CORE 1 - RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

fundamental concepts of resource management

wellbeing
• defining wellbeing
• factors affecting wellbeing
– emotional
– economic
– cultural
– physical
– spiritual
– social
• individual and group wellbeing

needs and wants

• defining needs and wants
• specific needs
– adequate standard of living (food, clothing, shelter)
– health
– education
– employment
– safety and security
– sense of identity
• Maslow’s hierarchy
• satisfaction of needs and wants
– goal setting
– enhancing wellbeing

resources
• defining resources
• specific resources
– human, eg energy, knowledge, intelligence, sight, language, skills and abilities, motivation
– non-human, eg food, clothing, money, electricity, shelter
• interchangeability of resources
• resource sustainability (to conserve a resource)

influences on resource management

factors affecting resource management
• personal values and past experiences
• factors influencing availability of and access to resources, eg age, gender, disability, culture, socioeconomic status
• access to support
– informal, eg relatives, friends, neighbours
– formal, eg government agencies, community organisations

personal management skills

• planning and organisation
• communication
– verbal and non-verbal
– assertive, aggressive, passive
– characteristics of effective communication
• decision making
– decision-making styles –
impulsive, intuitive, hesitant,
confident, rational
– factors influencing decision making
• problem solving

effective resource management

strategies for effective resource management
• using interchangeable resources
• adopting sustainable behaviours
• accessing support
• developing personal management skills
• engaging in education or training

interviews as a primary research method

• constructing, conducting, recording responses
– structured and unstructured
• advantages and disadvantages
• analysing research results
Fundamental concepts of resource management wellbeing

Acronyms
TYPES OF GROUPS - REASONS FOR PERSONAL FACTORS CAUSES OF
FROCCS GROUP FORMATION - THAT CONTRIBUTE CONFLICT - VILIIME
F FAMILY/FRIENDS CROSSLINGS TO ROLES - BEECHES V VARYING VALUES
R RELIGION C CULTURE B BELONGING I INCOMPATIBLE
O OTHER R RELIGION E ESTEEM GOALS
C CULTURE O OTHER E EDUCATION L LIMITED
S SPORTING S SECURITY C CULTURE RESOURCES
S STUDY/WORK S SEXUALITY H HEREDITY I INDIVIDUAL
L LOCALITY E EXPERIENCES DIFFERENCES
I INTEREST S SELF CONFIDENCE I INEFFECTIVE
N NEEDS COMMUNICATION
G GENDER M MULTIPLE
S SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS

SOCIAL FACTORS POWER BASES - FACTORS

THAT CONTRIBUTE CERRL INFLUENCING
TO ROLES - MARG C COERCIVE LEADERSHIP - KART
M MEDIA E EXPERT K KNOWLEDGE AND
A ATTITUDES R REFERENT SKILLS
R RELATIONSHIPS R REWARD A ATTITUDES OF
G GENDER L LEGITIMATE INDIVIDUALS
R RELATIONSHIP OF
GROUP MEMBERS
T TYPE OF TASK

Wellbeing Wellbeing - the degree of satisfaction an individual or group experiences when their needs are met.
• defining wellbeing

Factors influencing
Wellbeing (SPEECS) SPEECS
• factors affecting wellbeing
– emotional Social Factors relating to interaction with other people
– economic An individual who belongs to a group through school, friendships, sport or work, for
– cultural example, has the opportunity to communicate and interact with others. This gives a
– physical feeling of being wanted, which has a positive effect on wellbeing.
– spiritual
– social Physical Factors relating to physical health and safety
Often physical issues can affect other factors. Eating well and feeling physically can
contribute to our resistance to sickness and our ability to deal with problems that may
occur. A student who eats nutritious foods, sleeps well and exercises regularly is likely
to cope better during high-stress periods; for example, when studying for exams.

Emotional Factors relating to feelings

• Attachment and bonding, giving and receiving love and affection, feeling a sense of
belonging
• Security and stability within the family unit and social group
• Receiving encouragement
• Promotion of a good self-image and self-concept

Economic Factors relating to finance

There is a relationship between economic situation and wellbeing. An individual in a
well-paid job is more likely to have an adequate standard of living, be able to meet all of
their needs and consider satisfying a range of wants. Conversely, an individual with little
nancial income may have poorer
housing and less ability to meet basic needs, such as access to medical services. This
will affect many aspects of wellbeing

Cultural Factors relating to customs, beliefs, values and traditions

The individual involved in cultural activities has a greater sense of identity. There is a

