Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OVERVIEW
ATR is a familiar term in African Universities, Colleges, Schools; primary and Secondary, seminaries,
Theological Colleges, Bible Schools etc. In Europe and the USA there are separate institutes for the
study of ATR and culture. This shows that there is a WHO IS AN AFRICAN?
Scholars say an African is one who is indigenous: born and bred in Africa; one who inhabits the
continent of Africa. However, some are not necessarily born and bred in Africa, for example, those
who are born in the Diaspora (UK, USA, etc). For example the issue of the whites born and bred in
Africa. Are they Africans? They came through colonialism, but born and bred here. Should they be
classified as Africans? For example, Ian Douglas Smith was born in Shurugwi, Zimbabwe. The most
important issue is that there should be a reference to ancestry, physical location may not matter.
Samkange: generally, an African is one who is black (munhu). Africans did not regard whites as
normal, but as Other beings, another form of some unknown entities who interrupted their space
(intruders).
Indigenous: refers to traditional which itself refers to something that is foundational; right at the
bottom. It refers to the base; that which is aboriginal. It is something that belongs to the past, but
dynamic. It is therefore the past which progresses into the present. It is the past that goes the
process of dynamism. This means that it is subject to change. It is versatile. It is the past being felt in
the present. It is a heritage; an inheritance from the past. In the past has been misconstrued to
mean something that is backward, old fashioned and archaic.
Mercy Amba Oduyoye, (1986:57): the term traditional connotes, a religion that is dying, being
replaced by the new with which it is fruitlessly competing, a conservative and conserving religion
bearing little relationship to the time. These are judgemental perspectives. However, African
Indigenous Religions remain vibrant and consequential. Their view of the world continues to
influence the lives of millions of Africans including those who have converted to missionary religions.
Biras have been held since time immemorial. Biras: Cleansing ceremonies (2000: National Sports
Stadium after the death of Zimbabwean fans at a match pitting Zimbabwe & South Africa).
interest in ATR today. As a result, there is a volume of literature available in the subject. Many
people however, view or treat ATR with disdain. The people include the educated Africans. This
disdainful attitude stems from:
The peoples perceived ideas about ATR,
Complete ignorance of ATR,
Faulty understanding of ATR.
The source of faulty understanding is inherited from earlier Euo
Biased comparison.
Examples:
The Explorer Sir Samuel Baker referring to people in Southern Sudan says:
Africans have no belief in a Supreme Being. They have no form of worship. The darkness of their
mind is not enlightened by even a ray of superstition. Their mind is stagnant.
Sir Richard Burton on West Africa:
The Negro is still at that rude dawn of faith called fetishism. He has barely advanced to idolatry. He
has never grasped the ideas of a personal Deity, a duty in life, a moral code, or a shame of lying. He
does not believe in a future state of reward and punishment. The African brain was too small for
civilized development.
As a result, despite efforts by both African and Western Scholars to correct the wrong impression
people have about Africa, Westerners as well as African continue to regard ATR as worthless and
devoid of spiritual value. Owing to this scenario, Rosalind Shaw argues for the Invention of African
Traditional Religion; images of Africa have been created. The images have been created and
maintained through the academic study of religion. In the case of ATR, the term religion itself is
absent from the languages of many people whose practices we describe as their religion.
WHO IS AN AFRICAN?
Scholars say an African is one who is indigenous: born and bred in Africa; one who inhabits the
continent of Africa. However, some are not necessarily born and bred in Africa, for example, those
who are born in the Diaspora (UK, USA, etc). For example the issue of the whites born and bred in
Africa. Are they Africans? They came through colonialism, but born and bred here. Should they be
classified as Africans? For example, Ian Douglas Smith was born in Shurugwi, Zimbabwe. The most
important issue is that there should be a reference to ancestry, physical location may not matter.
Samkange: generally, an African is one who is black (munhu). Africans did not regard whites as
normal, but as Other beings, another form of some unknown entities who interrupted their space
(intruders).
Indigenous: refers to traditional which itself refers to something that is foundational; right at the
bottom. It refers to the base; that which is aboriginal. It is something that belongs to the past, but
dynamic. It is therefore the past which progresses into the present. It is the past that goes the
process of dynamism. This means that it is subject to change. It is versatile. It is the past being felt in
the present. It is a heritage; an inheritance from the past. In the past has been misconstrued to
mean something that is backward, old fashioned and archaic.
Mercy Amba Oduyoye, (1986:57): the term traditional connotes, a religion that is dying, being
replaced by the new with which it is fruitlessly competing, a conservative and conserving religion
bearing little relationship to the time. These are judgemental perspectives. However, African
Indigenous Religions remain vibrant and consequential. Their view of the world continues to
influence the lives of millions of Africans including those who have converted to missionary religions.
Biras have been held since time immemorial. Biras: Cleansing ceremonies (2000: National Sports
Stadium after the death of Zimbabwean fans at a match pitting Zimbabwe & South Africa).
Religion: (The nature of ATR): What is religion?
This is difficult to define. The very first problem that we battle with is the question of the term
religion itself. Africans have no separate field regarded as religion in the strictest sense of other
societies. It is an imposition on the Africans. All of life is religious in some way. Items that comprise
the definition of ATR include Beliefs and Practices, but we can also include religious objects and
places, values and morals and religious officials and /or Leaders. No part by itself constitutes the
entire meaning of religion. The parts work together to give a complete picture.
