INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

An Industrial Training report submitted for partial fulfillment of requirements

for the award of

DIPLOMA
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY
J.UMAMAHESWARA RAO 20375-M-021
J.NIKHIL SRINIVAS 20375-M-020
P.SIVA KRISHNA 20375-M-033
D.RAMESH 20375-M-013
R. VAMSI 20375-M-037

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

KAKINADA INTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(II Shift Polytechnic)
(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to SBTET)
KAKINADA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
(II Shift Polytechnic)
(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to SBTET)

DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the industrial training report being
submitted by JAKKA NIKHIL SRINIVAS bearing roll no.20375-M-020
in partial fulfillment for the award of the Diploma in Mechanical
Engineering. It is record of bonafied work carried out by me under the
esteemed guidance and supervision of Sri. K.PAPARAO

K.PAPARAO A.V.S.RAJU

TRANING GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPT.

LECTURER MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude to Principal
Mr.M.ANAND KUMAR M.Tech, Kakinada Institute Of Technology And Science college for his
refining comments and critical judgments of the industrial training.

I have great pleasure in expressing my deep sense of gratitude to our Head of the Department Mr.
A.V.S.RAJU B.Tech , Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kakinada Institute Of Technology And
Science (II shift polytechnic) for providing all necessary support for successful completion of our training.

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my trainer Mr.K.Srinivas, who gave me
the golden opportunity to do this Industrial Training in TAKSHASHILA EDUCATION & TECHNICAL
SOCIETY,which helped me in learn so many new things, Knowledge and Hands- on experience.

I wish to convey my sincere gratitude to my guide Mr.JOSEPH REDDY, Department of

Mechanical Engineering, Kakinada Institute Of Technology And Science (II shift polytechnic), DIVILI.
We are highly Indebted to him for his guidance, timely suggestions at every stage and encouragement
to complete this training successfully.

I thank all the staff members of our department & the college administration and all my friends
who helped me directly and indirectly in carrying out this training successfully.

Sincerely,
J.Nikhil Srinivas.
J.Umamaheswara Rao
P.Siva Krishna
D.Ramesh
R.Vamsi
 INDEX
AUTO CAD , COMPUTER HARDWARE & NETWORKING
S.NO TOPIC NAME PG.NO
1 AUTO CAD INTRODUCTION & STARTING UP 1-4
2 DRAWING UNITS SETUP 4-8
3 DRAWING LINES 8– 10
4 GRID & SNAP MODE ON 10 – 13
5 ERASE & REPEAT THE LAST COMMAND 14 – 15
6 CAD DATABASE & USER COORDINATINATE SYSTEM 16 – 19
7 DEFINING POSITIONS 19 – 24
8 CREATING CIRELES 24 – 27
9 SPACER DESIGN 27 – 28
10 COMPUTER INTRODUCTION 29-31
11 ARCHITECTURE OF A COMPUTER AND DIFFERENCE 31- 33
BETWEEN HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
12 HIERARCHY DIAGRAM OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE 33 – 35
& FUNCTIONS OF BIOS AND CMOS
13 OPERATING SYSTEM INTRODUCTION 36 – 38
14 BOOT DEFINITION AND BOOTING TYPES 38 – 39
15 INSTALLATION OF O.S & POWER SUPPLY UNITS 40 – 41
16 OTHER COMPONENTS OF POWER SUPPLY & BASIC 41 – 45
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND ITS FUNCTIONS &
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS OF HARDWARE
17 MEMORY & ITS TYPES 45-56
18 ASSEMBLING COMPUTER 57 -61
19 METHOD OF CHECK COMPUTER CONGIGURATION 62 – 63
20 LAPTOP MEMORIES & HARD DISK SIZES AND 63 – 64
HARDWARE COMPONENTS INSTALLATIONS
21 Cache memory 65-70

2
AUTO CAD

2
Introduction
Learning to use a CAD system is similar to learning a new language. It is necessary
to begin with the basic alphabet and learn how to use it correctly and effectively
through practice. This will require learning some new concepts and skills as well as
learning a different vocabulary. Today, the majority of the Mechanical CAD
systems are capable of creating three-dimensional solid models. Nonetheless, all
CAD systems create designs using basic geometric entities, and many of the
constructions used in technical designs are based upon two-dimensional planar
geometry. The method and number of operationsthat are required to accomplish the
basic planar constructions are different from one system to another.

In order to become effective and efficient in using a CAD system, we must learn to
creategeometric entities quickly and accurately. In learning to use a CAD system,
lines and circles are the first two, and perhaps the most important two, geometric
entities that one should master the skills of creating and modifying. Straight lines
and circles are used in almost all technical designs. In examining the different types
of planar geometric entities, the importance of lines and circles becomes obvious.
Triangles and polygons are planar figures bounded by straight lines. Ellipses and
splines can be constructed by connecting arcs with different radii. As one gains
some experience in creating lines and circles, similar procedures can be applied to
create other geometric entities. In this chapter, the different ways of creating lines
and circles in AutoCAD 2021 are examined.

Starting Up AutoCAD 2021

1. Select the AutoCAD 2021 option on the Program menu or select the
AutoCAD 2021 icon on the Desktop. Click Start Drawing to start a new
drawing.

 Once the program is loaded into memory, the AutoCAD 2021 main drawing
screenwill appear on the screen.

3
  Note that AutoCAD automatically assigns generic names, Drawing X, as new
drawings are created. In our example, AutoCAD opened the graphics window using
the default system units and assigned the drawing name Drawing1.

2. If necessary, click on the down-arrow in the Quick Access bar and select Show
Menu Bar to display the AutoCAD Menu Bar. The Menu Bar provides access to all
AutoCAD commands.

3. To switch on the AutoCAD Coordinates Display, use the Customization option at

the bottom right corner.

4|Page
 Drawing Units Setup
Every object we construct in a CAD system is measured in units. We should determine
the system of units within the CAD system before creating the first geometric entities.

1
[Format] 
[Units]

In the Menu Bar select:

1.The AutoCAD Menu Bar contains multiple pull- down menus where all of the
AutoCAD commands can be accessed. Note that many of the menu items listed in the
pull-down menus can also be accessed through the Quick Access toolbar and/or Ribbon
panels.

2. Click on the Length Type option

display the different types of
length units available. Confirm
the Length Type is set to
Decimal.

3.On your own, examine the other settings that are available.

5|Page
 note the Insertion Scale Also section will show the default
measurement system, such as the English units, inche.

Set the Precision to two digits after the decimal point as shown in the above figure.

2. Pick OK to exit the Drawing Units dialog box.

Drawing Area Setup

Next, we will set up the Drawing Limits by entering a command in the command
prompt area. Setting the Drawing Limits controls the extents of the display of the grid. It
also serves as a visual reference that marks the working area. It can also be used to
prevent construction outside the grid limits and as a plot option that defines an area to be
plotted and/or printed. Note that this setting does not limit the region for geometry
construction.

6|Page
 1. In the Menu Bar select:
[Format]  [Drawing Limits]

2. In the command prompt area, the message “Reset Model Space Limits: Specify lower left
corner or [On/Off]
<0.00,0.00>:” is displayed. Press the ENTER key once to accept the default coordinates
<0.00,0.00>.
3. In the command prompt area, the
message “Specify upper right corner
<12.00,9.00>:” is displayed. Press the ENTER key again to accept the
default coordinates <12.00,9.00>.

4. On your own, move the graphics cursor near the upper-right corner inside the drawing
area and note that the drawing area is unchanged. (The Drawing Limits command is
used to set the drawing area, but the display will not be adjusted until a display
command is used.)

5. Inside the Menu Bar area select:

[View]  [Zoom]  [All]

 The Zoom All command will adjust the display so that all objects in the drawing are
displayed to be as large as possible. If no objects are constructed, the Drawing Limits
are used to adjust the current viewport.

7|Page
 1. Move the graphics cursor near the upper-right corner inside
the drawing area and note that the display area is updated.