• individual and group wellbeing
Needs and Wants
• defining needs and wants
• specific needs
– adequate standard of living
(food, clothing,shelter)
– health
– education
– employment
– safety and security
– sense of identity
sense of
belonging that also provides emotional security.
Spiritual Factors relating to moral and/or religious areas
A person with spirituality may experience greater peace and emotional stability. They
may experience a sense of belonging within their community. The family may have
beliefs around healthy living and having effective social relationships. Spirituality may
also be experienced through nature, art and music, or found through relaxation and a
connection with the mind, body and soul through yoga or meditation
The interrelated nature of the factors that affect our wellbeing is illustrated in the following example: a person
who loses their job (economic factor) may have a lowered self-esteem (emotional factor). Because of their
reduced income, they may decide to cancel their gym membership (physical and social factors), which will
impact upon their overall wellbeing.
Group wellbeing is reliant on the wellbeing of the individuals within that group
Groups can aim to enhance individuals levels of wellbeing by accessing resources to satisfy the needs of
group members
Groups can also aim to improve individual members levels of wellbeing by providing comfort in the
environment so that people feel secure enough to express their opinions
A need is something that is necessary for survival and overall well being.
A want is something people desire and through which make life more pleasurable, but not necessary for
existence.
Our decisions are often based on both needs and wants… e.g. we need to eat, but the food we chose to eat
is based on what we want to eat.
SHESEAS
Safety and Security Our desire to feel protected and safe from threat.
- Being protected from exposure to the weather
- Being protected from potential theft, burglary or physical harm
- Community groups contribute to safety and security needs through various
services: phone calls to the vulnerable
Health A person’s perception of wellbeing. There are many dimensions of health:
physical, social, emotional, mental and spiritual. Wellbeing can be achieved
through a balance of these dimensions.
- Comforting a friend with depression
- A person fell and hit their head and is able to access the hospital quickly and
with medicare.
Education The action or process of learning; of acquiring knowledge and skills. An
individual with a higher level of formal education is more likely to have access to
higher levels of economic resources, housing, health care and other things that
contribute to wellbeing. Education is also important in terms of ensuring families
and individuals know what resources are available to them, and how to access
them, to satisfy a broader range of needs
- Schools, TAFEs, community colleges and universities
- Listening to experts
Sense of Identity An individual’s idea of who they are, and can influence confidence and
self-esteem. It is shaped by the roles an individual plays in all areas of their life,
including their family, work, and social life.
- Employment - some person can't work on a particular day and one of their
workmates covers for them.
- Life experiences
- Someone who is confident because they participate in a sport which they enjoy
doing
Employment An activity to which one devotes time and requires exerting energy towards a
 goal for payment, profit or commission.
Adults require employment to meet the basic need for an adequate standard of
living and, often, to provide for a family. Older adults can feel a sense of
belonging and significance when they are involved and respected in the
workplace
- A person working at the grocer so that they can pay for what they want
- A person going to university to receive a degree and then they can provide for
their family

Adequate Standard of Primary needs – food, clothing and shelter – that are required by all people
Living - St Vincent de Paul and government agencies such as Centrelink can assist
people to meet these needs
- Food: Knowledge, availability and accessibility are issues that may affect food
choices. At different stages of the life span and with different health conditions,
food requirements may change.
- Clothing: is needed to protect us from the weather. Some people also meet the
secondary need of status, by wearing particular clothing brands
- Shelter: in the form of housing, offers security and safety, and can contribute to
and reflect our identity by allowing individuals a place for self-expression.
Housing needs to be both affordable and accessible to individuals and families

• Maslow’s hierarchy Maslow believed that the needs at the base of the hierarchy have to be met before a person could begin to
meet the needs at the next level.

The way self-actualisation is expressed will change over a person’s life span as circumstances and
interests change. For example – someone striving to be an Olympic Athlete, may reach this
goal and then strive for a Medal placing. Not all people reach their potential and consequently never
experience overall optimal well-being.

The Indian leader, Mahatma Gandhi, frequently sacrificed his physiological and safety needs for the
satisfaction of other needs when India was striving for independence from Great Britain. Gandhi fasted for
weeks to protest government injustices. In this instance he was operating at the self-actualisation level
without meeting basic physiological needs.

• satisfaction of needs and Goals

wants Goals are the objectives that we aim for in life. They are the targets that direct an individual’s
– goal setting activities and energies and often reflect the values and needs of individuals and families.
– enhancing wellbeing
The SMART goal-setting technique
S Specific
M Measurable
A Attainable
R Relevant
T Time-bound