Beliefs:- Beliefs show the way people think about the universe and their attitudes towards life itself.
There are plenty of belief systems; different categories of belief systems:
Anthropological beliefs- these are beliefs that focus on the human beings; their status in the
universe and how they regard each other /perceptions of one another, how we regard the
superiority of other.
Soteriological beliefs- these are beliefs that have to do with salvation. How human beings grope for
survival in the case of predicaments like sicknesses and death. How can one be delivered from the
pain of this world.
Cosmological beliefs- how the world built can be explained. How is the universe structured? The
ingredients comprising the world we live in. How did the world come to be what it is today?
Numinological beliefs- these are beliefs about the core of existence. There must be a force/causer of
whatever we see in the world. This has to do with the superior incomprehensible forces that give
direction to the lives of the people.
Practices:- The practices show how people express their beliefs in practical terms. They are symbolic
actions/behaviour. These involve African Ritual Practices. They include praying, making sacrifices and
offerings, performing ceremonies and rituals, observing various rituals etc. Festivals are also part of
the practices. These are occasions when people sing, dance, eat and celebrate a particular occasion
or event. Examples of festivals are those that are conducted to:
Mark harvest time,
Mark the start of the rain season,
The birth of a child,
Victories over enemies (National Biras to celebrate the success of the land reform programmes)
Religious Objects and Places:
These cover places and things that are set apart as being holy or sacred. These are not commonly
used except for a particular religious purpose. Some are made by people; others are taken in their
natural form and set apart for religious purpose. Some belong to private individuals and families
while others belong to whole community in a given region. They include places like shrines, sacred
hills and mountains, rivers, charms, amulets, masks etc.
Values and Morals:
These deal with the ideas that uphold the life of people in their relationship with one another and
the world around them. They cover topics like truth, justice, love, right and wrong, good and evil,
beauty, decency, respect for people and property, the keeping of promises and agreements, praise
and blame, crime and punishment, the rights and responsibilities of the individual and their
community, character, integrity etc. They help people to live with one another, to settle their
differences, to maintain peace and harmony, to have a relationship with their environment. There
are differences in the values and morals followed by different people in Africa, but many of them are
similar. They change as the living conditions of people change, but they always remain a necessity in
human life.
Religious Officials and/or Leaders
These are people who conduct religious matters such as ceremonies, sacrifices, formal prayers and
divination. They are men and women who know more about religious affairs than other people and
are respected by their community. Example: ritual leaders, diviners, medicine men and women,
kings/chiefs and rulers, rainmakers etc. They may or may not be paid for their services, but in most
cases people give them presents and gifts to show their gratitude. Without these figures religious
activities would neither survive nor function properly; much of the religious wisdom of the people
will be forgotten. They are specialists in religious matters. They are the human keepers of the
religious heritage. They are the essential part of the African Traditional Religion without which it will
grind to a halt.
ATR AND THE WORLD RELIGION FALLACY: THE STATUS OF ATR AS A WORLD RELIGION.
IS ATR A WORLD RELIGION?
What is the status of ATR as a world Religion? The status of ATR as a world religion has not yet been
accepted comfortably. For example, in University departments there are courses on ATRs and
courses on World Religions. ATR is considered as basic, primal, ethnic, primitive, tribal, traditional,
magic, animism etc. ATR has no UNIVERSAL character:
ATR has no capacity to interact with other religions,
Does not influence and change the world,
The role of ATR in contemporary society is minimized,
ATR becomes a subordinate and not an equal.
The study of ATR becomes merely a description of appearances instead of a portrayal of a
phenomenon with the moral power that shapes and dictates the lives of millions of people in
relation to other human beings, the created order and the divine.
CRITIQUE
Some religions labelled as World Religions lack some characteristics laid above, for example,
Hinduism is confined to India, has no founder and does not grope for converts. There is a great deal
of bias. ATR is left out yet it is a continental religion, so the term is problematic.
Differences should be understood on the grounds of developmental stages. ATR is still in the stages
of development. Most religions started in oral form and written scriptures came at a later stage. H.
Turner: Literacy post-dated illiteracy in world History. World religion classificatory category is
therefore a theological construct. It was created to universalize Christian theology for some
theological needs. World Religion is exclusive and denigrating. Africans are ignored and excluded
and is not regarded as a world religion. ATRs have been viewed pejoratively as
traditional/tribal/primal religion/ archaic religions/ancient/non-literate/pre-historic/oral
religions/group-tied religions/animistic/polytheistic etc. Preference is given to text-based traditions.
A higher value is ascribed to the universal religion and ATRs are subjected to negative stereotypes. It
is negatively portrayed and therefore misrepresented and misunderstood. However, ATRs should be
given respect. They are equal to other religions. Some scholars propose a view to drop the category
World Religion and use alternatives for example, Religions of the world, Mans Religions (Noss, D.S.),
but feminists saw this as gender insensitive. Religions, Religions found in the world are some
alternatives.
Hierarchy of spirits
National Spirits-Debatable. It is a political construct.
Territorial/Tribal/Clan Spirits- spirits of departed rulers/chiefs.
Family Ancestral Spirits.
Functions of Ancestral spirits
They are intermediators /mediators between the people and the Supreme Being. M.F.C, Bourdillon
argues that ancestors are bilingual.
