't worry, it will all be over soon and you'll never have to think about this stuff again.

Confirmation

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Confirmation is a somewhat less widespread coming of age ritual that occurs when a child is 16 or 18.
Confirmation was originally developed by the Reform movement , which scorned the idea that a 13 year
old child was an adult (but see explanation below ). They replaced bar and bat mitzvah with a
confirmation ceremony at the age of 16 or 18. However, due to the overwhelming popularity of the bar
or bat mitzvah, the Reform movement has revived the practice. I don't know of any Reform synagogues
that do not encourage the practice of bar and bat mitzvahs at age 13 today.

In some Conservative synagogues, however, the confirmation concept has been adopted as a way to
continue a child's Jewish education and involvement for a few more years.

Is 13 an Adult?

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Many people mock the idea that a 12 or 13 year old child is an adult, claiming that it is an outdated
notion based on the needs of an agricultural society. This criticism comes from a misunderstanding of
the significance of becoming a bar mitzvah.

Bar mitzvah is not about being a full adult in every sense of the word, ready to marry, go out on your
own, earn a living and raise children. The Talmud makes this abundantly clear. In

Pirkei Avot , it is said that while 13 is the proper age for fulfillment of the Commandments, 18 is the
proper age for

marriage and 20 is the proper age for earning a livelihood. Elsewhere in the Talmud, the proper age for
marriage is said to be 16-24.

Bar mitzvah is simply the age when a person is held responsible for his actions and minimally qualified to
marry. If you compare this to secular law, you will find that it is not so very far from our modern notions
of a child's maturity. In Anglo-American common law, a child of the age of 14 is old enough to assume
many of the responsibilities of an adult, including minimal criminal liability. Under United States law, 14
is the minimum age of employment for most occupations (though working hours are limited so as not to
interfere with school). In many states, a fourteen year old can marry with parental consent. Children of
any age are permitted to testify in court, and children over the age of 14 are permitted to have
significant input into custody decisions in cases of divorce. Certainly, a 13-year-old child is capable of
knowing the difference between right and wrong and of being held responsible for his actions, and that
is all it really means to become a bar mitzvah.

Gifts

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One of the most common questions I get on this site is: do you give gifts at a bar or bat mitzvah, and if
so, what kind of gifts?

Yes, gifts are commonly given. They are ordinarily given at the reception, not at the service itself. Please
keep in mind that a bar mitzvah is incorporated into an ordinary sabbath service, and many of the
people present at the service may not be involved in the bar mitzvah.

The nature of the gift varies significantly depending on the community. At one time, the most common
gifts were a nice pen set or a college savings bond (usually in multiples of $18, a number that is
considered to be favorable in Jewish tradition, see: Hebrew Alphabet: Numerical Values). In many
communities today, however, the gifts are the same sort that you would give any child for his 13th
birthday. It is best to avoid religious gifts if you don't know what you're doing, but Jewish-themed gifts
are not a bad idea. For example, you might want to give a book that is a biography of a Jewish person
that the celebrant might admire. I hesitate to get into specifics, for fear that some poor celebrant might
find himself with several copies of the same thing!

When in doubt, it never hurts to ask the parents or the synagogue's rabbi what is customary within the
community.

Marriage

Level: Basic

Judaism believes in the concept of soul mates, called bashert

The primary purpose of marriage is love and companionship, not just childbearing

A contract called a ketubah spells out terms of marriage and divorce

Marriages between certain close relatives are prohibited

Children born out of wedlock are not bastards in Jewish law

See also:

The Role of Women

Interfaith Marriages

The Torah provides very little guidance with regard to the procedures of a marriage. The method of
finding a spouse, the form of the wedding ceremony, and the nature of the marital relationship are all
explained in the Talmud .

Bashert: Soul Mates

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According to the Talmud, Rav Yehuda taught that 40 days before a male child is conceived, a voice from
heaven announces whose daughter he is going to marry, literally a match made in heaven! In Yiddish ,
this perfect match is called "bashert," a word meaning fate or destiny. The word "bashert" can be used
to refer to any kind of fortuitous good match, such as finding the perfect job or the perfect house, but it
is usually used to refer to one's soul mate. There are a number of statements in the Talmud that would
seem to contradict the idea of bashert, most notably the many bits of advice on choosing a wife.
Nevertheless, the idea has a strong hold within the Jewish community: look at any listing of Jewish
personal ads and you're bound to find someone "Looking for my bashert."

Finding your bashert doesn't mean that your marriage will be trouble-free. Marriage, like everything
worthwhile in life, requires dedication, effort and energy. Even when two people are meant for each
other, it is possible for them to ruin their marriage. That is why Judaism allows divorce .

Although the first marriage is bashert, it is still possible to have a good and happy marriage with a
second spouse. The Talmud teaches that G-d also arranges second marriages, and a man's second wife is
chosen according to his merits.

How do you know if you have found your bashert? Should you hold off on marrying someone for fear
that the person you want to marry might not be your bashert, and there might be a better match out
there waiting for you? The traditional view is that you cannot know who your bashert is, but once you
get married, the person you married is by definition your bashert, so you should not let concerns about
finding your bashert discourage you from marrying someone.