Resources
• defining resources
• specific resources
– human, eg energy,
knowledge, intelligence, sight,
language, skills and abilities,
motivation
– non-human, eg food, clothing,
money, electricity, shelter
• interchangeability of
resources
• resource sustainability (to
conserve a resource)
Factors affecting resource
management
• personal values and past
experiences
Short term goals
Short-term goals can be achieved quite quickly over a span of a week or a few weeks and are often
relatively easy to achieve
- Finishing a particular assignment for a course at school, having friends over for dinner or arranging a
child’s birthday party
Medium term goals
Medium-term goals are usually achieved over many months. They are more complex than short-term
goals, but short-term goals may need to be achieved first.
- preparing for and obtaining a driver’s licence and the Independent Research Project that may take you
one term in Year 12 to complete
Long term goals
Long-term goals usually reflect those values held as most important by an individual or family. They may
take many years to achieve
- Paying off a home, planning to have children, planning for retirement or completing a degree at a tertiary
institution or TAFE.
Short and medium-term goals often need to be met before long-term goals. For example, a short-term goal
of completing a résumé may be part of a medium-term goal to obtain a part-time job, which may be part of a
long-term goal to save to travel overseas for an extended period of time
Resources - Things people use to achieve goals
Resources can be classified based on whether they are internal or external
These resources can have a great influence on wellbeing and a great impact on an individual’s life.
Human resources - or internal resources include energy, knowledge, intelligence, sight, language,
skills and abilities and motivation.
Non-human resources - or external resources include food, clothing, money, electricity and shelter.
The term 'interchangeability' means exchange of resources for goods and/or services.
Interchanging often involves trading something unwanted for something wanted or needed.
eg. A neighbour may require babysitting in exchange for mowing the lawn.
Interchangeability also means a resource’s ability to be used in a number of ways. eg in the
wilderness, a woman might use a towel to dry herself but might also use it for shelter and to keep
warm.
Resource sustainability - To conserve a resource
The term ‘sustainability’ means effective and efficient use of resources to ensure they are available for future
use.
Influences on resource management
Values - ​The qualities that an individual or family believes to be desirable and important in life
Values influence:
- priorities of our needs and wants
- the goals that we set and how they are achieved
- they motivate actions
- behaviours
- the standards by which we judge the success of goals
Personal values are developed early in life as a result of interaction with parents, grandparents and other
significant people and/or groups, such as teachers and friends. Values are often stable and may remain
constant throughout life; for example, honesty and self-respect. Yet other personal values evolve with
experience and can change over time; for example, independence that becomes cherished as a result of
extensive overseas travel or creativity derived from skills developed through further education at university
or TAFE. Values of a personal nature may also be derived from culture, religion or the experiences of your
generation.
• factors influencing availability
of and access to resources,
eg age, gender, disability,
culture, socioeconomic status
• access to support
– informal, eg relatives, friends,
neighbours
– formal, eg government
agencies, community
organisations
Personal management
skills
• planning and organisation
• communication
– verbal and non-verbal
– assertive, aggressive,
passive
– characteristics of effective
communication
GASCD
Age Young people can have limited access to resources because they have limited
knowledge of the services that are available and limited access to funds. Older
people can have limited access to resources due to limited skills for accessing
modern-day services, such as the internet.
Gender People can have limited access to resources that are gender specific.
For example, compared with males, females might find it easier to access
resources such as support networks because of the differences between the two
genders’ communication skills and ability to express their feelings.
SES (Socio-Economic People with a low socioeconomic status have less financial resources with which
Status) to access resources. They may have lower levels of education and limited
knowledge about resources. On the other hand, people with a higher
socioeconomic status are able to afford more resources, may be
more knowledgeable and may have access to stronger support networks.
Culture People can be influenced by their culture and/or religion when they are accessing
resources. They might be unable to access a specific resource because they are
subject to cultural restrictions, and conversely, they might be entitled to access a
specific resource because of their culture. Also their ability to communicate might
be affected by a language barrier.
Disability People who have a disability can have limited access to resources because they
might not be able to travel or to obtain information easily. Conversely, they might
be entitled to resources that other people cannot access.
For example, they are eligible to receive the Disability Support Pension.
Support network - People who are close to you, such as family, or who are part of an organisation helps
you through a difficult time.
Informal support: consist of people who know the person requiring assistance personally. they feel
comfortable discussing issues that they would not discuss with a stranger. Eg relatives, friends, neighbours
Formal support: are organisations that exist specifically to cater for particular needs. Eg government
agencies, community organisations, charities.
POIP
Planning Deciding the outcome, what outcome is to be achieved and setting specific
goals for the outcome.
Organising Creating a strong structural sequence of steps to help organise your notes
Implementing Carrying out steps in order to achieve the desired outcome
Evaluating Assessing the outcome if the goal was achieved or not achieved
Verbal Is the basis for communication between people. It can be ‘oral communication’ or ‘written
communication’.
- Oral communication is voice based - face to face, via phone or video (zoom, Skype) and
depends on various vocal elements such as pitch, volume, speed and clarity.
- Written communication is text-based - mail, email or online chat.
Non-verbal Non-verbal communication includes physical actions and body language; part of a
message that does not contain any words
- It is conveyed through gestures, such as arm/hand gestures, facial expressions
(sighing, laughing, frowning); eye contact, avoiding eye contact, glaring, personal space
and clothing.
- Signals can also be sent through paralanguage, this includes tone of the voice, speed of
delivery or breaks in sentences
 - Non-verbal communication is a powerful form of communication and usually
accompanies verbal communication. It can also contradict the verbal messages. (eg:
sarcasm)

Assertive Individuals express their feelings in an acceptable, non-aggressive, positive manner,

and state their rights, opinions, knowledge, requests or desires without hurting or
depreciating others.
- Stand up for their own rights and recognise the rights of others, are ready to
listen to one another, as there is mutual respect, recognise the feelings of others
and the context in which conversations occur

Aggressive A person’s feelings are expressed in an intimidating manner, sometimes denying the
listener an opportunity to participate in the discussion.
- Stand up for their own rights, make decisions that may not consider the rights of
others and dominate and do not listen to other

Passive Individuals fail to express their feelings, needs and ideas.

- Ignore their own rights and allow others to infringe on their rights, do not state
their own needs, ideas or feelings, are emotionally dishonest with themselves to
be seen as polite
Characteristics of effective communication
• Effective communication ensures that the message is delivered correctly and is understood.
• Ineffective communication can lead to many problems, such as misunderstanding and misinterpretation.
So, it is essential for delivering a clear message. It is important to:
• maintain eye contact, use suitable body language, use silence appropriately, ensure understanding,
summarise major points, encourage the speaker, ask fitting questions.

• decision making
– decision-making styles
–impulsive, intuitive, hesitant,
confident, rational
RIICH
– factors influencing decision
making
CAAPS
RIICH
Rational This style is based on sensible and reasonable decision-making. These people collect
sufficient information and carefully consider the possible outcomes of each alternative.
They recognise that values and emotions can affect decision-making and therefore try to
avoid this influence.
Impulsive This style is based on spontaneous decision-making; making decisions without giving
much thought to each alternative and its outcome; the decision is made hastily and
insufficient information is collected.

Intuitive This style is based on instinctive decision making; people base their decision on their
‘gut feeling’. It very much depends on how they ‘feel’ about a particular alternative.

Confident This style is based on positive and certain decision-making. These people believe in and
trust in their ability to make decisions. They feel competent to make a wise choice
between alternatives.

Hesitant This style is based on cautious decision making; people tend to delay making a decision.
They are indecisive about which alternative is best and procrastinate about making the
choice.

CAAPS

Complexity Some decisions are easily made because the outcome is clear. For example, “I feel
of the hungry this morning so I think I will have some breakfast.” More complex problems require
problem the decision maker to analyse and investigate the situation.
For example, a father has been offered a job promotion interstate and must consider all
the consequences of accepting or declining the offer for his family.

Access to Decision-making depends on the resources available. The alternatives will differ,
resources depending on the available resources.

Attitudes to Some people have difficulty accepting change and therefore make decisions that help
 change them avoid facing new challenges. This has the effect of limiting their potential life
experiences. Good decision-makers embrace change, as long as it is a positive change,
and strategically consider ways to manage the potential negative aspects of decisions that
involve change

Past - Human values can be viewed as a significant determinant in the decision-making

experiences process.
and All decisions boil down to a choice among alternatives of what is most valued. Values are
personal arranged in a constantly changing order of priority.
values People do what they think is best, and that “best” is determined by how their values are
arranged at that particular point in time and what they see them to be in the future.
- Past experiences can affect decision-making because we compare the previous
alternatives and the outcomes. Positive past experiences will encourage us to repeat a
decision whereas negative past experiences will influence us to avoid making the same
poor decision again.