Hit the function key [F7] once to turn off the display of the Grid lines

 Note that function key [F7] is a quick key, which can be used to quickly toggle on/off
the grid display. Also, note the command prompt area can be positioned to dock
below the drawing area or float inside the drawing area as shown.

Drawing Lines with the Line Command

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1. Move the graphics cursor to the first icon in the Draw panel. This icon is the Line
icon. Note that a brief description of the Line command appears next to the cursor.
8|Page
 2. Select the icon by clicking once with the left- mouse-button, which will
activate the Line command.
3.In the command prompt area, near the bottom of the AutoCAD drawing screen, the
message “_line Specify first point:” is displayed. AutoCAD expects us to identify the
starting location of a straight line. Move the graphics cursor inside the graphics
window and watch the display of the coordinates of the graphics cursor at the bottom
of the AutoCAD drawing screen. The three numbers represent the location of the
cursor in the X, Y, and Z directions. We can treat the graphics window as if it was a
piece of paper, and we are using the graphics cursor as if it was a pencil with which
to draw.

Coordinates of the graphics

cursor

3 2

1 4

 We will create a freehand sketch of a five- point star using

the Line command. Do not be overly concerned with the actual size or accuracy of your
freehand sketch. This exercise is to give you a feel for the AutoCAD 2021 user interface.

9|Page
 3. We will start at a location about one-third from the bottom of the graphics window. Left-
click once to position the starting point of our first line. This will be point 1 of our sketch.
Next, move the cursor upward and toward the right side of point
4.Notice the rubber-band line that follows the graphics cursor in the graphics window. Left-
click again (point 2) and we have created the first line of our sketch.

4. Move the cursor to the left of point 2 and create a horizontal line about the same length as
the first line on the screen.

3 2

1 4

5. Repeat the above steps and complete the freehand

sketch by adding three more lines (from point 3 to
point 4, point 4 to point 5, and then connect to point
5 back to point 1).

6. Notice that the Line command remains activated even after we connected the last segment
of the line to the starting point (point 1) of our sketch. Inside the graphics window, click
once with the right-mouse-button and a pop-up menu appears on the screen.

7. Select Enter with the left-mouse-button to end the Line command. (This is equivalent to
hitting the [ENTER] key on the keyboard.)

8. Move the cursor near point 2 and point 3, and estimate the length of the horizontal line by
watching the displayed coordinates for each point.

10 | P a g e
 Visual Reference

The method we just used to create the freehand sketch is known as the interactive
method, where we use the cursor to specify locations on the screen. This method is
perhaps the fastest way to specify locations on the screen. However, it is rather difficult
to try to create a line of a specific length by watching the displayed coordinates. It would
be helpful to know what one inch or one meter looks like on the screen while we are
creating entities. AutoCAD 2021 provides us with many tools to aid the construction of
our designs. For example, the GRID and SNAP MODE options can be used to get a
visual reference as to the size of objects and learn to restrict the movement of the cursor
to a set increment on the screen.
The GRID and SNAP MODE options can be turned ON or OFF through the Status Bar.
The Status Bar area is located at the bottom left of the AutoCAD drawing screen, next to
the cursor coordinates.

Option Buttons

The second button in the Status Bar is the SNAP MODE option and the third button is the
GRID DISPLAY option. Note that the buttons in the Status Bar area serve two functions:
(1) the status of the specific option, and (2) as toggle switches that can be used to turn
these special options ON and OFF. When the corresponding button is highlighted, the
specific option is turned ON. Using the buttons is a quick and easy way to make changes
to these drawing aid options. The buttons in the Status Bar can also be switched on and
off in the middle of another command.

11 | P a g e
GRID ON
1. Left-click the GRID button in the Status Bar to turn ON the GRID DISPLAY option.
(Notice in the command prompt area, the message “<Grid on>” is also displayed.)

2. Move the cursor inside the graphics window, and estimate the distance in between
the grid lines by watching the coordinates displayed at the bottom of the screen.

 The GRID option creates a pattern of lines that extends over an area on the screen.
Using the grid is similar to placing a sheet of grid paper under a drawing. The grid
helps you align objects and visualize the distance between them. The grid is not
displayed in the plotted drawing. The default grid spacing, which means the distance
in between two lines on the screen, is 0.5 inches. We can see that the sketched
horizontal line in the sketch is about 4 inches long.

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SNAP MODE ON
1. Left-click the SNAP MODE button in the Status Bar to turn ON the SNAP option.

2. Move the cursor inside the graphics window, and move the cursor diagonally on the
screen. Observe the movement of the cursor and watch the coordinates display at the
bottom of the screen.

 The SNAP option controls an invisible rectangular grid that restricts cursor movement
to specified intervals. When SNAP mode is on, the screen cursor and all input
coordinates are snapped to the nearest point on the grid. The default snap interval is
0.5 inches and aligned to the grid points on the screen.

3. Click on the Line icon in the Draw toolbar. In the command prompt area, the
message “_line Specify first point:” is displayed.
4.On your own, create another sketch of the five-point star with the GRID and SNAP
options switched ON.

5.Use the right-mouse-button and select Enter in the pop-up menu to end the Line
command if you have not done so.

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Using the Erase Command
One of the advantages of using a CAD system is the ability to remove entities without
leaving any marks. We will erase two of the lines using the Erase command.

1. Pick Erase in the Modify toolbar. (The icon is a picture of an eraser at the end of a
pencil.) The message “Select objects” is displayed in the command prompt area and
AutoCAD awaits us to select the objects to erase.

2. Left-click the SNAP MODE button on the Status Bar to turn OFF the SNAP
MODE option. We can toggle the Status Bar options ON or OFF in the middle of
another command.

3. Select any two lines on the screen; the selected lines are highlighted as shown in the
figure below.

 To deselect an object from the selection set, hold down the [SHIFT] key and select
the object again.

4. Right-mouse-click once to accept the selections. The selected two lines are erased.

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 Repeat the Last Command

1. Inside the graphics window, click once with the right- mouse-button to bring up the
pop-up option menu.

2. Pick Repeat Erase, with the left-mouse-button, in the pop-up menu to repeat the last
command. Notice the other options available in the pop-up menu.
 AutoCAD 2021 offers many options to accomplish the same task. Throughout this text,
we will emphasize the use of the AutoCAD Heads-up DesignTM interface, which
means we focus on the screen, not on the keyboard.
3. Move the cursor to a location that is above and toward the left side of the entities
on the screen. Left-mouse-click once to start a corner of a rubber-band window.
First corner

Second corner
4. Move the cursor toward the right and below the entities, and then left-mouse-click to
enclose all the entities inside the selection window. Notice all entities that are inside
the window are selected. (Note the enclosed window selection direction is from top
left to bottom right.)
5. Inside the graphics window, right-mouse-click once to proceed with erasing
the selected entities.
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 On your own, create a free-hand sketch of your choice using the Line command.
Experiment with using the different commands we have discussed so far. Reset the
status buttons so that only the GRID DISPLAY option is turned ON as shown.

The CAD Database and the User Coordinate System

Designs and drawings created in a CAD system are usually defined and stored using sets
of points in what is called world space. In most CAD systems, the world space is defined using
a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. Three mutually perpendicular axes, usually
referred to as the X-, Y-, and Z-axes, define this system. The intersection of the three coordinate
axes forms a point called the origin. Any point in world space can then be defined as the
distance from the origin in the X-, Y- and Z- directions. In most CAD systems, the directions of
the arrows shown on the axes identify the positive sides of the coordinates.

A CAD file, which is the electronic version of the design, contains data that describes the entities
created in the CAD system. Information such as the coordinate values in world space for all
endpoints, center points, etc., along with the descriptions of the types of entities, are all stored in
the file. Knowing that AutoCAD stores designs by keeping coordinate data helps us understand
the inputs required to create entities.