And while we're on the subject of G-d arranging marriages, I should share this delightful midrash: it is
said that a Roman woman asked a rabbi , "if your G-d created the universe in six days, then what has he
been doing with his time since then?" The rabbi said that G-d has been arranging marriages. The Roman
woman scoffed at this, saying that arranging marriages was a simple task, but the rabbi assured her that
arranging marriages properly is as difficult as parting the Red Sea. To prove the rabbi wrong, the Roman
woman went home and took a thousand male slaves and a thousand female slaves and matched them
up in marriages. The next day, the slaves appeared before her, one with a cracked skull, another with a
broken leg, another with his eye gouged out, all asking to be released from their marriages. The woman
went back to the rabbi and said, "There is no god like your G-d, and your Torah is true."

Acquiring a Spouse
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Mishnah Kiddushin 1:1 specifies that a woman is acquired (i.e., to be a wife) in three ways: through
money, a contract, and sexual intercourse. Ordinarily, all three of these conditions are satisfied,
although only one is necessary to effect a binding marriage.

Acquisition by money is normally satisfied by the wedding ring. It is important to note that although
money is one way of "acquiring" a wife, the woman is not being bought and sold like a piece of property
or a slave. This is obvious from the fact that the amount of money involved is nominal (according to the
Mishnah , a perutah, a copper coin of the lowest denomination, was sufficient). In addition, if the
woman were being purchased like a piece of property, it would be possible for the husband to resell her,
and clearly it is not. Rather, the wife's acceptance of the money is a symbolic way of demonstrating her
acceptance of the husband, just like acceptance of the contract or the sexual intercourse.

To satisfy the requirements of acquisition by money, the ring must belong to the groom. It cannot be
borrowed, although it can be a gift from a relative. It must be given to the wife irrevocably. In addition,
the ring's value must be known to the wife, so that there can be no claim that the husband deceived her
into marrying by misleading her as to its value.

In all cases, the Talmud specifies that a woman can be acquired only with her consent, and not without
it. Kiddushin 2a-b.

As part of the wedding ceremony, the husband gives the wife a ketubah. The word "Ketubah" comes
from the root Kaf-Tav-Beit, meaning "writing." The ketubah is also called the marriage contract. The
ketubah spells out the husband's obligations to the wife during marriage, conditions of inheritance upon
his death, and obligations regarding the support of children of the marriage. It also provides for the
wife's support in the event of divorce . There are standard conditions; however, additional conditions
can be included by mutual agreement. Marriage agreements of this sort were commonplace in the
ancient Semitic world.

The ketubah has much in common with prenuptial agreements, which are gaining popularity in the
United States. In the U.S., such agreements were historically disfavored, because it was believed that
planning for divorce would encourage divorce, and that people who considered the possibility of divorce
shouldn't be marrying. Although one rabbi in the Talmud expresses a similar opinion, the majority
maintained that a ketubah discouraged divorce, by serving as a constant reminder of the husband's
substantial financial obligations if he divorced his wife.

The ketubah is often a beautiful work of calligraphy, framed and displayed in the home.

The Process of Marriage: Kiddushin and Nisuin

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The process of marriage occurs in two distinct stages: kiddushin (commonly translated as betrothal) and
nisuin (full-fledged marriage). Kiddushin occurs when the woman accepts the money, contract or sexual
relations offered by the prospective husband. The word "kiddushin" comes from the

root Qof-Dalet-Shin, meaning "sanctified." It reflects the sanctity of the marital relation. However, the
root word also connotes something that is set aside for a specific (sacred) purpose, and the ritual of
kiddushin sets aside the woman to be the wife of a particular man and no other.

Kiddushin is far more binding than an engagement as we understand the term in modern English; in fact,
Rambam speaks of a period of engagement before the kiddushin. Once kiddushin is complete, the
woman is legally the wife of the man. The relationship created by kiddushin can only be dissolved by
death or divorce. However, the spouses do not live together at the time of the kiddushin, and the
mutual obligations created by the marital relationship do not take effect until the nisuin is complete.

The nisuin (from a word meaning "elevation") completes the process of marriage. The husband brings
the wife into his home and they begin their married life together.

In the past, the kiddushin and nisuin would routinely occur as much as a year apart. During that time,
the husband would prepare a home for the new family. There was always a risk that during this long
period of separation, the woman would discover that she wanted to marry another man, or the man
would disappear, leaving the woman in the awkward state of being married but without a husband.
Today, the two ceremonies are normally performed together.

Because marriage under Jewish law is essentially a private contractual agreement between a man and a
woman, it does not require the presence of a rabbi or any other religious official. It is common, however,
for rabbis to officiate, partly in imitation of the Christian practice and partly because the presence of a
religious or civil official is required under United States civil law.

As you can see, it is very easy to make a marriage, so the rabbis instituted severe punishments (usually
flogging and compelled divorce) where marriage was undertaken without proper planning and
solemnity.

A Typical Wedding Ceremony

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It is customary for the bride and groom not to see each other for a week preceding the wedding. On the
Shabbat of that week, it is customary among Ashkenazic Jews for the groom to have an aliyah (the honor
of reciting a blessing over the

Torah reading). This aliyah is known as an ufruf. There are exuberant celebrations in the synagogue at
this time. Throwing candy at the bride and groom to symbolize the sweetness of the event is common
(Soft candy, of course! Usually Sunkist Fruit Gems, which are kosher).