-They speak the language that God hears and the language the living can understand. --They know
what the people are after since they had been there, and since they are now in the spiritual world,
they know best how to approach God,
-Africans feel small to approach God directly so the need to use the ancestral spirits as a way to
show respect and courtesy towards God who must be approached with humility and reverence.
-An African person does not approach an elder directly, but does so through his junior.
-Ancestral Spirits are always appeased with some ceremonies so as to perform their intermediary
role satisfactorily.
They are protectors and guardians of the people. Africans believe the world has mysterious forces
which beyond humanity conception, for example, evil spirits, natural disasters, sorcerers etc.
- Humanity can only cope with these forces only with the guardianship and security proffered by the
ancestral spirits that can wade off these forces that threaten the wellbeing of the living.
They do not cause harm, but misfortunes happen when they withdraw their protection in protest or
as a sign of their anger and the family becomes vulnerable to these forces.
-Rituals are conducted to placate them so that they wont withdraw their protection. They also
maintain peace and harmony in the family.
They fight evil spirits and drive them away from their family descendants where they once belonged.
People are united through ceremonies held in their honour. People gather in friendly, peaceful and
happy ceremonies to venerate ancestors.
They influence proper moral behaviour on people; they shape the morality of the people. This is
done through the issue of reward and punishment. Those who abide by the restrictions are
rewarded and those who break taboos are punished.
They meet the expectations of people in their everyday life. They ensure fertility both of the land
and of the people. When a woman begets child, the ancestors are thanked.
They protect people at dangerous working places, academic endeavours, good yields/bumper
harvests, and marriages (etc) in various enterprises.
Some are guardians and protectors of the land, for example, territorial spirits. They are believed to
guard against foreign invasion/enemies.
Alien Spirits
These are spirits of strangers/aliens who died away from home and usually are the spirits of the
young and the unmarried. The spirits of these people would not have received proper funeral
ceremonies; hence they seek to express themselves through taking possession of unrelated people.
They are unknown to the communities from which they choose hosts.
Some of these spirits are spirits of social outcasts/deviances, for example, witches, sorcerers, suicide
victims, the mentally deranged etc. They cannot be adopted into the world of ancestral spirits and so
end up possessing unrelated people. They can also be spirits of animals, for example, baboons,
snakes etc. The hosts behave in the way the animal does. The shavi cult is a quest for recognition. It
is a struggle against oblivion caused by death. Since they cannot be ancestral spirits, they have to be
somewhere.
Example:
Mazungu spirit- these are spirits African people from Portuguese east Africa. They came many years
ago in search of some minerals and game and many died in these strange lands and their spirits
wandered until they settled on some alien hosts. The spirit is associated with cleanliness and
hygiene. Many reflect a bias picture of white people. The host behaves in the way the whites do. A
woman host washes her body and clothes regularly. The person is always spotlessly clean. The spirit
demands western food staff such as eggs, rice spaghetti etc. The possessed speaks English and any
other European languages even if the person has never been to School.
The significance
They confer particular talents/skills to their hosts either negative or positive.
Positive Skills/Talents
They can confer hunting talents to their host. One can become an expert in hunting. The host is
known as Mudzimba. Such type of spirits possesses men for example, Khumalo Shavi.
They bestow healing talents, for example, Sivinda Shavi. This type is popular with women. The host
is able to treat various diseases, convulsions, difficult labour etc. They impart this expertise to their
host.
Madzukwa Shavi expert in treating many diseases some of the western medicine cannot treat, for
example, leprosy, epilepsy etc.
Chipunha favours young and unmarried women as its host. It confers curative skills on its host. It
cures diseases that attack small children.
Nyamande Shavi- Confers divinatory talents. The host can foresee into the future and may warn a
person of an impending disaster and advises the person of the diviner to consult to avert the
disaster. The Baboon spirit can divine illness. It can also help find lost property, something hidden
(Seership).
Masangano Spirit specialises in dancing. It can confer dancing skills on the host and the person can
entertain people at ceremonies (for example, Chakandiwana in Garandichauya).
Zvipenzi Shavi enables host to perform duties regarded arduous to perform under normal
circumstances. The person is industrious / hardworking.
Shavi reMhondoro is known to possess lions. The lion guards the chiefdom by moving around at
night.
Sangoma produces warriors strong and brave in battles. It confers the ability to kill in battle and
protects the whole territory from invaders or enemies. The spirit can also provide entertainment.
Possession by alien spirits enhances the social status of the host in the society. I.M Lewis posits that
the favourite victims of possession cults are women who are deprived of power in male dominated
societies (patriarchy) or down-trodden categories of men. These two groups are subject to strong
discrimination in rigidly stratified societies. Possession avails the chance for them to express the
inclination they may not under normal circumstances.
Negative Qualities/Attributes
Shavi rouroyi- Witchcraft: for example, Mzilikazi Shavi,
Shavi rechipfambi- Prostitution,
Shavi reumbavha- Stealing,
Shavi reusimbe- laziness,
Shavi reurombe- Vagrance / poverty.
Avenging Spirit
This is a spirit of someone who dies with a grievance and comes back to seek revenge against those
who wronged it. It is the most feared type of spirit among the Shona/Ndebele because it causes
illness, misfortunes, suffering and even death to the offenders family. The etymology of the word
ngozi is a Karanga term njodzi which means accidents, sorrows, danger to human life, misfortune
etc. The term is characteristic of the actions of the spirit. It attacks the members of the family of the
offender because in the African society in general sin is seen as a collective social error and the
whole family is susceptible to punishment.