3D UCS icon

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 The icon near the bottom left corner of the default AutoCAD graphics window shows the
positive X-direction and positive Y-direction of the coordinate system that is active. In
AutoCAD, the coordinate system that is used to create entities is called the user
coordinate system (UCS). By default, the user coordinate system is aligned to the
world coordinate system (WCS). The world coordinate system is a coordinate system
used by AutoCAD as the basis for defining all objects and other coordinate systems
defined by the users. We can think of the origin of the world coordinate system as a
fixed point being used as a reference for all measurements. The default orientation of the
Z-axis can be considered as positive values in front of the monitor and negative values
inside the monitor.
Changing to the 2D UCS Icon Display
In AutoCAD 2021, the UCS icon is displayed in various ways to help us visualize
the orientation of the drawing plane.

2D UCS broken pencil

1. Click on the View pull-down menu and select

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1.In the UCS icon style section, switch to the 2D option as shown.

2. Click OK to accept the settings.

 Note the W symbol in the UCS icon indicates that the UCS is aligned to the world
coordinate system.

Cartesian and Polar Coordinate Systems

In a two-dimensional space, a point can be represented using different coordinate
systems. The point can be located, using a Cartesian coordinate system, as X and Y units
away from the origin. The same point can also be located using the polar coordinate
system, as r and  units away from the origin.

For planar geometry, the polar coordinate system is very useful for certain applications.
In the polar coordinate system, points are defined in terms of a radial distance, r, from the
origin and an angle  between the direction of r and the positive X axis. The default
system for measuring angles in AutoCAD 2021 defines positive angular values as
counterclockwise from the positive X-axis.

Absolute and Relative Coordinates

AutoCAD 2021 also allows us to use absolute and relative coordinates to quickly
construct objects. Absolute coordinate values are measured from the current coordinate
system's origin point. Relative coordinate values are specified in relation to previous
coordinates.

 Note that the coordinate display area can also be used as a toggle switch; each
left- mouse-click will toggle the coordinate display on or off.
In AutoCAD 2021, the absolute coordinates and the relative coordinates can be used in
conjunction with the Cartesian and polar coordinate systems. By default, AutoCAD

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expects us to enter values in absolute Cartesian coordinates, distances measured from the
current coordinate system's origin point. We can switch to using the relative coordinates
by using the @ symbol. The @ symbol is used as the relative coordinates specifier,
which means that we can specify the position of a point in relation to the previous point.

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Defining Positions
In AutoCAD, there are five methods for specifying the locations of points when
we create planar geometric entities.

 Interactive method: Use the cursor to select on the screen.

 Absolute coordinates (Format: X,Y): Type the X and Y coordinates to locate

the point on the current coordinate system relative to the origin.

 Relative rectangular coordinates (Format: @X,Y): Type the X and

Y coordinates relative to the last point.

 Relative polar coordinates (Format: @Distance<angle): Type a distance

and angle relative to the last point.

 Direct Distance entry technique: Specify a second point by first moving

the cursor to indicate direction and then entering a distance.

GRID Style Setup

1. In the Status Bar area, right-mouse-click on

Snap Mode and choose [Snap settings].

2. In the Drafting Settings dialog box, select the Snap and Grid tab if it is not the
page on top.

3. Change Grid Style to Display dotted grid in 2D model Space as shown in

the below figure.
4. Pick OK to exit the Drafting Settings dialog box.

Page 20
 The Guide Plate
We will next create a mechanical design using the different coordinate entry methods.

 The rule for creating CAD designs and drawings is that they should be created at full
size using real-world units. The CAD database contains all the definitions of the
geometric entities and the design is considered as a virtual, full-sized object. Only
when a printer or plotter transfers the CAD design to paper is the design scaled to fit
on a sheet. The tedious task of determining a scale factor so that the design will fit on
a sheet of paper is taken care of by the CAD system. This allows the designers and
CAD operators to concentrate their attention on the more important issues – the
design.

1. Select the Line command icon in the Draw toolbar. In the command prompt area, near the
bottom of the AutoCAD graphics window, the message “_line Specify first point:” is
displayed. AutoCAD expects us to identify the starting location of a straight line.

2. We will locate the starting point of our design at the origin of the world coordinate system.
Command: _line Specify first point: 0,0
(Type 0,0 and press the [ENTER] key once.)

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3. We will create a horizontal line by entering the absolute coordinates of the
second point.
Specify next point or [Undo]: 5.5,0 [ENTER]

(0,0)

 Note that the line we created is aligned to the bottom edge of the drawing
window. Let us adjust the view of the line by using the Pan Realtime command.

4. In the Menu Bar area select: [View]  [Pan]  [Realtime]

Pan-Realtime function acts as if you are using a video camera.

5. Move the cursor, which appears as a hand inside the graphics window, near the center
of the drawing window, then push down the left-mouse-button and drag the display
toward the right and top side until we can see the sketched line. (Notice the scroll bars
can also be used to adjust viewing of the display.)

6. Press the [Esc] key to exit the Pan-Realtime command. Notice that AutoCAD
goesback to the Line command.

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 7. We will create a vertical line by using the relative rectangular coordinates
entry method, relative to the last point we specified:

Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @0,2.5 [ENTER]

We can mix any of the entry methods in positioning the locations of the endpoints.
Move the cursor to the Status Bar area, and turn ON the SNAP MODE option.

7.Create the next line by picking the location, world coordinates (8,2.5) on the
screen
We will next use the relative polar coordinates entry method; distance is 3 inches

with an angle of 90 degrees, relative to the last point we specified:

Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @3<90 [ENTER]

Reference Coordinate System

aligned at the previous point

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 8. Using the relative rectangular coordinates entry method to create the next line, we
can imagine a reference coordinate system aligned at the previous point. Coordinates
are measured along the two reference axes.
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]:
@-1.5,1 [ENTER]
(-1.5 and 1 inches are measured relative to the reference point.)

9. Move the cursor directly to the left of the last point and use the direct distance
entry technique by entering 6.5 [ENTER].

15. For the last segment of the sketch, we can use the Close option to connect
back to the starting point. Inside the graphics window, right-mouse-click and a pop-up menu
appears on the screen.
Select Close with the left-mouse-button to connect back to the starting point and end line
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command.
Creating Circles
The menus and toolbars in AutoCAD 2021 are designed to allow the CAD operator
to quickly activate the desired commands.

1. In the Draw toolbar, click on the little triangle below the circle icon. Note that the
little triangle indicates additional options are available.

2. In the option list, select: [Center, Diameter]

Notice the different options available under the circle submenu:

Page 25
 3. In the command prompt area, the message “Specify center point for circle or
[3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]:” is displayed. AutoCAD expects us to identify the
location of a point or enter an option. We can use any of the four coordinate entry
methods to identify the desired location. We will enter the world coordinates (2.5,3)
as the center point for the first circle.
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: 2.5,3 [ENTER]

4. In the command prompt area, the message “Specify diameter of circle:” is displayed.
Specify diameter of circle: 2.5 [ENTER]

10. Inside the graphics window, right-mouse- click to bring up the pop-up option
menu.
11. Pick Repeat CIRCLE with the left-mouse- button in the pop-up menu to repeat the
last command.
12. Using the relative rectangular coordinates entry method, relative to the center-point
coordinates of the first circle, we specify the relative location as (@2.5,2).

Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: @2.5,2 [ENTER]

Page 26
 1. In the command prompt area, the message “Specify Radius of circle: <2.50>” is
displayed. The default option for the Circle command in AutoCAD is to specify the
radius and the last radius used is also displayed in brackets.

2. Inside the graphics window, right-mouse-click to bring up the pop-up option

menu and select Diameter as shown.

3. In the command prompt area, enter 1.5 as the diameter.

Specify Diameter of circle<2.50>: 1.5 [ENTER]

Saving the CAD Design

1. In the Application Menu, select:

[Application]  [Save]

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2. In the Save Drawing As dialog box, select the folder in which you want to store the
CAD file and enter GuidePlate in the File name box.