Traditionally, the day before the wedding, both the bride and the groom fast.
Before the ceremony, the bride is veiled, in remembrance of the fact that Rebecca veiled her face when
she was first brought to Isaac to be his wife.

The ceremony itself lasts 20-30 minutes, and consists of the kiddushin and the nisuin. For the kiddushin,
the bride approaches and circles the groom. Two blessings are recited over wine: one the standard
blessing over wine and the other regarding the commandments related to marriage. The man then
places the ring on woman's finger and says "Be sanctified (mekudeshet) to me with this ring in
accordance with the law of Moses and Israel."

After the kiddushin is complete, the ketubah is read aloud.

The nisuin then proceeds. The bride and groom stand beneath the chuppah, a canopy held up by four
poles, symbolic of their dwelling together and of the husband's bringing the wife into his home. The
importance of the chuppah is so great that the wedding ceremony is sometimes referred to as the
chuppah. The bride and groom recite seven blessings (sheva brakhos) in the presence of a minyan
(prayer quorum of 10 adult Jewish men). The essence of each of the seven blessings is:

1. ... who has created everything for his glory

2. ... who fashioned the Man

3. ... who fashioned the Man in His image ...

4. ... who gladdens Zion through her children

5. ... who gladdens groom and bride

6. ... who created joy and gladness ... who gladdens the groom with the bride

7. and the standard prayer over wine.

The couple then drinks the wine.

The groom smashes a glass (or a small symbolic piece of glass) with his right foot, to symbolize the
destruction of the

Temple.

The couple then retires briefly to a completely private room, symbolic of the groom bringing the wife
into his home.

This is followed by a festive meal, which is followed by a repetition of the sheva brakhos. Exuberant
music and dancing traditionally accompany the ceremony and the reception.

You will rarely hear the traditional "Here Comes the Bride" wedding march at a Jewish wedding. This
song, more accurately known as the Bridal Chorus from Lohengrin, was written by antisemitic composer
Richard Wagner. He was Hitler's favorite composer, and it is said that the Nazis used to broadcast
Wagner's songs over the concentration camps. For this reason, Jews have been understandably
reluctant to play his music at our weddings. Awareness of this historical tidbit is fading, though, as is that
reluctance.

The Marital Relationship

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Marriage is vitally important in Judaism. Refraining from marriage is not considered holy, as it is in some
other religions. On the contrary, it is considered unnatural. The

Talmud says that an unmarried man is constantly thinking of sin. The Talmud tells of a rabbi who was
introduced to a young unmarried rabbi. The older rabbi told the younger one not to come into his
presence again until he was married.

Marriage is not solely, or even primarily, for the purpose of procreation. Traditional sources recognize
that companionship, love and intimacy are the primary purposes of marriage, noting that woman was
created in Gen. 2:18 because "it is not good for man to be alone," rather than because she was
necessary for procreation.

According to the Torah and the Talmud, a man was permitted to marry more than one wife, but a
woman could not marry more than one man. Although polygyny was permitted, it was never common.
The Talmud never mentions any rabbi with more than one wife. Around 1000 C.E. , Ashkenazic Jewry
banned polygyny because of pressure from the predominant Christian culture. It continued to be
permitted for

Sephardic Jews in Islamic lands for many years. To the present day, Yemenite and Ethiopian Jews
continue to practice polygyny; however, the modern state of Israel allows only one wife. Those who
move to Israel with more than one wife are permitted to remain married to all of the existing wives, but
cannot marry additional ones.

A husband is responsible for providing his wife with food, clothing and sexual relations (Ex. 21:10), as
well as anything else specified in the ketubah. Marital sexual relations are the woman's right, not the
man's. A man cannot force his wife to engage in sexual relations with him, nor is he permitted to abuse
his wife in any way (a practice routinely permitted in Western countries until quite recently).

A married woman retains ownership of any property she brought to the marriage, but the husband has
the right to manage the property and to enjoy profits from the property.

Prohibited Marriages and Illegitimate Children

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The minimum age for marriage under Jewish law is 13 for boys, 12 for girls; however, the kiddushin can
take place before that, and often did in medieval times. The Talmud recommends that a man marry at
age 18, or somewhere between 16 and 24.
The Torah sets forth a laundry list of prohibited relations. Such marriages are never valid. A man cannot
marry certain close blood relatives, the ex-wives of certain close blood relatives, a woman who has not
been validly divorced from her previous husband, the daughter or granddaughter of his ex-wife, or the
sister of his ex-wife during the ex-wife's life time. For a complete list, see 613 Mitzvot
(Commandments) .

The offspring of forbidden marriages are mamzerim (bastards, illegitimate), and subject to a variety of
restrictions; however it is important to note that only the offspring of these incestuous or forbidden
marriages are mamzerim. Children born out of wedlock are not mamzerim in Jewish law and bear no
stigma, unless the marriage would have been prohibited for the reasons above. Children of a married
man and a woman who is not his wife are not mamzerim (because the marriage between the parents
would not have been prohibited), although children of a married woman and a man who is not her
husband are mamzerim (because she could not have married him).