Sociocultural - Socioeconomic status can also influence decision-making, as individuals may have
factors limited access to resources
- Education can be an influencing factor, because people can have varying ability to make
rational decisions.
- Gender also has a role, due to the expectations that are placed on decision-making.
- Family, media, peers, culture and religion can also influence decisions and how people
feel about their decisions.

• problem solving Problem Solving may be defined as a method for analysing a situation, generating possible solutions and
evaluating the options. People will handle problems or situations differently, because everyone has different
wants and needs. There is no right or wrong way to solve problems, but the following useful advice contains
some strategies to try and some to avoid:
Steps In Problem Solving:
Identify the problem
Identifying the problem involves conscious defining the problem and recognising the need to take
control of an issue. Question words, such as who, what and why may help define the problem.
Explore alternatives
Outline each alternative’s advantages and disadvantages. Try to identify and evaluate the possible
outcomes of each. Be aware that this evaluation process will be influenced by your values and standards.
Carefully considering potential consequences can contribute to wise decision-making at this step
Select an option
This step involves you choosing the most appropriate option – the one that best satisfies the initial
need or that solves the problem.
Implement the solution
Once an option has been selected, you need to implement your solution in the most effective and
efficient way
Evaluate
After the solution has been implemented, you need to evaluate the results to see how well your
solution solved the original problem. This will mean looking at both positive and negative outcomes.

Effective resource management

Strategies for effective Resources can have alternative uses, so individuals must make decisions about the best use of resources.
resource management An individual’s values in relation to resources will inuence how they use and allocate resources. For
• using interchangeable example, a certain amount of money may go towards an item of clothing, a ticket to a music festival, a
resources savings account or a debt. Given the same amount of the same resource, different people will often use it
differently

• adopting sustainable Behaviours that promote the longevity of different things. For example, taking care of resources so that they
behaviours are not wasted (saving money and budgeting so it doesn’t run out or using solar power to preserve the
environment).

• accessing support make a list of people in your support network, catalogue different avenues of support (finding details of
websites, phone numbers, email addresses, hotlines), be supportive to those close to you

• developing personal Personal management skills refers to planning, organisation, decision making, finding
management skills solutions to problems and communicating with people around you. These personal

• engaging in education or
training
• constructing, conducting,
recording responses
– structured and unstructured
• advantages and
disadvantages
• analysing research results
management skills are used in day to day life and can come into action when deciding
upon small things such as what music we will listen to or larger and more well thought
out decisions like where to purchase a house and settle in.
An example demonstrating this process is a family deciding on what they will spend their money on
regarding food; will the family spend slightly more money to purchase fresh produce and cook healthy
nutritious meals or will they spend less money on foods that lack nutritional value and
therefore are unable to provide fuel for their bodies.
To build on and further current knowledge and to learn new skills and information.
Interviews as a primary research method
Interviews - the asking and answering of questions.
Constructing the interview: it is essential to plan and prepare for the interview; interview questions should
be suitable and meaningful.
Advantages Disadvantages
- Qualitative and quantitative data can be collected - They are more time consuming compared with
- In-depth information can be gained other means of research such as questionnaires
- They can be flexible in order to suit the direction - The results are difficult to compare because
of the interview interviewees’ responses can vary considerably
- One result can be subjectivity, which is judgement
based on personal opinions/ feelings
- Nerve racking and stressful for both the
interviewer and the interviewee
• For interviews, data analysis begins soon after the interview when you read over your notes.
• This analysis includes looking for trends or patterns and looking for recurring themes.
• The easiest way to analyse the results is to categorise the research into groups eg date, age, gender,
length of interview, most to least emotive.
• Finally, use descriptive words, for example, ‘The results indicate that….’
• The results can be presented in a number of ways: in written form, such as a report or in the form of a bar,
line or pie graph, depending on the data recorded.
 CORE2 - INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS

Learn about: Learn to:

groups in the community

types of groups
– family and friendship groups • explore various types of groups in the community and explain why each group has formed
– sporting and leisure groups
– study and work groups
– religious groups
– cultural groups
– other specific groups within the community

reasons for group formation

– locality/geography
– gender • critically examine groups to which they belong by:
– shared interest/common goal – identifying the type of group
– security – explaining why each group formed
– sexuality – justifying why they belong to each group
– specific need
– social interaction
– culture
– religion
– other

roles individuals adopt within groups

specific roles of individuals • compare the specific roles various individuals adopt within a range of
• the specific roles adopted by individuals in groups school and community groups
– to ensure tasks are achieved • determine the specific roles they adopt in the groups to which they
– to maintain/build relationships belong and propose how and why their roles may vary
– to influence the group’s progress • explore how individuals can influence a group’s progress and discuss the impact this can have on group
• norms, conformity, and cohesiveness within and among groups cohesiveness

factors that contribute to the role they adopt within groups

• personal factors
– self-esteem
– self-confidence • assess the extent to which personal factors impact on the role they adopt within groups
– sense of belonging
– education
– heredity
– previous experience • explain how social factors contribute to an individual’s sense of belonging within a group
– culture • critically examine the impact of gender expectations on the specific
• social factors roles individuals adopt within groups
– relationship with group members
– attitudes of group members, eg peer acceptance
– gender expectations
– media • observe the specific roles various individuals adopt within groups, and present research findings