Various types of avenging spirits
Murdered persons, especially a foreigner/mutorwa. The spirit comes back to seek revenge,
Parental spirit against its offspring. This could be due to ill treatment during life-time. If a child beats
up or scolds one of her parents and takes no steps to remedy the situation through striking
reconciliation, the spirit of the parent comes back as an avenging spirit. It is not necessarily a ngozi,
but kupfuka. The misfortunes are directed to the specific child who wronged the parent. She may
come back as result of tampering with her cooking utensils. These should be replaced while she is
still alive otherwise she may die with a grievance. Non-payment of mombe youmai by the son-in-law
can court the spirit of the deceased mother. The mothers spirit is more dangerous than that of the
father because the mother is not of ones relations; not of the same totem. Children can perform
rituals to placate her. The victim goes through a humiliating life that includes withdrawing into the
outside world (Kutanda botso). May cause fertility problems in the girl children.
The most dreaded one is the avenging spirit of a deceased pregnant woman or a woman who dies
soon after giving birth as a result of the in-law or husband. It has a tendency of quantifying itself by
causing or calling other ngozi into the family of the offender.
Spirit of a servant (Mushandi) / slave (Nhapwa) can also come back to seek compensation, especially
when they died without being paid their dues. If the person was ill-treated, they may come seeking
revenge. It demands a wife/virgin girl as a form of compensation.
A spirit of a spouse/ partner who died through negligence of or ill-treatment or unfaithfulness of the
other partner.
An avenging spirit can be self-generative. This means that it can come without being provoked. But it
can also be initiated. The relatives of the deceased can invoke the deceaseds spirit. They can use
herbs at the deceaseds grave to make the person wreak havoc in the family of the offender. Some
people take medicine while still alive to be able to take revenge if their death is caused by people.
People take steps to get rid of the avenging spirit, for example,
Kurasira. A black animal or fowl dedicated to an avenging spirit (ngozi) is left to wander in the bush.
One who takes away the animal automatically takes the ngozi,
Kutsipika This is a ritual that is meant to drive away the spirit with the help of a nanga without
propitiatory rites being done. The step may threaten even the life of the nanga because it incurs the
anger of the spirit. This is not a permanent solution to counter ngozi. The only solution is
reparation/compensation. This is aptly described in the Shona adage that Mushonga wengozi kuripa.
The victim family consult a nanga for appropriate measures to take to appease the avenging spirit.
The spirit may require beer, wife, cattle etc.
Some scholars, for example, M. Gelfand, noted that these spirits are significant because it acts as an
ethical code of conduct. It is a strong deterrent to crime. A person should desist from engaging in life
threatening action. The fear compels people to respect human value. Stern punishment for taking
ones life: there is justice even beyond the grave. The avenging spirits are agents of social justice.
Even ancestral spirits cannot protect their own; they turn their backs because they are keen to see
justice done. However, these avenging spirits also militate against the rights of other people. For
example, the use of a girl as a wife for the spirit as compensation/propitiatory fine to placate the
spirit infringes on the rights of the girl child. The individual is denied the right to choose their
partner. Marriage rights are violated. This causes animosity, disunity etc.
Nature
The Shona person carries a name. They only become a real person after the naming ritual is
conducted, can even stretch to the teething stage. Not anybody can give names and is not just given
anyhow to the extent of even carrying a name at the stage of pregnancy! The appropriate elders in
the family have the prerogative to confer a name. Names are associated with a certain idea of
reincarnation. Name tells the nature of personality and the destiny of the people (e.g, dead aunt,
uncle). Some may die for refusing to accept the name. A person is associated with a name; can get
well or die through a name. Names have stories; sometimes they go to metaphysical realities. This is
why sometimes new converts to Christianity are forced to be baptized and asked to adopt a
Christian name. Christians win psychological and social war by asking person to renounce their
name.
Name carries a whole package about ones ethnic group or about an entire worldview. It tells a story.
Shona names are private. An African person is supposed to express the order in which they are
born. Two clear things: One is an individual on one hand and one expresses the order in which they
are born on the other hand. We understand this through referring to the institution of the
family/ethnic group etc. The Zezuru expresses Zezuru in all aspects. An African person does not live
the life that they want, but the life that the community wants. Community aspect: the business is to
express the order in which one is born, if you do not, you are labelled a deviant. The individual has to
participate in the community. The Shona / Ndebele express the person in social terms (no
autonomy). A Shona person is never regarded as a loose entity to be dealt with strictly individually.
Not easy to talk to Shona about human rights. The human rights issue is autonomous, but the Shona
is not autonomous. They belong to the institution of the family which is sacred. It has the guidance
of the ancestors and the ancestral spirits (metaphysical issue).
Destiny
In connection with destiny, ancestors and ancestral spirits become very important because they may
be responsible for a persons actions and also for a persons achievements. A life free of misfortunes
suggests that the individual is relating well with their ancestral spirits. Misfortunes are conceived of
as a violation of the relationship.
A person is part of the entire spiritual family which includes the natural environment which itself
includes land, plant life, biological life in form of animals, water bodies/sources. The person can
communicate with these (cosmic totality). However, not every animal is a relative of one.