3. Click Save in the Save Drawing As dialog box to accept the selections and save
the file. Note the default file type is DWG, which is the standard AutoCAD
drawing format.

Close the Current Drawing

Several options are available to close the current drawing:

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  Select [Close]  [Current Drawing] in the
Application Menu Bar as shown.

 Enter Close at the command prompt.

 The third option is to click on the [Close] icon located

at the upper-right-hand corner of the drawing win

COMPUTER HARDWARE (A+)

COMPUTER INTRODUCTION
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the
ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You may already know that you can use a
computer to type documents, send email, play games, and browse the Web.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956): The first computer systems used vacuum
tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up
entire rooms. These computers were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great
deal of electricity, the first computers generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, The UNIVAC (Universal non
integrated vacuum actuated calculator) and ENIAC (Electronic numerical Integrator and
Calculator) computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.

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 Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963):The world would see transistors replace
vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in
1947.The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971):The development of the integrated

circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized
and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and
efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third
generation computers

through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the
memory.

Fourth Generation: Microprocessors (1971-Present):The microprocessor brought the fourth

generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon
chip. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—
from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip. In
1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh.

Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond):Fifth generation

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computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there
are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of
parallel processing and
superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.

ARCHITECTURE OF COMPUTERS:The basic architecture of computer should be

based on the basic components that work together to execute computer's operation. there are 4
main basic components that shape the basic architecture of computer. Let we look the functions
of them.

INPUT DEVICES : It is the computer hardware that produce data. The data had been
produced will be sent to the computer’s primary memory. Input devices
usually used by end users. The most simple example of input devices is your keyboard and
mouse

MEMORY: Memory in computer can be divided into 2 main types. There are primary
memory and secondary memory. Primary Memory It keeps data temporarily, so that it usually
called the volatile memory. When I say the primary memory is volatile memory, it means data
which had been kept in this type of memory disappeared when the computer is powered off.

The example of primary memory is Random Access Memory (RAM) Secondary Memory It
keeps data permanently, so that it usually called non-volatile memory. When I say the

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secondary memory is non-volatile memory, it means data which had been kept in this type of
memory not disappeared when the computer is powered off. The example of secondary
memory in computer is hard disk

PROCESSOR It is the “brain of computer” which play the most important roles. The
processor will changes the data produced by input devices into usable information. In order to
change data into usable information, the processor will performs continuous Fetch-Decode-
Execute (FDE) cycle. By performing this cycle, the processor will fetch the data from primary
memory. Then, the data will be decoded and execute as usable information.

OUTPUT DEVICES : It is the computer hardware that displays the information to the
end users. The types of information that can be displayed by output devices are video, text,
picture, animation, audio and many more. The information displayed can be softcopy or
hardcopy. The example of output device is your monitor which can display information in
softcopy. The another output device is your printer which can display information in hardcopy.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE:

Hardware: Physical parts of the computer are called hardware.

 You can touch, see and feel hardware.

 Hardware is constructed using physical materials or components.

 Computer is hardware, which operates under the control of a software.

 If hardware is damaged, it is replaced with new one.

 Hardware is not affected by computer viruses.

 Hardware cannot be transferred from one place to another electronically through

network.

 User cannot make new duplicate copies of the hardware.

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 Software: A set of instructions given to the computer is called
software.
 You cannot touch and feel software.

 Software is developed by writing instructions in programming language.

 The operations of computer are controlled through software.

 If software is damaged or corrupted, its backup copy can be reinstalled.

 Software is affected by computer viruses.

 Software can be transferred from one place to another electronically through network.

 User can make many new duplicate copies of the software.

HIERARCHY DIAGRAM OF HARDWARE AND OFTWARE

HARDWARE: Collection of physical components see and then such as mother

board, DVD, RAM, monitor etc.

BIOS: Basic input output system. It is a ROM chip for storage system basic services
programming storage chip called as BIOS.

OPERATING SYSTEM: It is collection of master controlling programs for

interacting between user and computers for manage hardware components functions on the
board.

APPLICATIONS: An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being

initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all the other programs in a
computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs.

FUNCTIONS OF BIOS AND CMOS

A computer's Basic Input Output System and Complementary A computer's Basic Input Output System
and Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor together handle a rudimentary and essential process:
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 Software: A set of instructions given to the computer is called
they setsoftware.
up the computer and boot the operating system. The BIOS's primary function is to handle the
system setup

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p

BIOS enables computers to perform certain operations as soon as

they are turned on. The principal job of a computer's BIOS is to govern the
early stages of the startup process, ensuring that the operating system is
correctly loaded into memory.

CMOS technology is used

in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, and other digital logic
circuits. CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such as
image sensors (CMOS sensor), data converters, and highly integrated
transceivers for many types of

communication.
System Structure: - A computer system can be divided into
four components:

User – People, other machines

Application: Web browsers, video games, word processors

Operating System: Intermediary between hardware and user;

controls application access to hardware

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 Hardware: CPU, memory, disk drives

What is an operating system?

Based on the system structure from above, we can define an operating system as being a
program that acts as an intermediary between the computer hardware and the system user.
Operating systems can be thought of as having the following goals:

 Making efficient use of the computer resources

 Making the computer convenient to use

 Making solving user problems easier

As you go through each tutorial keep these objectives in mind and see which operating
systems concepts, algorithms and implementations work towards these goals and which detract
from them. Also keeping in mind that some goals are at odds to each other.

Operating System Components and Services

We will look at the components of an operating system each in their own turn in detail,
so don’t worry at this stage about the concepts you don’t know or understand, they will be
explained later.

Note that not all operating systems have all of these components, and some operating
systems will have components that are not listed here. We will just cover the main components
that are common amongst the major operating systems:

The Kernel: The kernel is main component of the operating system. The kernel is loaded
during operating system start-up and runs for the entire operating system session.

There are various kernel designs: :Monolithic Kernel : Contains most, if not all, of its
services within kernel mode. Linux uses this type of kernel.

 Microkernel: A microkernel design removes all but the essential services from kernel
mode and executes them in user mode.

 Hybrid Kernel: A mix between the microkernel and monolithic kernel. Some services are
placed in user mode, whilst others are kept in kernel mode. Windows & Mac OSX use

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 this type of kernel design.

Kernels functions:System calls : System calls allow applications in user mode to make
calls to functions in kernel mode and execute these functions with kernel mode privileges.

 Process management: The kernel contains a process scheduler that makes process
scheduling decisions such as which process should next be given a CPU time slice.

 Memory management: The kernel contains a memory manager which, as its name
suggests, is responsible for the various aspects of managing system memory.

Interrupts:Interrupts are a crucial part of modern, multitasking operating system. Interrupts

tell the CPU to stop what it is doing and to execute some other code. Interrupts can be generated
by either software or hardware and are generally handled by the operating systems kernel.

For example, when a key is pressed on the keyboard, an interrupt is triggered so the
CPU can execute code to respond to the key press.

There is an alternative to interrupts, known as polling. Using polling the system will
constantly check back with the hardware to see if its status has changed. However, the more
practical use of interrupts has since taken over in multitasking operating systems.

Memory management: Another critical operating system service is memory management.

Usually implemented in the kernel the memory manager allocates and frees memory as needed.
Along with using physical memory the operating system can implement virtual memory. Virtual
memory is the process of swapping out parts of physical memory to disk to make way for new
physical memory allocation.

Multitasking: Most, if not all, modern operating systems implement multitasking.

Multitasking gives the illusion that multiple tasks are being completed at the same time. The
operating system does this by switching the CPU quickly between multiple processes to give the
process a time slice or “quantum” during which it can execute.

A popular method of implementing multitasking is called “pre-emptive multitasking”. In

this implementation the CPU can take control away, or pre-empt, a process in order to give a
CPU time slice to another process. For example, this pre-emption could occur when the current
processes time slice is complete or when a higher priority process is ready for execution.