observation as a primary research method

• conducting and recording observations
• advantages and disadvantages
• presenting research findings • evaluate the impact of power bases used by individuals in a range of
groups
power within groups
power bases
• legitimate
• reward • assess the role of self-leadership in contributing to positive interpersonal relationships and task
• coercive achievement
• referent • compare styles of leadership and assess the effectiveness of each in a variety of situations, eg small
• expert workplace, committee
leadership
• self-leadership
• leadership styles, eg autocratic, democratic, laissez faire, transformational
• leadership adaptability and flexibility • justify the importance of leadership adaptability by examining how each factor can influence different
styles of leadership
factors influencing leadership
• type of task
• knowledge and skills within the group
• attitudes of individuals within the group
• relationship between group members
• explore conflict within groups by collecting and recording data from
conflict within groups existing case studies
case study as a secondary research method
• collecting and recording data
• advantages and disadvantages • analyse the impact conflict has on groups by:
– identifying examples of group conflict
causes of conflict – recognising the causes of the conflict
• incompatible goals – analysing the extent of the impact on wellbeing
• individual differences/personality
• limited resources
• ineffective communication
• varying values
• multiple role expectations • propose reasons why conflict resolution has different outcomes for
various groups and determine the impact on group wellbeing
conflict resolution • investigate a current conflict between two groups in the community and evaluate the extent to which
• process support people can assist in conflict resolution
– negotiation, agreement, resolution
• role of support people, eg mediators, advocates
• outcomes of conflict resolution
– win-win
– win-lose
– lose-lose

SYLLABUS
 Acronyms

Social factors that Personal factors that Types Of Groups

contribute to roles contribute to roles
MARG BEECHES FROCSS

B Belonging M Media F Family/Friends

E Esteem A Attitudes of group R Religion
E Education members; e.g. peer O Other
C Culture acceptance, C Culture
H Heredity R Relationship with S Sporting
E Experiences group members S Study/Work
S Self-confidence G Gender
expectations

Reasons for group Causes of conflict Power bases Factors influencing

formation leadership
CROSSLINGS VILIIM CERRL KART

C Culture V Varying values C Coercive K Knowledge and skill

R Religion I Incompatible goals E Expert A Attitudes of individuals
O Other L Limited resources R Referent R Relationship between
S Security I Individuals differences R Reward group members
S Sexuality I Ineffective L Legitimate T Type of task
L Locality communication
I Interest M Multiple expectations
N Needs
G Gender
S Social

Groups in the community

Types of groups

There are 6 main types of groups:

Family & friendship, Sporting & leisure, Study & work, Religious, Cultural, Other specific groups in the community

Types of groups

Family & friendship groups

- ancestry, marriage or adoption are the most common of primary, or major, group types, Friendship groups,

Sporting & leisure groups

- long term or transitory.
- Their primary purpose is to provide a fun and interactive way for members to get fit and healthy or to engage in activities that address
personal wellbeing.
- Members often rely upon each other for motivation to continue the activity, through regular, scheduled meetings.
- age specific (e.g. Little Athletics, University of the Third Age), location specific
(e.g. surf lifesaving clubs), competitive (e.g. triathlon clubs) or creative (e.g. scrapbooking,
art and photography clubs).

Study & work groups

- pairs or groups of students, who study, problem-solve and assist each other with their
learning
- service work groups, who engage in labour for the good of others (e.g. international aid
and charity organisations)
- squads, who work together as a team to accomplish goals (e.g. Streamwatch program volunteers).

Religious groups
Formed around the common beliefs, traditions and values held by a specific doctrine or faith. Different religious groups hold differing
religious philosophies,but they all share the primary mission to promote spiritual growth and nurture the individual and their community.
 Cultural groups
Cultural (and ethnic) groups are based on the geographic area in which a group originated or developed. They share social and cultural
characteristics. Classification is based on self-perceived group identification; that is, the extent to which an individual associates with a
specific cultural group’s ideals and philosophies.

Other specific groups in the community

In order for aspects of our wellbeing to be equitably addressed and satisfied, the need to create specific groups has become imperative.
Such is the growth of minority groups.The world is filled with examples of those who suffer because they are part of a minority.
Health, financial status, age, education, gender and class may each be the basis for the formation of a group.
- There are support groups for men, sole parents, bushfire victims, and people with health issues such as cancer, depression, diabetes and
dementia. Volunteer groups, such as St Vincent de Paul and the Australian Red Cross

Roles individuals adopt within groups

Group effectiveness
To fully understand the study of group effectiveness, communities and families, it is important to appreciate the factors that contribute to an
individual’s positive wellbeing. The wellbeing of individuals, and so the contributions that they are able to make to a wider group, depends on:
• the satisfaction of their needs
• comfort in their environment – physical and socioemotional
• autonomy, or their ability to have some control over their destiny
• their ability to communicate effectively and elicit a response.

Reasons for group formation

Membership is generally based on shared values, goals and belief systems. The main outcome of membership is enhanced
individual wellbeing. Self-confidence and self-esteem are recognised benefits that an individual enjoys when they are part of a
larger group. Ultimately it is the satisfaction of needs that underpins the formation of many groups

10 reasons for group formation:

Locality/geography, Gender, Shared interest/common goal, Security, Sexuality, Specific needs, Social interaction,
Religion, Culture, Other reasons

Reasons for group formation

Locality/geography
Members live in a specific region, area or geographical place
Bra-boys, bushwalking group, friendship group,

Gender
Events and venues may be more attractive to one gender than the other, or may be restricted on the basis of gender; for example, gyms,
governing bodies deliberating on demands for equality among the sexes.
Mums groups, women's dance club, gender specific schools

Shared interest/common goal

Individuals tend to seek out others with similar values, interests and goals. Other examples of groups forming on the basis of a common
interest to achieve a specific goal are women who attend a weight-loss group and bikers who ride together to raise funds to fight childhood
cancer.
Collect stamps, music, bike riding, travelling, cooking