A Shona person does not die; they continue to live in spiritual form. An African yearns for a good
death that comes at very old age when people are afraid of looking at them; they are the believed to
take a rest. It is difficult for a Shona to accept cremation. Africans want to live here. Time is not lineal
(from point A to B; it is not moving towards an end, but is always there.
She also prescribes pre-emptive charms to protect the child from the effects of evil charms that
were possessed by some members of the community: a danger always present when the child was
taken to public places (Gunda).
Traditional Healer (nanga)
Christian / Colonial Condemnation:
The office of traditional healers is heavily misunderstood and criticised by the colonialists and
churches particularly dubbing them tricksters, for fraudulent behaviour and devilish connections.
The traditional healer is pivotal in the Shona / Ndebele spirit world. There are various terms that are
used interchangeably to refer to the traditional healer. These are: Nanga, godobori, sekuru, mbuya,
Inyanga etc. It is the nanga who executes a critical role of linking the two worlds.
How one accesses this office:
Apprenticeship: one serves as an assistant to an established healer (Makumbi-offfice assistant).
Knowledge is acquires through training. (Reynold, P, Childhood & Traditional Medicine in Zimbabwe)
(Prophetic?) Call: it is in three forms:
Incessant dreams,
Rites of affliction/complicated illness,
Dreams-the person dreams in gathering herbs in different places,
-parternal grandfather calling upon the individual to become a nanga,
Captured by a mermaid/Mermen (njuzu)- Sunday Mail
-the victim captured should not be mourned.
Functions of Traditional Healers as sacred Practitioners
They are spiritual consultants endowed with extra ordinary knowledge; they are guardians of
esoteric knowledge (beyond the ordinary). They preside over most traditional rituals offering
guidance for the proper execution of rituals.
Because ATRs do not have written scripture of their own they are not concerned about orthodoxy
(RIGHT BELIEF), they put more emphasis on orthopraxis (RIGHT ACTION). Knowledge is collected and
stored in the memory of Africans. Traditional healers are the Reserve section of ATR. They are the
intellectual hub; champions of orthopraxis: Burial- time of taking the body to the grave, and that of
cutting the Rupasa etc. During kurova guva ceremony consultancy services are sought from the
nanga
Chavunduka says that the Traditional healers do detective work particularly recovery of stolen
property. They also establish the cause of death / post mortem : a person does not die, they are
killed,
He also regards them as marriage advisors: they can prescribe love portions/husband taming herbs
(mupfuhwira). For men they prescribe mishonga yemisana to enhance sexual potency/ to enhance
sexual perfection,
They can cleanse misfortunes (kugeza minyama) thereby enhancing chances of getting a marriage
partner,
They are political advisors to the chiefs. They can prescribe chivhuno (mafuta eshumba). This
enhances ones capacity to instil fear and respect in their enemies.
Aunt / Tete
She is concerned with the girls at puberty. They consult tete to be inducted into adulthood
(menstrual period). At marriage the girl introduces her partner to tete and nduma is exchanged.
Sekuru does the same role for boys: teaching of skills about hunting, farming and also in marriage
issues. At puberty the boys keep in close touch with the uncles.
Sahwira/Family friend
Participate at family events, for example, celebrations are conducted in the presence of the
Sahwira.The last bath and the dressing part of it is done by the Sahwira (kunemera/kutukira). Kurova
guva ceremony is done with the aid of the Sahwira.
Elder/Mbuya/Sekuru (Vasharukwa Vemumusha)
These are custodians of traditions and they are consultants. Baba ava ipwere chaiyo- the person will
be lacking great deal of responsibility that should go with maturity.
They are possessed by the spirit of those who died long back. Hey are induced by ecstacy and could
speak in the accent of the deceased.
Ritual Activities
RITE
It is a religious performance such as sacrifice, worship service, baptism, circumcision, etc. Rites use
symbols, words, music, and visual symbols. It is a ceremony. They include ceremonies associated
with birth, puberty, marriage and death. Rites of passage mark or ensure transition from one status
to another within a society.
RITUAL
It is a pattern of words and actions through which a rite is carried out. It is something done in a set
and determined way. It is a set form of carrying out a religious activity or ceremony; a means of
acting out something religiously through words and actions (J.S, Mbiti, 1975:131). It embodies what
a society believes in and values as important to its life. It refers to symbolic actions, deeds for which
one can predicate consequences and meanings.
Religious Rituals
Ritual- comes from a Latin word ritus-riter. It is a prescribed, by tradition, form of activities. They
are regular, repeated, patterned performance: symbolic fashion that utilizes language,
personification, characteristics and the use of specific objects. They regularised communal life to
make it manageable. They are a practical side of myths/sacred stories. They link passage of person
from one stage to another. They can be divided into communal and individual rituals. Communal:
rain-inducing ceremony, agricultural festivities and purification rituals. Examples of individual rituals
include rites of passage, for example, at birth, adulthood and death.
They are hierophanies. They assume the reality and presence of the sacred or ultimate reality, gods,
spirits, ancestral spirits etc. They are the drama through which the sacred is made present. This
includes words, gestures, material objects etc. Religious rituals presuppose the influence and
existence of the sacred. The action is related to what one regards as the ultimate reality, particularly
the ultimate reality as depicted in myths.