There are other classes of marriages that are not permitted, but that are valid if they occur and that do
not make the children mamzerim. The marriage of minors, of a Jew to a non-Jew, and of a kohein to the
prohibited classes of women discussed below fall into this category.

A kohein is not permitted to marry a divorcee, a convert, a promiscuous woman, a woman who is the
offspring of a forbidden marriage to a kohein, or a woman who is the widow of a man who died childless
but who has been released from the obligation to marry her husband's brother. A kohein who marries
such a woman is disqualified from his duties as a kohein, as are all the offspring of that marriage.

Divorce

Level: Basic

Jewish law permits divorce as an unfortunate necessity

Civil divorce does not dissolve a Jewish marriage

A man can divorce a woman for any reason or no reason, but rabbinical law requires the woman's
consent

In traditional Jewish law, a woman cannot initiate a divorce

Jewish Attitude Toward Divorce

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Judaism recognized the concept of "no-fault" divorce thousands of years ago. Judaism has always
accepted divorce as a fact of life, albeit an unfortunate one. Judaism generally maintains that it is better
for a couple to divorce than to remain together in a state of constant bitterness and strife.

Under Jewish law , a man can divorce a woman for any reason or no reason. The Talmud specifically says
that a man can divorce a woman because she spoiled his dinner or simply because he finds another
woman more attractive, and the woman's consent to the divorce is not required. In fact, Jewish law
requires divorce in some circumstances: when the wife commits a sexual transgression, a man must
divorce her, even if he is inclined to forgive her.

This does not mean that Judaism takes divorce lightly. Many aspects of Jewish law discourage divorce.
The procedural details involved in arranging a divorce are complex and exacting. Except in certain cases
of misconduct by the wife, a man who divorces his wife is required to pay her substantial sums of
money, as specified in the ketubah (marriage contract). In addition, Jewish law prohibits a man from
remarrying his ex-wife after she has married another man.

Kohanim cannot marry divorcees at all.

The Process of Obtaining a Divorce

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According to the Torah , divorce is accomplished simply by writing a bill of divorce, handing it to the
wife, and sending her away. To prevent husbands from divorcing their wives recklessly or without
proper consideration, the rabbis created complex rules regarding the process of writing the document,
delivery, and acceptance. A competent rabbinical authority should be consulted for any divorce.

The document in question is referred to in the Talmud as a sefer k'ritut (scroll of cutting off), but it is
more commonly known today as a get. The get is not phrased in negative terms. The traditional text
does not emphasize the breakdown of the relationship, nor does it specify the reason for the divorce;
rather, it states that the woman is now free to marry another man.

It is not necessary for a husband to personally hand the get to the wife. If it is not possible or desirable
for the couple to meet, a messenger may be appointed to deliver the get.

It is important to note that a civil divorce is not sufficient to dissolve a Jewish marriage. As far as Jewish
law is concerned, a couple remains married until the woman receives the get. This has been a significant
problem: many liberal Jews have a religiously valid marriage, yet do not obtain a religiously valid
divorce. If the woman remarries after such a procedure, her second marriage is considered an
adulterous one, and her children are considered mamzerim (bastards, illegitimate).

Inequality of the Sexes

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The position of husband and wife with regard to divorce is not an equal one. According to the Talmud,
only the husband can initiate a divorce, and the wife cannot prevent him from divorcing her. Later
rabbinical authorities took steps to ease the harshness of these rules by prohibiting a man from
divorcing a woman without her consent. In addition, a rabbinical court can compel a husband to divorce
his wife under certain circumstances: when he is physically repulsive because of some medical condition
or other characteristic, when he violates or neglects his marital obligations (food, clothing and sexual
intercourse), or, according to some views, when there is sexual incompatibility.

A peculiar problem arises, however, if a man disappears or deserts his wife or is presumed dead but
there is insufficient proof of death. Under Jewish law , divorce can only be initiated by the man; thus, if
the husband cannot be found, he cannot be compelled to divorce the wife and she cannot marry
another man. A woman in this situation is referred to as agunah (literally, anchored). The rabbis
agonized over this problem, balancing the need to allow the woman to remarry with the risk of an
adulterous marriage (a grave transgression that would affect the status of offspring of the marriage) if
the husband reappeared. No definitive solution to this problem exists.

To prevent this problem to some extent, it is customary in many places for a man to give his wife a
conditional get whenever he goes off to war, so that if he never comes home and his body is not found,
his wife does not become agunah.

Life, Death and Mourning

Level: Basic

Almost any Jewish law can be broken to save a human life

Euthanasia is prohibited, but refusing extraordinary measures is allowed

Mourning practices show respect for the dead and comfort the living

Jewish graves are marked with tombstones

Tombstones are traditionally unveiled 12 months after burial

Life

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In Judaism, life is valued above almost all else. The Talmud notes that all people are descended from a
single person, thus taking a single life is like destroying an entire world, and saving a single life is like
saving an entire world.