Security
The need for security is an identified need on the second level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
- Individuals more often choose to form groups by living in close proximity to others to realise their need to feel safe and secure.
- Community health, emergency and welfare services further work to enhance this need.
- Ageing individuals may choose to live in retirement villages or enclosed compounds to feel a greater sense of security.
- An individual living alone will feel increased security if other individuals or groups live nearby.
Welfare services, retirement villages, neighbourhood watch

Sexuality
Gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and intersex (GLBTI) individuals may form social groups in response to their shared values, beliefs and
experiences.
Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras, gentlemen’s clubs
 Specific needs
Individuals from all walks of life have specific needs based on their economic, physical, cultural, socioemotional and intellectual situations.
Local communities and welfare groups provide the opportunity for reformed alcoholics, gamblers and drug addicts to meet to work through
their problems, outdoor fitness group

Social interaction
Groups generally share common values, goals, beliefs and standards. They may be long term or transitory.
Football, cafes, parks, shopping centres, YMCA

Religion
Australia populated by people from over 200 different countries, it follows that values, beliefs and religious
Worship, church, salvation army, chrisitianity

Culture
Reflect on and celebrate one’s culture, or the traditions practised in an individual’s country of origin, Cultural practices, when acknowledged
and shared within a group, serve to enhance individual and group wellbeing.
Food festivals, cultural dance, Australia day, st patrick's day, harmony day, Chinese New Year

Other reasons
Associated with heightened esteem and serves to enhance the self-confidence of an individual. Allows an individual to achieve
self-actualisation and, ultimately, self-transcendence
Sporting: coaching a younger sporting team, tutoring a younger student, volunteer service work in impoverished regions, teaching English
and establishing schools

Norms, conformity and cohesiveness

A Norm is a standard of behaviour that is considered to be normal in a particular group or society.
Conforming is behaviour that follows the usual standards that are expected by a group or society
A group that is cohesive is one to which the members of a group find staying together to be in mutual interest.
A group that observes a common set of values/norms that are accepted by all members is likely to be effective and cohesive and all members
are likely to be working towards common goals.
Norms, conformity and cohesiveness are often linked to the values of the community in which the group is located. This allows groups to
coexist.
When there aren’t any norms, there is often no cohesiveness or goals and this can cause disharmony in the community - violence, vandalism
etc

Factors that contribute to the role they adopt within groups

An individual may be impacted by several factors as they fulfil their role within a group. An individual with high self-esteem or a
very assertive person may be less influenced, however we are all shaped by external factors, whether they are positive or
negative

Personal factors that contribute: BEECHES

Personal: sense of belonging. self Esteem, Education, Culture, Heredity, Experience, Self confidence,
Social factors that contribute : MARG
Social: Media, Attitudes of group members; e.g. peer acceptance, Relationship with group members, Gender
expectations
Factors that contribute to the role they adopt within groups

Personal

sense of Belonging
When an individual identifies with a group, they feel like they are ‘fitting in’ with others; they feel that they ‘belong’ and their input is valued.
This gives rise to higher levels of personal fulfilment, giving their lives greater meaning
The individual who belongs to a sporting team, actively engages in fundraising to assist with the refurbishment of the club house, and makes
working bees a high priority

self Esteem
Self-esteem refers to an individual’s self-perception, self-value or self-worth
Individuals with high self-esteem will generally be more outgoing and self-assured, and will project confidence when in the presence of
others and they will feel greater ease when taking on challenges

Education
a group member may not have academic qualifications, their life experiences may be just as valuable.

When groups of students engage in camps. The outdoor skills possessed by some may not be learned in the classroom but are indeed
valuable in terms of the group’s survival

Culture
Culturally determined behaviour within groups may be misunderstood if it is not discussed within the group itself. Cultural awareness
programs are immensely valuable, as they enable group members to gain an understanding of the norms, values and social cues exercised
by group members.

Heredity
Factors such as the physical appearance of an individual (for example, hair colour) are passed down from one generation to the next via
genes. Intelligence and an individual’s personal disposition are also shaped by hereditary factors. Whether an individual suffers from an
illness, such as cystic fibrosis, haemophilia or muscular dystrophy, is determined by genetics; such illnesses have a negative impact on an
individual’s development.
An individual’s temperament is hereditary; temperament is unquestionably something that will impact group progress and even the very
formation of a group

past Experience
Lessons learned from life events, past encounters, workplace roles, and interactions with others are all examples of previous experience,
and may shape the way individuals act and interact within a group. The impact of previous experience may be negative or positive
An ineffective boss may cause an individual to have difficulty respecting authority. Equally, the positive experience of working within an
efficient and dynamic team may lead an individual to implement the strategies they learned in a new context

Self confidence
The relationship between self-confidence and self-esteem is very close. If individuals are confident with their own abilities, they are more
likely to take on challenges. An effective leader is generally self-condent. Success experienced when realising a goal helps an individual to
increase self-confidence and thus self-esteem

Social

Media
Media motivates and influences our thoughts and actions. It may be used constructively to educate the people, or destructively to mislead
the innocent. Through the media – information is altered quickly and is available to a great number of people. The media shapes our
day-to-day life by keeping us informed.
Thus, in a group situation, all members may hold an opinion that is coloured by media reports. Alternate points of view may cause conflict
and fractured relationships within the group.

Attitudes of group members; e.g. peer acceptance

Our acceptance within a group is generally determined by the degree to which people of a similar age (our peers) accept us. Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs shows that we need love and belonging to feel a sense of acceptance. If we are not accepted, rejection will impact on
our self-esteem and self-confidence.
Individuals (particularly children and adolescents) willingly amend their actions and preferences to match the norms of the groups they
belong to.

Relationship with group members

Group members are connected by the relationships that they have with one another. This is commonly referred to as ‘group cohesion’. If
members of a group have strong ties, where everyone is connected through informal socialising, then one would expect heightened
solidarity, trust and support. The opposite applies for a group of individuals with fractured relationships.
Employ strategies that reinforce our perceptions of masculinity or femininity.