A myth is a story that is sacred to and shared by a group of people who find their most important
meanings in it. It is a narrative concerning sacred reality and its relation to humanity. We do not
understand the way the world actually works, so we use stories to come to rescue where knowledge
fails. Rituals are related to myths; rituals re-enact myths. In rituals religious people are able to LIVE
and ACT out mythical realities. For example, the acting out of the bringing home of the ancestral
spirit of the deceased-dragging the branch etc, the extermination of pests by symbolically dumping
them into a flowing river. They affirm continuity between past and present. It carries meaning that
believers wish to reaffirm.
Rites of passage(Ceremonies of passage)
These are rituals of human cycle celebrating events in an individuals life. They represent periods of
transition.
Victor Turner- The Ritual Process and Arnold van Gennep: Rites of Passage identify three phases in
ritual passage. These are Separation, Transition and Incorporation. The transitional period is
important. It involves teaching and de-teaching of the initiates in initiation rituals that is rituals
related to puberty. This is passage from childhood to adulthood.
Types and Functions of Rituals
Rituals of life cycle/Transitional Rituals (Personal Rituals)
These are rituals performed to bridge the transition in life such as at birth, adolescence, marriage
and death. It is especially at times of crisis when the necessities of life, physical or spiritual, demand
supernatural intervention that the individual or group endeavours to establish ritual relations with
the sacred order to safeguard or consecrate birth, adolescence, marriage and death.
Birth Rites
African peoples are very much concerned about, and concentrate their attention on, lifes journey
from before birth to after death. They want that journey to be meaningful, happy, safe and
satisfactory. African religion tries to make the journey of life worthwhile for both the individual and
the community of which he is an integral part.Prenatal rituals are conducted for a pregnant woman
to ensure the growth of the foetus and subsequently, safe delivery. The pregnant woman has to
observe certain regulations and taboos in order that all may go well with her and the baby.
Childbirth is held to be an impurity in some sense. After childbirth the mother and the child are
subjected to rituals because they are undergoing the same process of initiation into the society after
some isolation for the mother and the child will be undergoing the initial rite of passage into this life.
The mother also undertakes some ritual purification that prepares her for the birth of the next child.
The child wears some charms believed to protect it from supernatural dangers. Other rituals are
performed to give protection to the baby as it begins long journey in life, to bring good fortune to it
and to commit it to the spirit world. The babys hair is cut at the occasion of introducing it to the
society. This is a sign of purification, separation and newness; anything bad is cut off since it is
shaved away with the old hairs. It also shows that it is now separated from the mother and now
belongs to the whole family and the whole community. the shaving is a sign of newness since the
baby will grow new hair as it enters a new phase of life. Symbolic washing also accompanies the
ceremony, emphasizing purification.
The naming ritual is attended by members of the family, relatives, neighbours and friends. The name
is considered to be very much part of the personality of the person. It is therefore chosen with care
and consideration. Names of people have a meaning and it is this meaning which should be given
consideration. It is a period that establishes a communion with the transcendent order. It is the
period of dedication of the baby to the spirit world. In some places the baby is given the name of a
departed relative whom the baby is considered to resemble closely underwriting the notion of
reincarnation.
The Initiation Rites / Pubertal rituals (Childhood to adulthood)
This marks the attainment of adulthood from adolescence marked by solemn induction into the full
privileges and responsibilities of the community that includes religious, social and administrative
ones. This involves a process of rebirth or transition from the family circle to active membership in
the tribal fellowship. One of the main initiation rites is that of circumcision for boys and excision
/clitoridectomy (cutting of a portion of the girls female organ) for girls. Without circumcision the
person is considered to be a child, no matter how old he or she might be. It is also shameful to be
isolated from ones age-mates through lack of this experience. Childish things have to be put away by
a series of separation rites which usually includes fasting, tests of endurance, perseverance, courage
and obedience. This education experience equips them mentally, bodily, emotionally and morally for
adolescence and adulthood. The proceedings are strictly secretive and during the ceremonies
detailed explanations are usually given of the esoteric tradition as well as long exhortations on
correct social behaviour and religious practice. To reveal to the uninitiated anything said and done in
the course of the mysteries involves instant death by natural or supernatural agencies. However, the
ritual is now under spotlight because of the scientific discovery that it reduces chances of
contracting the virus by 60%.
MEANING- The blood which is shed during the operation binds the person to the land and the
departed members of their society (a mark of identity). It shows that the individual is alive and that
they now wish to be tied to the community and people among whom they have been born. Until the
operation is done they are still considered to be outsiders. It is a public recognition that the
individual is now passing from childhood to adulthood. The cutting of the flesh is a symbol of getting
rid of childhood and getting ready for the adulthood. No full responsibilities in the home and
community are conferred on the uninitiated for they are still considered children.
Initiation is also a gateway to marriage. In the period of seclusion they are taught many things
concerning the life of their people, its history, traditions and beliefs and to raise a family. It is the
initiation which also bridges the male with the female, fatherhood with motherhood since it signals
the official permission for one to get married and bear children. It also joins the living with the
departed; the visible with the invisible for a person may perform religious rituals only after initiation.
Where circumcision is not practised, there are other forms of initiation. This may be done on family
basis or by the community at large. This may involve, for example, brewing some beer and
slaughtering a goat for the older men, who then ceremoniously welcome the young adolescents to
their status (J.S, Mbiti, 1975:103).
Circumcision and clitoridectomy, where they are practised, have a practical as well as a magico-
religious significance. They symbolically represent the flow of life through the shedding of blood
from the organs of reproduction. This is a profound act by means of which the young people accept
that they have to become bearers of children (Is there any age restriction for partaking of this ritual?