Of the 613 commandments , only the prohibitions against murder, idolatry, incest and adultery are so
important that they cannot be violated to save a life. Judaism not only permits, but often requires a
person to violate the commandments if necessary to save a life. A person who is extremely ill, for
example, or a woman in labor, is not permitted to fast on

Yom Kippur , because fasting at such a time would endanger the person's life. Doctors are permitted to
answer emergency calls on Shabbat , even though this may violate many Shabbat prohibitions.
Abortions where necessary to save the life of a mother are mandatory (the unborn are not considered
human life in Jewish law, thus the mother's human life overrides).

Because life is so valuable, we are not permitted to do anything that may hasten death, not even to
prevent suffering. Euthanasia, suicide and assisted suicide are strictly forbidden by Jewish law. The
Talmud states that you may not even move a dying person's arms if that would shorten his life.

However, where death is imminent and certain, and the patient is suffering, Jewish law does permit one
to cease artificially prolonging life. Thus, in certain circumstances, Jewish law permits "pulling the plug"
or refusing extraordinary means of prolonging life.

Death

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In Judaism, death is not a tragedy, even when it occurs early in life or through unfortunate
circumstances. Death is a natural process. Our deaths, like our lives, have meaning and are all part of G-
d 's plan. In addition, we have a firm belief in an

afterlife , a world to come, where those who have lived a worthy life will be rewarded.

Mourning practices in Judaism are extensive, but they are not an expression of fear or distaste for
death. Jewish practices relating to death and mourning have two purposes: to show respect for the dead
(kavod ha-met), and to comfort the living (nihum avelim), who will miss the deceased.

Care for the Dead

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After a person dies, the eyes are closed, the body is laid on the floor and covered, and candles are lit
next to the body. The body is never left alone until after burial, as a sign of respect. The people who sit
with the dead body are called shomerim, from the root Shin-Mem-Reish, meaning "guards" or
"keepers".

Respect for the dead body is a matter of paramount importance. For example, the shomerim may not
eat, drink, or perform a commandment in the presence of the dead. To do so would be considered
mocking the dead, because the dead can no longer do these things.

Most communities have an organization to care for the dead, known as the chevra kaddisha (the holy
society). These people are volunteers. Their work is considered extremely meritorious, because they are
performing a service for someone who can never repay them.

Autopsies in general are discouraged as desecration of the body. They are permitted, however, where it
may save a life or where local law requires it. When autopsies must be performed, they should be
minimally intrusive.
The presence of a dead body is considered a source of ritual impurity. For this reason, a kohein may not
be in the presence of a corpse. People who have been in the presence of a body wash their hands
before entering a home. This is done to symbolically remove spiritual impurity, not physical
uncleanness: it applies regardless of whether you have physically touched the body.

In preparation for the burial, the body is thoroughly cleaned and wrapped in a simple, plain linen
shroud. The Sages decreed that both the dress of the body and the coffin should be simple, so that a
poor person would not receive less honor in death than a rich person. The body is wrapped in a tallit
with its tzitzit rendered invalid. The body is not embalmed, and no organs or fluids may be removed.
According to some sources, organ donation is permitted, because the subsequent burial of the donee
will satisfy the requirement of burying the entire body.

The body must not be cremated. It must be buried in the earth. Coffins are not required, but if they are
used, they must have holes drilled in them so the body comes in contact with the earth.

The body is never displayed at funerals; open casket ceremonies are forbidden by Jewish law. According
to Jewish law, exposing a body is considered disrespectful, because it allows not only friends, but also
enemies to view the dead, mocking their helpless state.

Mourning

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Jewish mourning practices can be broken into several periods of decreasing intensity. These mourning
periods allow the full expression of grief, while discouraging excesses of grief and allowing the mourner
to gradually return to a normal life.

When a close relative (parent, sibling, spouse or child) first hears of the death of a relative, it is
traditional to express the initial grief by tearing one's clothing. The tear is made over the heart if the
deceased is a parent, or over the right side of the chest for other relatives. This tearing of the clothing is
referred to as keriyah (lit. "tearing"). The mourner recites the blessing describing G-d as "the true
Judge," an acceptance of G-d's taking of the life of a relative.

From the time of death to the burial, the mourner's sole responsibility is caring for the deceased and
preparing for the burial. This period is known as aninut. During this time, the mourners are exempt from
all positive commandments ("thou shalts"), because the preparations take first priority. This period
usually lasts a day or two; Judaism requires prompt burial.

During this aninut period, the family should be left alone and allowed the full expression of grief.
Condolence calls or visits should not be made during this time.

After the burial, a close relative, near neighbor or friend prepares the first meal for the mourners, the
se'udat havra'ah (meal of condolence). This meal traditionally consists of eggs (a symbol of life) and
bread. The meal is for the family only, not for visitors. After this time, condolence calls are permitted.
The next period of mourning is known as shiva (seven, because it lasts seven days). Shiva is observed by
parents, children, spouses and siblings of the deceased, preferably all together in the deceased's home.
Shiva begins on the day of burial and continues until the morning of the seventh day after burial.
Mourners sit on low stools or the floor instead of chairs, do not wear leather shoes, do not shave or cut
their hair, do not wear cosmetics, do not work, and do not do things for comfort or pleasure, such as
bathe, have sex, put on fresh clothing, or study Torah (except Torah related to mourning and grief).
Mourners wear the clothes that they tore at the time of learning of the death or at the funeral. Mirrors
in the house are covered. Prayer services are held where the shiva is held, with friends, neighbors and
relatives making up the minyan (10 people required for certain prayers).