Gender expectation
Consider the parents of a long-awaited child; Female: the nursery is decorated in pink, with ribbons, bows and butterflies. She will like dolls,
dress-ups and make-up, will have soft skin and always be clean.
Male: receive gifts wrapped in blue. A truck would be the designated toy, the sandpit would be the ultimate play area and getting dirty would
be expected.
Males and females are more frequently taking on shared parenting roles, and this in turn gives rise to the formation of a different collection
of groups.
Observation as a primary research method
• conducting and recording observations
• advantages and disadvantages
• presenting research findings

Conducting and recording observations

• Observation involves watching and recording what is observed whilst respecting ethics and privacy therefore permission must be gained
prior. Observations can reveal a lot about group dynamics
• Studies that involve an analysis of the interactions of individuals and groups are more likely to utilise qualitative research methods as
opposed to quantitative.
• Qualitative methods of research are more subjective and include such methods as case studies, interviews, questionnaires and
observations. It aims to gather non-numerical data.
• Observation methods require researchers to check for non-verbal indicators of feelings and determine interaction patterns.
• Whilst observing, a researcher is able to collect data on group dynamics.
• Observation is open to bias so there needs to be a diligent and systematic recording process.
• Prepared recording sheets should be used instead of phone/tablets.

Participant Observation – involves the researcher taking part in the group and observing from within.
• Better access to the group and therefore gaining more knowledge and greater disclosure from the group.
• Group members may detect what the researcher is there for and may not act naturally. The researcher’s presence and actions actually
influence the group dynamics.
• It is very time consuming as the researcher needs to become a part of the group and then carry out the observation.

Non-participant observation – involves the researcher observing the group without participating in it.
• The researcher is more objective and it is easier to record what is seen.
• Group members' actions are often influenced by the fact that they know they are being observed.
• The researcher may unwittingly interact with the group. It is time consuming and requires a lot of patience

Sociograms are effective means of reporting observation. They provide a convenient way of summarising and analysing various types of
group interactions and relationships. By drawing sociograms members are better able to understand and analyse the dynamics of their group.
Thye display conflict, power, friendship and social isolation

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantage Disadvantage
• Provides opportunity for viewing or participating in unscheduled • Bias in the recording of events viewed
events • Gender may restrict access to certain information
• Allows for richly detailed description • Lack of trust in the observer by those being observed
• Provides direct access to the social phenomena under • Can be very time consuming
consideration • The presence of the observer may influence the behaviour of those
• Provides a permanent record being observed

Presenting research findings

Observers should make use of a ‘field book’ to record all sessions. The use of photographic observation with supporting comments also adds
validity to findings.
• Notes should include the date, time of observation, and environment. Data may be presented according to key characteristics in tables,
graphs and summary items. Flow charts, spreadsheets, sociometric models, tables and articles may all serve to present findings.
 Power within groups

Power is a person’s ability to do something or get something done. Power and control are often interchangeable when it comes to the role of a
leader.
A person’s power might be related to their dominance, intensity, ability, energy, influence or control. An individual with power can influence and
sway others to conform to their wishes.
Power can be attributed, where group members recognise or perceive strength or abilities of an individual as an effective leader. This may be
based on their professional status, education or organisational experience. Power may also be actual power, where an individual brings about
change by making use of their own resources

Power bases
A power base describes the origin (or base) of power. It impacts on group dynamics, in that the leader is able to exert influence
in accordance with their own capabilities and strength.

Power bases: their relationship to roles : CERRL

Coercive, Expert, Reverent, Reward, Legitimate

Power bases

Coercive
A coercive power base is derived from the ability of a leader to give or take away privileges or rights,and so influence group behaviour. This
power may be used in either a positive or negative way. An example is parents who threaten to ground their children if they misbehave.

Expert
An expert power base comes from the knowledge or expertise of an individual in a given field. Group members may look up to the leader
for guidance because they hold the leader’s knowledge in high regard.
University professor may exert expert power over a class of first-year students

Reverent
A referent power base comes from followers of an individual’s looks or attributes (e.g. in social media, where individuals ‘follow’ or ‘like’
others). Such power often encourages followers to strive to look like or copy the leader (e.g. in pop culture, where a rock star’s fans copy
the star’s dress and image).
Kylie jenner, Michelle Obama, Tiktok stars (Charli D'amelio)

Reward
In a reward power base, the leader is able to give merit/an award.
This could be used by a teacher who gives gold stars for good work, or a boss who has jurisdiction over pay increases for extra work

Legitimate
A legitimate power base comes with a designated position, usually agreed or voted on by the community members or governing body.
School prefects, the local mayor and the Governor-General

Leadership
• self-leadership
• leadership styles, eg autocratic, democratic, laissez faire, transformational
• leadership adaptability and flexibility

Within the group, the leader will have a direct and indirect effect on the group as a whole. Leadership can be assumed, where an individual
takes on the role without discussion or it is negotiated, ie it is agreed upon. Leadership involves getting the commitment of all members of the
group to work towards achieving group goals by influencing, guiding and directing the group. A good leader is able to motivate the group, be
decisive and consistent.