What fatherhood role can a four year play?).
Death Rituals
Death is sorrowful and is also important. There are many rituals and ceremonies associated with
death. People are very much sensitive to what is done when there is death in the family. It marks a
physical separation of the individual from the other human beings. Funeral rites and ceremonies are
intended to draw attention to that separation and to avoid causing offence to the deceased. This is
not done to unknown strangers, thieves, murderers, witches and other troublemakers in the
community, or for those who have died abnormal deaths.
Disposal of body
There are rituals concerning the preparation of the corpse for disposal. It is washed with water or
with water and traditional medicines. In other areas it is shaved and the nails are cut off. Skins,
leather, cotton, clothes or leaves are used to cover the corpse and the whole body is covered with
oil in some places. Ritual leaders and elders in the village preside over these rituals. In some places
some individuals are not allowed to touch or come near the corpse in case misfortune will befall
them or their family. These are usually the children, pregnant women or suspected witches. Burial
takes place in the backyard of one of the houses in the village, in a family burial place or at the
original place of birth. It is the custom in many parts of Africa to bury some belongings with the
body, such as spears, bows and arrows, stools, snuff, foodstuffs, beads, ornaments, money, tools
and domestic utensils. In some instances wives and servants, for the rich were also buried with the
dead (Mbiti). The belief was that the departed needs weapons to defend himself along the way to
the next world and food to eat on the journey and people to keep him company when he reaches
there and other property to use so that he would not arrive there empty-handed. Various rites are
performed at the burial of the body. They are intended to send off the departed peacefully, to sever
his links with the living and to ensure that normal life continues among the survivors.
Feasting follows the funeral rites. This is meant to comfort the bereaved and to bring life back to
normal and thank those who have officiated in the funeral rites. It is also the custom to stop work
for a while as a sign of respect for the dead person. In many places members of the family have their
hair shaved off and some of their normal activities are suspended until all the funeral rites have
been performed. the shaving of the hair is a symbol of separation, showing that one of the members
of the family has been separated from them. it is also an indication of peoples belief that death does
not destroy life, since the growth of the new hair indicates that life continues to spring up-underlines
the resilience of the Africans in the face of death. In some places people smear themselves with
white clay as a sign of death and mourning, in others they refrain from washing their bodies and
clothes for several days or months. certain bulls or goats may be killed to mark the death of
someone. Sometimes people suspend sleeping with their marriage partners for some weeks, pots
are broken up in the houses and certain houses in the homestead are abandoned for good as an
indication that someone has died. By doing these things people are able to come to terms with the
agonies, sorrows, and disruption caused by death. by ritualizing death people dance it away, drive it
away and renew their own life after it has taken away one of their members. Death rituals are also
meant to make the deceased members of the family to safely enter into the spirit world and look
after the living.
Installation/coronation Ritual
These are rituals meant to elevate individuals to high positions/posts. They are done for chiefs by
the territorial spirit mediums.
Crisis Rituals/Impromptu Rituals
These are rituals intended to rectify misfortune such as barrenness, illness, war etc which are
believed to disrupt the social order. They renew the peoples lives, bringing the picture of the sacred
to life. For example, rainmaking ceremony is conducted in the event of drought. There are also
rituals to deliver a person from evil spirits. There are also rituals intended to ensure success in battle,
hunting and academic sphere. There are also rituals conducted to appease/ compensate avenging
spirits. They are done to ameliorate the problem and restore harmony on the cosmos.
Agricultural rituals and Health rituals are some of the rituals undertaken to ensure harmony in those
spheres.
State authorities preside over the enthronement ceremonies (Dr Chombos Ministry). There is the
involvement of the D.A in choosing chiefs- this is intended to ensure that the state has its stake in
the operations of these figures. The Chiefs were to endorse the agenda of the state.
National Biras: Religious Innovation?
Bira- ceremony: Usually for household/domestic level. Bira concept- heritage from the past. (Bira-
kuyambuka; moving from the world of physical objects to a spiritual world). However, September
2005 marked the magnification of the Bira for the national agenda-consolidation of the land reform
programme (Chikowore: Chronicle 31. 10.2005 As it was, we will always be.
Purpose?
Thanksgiving for success stories in different spheres of life (2005-2006 agricultural season bumper
harvest in most parts of Zimbabwe was attributed to the national Bira).
The current exhumation of the bodies in Mashonaland Central, that are purported to be the remains
of the fallen heroes of the liberation struggle of the late 1970s for decent burial according to the
religious beliefs of the Africans, is another area where the appropriation of ATR to national level is
witnessed. However, critics of the programme dismiss this as cheap politicking; politics of the dead
body.
Ritual visits to countries that harbour the remains of the fallen heroes, for example to sites in
Mozambique such as Chimoio, Nyadzonya, Chibawawa etc and to Zambia to sites such as Freedom
Camp, Nampundwe, Mkushi, Mulungushi, Kabanga, Kavalamanja, Sinde, Solwezi etc.
Problem:
Who presides over these ceremonies and what words are uttered and to which ancestors are they
addressed? Do we have a single ancestor? Is it the appropriation of ATR to the national level? ATR
and ethnicity-are the spirits of Mbuya Nehanda and Chaminuka influential outside their territories of
origin?
FUTURE OF ATR(S)?
J.K, Olupona (ed) ATRs in Contemporary Society.