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User Interface: While technically not a service of an operating system, the user interface is
still important for user facing systems. User interfaces started off as primitive command line
interfaces implemented in products such as DOS and have come through to what most of us use
today, the graphical user interface. The interface is generally implemented in the “shell”.

Other services: Disk access

 Providing the implementation of file systems and allowing disk access.

 For example: creating and deleting files and directories.

 Security & Protection

 Protecting the OS and it’s components from attacks or unauthorized access.

For example: implementing user identities.

BOOT DEFINITION

To boot a computer is to load an operating system into the computer's main

memory or random access memory (RAM). Once the operating system is loaded (and, for
example, on a PC, you see the initial Windows or Mac desktop screen), it's ready for users to run
applications.

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 BOOT LOADER

A Boot loader is a computer program that loads an operating system or some other
system software for the computer after completion of the power-on self-tests; it is
the loader for the operating system itself. Within the hard reboot process, it runs after
completion of the self-tests, then loads and runs the software. A boot loader is loaded into main
memory from persistent memory, such as a hard disk drive.

BOOTING TYPES

Cold Boot – Powering ON a computer from a no power state is a cold boot. This is
accomplished using the power button in the computer. When a cold boot is done, the memory
and the BIOS is reset. Cold boot is also sometimes referred as cold start.

Warm Boot – Warm boot is when a working computer is restarted. This can either be

done using the Restart option from the Start ? Turn Off. Or can also be accomplished by using
the key combination, ALT + CTRL + DEL.

Latest Operating systems booting with UEFI Technologies, UEFI like a BIOS Chip UEFI Boot
Process see below Picture (UEFI - Unified Extensible Firmware Interface)

Difference between BIOS and UEFI Boot Process See below Picture

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INSTALLATION OF OPERATION SYSTEM

Insert the installation disk or flash drive. To install a new operating system on
Windows, 1.you must have the operating system's install tool on a DVD or flash drive, and the
disk or flash drive must be inserted into your computer. If
you don't have a version of the operating system you want to download, you can download one
for the following operating systems:

Windows 7, Windows 8,Windows 10 and also Server Operating systems etc…..

2. Restart your computer. Press and hold your computer's Power button to turn it off,
wait for a few seconds, and then press the Power button again to turn the computer back on.

3. Wait for the computer's first startup screen to appear. Once the startup screen appears,
you'll have a very limited window in which you can press the setup key. It's best to start
pressing the setup key as soon as the computer begins to restart.

4. Press and hold Del or F2 to enter the BIOS page. The key you're prompted to press
might also be different; if so, use that key instead. This will load your computer's BIOS page,
from which point you can select your installation disk or drive. You'll typically use the "F" keys
to access the BIOS. These are at the top of your keyboard, though you may have to locate and

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hold the Fn key while pressing the proper "F" key. You can look at your computer model's
manual or online support page to confirm your computer's BIOS key.

5. Locate the "Boot Order" section. This section is normally on the main page of the
BIOS, though you may need to use the arrow keys to navigate over to the "Boot" or
"Advanced" tab. The "Boot Order" section varies from BIOS to BIOS. If you can't find your
BIOS' "Boot Order" page, consult your motherboard's manual or look up your computer model
online to find direct instruction for your specific BIOS page

6. Select the location from which you want to start your computer. In this case, you'll be
starting your computer either from the disk drive or from an external drive, such as a flash
drive.

 The disk drive option is usually labeled CD-ROM Drive, while external drives
will show up as Removable Devices.

7. Move your selected location to the top of the list. Typically, you'll press the + key
with the boot location you want to use selected until it's at the top of the "Boot Order" list.

 You can double-check the key that you're supposed to use in the legend that's
usually on the right side or the bottom of the BIOS page.

8. Save your settings and exit the BIOS. There should be a "Save and Exit" key listed in
the BIOS' key legend; press the key listed there to save your settings and exit the BIOS.

 You may have to confirm this decision by pressing Enter with yes selected.

9. Restart your computer. Once your computer begins to start up again, it will select
your disk or flash drive as the boot location, which means that it will begin installing the
operating system.

10. Follow the on-screen prompts. Each operating system will have different steps to
take when installing it, so just follow the on-screen directions to complete the installation.

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 POWERSUPPLY UNITS(SMPS)
POWERSUPPLY UNITS: A power supply unit (or PSU) converts mains AC to low-
voltage regulated DC power for the internal components of a computer. Modern personal
computers universally use switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) . Some power supplies have
a manual switch for selecting input voltage, while others automatically adapt to the mains

voltage.

Basically Two Types Of SMPS Used in Computers 1.AT SMPS, 2. ATX SMPS

Old Computer used AT SMPS with 4 values if Voltages such as +/- 5VDC, +/- 12VDC.6+6(12)
pins Two plugs Molex Power Connectors. Present Not Used

Most modern desktop personal computer power

supplies conform to the ATX specification, which includes form factor and voltage
tolerances.ATX SMPS Power Supplies support 5 values of voltages such as +3.3VDC,+/-
5VDC,+/-12 VDC. And also other convectional voltages (power good, power OK, +/-5VSB
signals) with 20/24 pins power connectors.

+3.3VDC voltages are low voltage Logic. SMPS gets power supply only when
+3.3VDC Release from Main Board to SMPS and it release main power supplies to main board.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS OF HARDWARE (COMPUTER

HARDWARE SAFETY RULES)

When installing/removing computer hardware and other peripherals:

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  Wear proper apparel. Avoid acrylic or wool sweaters when
working with electronic parts. Do not wear loose fitting clothing, rings, bracelets etc.

 Unplug all computer equipment and peripherals before opening

any covering cases.

 Keep your work area clean and well lit.

 Check for damaged parts.

 Do not force components into computer ports.

 Use an anti-static wrist strap or discharge yourself by touching a grounded metal object such as
a computer casing.

 Power supplies produce several levels of voltage. Read the information on the power supply
carefully and make sure that the power supply you are using is appropriate for the application.

 Replace all cases or coverings after inspections or installations.

 Check all circuits and installations with the instructor before power is applied.

 Retain all screws during disassembly in containers such as film canisters for
proper reassembly.

 Electronic components should never become hot. Hot components means that
there is a problem with the circuit. Disconnect any power immediately.

MOTHER BOARDS AND TYPES

What is Motherboard? A motherboard is the main printed circuit board found in general
purpose microcomputers and other expandable systems. It holds and allows communication
between many of the crucial electronic components of a system, such as the central processing
unit and memory, and provides connectors for other peripherals

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 TYPES: The most common motherboard design in desktop computers today is ATX, an Intel
improvement on the AT design by IBM. Other form factors include extended ATX mini-ATX,
microATX, BTX, microBTX mini ITX, micro ITX and nano ITX.

AT MOTHER BOARDS:In 1985 IBM introduced Baby AT and soon after all computer makers
abandoned AT for the cheaper and smaller Baby AT form factor, using it for

computers that spanned several generations, from those that used 286 processors to
the P5 Pentium and a limited number of Pentium II systems. These motherboards have similar
mounting hole positions and the same eight card slot locations as those with the AT form factor,
but are 2 inches (5 cm) narrower and marginally shorter. The size 13 × 8.5 in (330 × 216 mm)
and flexibility of this kind of motherboard were the key to success of this format. AT Power
Supplies 4Voltages.

ATX MOTHER BOARDS:ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended) is a motherboard

configuration specification developed by Intel in 1995 to improve on previous de
facto standards like the AT design. It was the first major change in desktop computer
enclosure, motherboard and power supply design in many years, improving standardization and
interchangeability of parts. The specification defines the key mechanical dimensions, mounting
point, I/O panel, power and connector interfaces between a computer case, a motherboard and
a power supply.

INTERNAL COMPONENTS OF MOTHER BOARD

1) Input/output Ports: Generally, input and output ports are placed at the very side
(back) of computer chassis. In particular, the I/O ports is built to connect the monitor, speakers,
a microphone

2) BIOS: BIOS are the short form of “Basic Input Output System.” BIOS is the
components of Motherboard, and it is positioned as the Integrated Chip

.CMOS Battery: “Complementary Metal Oxide Semi-Conductor” is abbreviated as

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 CMOS. It is a battery or cell which is featured with 3.0 Volts lithium type cell. The work of
CMOS Battery is – it helps to store or keep the information in the BIOS mode.