If a festival occurs during the mourning period, the mourning is terminated, but if the burial occurs
during a festival, the mourning is delayed until after the festival. The Shabbat that occurs during the
shiva period counts toward the seven days of shiva, and does not end the mourning period. Public
mourning practices (such as wearing the torn clothes, not wearing shoes) are suspended during this
period, but private mourning continues.

The next period of mourning is known as shloshim (thirty, because it lasts until the 30th day after burial).
During that period, the mourners do not attend parties or celebrations, do not shave or cut their hair,
and do not listen to music.

The final period of formal mourning is avelut, which is observed only for a parent. This period lasts for
twelve months after the burial. During that time, mourners avoid parties, celebrations, theater and
concerts. For eleven months of that period, starting at the time of burial, the son of the deceased recites
the mourner's Kaddish every day.

After the avelut period is complete, the family of the deceased is not permitted to continue formal
mourning; however, there are a few continuing acknowledgments of the decedent. Every year, on the
anniversary of the death, family members observe the deceased's Yahrzeit ( Yiddish , lit. "anniversary").
On the Yahrzeit, sons recite Kaddish and take an aliyah ( bless the Torah reading) in synagogue if
possible, and all mourners light a candle in honor of the decedent that burns for 24 hours. In addition,
during services on Yom Kippur , Shemini Atzeret, the last day of Passover , and Shavu'ot , after the
haftarah reading in synagogue, close relatives recite the mourner's prayer, Yizkor ("May He
remember...") in synagogue. Yahrzeit candles are also lit on those days.

When visiting a mourner, a guest should not try to express grief with standard, shallow platitudes. The
guest should allow the mourner to initiate conversations. One should not divert the conversation from
talking about the deceased; to do so would limit the mourner's ability to fully express grief, which is the
purpose of the mourning period. On the contrary, the caller should encourage conversation about the
deceased.

When leaving a house of mourning, it is traditional for the guest to say, "May the Lord comfort you with
all the mourners of Zion and Jerusalem."

Kaddish
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Kaddish is commonly known as a mourner's prayer, but in fact, variations on the Kaddish prayer are
routinely recited at many other times, and the prayer itself has nothing to do with death or mourning.
The prayer begins "May His great Name grow exalted and sanctified in the world that He created as He
willed. May He give reign to His kingship in your lifetimes and in your days ..." and continues in much
that vein. The real mourner's prayer is El Molai Rachamim, which is recited at grave sites and during
funerals.

Why, then, is Kaddish recited by mourners?

After a great loss like the death of a parent, you might expect a person to lose faith in G-d , or to cry out
against G-d's injustice. Instead, Judaism requires a mourner to stand up every day, publicly (i.e., in front
of a minyan , a quorum of 10 adult men), and reaffirm faith in G-d despite this loss. To do so inures to
the merit of the deceased in the eyes of G-d, because the deceased must have been a very good parent
to raise a child who could express such faith in the face of personal loss.

Then why is Kaddish recited for only 11 months, when the mourning period is 12 months? According to
Jewish tradition, the soul must spend some time purifying itself before it can enter the World to Come.
The maximum time required for purification is 12 months, for the most evil person. To recite Kaddish for
12 months would imply that the parent was the type who needed 12 months of purification! To avoid
this implication, the Sages decreed that a son should recite Kaddish for only eleven months.

A person is permitted to recite Kaddish for other close relatives as well as parents, but only if his parents
are dead.

See Mourners' Kaddish for the full text of the Mourners' Kaddish.

Tombstones

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Jewish law requires that a tombstone be prepared, so that the deceased will not be forgotten and the
grave will not be desecrated. It is customary in some communities to keep the tombstone veiled, or to
delay in putting it up, until the end of the 12-month mourning period. The idea underlying this custom is
that the dead will not be forgotten when he is being mourned every day. In communities where this
custom is observed, there is generally a formal unveiling ceremony when the tombstone is revealed.

It is also customary in some communities to place small stones on a gravesite when visiting it. This
custom has become well-known from the movie Schindler's List, in which the children of Survivors place
stones on the grave of Oscar Schindler. The custom is not universal, even among traditional Jews, and
there seems to be some doubt as to how it originated. It seems to have superstitious origins. It's a little
like leaving a calling card for the dead person, to let them know you were there. Stones, unlike flowers,
are permanent and do not get blown away in the wind. Some other sources suggest that it was originally
done because we are required to erect a tombstone, and tombstones that actually looked like
tombstones tended to get desecrated.

What is written on a tombstone? In most cases, it is very straightforward Hebrew text, similar to what
you might see on a tombstone in English. An illustration of a typical Jewish tombstone is shown above.

At the top is the abbreviation Pei-Nun , which stands for either "poh nitman" or "poh nikbar", which
means "here lies..." The marks that look like quotation marks are commonly used to indicate an
abbreviation or a number written in letters.