Future of religion is always unpredictable. Koffi Asare Opoku (Ghana): ATR is an enduring heritage.
ATRs have been able to withstand Christianity, Islam, other religions and resist and adapt to
colonialism and modernity. Both hold the view that ATRs have the capacity to or adapt to the
various situations they find themselves in.
Chitando: ATRs can be modified, for example the emerging phenomenon of female Chiefs; without
this modification, they will face extinction. They have also been able to exist in other religions
particularly Christianity and Islam. Very few religions have been known to extinct, especially if
politicians continue to appropriate them.
Many Shona acknowledge the influence of the ancestral spirits. As a result there is a central belief
that ancestral spirits are the owners of the cosmos. We are not sure whether they believe that the
ancestral Spirits are the creators of the cosmos (natural environment).The Shona believe that all
things are the work of great ancestral spirits. The ancestral spirits are regarded to be in all things i.e
in trees, stones, grass, rivers, mountains, animals (four legged) and in the winged community (birds).
It is believed that ancestral spirits are above everything. Everything is experienced as a family. We
are part of the cosmos and the cosmos is part of us. The land one lives is respected and known. The
Shona do not believe that the natural environment is to be used and dominated. They have been
taught t be caretakers of their environment. They are distressed by the destruction of the natural
environment. Inanimate objects are personified as living things by indigenous people. Before one
can successfully climb a mountain, one must ask for permission (Nyanga Mountains). All creatures
are perceived as kin. The assumption is that they are endowed with consciousness and the powers
of the ancestral spirits. Some animals convey certain messages, for example, snakes, hyena, birds,
owl are associated with some mystery (mashura).
Traditional people are conscious of the interdependence of all things; that all things depend on each.
They therefore have a reciprocal rather than a dominating with all beings. Trees, animals, insects etc
are all to be approached with caution and consideration. If one must cut down a tree or kill an
animal they must first explain their intentions. There is need to be a justification and ask for
forgiveness from the ancestral spirits. The Shona relationship with the environment is a caretaker
relationship. In certain places and beings the power of ancestral spirits is believed to be highly
concentrated. As a result, there are sacred sites recognised by the power that believer feel there.
Certain areas are kept intact because they are regarded as sacred; they remain virgin.
When the Shona are forced off their ancestral lands they feel the loss of access to their sacred power
sites as a great tragedy. Special stone and animal artefacts may also carry power, for example,
leopard or python skin. These are usually put on by nangas and chiefs. Not everybody goes out to
look for a leopard or snake; there is a limited community which has access to these animals.
For the Shona there is need for responsibility for both the individual and the community. Land and
natural resources are considered a communal property belonging to the living and the dead. Chiefs,
sub-chiefs and spirit mediums oversee matters related to land and natural resources proper use. It is
morally wrong to cut down trees in sacred places. It is also forbidden to gather fruits in grave sites.
Reverence towards nature and natural places is a religious attitude and practice. Taboos are
developed around the destruction of trees. They are also developed around certain shrubs, sacred
places, forests, rivers and wells (metal objects are not allowed at some wells). Some taboos are
developed around particular animals, for example, an owl is a bad omen. There is also the idea of
totems. Most animals are preserved because they are totemic animals. Religious taboos and
restriction take the place of aforestation campaigns undertaken by the government of Zimbabwe in
partnership with non-governmental organizations.
Animal species were preserved for generations as a result of the systems of religious values and
beliefs. Shona religious beliefs seem to teach stewardship and responsibility towards natural
resources. However, Shona societies are undergoing great changes due to the impact of the western
value systems particularly the western economic system. The money economy has altered social
relations among the Shona. It has also affected the Shona peoples attitude to nature and natural
resources. Natural resources are now seen as objects for exploitation and profit making. Economic
activities which seem to threaten Shona economy are done in the name of development. The
introduction of state control over natural resources has destroyed indigenous belief system.
The Romantic school tend to celebrate the Shona religious beliefs and values as a rallying point for
environmental ethic. There is need for caution since the attitudes of traditional religion to nature is
ambivalent. For example, everything connected to totemism is puzzling. Extreme opposites coincide:
good and evil, accepted and forbidden practices. Some animal species can be preserved for
generations as a result of totemism while others will not. The situation is worse for those species
that seem to fall outside the Shona system of religious values and beliefs. This amounts to
discriminative attitude to nature. Attitudes to a particular aspect may lead to a privileged access to
natural resources. For example, there is a taboo that forbids commoners to eat the flesh of an
antbear because it burrows the land. But the antbear is a delicacy for the chief. The chiefs family
may protect even some animals of religious significance for consumption only. So the chief and his
family may have a privileged access to natural resources. Worse still, totemic animals by virtue of
taboos attached to their parts are open to killing. The Shona kill them for special rituals or for using
their skins for ceremonial dress for chiefs or when diviners perform rituals for public interest.
Regarding the land, the land outside a particular chiefdom may not be sacred to people of another
kingdom same applies to water bodies. This means that trees and water bodies are prone to falling
victim to exploitation by people who do not attach any sacrality on these things.
There is a different understanding of nature in terms of its sacredness. Some aspects are disregarded
and treated with the least fear/care and reverence because they are not hierophanic in any sense.
Those treated as hierophanies or as ends in themselves suffer the least. This means that Shona
attitudes to nature are ambivalent. Extreme attitudes coincide: ecologically responsible and
ecologically harmful.