3. CPU Socket: CPU socket helps to install the processor into the Motherboard.
That means the CPU connects to the socket for connecting to the motherboard.

4. RAM (Memory) Slots: For installing RAM modules, a motherboard may have
more than one slots, and it is positioned near the CPU socket. In general, RAM is most needed
parts of the motherboard and it refers to Random Access Memory.

SIMM slots: SIMM is the short form of “Single In-line Memory Module.” This types
of slots can be found in older motherboards, up to 486-boards. Important to realize, SIMM slots
supports only 32-bit bus.

DIMM slots: DIMM is the short form of “Double Inline Memory Module.” It is the
most updated, well-configured and latest RAM slots and it can run simultaneously with a 64-bit
bus. Another key point, the RAM slots which is used on the Laptop motherboard is known
as SO-DIMM.

5. Expansion Card Slots:When you need to add new components to the

motherboard or if you want to update any parts of the motherboard

6. IDE / SATA /eSATA connector : IDE is the short form of “Integrated Drive
Electronics” and it is used to connect the disk drives like HDD (Hard Disk Drives),CD/DVD
Drives.

7. PCI Express (Peripheral Component Interconnect

Express), officially abbreviated as PCIe or PCI-e, is a high-
speed serial computer expansion bus standard, designed to replace the
older PCI, PCI-X and AGP bus standards.

8. USB (abbreviation of Universal Serial Bus) is an industry standard that establishes

specifications for cables, connectors and protocols for connection, communication and power
supply between personal computers and their peripheral devices.
NIC : A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network interface card, network adapter,
LAN adapter or physical network interface, and by similar terms) is a computer hardware component.

This form of RAM is more expensive to produce, but is generally faster and requires less
45 | P a g e
 dynamic power than DRAM. In modern computers, SRAM is often used as cache memory for
the CPU. DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and capacitor pair, which together
comprise a DRAM cell. The capacitor holds a high or low charge (1 or 0, respectively), and the
transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the chip read the capacitor's state of
charge or change it. As this form of memory is less expensive to produce than static RAM, it is
the predominant form of computer memory used in modern computers.

HARD DISK

The hard disk drive is the main, and usually largest, data storage hardware device in a
computer. The operating system, software titles, and most other files are stored in the hard disk drive.
The hard drive is sometimes referred to as the "C drive" due to the
fact that Microsoft Windows, by default, designates the "C" drive letter to the primary partition on
the primary hard drive in a computer.While this is not a technically correct term to use, it is still
common. For example, some computers have multiple drive letters (e.g,. C, D, and E) representing
areas across one or more hard drives. The hard disk drive
also goes by the name HDD (its abbreviation), hard drive, hard disk, fixed drive, fixed disk,
and fixed disk drive.

Hard Drive Works: Unlike volatile storage like RAM, a hard drive keeps a hold of
its data even when powered off. This is why you can restart a computer, which powers down the
HDD, but still have access to all the data when it's back on. Inside the hard drive
are sectors located on tracks, which are stored on rotating platters. These platters have magnetic
heads that move with an actuator arm to read and write data to the drive.

Kinds of Hard Drives: The computer hard drive isn't the only kind of hard drive,
and SATA and PATA aren't the only ways they can connect to a computer. What's more is that
there are many different sizes of hard drives, some very small and others rather large. For
example, the common flash drive has a hard drive, too, but it doesn't spin like a traditional hard
drive. Flash drives have solid-state drives built-in and connect to the computer through USB.

V.S.M COLLEGE MECH DEPARTMENT Page 51

Another USB hard drive is the external hard drive, which is basically a regular hard drive
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 that's been put into its own case so that it's safe to exist outside the computer case. They usually
interface with the computer over USB but some use FireWire or eSATA.

An external enclosure is housing for an internal hard drive. You can use one if you want
to "convert" an internal hard drive into an external one to make your own external hard drive.
They, too, use USB, FireWire, and so forth.

Hard disk Drives Technologies: Magnetic Hard disk,SSD (Solid State Drive),SSHD
(Solid state hybrid drive)

SSD is termed as Solid State Drive. It is like USB memory sticks but you can take SSD
large size and sophisticated USB memory sticks. SSD can not be moved as there are no
moving parts of it. The memory in SSD is stored in microchips.

If you need any information, SSD does not have to walk around anywhere to retrieve
any information, it gets it directly within. It’s a very quick way than HDD, as HDD have to
move around to get the required information.

SSD comes in standard size of 1.8 inches, 2.5 inches or 3.5 inches.

SSD works: SSD have a Controller which serves as a processor. All operations of reading and
writing are done by this Controller. SSD uses “flash memory" as RAM but SSD does not clear
the memory when power is down, the memory remains stored in it.

SSD uses grid of electrical cells to quickly recieve and send the data. These grids are
seperated by Pages. Pages are the location where data is stored. Many pages together makes a
block.

SSD only writes if any blank page is available otheriwse it does not write on already
written page. So there s no chance of data overwritting in SSD.

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 Advantages

 SSD is fast as it has no moving parts.

 As SSD has no moving parts so chances of failure is less, and this makes SSD
reliable and durable,

 No data is overwritten in SSD.

 It uses less power.

Disadvantages
 SSD is expensive to buy if we talk about money.

 It has less and limited memory space.

 It is hard to find SSD in market as its availability is not so common.

 SSD has shorter life span because its flash memory can only be used for a limited number of
writes.

SSHD – Solid State Hybrid Drive: SSHD is termed as Solid State Hybrid Drive. SSHD is
the mixture of both SSD and HDD. You can take SSHD as the ultimate solution for storage and
performance within the budget. SSHD provides you storage capacity like HDD and working
performance like SSD.It has combined the small and fast amount of NAND flash memory. The
SSHD uses SSD for lightning speed. The high capacity and reliability of HDD are integrated into
it. And the Adaptive Memory technology is introduced in SSHD.

SSHD works SSHD works by using a small amount of high-performance NAND flash memory. It
stores the most frequently used data with the help of this flash memory. With SSHD, files can be
accessed quickly as it has SSD portion of the drive which is 8 GB in size.It has a memory manager
in the hard drive, and it will identify which data and files are used most frequently and it will store
that most frequently used data and files in the flash memory that is the solid state part of the drive.
So it is very easy to access those files as your system knows all your frequently used data and files.

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 Advantages

SSHD drives are more reliable in use, as it has high speed with large space.

It spins less and parts move less.

You can easily access to those files and data which you use

frequently. SSHD lasts much longer.

SSHD is not expensive so you can easily buy it staying in your budget.

Disadvantages

The HDD portion of SSHD is made up of fragile, so there is a chance of damaging if

SSHD dropped or exposed.So this is all the discussion about three drives. I hope you have now
clear idea about each drive. If you are concerned about storage then you should go with HDD,
and if you are concerned about speed then go with SSD. Whereas SSHD is the latest
technology, so you

EXTERNAL HARD DRIVE

An external hard drive is a portable storage device that can be attached to a computer
through a USB or FireWire connection, or wirelessly. External hard drives typically have high
storage capacities and are often used to back up computers or serve as a network drive.

ASSEMBLE A DESKTOP PC
This set of instructions will help you assemble a basic computer capable of running
most modern software packages encountered by a casual user. Modern computers become more
affordable when users supplement their monetary investment with a few hours of effort. This
computer build will be very basic and will be the minimum hardware necessary to have a
functional system. After you have all of the parts and materials needed, it will take between 1

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and 3 hours to assemble your computer and you will need to be able to use simple hand tools,
such as a screwdriver and a pair of pliers.