The next line is the name of the decedent, in the form (decedent's name), son of or daughter of [father's
name]. "Son of" is either ben (Beit-Final Nun) or bar (Beit-Reish). "Daughter of" is bat (Beit-Tav). The
tombstone above says "Esther bat Mordecai" (Elsie, daughter of Morrice). Sometimes, one or both of
the names is preceded by the letter Reish, which simply stands for "Reb" and means "Mr." The names
may also be followed by the title ha-Kohein (Hei-Kaf-Hei-Final Nun), ha-Levi (Hei-Lamed-Vav-Yod) or ha-
Rav (Hei-Reish-Beit), indicating that the person was a kohein, a Levite or a rabbi. See the Hebrew
Alphabet page if you need help in identifying specific letters on a tombstone.

The third line indicates the date of death. This line begins with the abbreviation Nun-Pei followed by the
date, the month, and the year. The date and year are written in Hebrew numerals, which are letters. The
month name is sometimes preceded by a Beit (meaning "of"). The tombstone above indicates that the
date of death was 18 Shevat 5761. Yod-Cheit = 10+8 = 18. Shin-Beit-Tav is the month name Shevat. Tav-
Shin-Samekh-Alef = 400+300+60+1 = 761 (the 5000 is assumed). See

Hebrew Alphabet -Numerical Values if you need help in identifying a number. See

Jewish Calendar - Months of the Jewish Year if you need help identifying months. See

Jewish Calendar - Links to Jewish Calendars if you need help converting a Hebrew date to a Gregorian
date.

The last line is an abbreviation that stands for "tehe nishmatah tzerurah bitzror hachayim," which means
"may her soul be bound in the bond of eternal life."

You may also find Jewish symbols on a tombstone, such as a

menorah, a magen David , a torah scroll, a lion, or the two tablets of the ten commandments. Most of
these symbols don't tell you anything about the decedent (other than the fact that he or she was
Jewish). However, if you see a picture of hands in a position like the one at right, this normally indicates
that the decedent was a kohein , because this hand position is used when the kohanim bless the
congregation at certain times of the year.

Olam Ha-Ba: The Afterlife

Level: Basic

Judaism believes in an afterlife but has little dogma about it

The Jewish afterlife is called Olam Ha-Ba (The World to Come)

Resurrection and reincarnation are within the range of traditional Jewish belief

Temporary (but not eternal) punishment after death is within traditional belief

Traditional Judaism firmly believes that death is not the end of human existence. However, because
Judaism is primarily focused on life here and now rather than on the afterlife, Judaism does not have
much dogma about the afterlife, and leaves a great deal of room for personal opinion. It is possible for
an Orthodox Jew to believe that the souls of the righteous dead go to a place similar to the Christian
heaven, or that they are reincarnated through many lifetimes, or that they simply wait until the coming
of the messiah , when they will be resurrected. Likewise, Orthodox Jews can believe that the souls of the
wicked are tormented by demons of their own creation, or that wicked souls are simply destroyed at
death, ceasing to exist.

Biblical References to the Afterlife

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Some scholars claim that belief in the afterlife is a teaching that developed late in Jewish history. It is
true that the Torah emphasizes immediate, concrete, physical rewards and punishments rather than
abstract future ones. See, for example, Lev. 26:3-9 and Deut. 11:13-15. However, there is clear evidence
in the Torah of belief in existence after death. The Torah indicates in several places that the righteous
will be reunited with their loved ones after death, while the wicked will be excluded from this reunion.

The Torah speaks of several noteworthy people being "gathered to their people." See, for example, Gen.
25:8 ( Abraham), 25:17 ( Ishmael), 35:29 (Isaac ), 49:33 ( Jacob ), Deut. 32:50 ( Moses and Aaron ) II Kings
22:20 (King Josiah). This gathering is described as a separate event from the physical death of the body
or the burial.

Certain sins are punished by the sinner being "cut off from his people." See, for example, Gen. 17:14 and
Ex. 31:14. This punishment is referred to as kareit (kah-REHYT) (literally, "cutting off," but usually
translated as "spiritual excision"), and it means that the soul loses its portion in the World to Come.

Later portions of the Tanakh speak more clearly of life after death and the World to Come. See Dan.
12:2, Neh. 9:5.

Resurrection and Reincarnation

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Belief in the eventual resurrection of the dead is a fundamental belief of traditional Judaism. It was a
belief that distinguished the Pharisees (intellectual ancestors of
Rabbinical Judaism) from the Sadducees . The Sadducees rejected the concept, because it is not
explicitly mentioned in the Torah . The Pharisees found the concept implied in certain verses.

Belief in resurrection of the dead is one of Rambam 's

13 Principles of Faith. The second blessing of the

Shemoneh Esrei prayer, which is recited three times daily, contains several references to resurrection.
(Note: the Reform movement, which apparently rejects this belief, has rewritten the second blessing
accordingly).

The resurrection of the dead will occur in the messianic age, a time referred to in Hebrew as the Olam
Ha-Ba, the World to Come, but that term is also used to refer to the spiritual afterlife. When the messiah
comes to initiate the perfect world of peace and prosperity, the righteous dead will be brought back to
life and given the opportunity to experience the perfected world that their righteousness helped to
create. The wicked dead will not be resurrected.

