Logic: Language and Information 1

§2-1-2 Argument Forms, Instances, and Soundness

Jen Davoren
 Argument Forms

The following arguments share a “shape” or a “form”, and their

validity is due to the validity of their common argument form.
If genetics determines all our behaviour if p,
then people don’t have free choice. then q
People do have free choice. not q.
Therefore, genetics doesn’t determine all our behaviour. ∴ not p.

If living expenses in this city are high, if p,

then many students are struggling financially. then q.
Not many students are struggling financially not q.
Therefore, living expenses in this city are not high. ∴ not p.
 Multiple forms

An argument can be an instance of multiple different forms.

The two arguments on the previous slide can considered

instances of other very different, argument forms, such as:
If p then q.
r.
Therefore, s.
 Multiple forms

An argument can be an instance of multiple different forms.

The two arguments on the previous slide can considered

instances of other very different, argument forms, such as:
If p then q.
r.
Therefore, s.

Question: What is wrong with this argument form, just from

looking at it?
 Invalid forms

Here’s an instance of an invalid argument of this form:

If you are a logician, then you are a geek.
Greenhouse gas levels have increased.
Therefore, the earth is flat.
 Invalid forms

Here’s an instance of an invalid argument of this form:

If p, then you are a geek.
Greenhouse gas levels have increased.
Therefore, the earth is flat.
 Invalid forms

Here’s an instance of an invalid argument of this form:

If p, then q.
Greenhouse gas levels have increased.
Therefore, the earth is flat.
 Invalid forms

Here’s an instance of an invalid argument of this form:

If p, then q.
r.
Therefore, the earth is flat.
 Invalid forms

Here’s an instance of an invalid argument of this form:

If p, then q.
r.
Therefore, s.
 Exercise: extracting argument form

We can conclude that the people will be unhappy.

This is because either the government will increase the tax rate or it won’t.
If it does, the people will have less income to spend and they will be unhappy.
If it doesn’t, there will be fewer public services and the people will be unhappy.
Which is the best choice of argument form for this concrete argument?
p q∨r
q∨r q ⊃ (s & p)
(a) (b)
q ⊃ (s & p) r ⊃ (t & p)
∴ r ⊃ (t & p) ∴p
q ∨ ∼q p
q ⊃ (s & p) q ∨ ∼q
(c) (d)
∼q ⊃ (t & p) q ⊃ (s & p)
∴p ∴ ∼q ⊃ (t & p)
 Exercise Solution: extracting argument form

p : The people will be unhappy.

q : The government will increase the tax rate.
∼q : The government won’t increase the tax rate.
s : The people will have less income to spend.
t: There will be fewer public services.

The best choice of argument form:

q ∨ ∼q
q ⊃ (s & p)
(c)
∼q ⊃ (t & p)
∴p
 Is Validity of Arguments Enough?

(Premise) If living expenses in this city are high,

then many students are struggling financially.
(Premise) Not many students are struggling financially.
(Conclusion) Hence, living expenses in this city are not high.

Question: This argument is valid – so why is there still something

wrong with it?
 Soundness of arguments

An argument is sound if and only if it is an

instance of a valid argument form, and in
addition, the premises are in fact all true.

Hence the conclusion of a sound argument must also be true.

 Soundness of arguments

An argument is sound if and only if it is an

instance of a valid argument form, and in
addition, the premises are in fact all true.

Hence the conclusion of a sound argument must also be true.

(Premise) If living expenses in this city are high,
then many students are struggling financially.
(Premise) Not many students are struggling financially.
(Conclusion) Hence, living expenses in this city are not high.

As is well known by many students living in expensive cities

around the world, this argument is valid, but not sound.
Key concepts
 Key concepts

▶ The logical form of an argument is what we get by formalising

each of its premises as well as the conclusion.
 Key concepts

▶ The logical form of an argument is what we get by formalising

each of its premises as well as the conclusion.
▶ An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever the
premises are all true.
 Key concepts

▶ The logical form of an argument is what we get by formalising

each of its premises as well as the conclusion.
▶ An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever the
premises are all true.
▶ Instances of valid argument forms are always valid arguments.
 Key concepts

▶ The logical form of an argument is what we get by formalising

each of its premises as well as the conclusion.
▶ An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever the
premises are all true.
▶ Instances of valid argument forms are always valid arguments.
▶ Sound arguments are instances of valid argument forms whose
premises are also true.
 Key concepts

▶ The logical form of an argument is what we get by formalising

each of its premises as well as the conclusion.
▶ An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever the
premises are all true.
▶ Instances of valid argument forms are always valid arguments.
▶ Sound arguments are instances of valid argument forms whose
premises are also true.
▶ But, some instances of invalid argument forms can still be
valid arguments.
 Key concepts

▶ The logical form of an argument is what we get by formalising

each of its premises as well as the conclusion.
▶ An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever the
premises are all true.
▶ Instances of valid argument forms are always valid arguments.
▶ Sound arguments are instances of valid argument forms whose
premises are also true.
▶ But, some instances of invalid argument forms can still be
valid arguments.
▶ For an argument to be invalid, there has to be at least one
situation in which the premises are all true, but the conclusion
is false at the same time.
Next Up: Proof Trees for Propositional Logic