MICROPROCESSOR

A microprocessor, sometimes called a logic chip, is a computer processor on a

microchip.The microprocessor contains all, or most of, the central processing unit (CPU)
functions and is the "engine" that goes into motion when you turn your computer on. A
microprocessor is designed to perform arithmetic and logic operations
that make use of small number-holding areas called registers. Typical microprocessor
operations include adding, subtracting, comparing two numbers, and fetching numbers from
one area to another. These operations are the result of a set of instructions that are part of the
microprocessor design

When your computer is turned on, the microprocessor gets the first instruction from the
basic input/output system (BIOS) that comes with the computer as part of its memory. After
that, either the BIOS, or the operating system that BIOS loads into computer memory, or an
application progam is "driving" the microprocessor, giving it instructions to perform.

RANDOM-ACCESS MEMORY
RAM: Random-access memory (RAM /ræm/) is a form of computer data storage that
stores data and machine code currently being used. A random-access memory device
allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the
physical location of data inside the memory. In contrast, with other direct-access data storage
media such as hard disks, CD-RWs, DVD-RWs and the older magnetic tapes and drum
memory, the time required to read and write data items varies significantly depending on their
physical locations on the recording medium, due to mechanical limitations such as media
rotation speeds and arm movement.

RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the data lines to the
addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of storage is
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 accessed by the same address, and RAM devices often have multiple data lines and are said to
be "8-bit" or "16-bit"or “32-bit”, etc. devices.

The two widely used forms of modern RAM are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic
RAM (DRAM). In SRAM, a bit of data is stored using the state of a six transistor memory cell.

Step 1: Procuring Parts

First you will need to buy the parts necessary to build the computer. The parts we will use in
this project are labeled in figure 1
1. Processor (CPU)
2. Computer Case

 Adjustable wrench
 Small container to hold screws
 Heat sink compound
 Grounding Strap

You may not use every single one of these tools in every installation, but it is best
to have all of them on hand in case you have a use for them.
Warning: Using incorrect tools for a task (such as turning a screw with a knife blade)
can cause equipment damage and bodily injury.

Step 3: Open the Case: Open the computer case by removing the side panels. Find the
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screws that hold the side panels in place and remove them. The panel is removed by first sliding
it back then lifting it away from the case

Warning: Case may have sharp edges. Handle with care to avoid injury.

Step 4: Prepare the Case for Assembly: Three things need to be done before assembly
begins: Remove any parts or packaging materials that may have been shipped inside the case .

Remove the cover for the optical drive. On our case, we will be removing the
cover on the highest drive bay to mount our DVD drive as shown in figure 7. Do this by
pressing in the retaining tabs.

Make note of the cables pre-installed in the case. These should be front panel
connections for features such as the power switch, audio jacks and usb ports. If they are
not labeled, consult the manufacturer’s documentation and label them yourself now
before other parts are installed in the case.

Step 5: Ground Yourself: Put the grounding strap on your wrist and connect the other end
to the computer case. If your strap is not equipped with a clip to hook to the case, find a place to
wedge against the metal. This will prevent any buildup of static electricity on your body from
damaging the computer components.
Caution:Static electricity can ruin computer components. Always wear a grounding strap when

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handling any internal components.

Step 6: Install Motherboard: To install the motherboard we need parts that should have
been included with your purchased components:

 I/O Bezel is a trim panel installed in the back of the case that surrounds the interface
ports on the motherboard. It should be included with the motherboard. Figure 12 shows
the contents of the motherboard box.
 Standoffs are installed in the case screw holes to create a riser that separates the case and
motherboard. The screws install into the standoffs as shown in figure 13. Screws and
standoffs should be included with the case, but it is a good idea to order these items just
in case they aren't included.
 Follow these steps to install the motherboard in the case:

1. Install the I/O bezel plate into the opening in the back of the case
2. . It pushes in from the inside.
3. Install standoffs in the case. The standoffs screw into the motherboard mounting holes
shown in figure 14. Check the screw hole locations on the motherboard for exact
placement.
4. Lower the motherboard into the case and align with the I/O bezel.
5. Install the screws.

The motherboard installed in the case. It works best to leave the screws loose until all of
them have been started and the board is aligned with the bezel.
Caution: To prevent damage to the motherboard it must only contact the standoffs and screws.
All of the standoffs and screws must be installed.

Step 7: Install Hard Drive : The hard drive is the device that stores all of your data. It is
3.5" wide and needs to be mounted so that you can gain access to the cable connections on the
back. If that is not possible you may need to connect cables before you install the drive. To
mount the drive:
drive bay to install the drive in. If you have trouble finding a place to mount the drive consult

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your case documentation for suggestions.

1. Slide the drive into place until the screw holes on the sides are lined up with the holes in
the case.
2. Install the screws.

Step 8: Install Optical Drive: The optical drive is 5.25" wide and is installed in the drive
bay that we removed the cover from in a previous step. Cable access considerations apply to this
drive also. To install the drive:

1. Slide the drive into the drive bay until the screw holes are lined up and the front of the
drive is flush with the front of the case (figure 18). Make sure that it is orientated
correctly.

2. Install the screws.

Step 9: Install the CPU: The CPU is the brain of the computer. It is installed on the
motherboard in the socket To install the CPU:

1. Find the corner marking that designates pin 1 of the CPU. On this AMD brand processor,
the corner is marked with an arrow. Consult the manufacturer's documentation for
specific information about your processor.
2. Lift the small metal rod next to the socket
3. Find the corresponding marking on the CPU socket and insert the CPU so that the
markings are lined up.
4. Push the rod down to lock the processor in place.

Step 10: Install RAM : The RAM is the temporary memory location that the processor
works from. Permanently stored data is pulled from disks and stored in RAM while the processor
works with it. The memory is easy to install:
1. Set the RAM board in the socket. Check to see that the notch in the board is in the correct
location. If it is not, turn it around 180º.

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2.Press firmly on both ends of the board to set it into the socket. Make sure the tabs lock into .

Caution: Pressing the boards in when the tab is not aligned could cause damage to the RAM
boards as well as the motherboard.

Step 11: Install the CPU Fan: The CPU fan is really a combination of a heat sink and fan
together. The unit draws heat away from the CPU . To install the fan:

1. Place thermal compound to the CPU following the instructions provided with the compound.
2. Set the fan assembly on the CPU with mounting tabs aligned.
3. Pull the locking rod down on the fan assembly to lock into place.
4. Connect the fan assembly's power connector to the motherboard. Consult the manual to
determine proper placement.

Caution: Failure to apply thermal compound will result in insufficient cooling and will cause
damage to the CPU and/or motherboard.

Step 12: Install Case Fan : The case fan is usually installed on the back panel of the case.
If the fan mount is not obvious consult the case documentation. To mount the fan:
1.Align the mounting holes by holding the fan to the mounting pad on the inside of the case as
shown in figure 25. The fan needs to be mounted so that it blows air out of the case.

2.Insert the screws from the outside of the case and tighten.

Step 13: Install Power Supply : Consult your case documentation for details and then
follow these directions to install the power supply:
1.Align the mounting holes in the case and power supply.

2. Insert screws and tighten.

Step 14: Connect Cables: With all of the components installed in the case, the jungle of
wires can be daunting. It is important to consult the motherboard manual in order to make sure
proper connections are made. There are two kinds of connections, power and data.

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METHODS OF CHECKING SYSTEM ONFIGURATION

Method – 1

Check the systems configuration and system models and bios version with DXDIAG "DirectX
Diagnostic Tool " tool

Practical Process – Go to RUN Menu – type DXDIAG then Press Enter button.

Then show Figure

Method – 2

Check the system Configuration use with Computer Properties

Right Click on Computer Click on Properties see Images

Another process

Open run menu type Control

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Click on System Option

Method - 3

Open Run Menu type CMD - then show

command prompt

Type Systemconfig Command On Dos Prompt

SYSTEM MEMORY

WHAT IS A MEMORY? Memory. Computer memory is any physical device

capable of storing information temporarily or permanently. For example, Random
Access Memory (RAM) is a volatile memory that stores information on an integrated circuit
used by the operating system, software, and hardware.