There are some mystical schools of thought that believe resurrection is not a one-time event, but is an
ongoing process. The souls of the righteous are reborn in to continue the ongoing process of tikkun
olam, mending of the world. Some sources indicate that reincarnation is a routine process, while others
indicate that it only occurs in unusual circumstances, where the soul left unfinished business behind.
Belief in reincarnation is also one way to explain the traditional Jewish belief that every Jewish soul in
history was present at Sinai and agreed to the covenant with G-d . (Another explanation: that the soul
exists before the body, and these unborn souls were present in some form at Sinai). Belief in
reincarnation is commonly held by many Chasidic sects, as well as some other mystically-inclined Jews.

Olam Ha-Ba: The World to Come

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The spiritual afterlife is referred to in Hebrew as Olam Ha-Ba (oh-LAHM hah-BAH), the World to Come,
although this term is also used to refer to the messianic age. The Olam Ha-Ba is another, higher state of
being.

In the Mishnah , one rabbi says, "This world is like a lobby before the Olam Ha-Ba. Prepare yourself in
the lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall." Similarly, the Talmud says, "This world is like the eve
of Shabbat , and the Olam Ha-Ba is like Shabbat. He who prepares on the eve of Shabbat will have food
to eat on Shabbat." We prepare ourselves for the Olam Ha-Ba through Torah study and good deeds.

The Talmud states that all Israel has a share in the Olam Ha-Ba. However, not all "shares" are equal. A
particularly righteous person will have a greater share in the Olam Ha-Ba than the average person. In
addition, a person can lose his share through wicked actions. There are many statements in the Talmud
that a particular mitzvah will guarantee a person a place in the Olam Ha-Ba, or that a particular sin will
lose a person's share in the Olam Ha-Ba, but these are generally regarded as hyperbole, excessive
expressions of approval or disapproval.
Some people look at these teachings and deduce that Jews try to "earn our way into Heaven" by
performing the mitzvot. This is a gross mischaracterization of our religion. It is important to remember
that unlike some religions, Judaism is not focused on the question of how to get into heaven. Judaism is
focused on life and how to live it. Non-Jews frequently ask me, "do you really think you're going to go to
Hell if you don't do such-and-such?" It always catches me a bit off balance, because the question of
where I am going after death simply doesn't enter into the equation when I think about the mitzvot. We
perform the mitzvot because it is our privilege and our sacred obligation to do so. We perform them out
of a sense of love and duty, not out of a desire to get something in return. In fact, one of the first bits of
ethical advice in Pirkei Avot (a book of the Mishnah ) is: "Be not like servants who serve their master for
the sake of receiving a reward; instead, be like servants who serve their master not for the sake of
receiving a reward, and let the awe of Heaven [meaning G-d , not the afterlife] be upon you."

Nevertheless, we definitely believe that your place in the Olam Ha-Ba is determined by a merit system
based on your actions, not by who you are or what religion you profess. In addition, we definitely
believe that humanity is capable of being considered righteous in G-d's eyes, or at least good enough to
merit paradise after a suitable period of purification.

Do non-Jews have a place in Olam Ha-Ba? Although there are a few statements to the contrary in the
Talmud, the predominant view of Judaism is that the righteous of all

nations have a share in the Olam Ha-Ba. Statements to the contrary were not based on the notion that
membership in Judaism was required to get into Olam Ha-Ba, but were grounded in the observation that
non-Jews were not righteous people. If you consider the behavior of the surrounding peoples at the
time that the Talmud was written, you can understand the rabbis' attitudes. By the time of Rambam, the
belief was firmly entrenched that the righteous of all nations have a share in the Olam Ha-Ba.

Gan Eden and Gehinnom

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The place of spiritual reward for the righteous is often referred to in Hebrew as Gan Eden (GAHN ehy-
DEHN) (the Garden of Eden). This is not the same place where Adam and Eve were; it is a place of
spiritual perfection. Specific descriptions of it vary widely from one source to another. One source says
that the peace that one feels when one experiences Shabbat properly is merely one-sixtieth of the
pleasure of the afterlife. Other sources compare the bliss of the afterlife to the joy of sex or the warmth
of a sunny day. Ultimately, though, the living can no more understand the nature of this place than the
blind can understand color.

Only the very righteous go directly to Gan Eden. The average person descends to a place of punishment
and/or purification, generally referred to as Gehinnom (guh-hee-NOHM) (in Yiddish

, Gehenna), but sometimes as She'ol or by other names. According to one mystical view, every sin we
commit creates an angel of destruction (a demon), and after we die we are punished by the very
demons that we created. Some views see Gehinnom as one of severe punishment, a bit like the
Christian Hell of fire and brimstone. Other sources merely see it as a time when we can see the actions
of our lives objectively, see the harm that we have done and the opportunities we missed, and
experience remorse for our actions. The period of time in Gehinnom does not exceed 12 months, and
then ascends to take his place on Olam Ha-Ba.

Only the utterly wicked do not ascend at the end of this period; their souls are punished for the entire
12 months. Sources differ on what happens at the end of those 12 months: some say that the wicked
soul is utterly destroyed and ceases to exist while others say that the soul continues to exist in a state of
consciousness of remorse.

This 12-month limit is repeated in many places in the Talmud , and it is connected to the mourning
cycles and the recitation of Kaddish . See Life, Death and Mourning