TYPES OF MEMORY:
1. PRIMARY MEMORY

2. SECONDARY MEMORY

1. PRIMARY MEMORY

Primary memory is computer memory that is accessed directly by the CPU. This
includes several types of memory, such as the processor cache and system ROM.

Example: RAM

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 Random access memory (RAM) is a type of data storage used in computers that is
generally located on the motherboard. This type of memory is volatile and all information that
was stored in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off. Volatile memory is temporary
memory while ROM (read-only memory) is non-volatile and holds data permanently when the
power is turned off.

The RAM chip may be individually mounted on the motherboard or in sets of several
chips on a small board connected to the motherboard. Older memory types were in the form of
chips called dual in-line package (DIP). The three main memory circuit boards types containing
chips are: RIMMs (Rambus in-line memory modules), DIMMs (dual in-line memory modules)
and SIMMs (single in-line memory modules). Most motherboards today use DIMMs.

TYPE OF RAM’S

o DRAM: Dynamic RAM, is made of capacitors and transistors, and must be

refreshed every 10~100 ms. It is slower and cheaper than SRAM.

o SRAM: Static RAM, has a six transistor circuit in each cell and retains data,
until powered off.

o NVRAM: Non-Volatile RAM, retains its data, even when turned off.
Example: Flash memory.

ROM (read only memory): Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it
cannot be removed and can only be read. Unlike main memory (RAM),ROM retains its
contents even when the computer is turned off. ROM is referred to as being nonvolatile,
whereas RAM is volatile.ROM is non-volatile and is more like a permanent storage for
information. It also stores the bootstrap loader program, to load and start the operating
system when computer is turned on. PROM(Programmable ROM), EPROM(Erasable
PROM) and EEPROM(Electrically Erasable PROM) are some commonly used ROMs.

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Memory Hierarchy

Cache Memory

As CPU has to fetch instruction from main memory speed of CPU depending on fetching
speed from main memory. CPU contains register which has fastest access but they are limited in
number as well as costly. Cache is cheaper so we can access cache. Cache memory is a very high
speed memory that is placed between the CPU and main memory, to operate at the speed of the
CPU.

It is used to reduce the average time to access data from the main memory. The cache is a
smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the data from frequently used main memory
locations. Most CPUs have different independent caches, including instruction and data.

Levels of memory –

 Level 1 or Register – It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that are
immediately stored in
CPU. Most commonly used register is accumulator, Program counter, address register etc.
 Level 2 or Cache memory – It is the fastest memory which has faster access time where
data is temporarily stored for faster access.
 Level 3 or Main Memory – It is memory on which computer works currently it is small in
size and once power is off data no longer stays in this memory
 Level 4 or Secondary Memory – It is external memory which is not fast as main memory
but data stays permanently in this memory.

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Uses of Cache

1. Usually, the cache memory can store a reasonable number of blocks at any given time,
but this number is small compared to the total number of blocks in the main memory.

2. The correspondence between the main memory blocks and those in the cache is
specified by a mapping function.

TYPES OF CACHE

 Primary Cache – A primary cache is always located on the processor chip. This cache is
small and its access time is comparable to that of processor registers.
 Secondary Cache – secondary cache is placed between the primary cache and the rest of
the memory. It is referred to as the level 2 (L2) cache. Often, the Level 2 cache is also
housed on the processor chip.

 Registers: Register is a very fast computer memory, used to store data/instruction in-
execution.

A Register is a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop capable of storing one bit of
information. An n-bitregister has a group of n flip-flops and is capable of storing binary
information of n-bits.

A register consists of a group of flip-flops and gates. The flip-flops hold the binary
information and gates control when and how new information is transferred into a register.
Various types of registers are available commercially. The simplest register is one that consists
of only flip-flops with no external gates.

These days registers are also implemented as a register file.

Register Transfer Language: The symbolic notation used to describe the micro-operation
transfers amongst registers is called Register transfer language.

The term register transfer means the availability of hardware logic circuits that can
perform a stated micro-operation and transfer the result of the operation to the same or another
register.

The word language is borrowed from programmers who apply this term to programming
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 languages. This programming language is a procedure for writing symbols to specify a given
computational process.

Following are some commonly used registers:

 Accumulator: This is the most common register, used to store data taken out
from the memory.
 General Purpose Registers: This is used to store data intermediate results
during program execution. It can be accessed via assembly programming.

Special Purpose Registers: Users do not access these registers. These registers are
for Computer system,
 MAR: Memory Address Register are those registers that holds the address for memory
unit.
 MBR: Memory Buffer Register stores instruction and data received from the memory
and sent from the memory.
 PC: Program Counter points to the next instruction to be executed.
 IR: Instruction Register holds the instruction to be executed.

Video Random Access Memory (VRAM): Video random access memory (VRAM or video
RAM) is a high-speed array of dynamic random access memory (DRAM) used to store the image and
video data that a computer displays. VRAM is an integrated circuit that serves as a buffer between the
CPU and video card. VRAM was originally designed as a high-resolution graphics adapter. The higher
the video memory, the higher the capability of the system to handle more complex graphics at a faster

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pace.

VRAM is also known as a frame buffer or simply video memory.

Secondary Storage Device : It is possible for a computer not to have or use secondary
storage (e.g., dumb terminal). However, for most computers and users, secondary storage is
required because of the need to permanently store some data to a computer. Without primary
storage, if you were working on a document and the power turned off, everything would be lost
because primary storage is temporary. However, a computer with secondary storage that saved
the file before the power turned off would be able to recover the last saved version of the file.

Examples of secondary storage

 Hard drive
 Solid-state drive
 USB thumb drive
 SD card
 CD
 DVD
 Floppy diskette
 Tape drive

ORGANIZING MEMORY ON BOARD

A memory unit is the collection of storage units or devices together. The memory unit
stores the binary information in the form of bits. Generally, memory/storage is classified into 2
categories:

 Volatile Memory: This loses its data, when power is switched off.

 Non-Volatile Memory: This is a permanent storage and does not lose any
data when power is switched off.

The total memory capacity of a computer can be visualized by hierarchy of components.

The memory hierarchy system consists of all storage devices contained in a computer system
from the slow Auxiliary Memory to fast Main Memory and to smaller Cache memory.

Memory Access Methods : Each memory type, is a collection of numerous

memory locations. To access data from any memory, first it must be located and then the data
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is read from the memory location. Following are the methods to access information from
memory locations:

1. Random Access: Main memories are random access memories, in which

each memory location has a unique address. Using this unique address any memory location
can be reached in the same amount of time in any order.

2. Sequential Access: This methods allows memory access in a sequence or in

order.

3. Direct Access: In this mode, information is stored in tracks, with each track
3. having a separate read/write head.
4.
5. Functions of server memory : Error-correcting code memory
(ECC memory) is a type of computer data storage that can detect and correct
the most common kinds of internal data corruption. ECC memory is used in
most computers where data corruption cannot be tolerated under any
circumstances, such as for scientific or financial computing.

6. Typically, ECC memory maintains a memory system immune to single-bit

errors: the data that is read from each word is always the same as the data
that had been written to it, even if one or more bits actually stored have
been flipped to the wrong state. Most non-ECC memory cannot detect
errors although some non-ECC memory with parity support allows
detection but not correction.

7. Remote Storages in Network: A storage server is a type of server that

is used to store, access, secure and manage digital data, files and services. It is a
purpose built server used for storing and accessing small to large amount of data
over a shared network or through the Internet

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8. A rver is typically less powerful than a standard server, but has more storage
st
space, storage access interfaces and specialized data retrieval and
o
ra management utilities. A storage server generally serves as a central point
g
of access for data storage and access. It can be used for routine or
e
s frequently used data storage and access, or it can serve as a backup server
er
for storing backup data.
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11. A storage server is an integral part of direct attached storage (DAS),
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