Characteristics of a leader:

Self-leadership
Self-leadership applies to individuals who have a developed sense of who they are, possess a surety of their knowledge and capabilities and
have a clear vision of their goals– either their own or those of the group they are leading. Such leaders are able to effectively use
communication, emotions and behaviour throughout the leadership process to ensure that the final outcome is positive for all.
• A heightened sense of wellbeing is typical of a self-leader. Their enthusiasm and vision is often infectious and serves to carry others along in
the process of achieving goals

Leadership styles
Leadership styles

Style Characteristics Outcomes and impact on group wellbeing

Autocratic (hierarchical) • Directive • Reduces individual creativity

• Determines how things will be done
• Does not involve members in decision-making
• Maintains leadership at all times
• Task focused
• Demanding/impatient
• Erodes performance
• Little regard for members’ skills/
values/ideas
• Punishes workers frequently
• Conflict in workplace
• Members cease to contribute
• Decreased self-esteem and confidence

Democratic (collaborative/shared)
• Willing to share leadership role • Builds trust and mutual respect
• Involves group members • Encourages group decisions (but may be
• Considers people and tasks as equally important time-consuming)
• Consults group members • Empowers group members
• Changes role according to progress of project • Considers feelings of individuals
• Listens carefully to each member • Considers opinions of all members
• Increased communication
• Less conflict
• Members feel valued

Laissez faire (autonomous) • Non-directive • Workers not motivated

• Allows members to decide on processes
• Not task oriented
• Minimal or no input in to group process
• Avoids making decisions
• Fails to recognise worth of members
• Lack of group cohesion
• Chaotic workplace
• Consequences often not desirable
• Groups more likely to break up
• Low productivity
• Worth of members not recognised

Transformational • Inspirational • Encourages higher levels of group and

• Communicates vision individual achievement
• Convincing/compelling • Enhances levels of voluntary support
• Encourages re-thinking • Increased productivity
• Coaches members to take on greater • Effective and satisfying to work for
responsibility • Heightens members’ self-esteem and
• Stimulating self-worth
• Praises members for effort

Leadership adaptability and flexibility

• A good leader should be able to adapt their leadership style depending on the situation and circumstances.
• The ability to effectively communicate is most important.
• A leader should be knowledgeable, approachable and flexible.
• An effective leader should be able to ‘read’ the group and be aware of the needs and emotions of group members.
• Good leaders bring people together; they are motivational and inspiring.
• Leaders lead people; they are focused, visionary, whereas managers manage tasks; they are task oriented and mindful of deadlines.
Factors influencing leadership

Factors that influence leadership : KART

Knowledge and skills within the group, Attitudes of individuals within the group, Relationship between group members, Type of
task

Factors influencing leadership

Factor Explanation

Type of task Task-oriented leaders may adopt an autocratic style for giving instructions in an emergency. Tasks
range from high level/urgent to typical (e.g. leadership during a crisis as opposed to leadership during
a social meeting).

Knowledge and skills within the This is an internal factor. Large teams may have members with varying levels of skills. This may
group require the leader to adopt a more directive style, providing clear communication and guidelines to
ensure that everyone knows what needs to be done in order to achieve goals. If the team has
individuals who are highly skilled and capable, then the style may change to become more democratic
or consultative

Attitudes of individuals within the A leader’s personal values are derived from attitudes about themselves – this is described as their
group self-concept. Individuals in a group similarly possess a self-concept. This correlates with self-esteem.
Attitude has a huge impact on the culture, environment and mood of a group. The attitude of group
leaders and other members spreads and affects others in the group dramatically

Relationship between group The relationship between the leader and the group itself is significant. A leader who believes strongly in
members teamwork may adopt a democratic style, with each group member contributing to decisions. This may
pave the way for group harmony, but does require constant feedback to ensure that all stakeholders’
needs are affirmed.

For groups with a transformational leader, where members are encouraged to self-manage, the
relationship will be quite different; each member will be working towards their own transformation both
for themselves and for the group as a whole. If not managed, this may create a competitive
environment between group members. On the other hand, it may allow members to share leadership
responsibilities, thus succeeding with a democratic or laissez-faire leadership style

Conflict within groups

Case study as a secondary research method
• collecting and recording data
• advantages and disadvantages

Advantages and disadvantages of Case studies

Advantages Disadvantages

• A lot of detail is collected.
• A sample population can be surveyed when large populations
are not available.
• General predictions are possible.
• A hypothesis can be developed and then tested.
• Behaviour is described as it occurs.
• The researcher controls the situation.
• Data collected may not necessarily be valid for the wider population.
• Danger of data bias when only one person is collecting.
• Hard to draw denite cause/effect from one case study.
• May be time consuming and difficult to analyse.• Vital information may
be missed.
• Behaviour exhibited may be different to that displayed in the natural
environment.

A case study is a long and detailed primary research method. A case study looks at an individual or a group, such as a family in depth. It can
be used to collect data; it can be used to provide information which allows you to examine the inner workings of a situation. When a number
of parallel case studies are carried out the data can be used to analyse or form generalisations. Case studies often combine a number of
research methods for eg, interviews, observations and questionnaires.
Case study as a secondary research method
When conducting research, you will use a combination of primary and secondary research methods.
A case study is an example of a primary research method; that is, the data collected are in a raw format
and have not been gathered or written by another party.
A case study allows you to focus on a specific aspect of your topic. Thus the data collected are generally
rich in detail and contain information that provides a deep insight into the situation surrounding the object of your study.

Collecting and recording data

The purpose of a case study is to observe or gather data about a specific individual or group; the data therefore cannot be applied to a wider
population. Neither can the data be interpreted with relation to your personal stance, or bias, on the situation. Being objective means the
integrity of the case study data is maintained.

Causes of conflict
• incompatible goals
• individual differences/personality
• limited resources
• ineffective communication
• varying values
• multiple role expectations

Causes of conflict
Conflict may be constructive and result in enhanced self-esteem, or it may have a negative impact on individuals and groups and so be
viewed as destructive. Conflict that either causes a group to disintegrate or prevents/diverts the group from continuing in its role or direction is
considered to be disruptive.Individuals usually form groups because they share common values, standards and beliefs with other members of
the group. Conflict may occur when there is a difference of opinion based on these values, standards and beliefs. Such conflict will directly
impact on personal and group wellbeing.
An individual or group that avoids conflict will experience wellbeing in the short term. They may be able to achieve goals or succeed in
satisfying needs and wants to their liking; however, if they are likely to meet or be confronted by the stressors again, they will inevitably suffer
in the long term. The situation is more likely to intensify and become more difficult to resolve; time may be spent on hypothesising over likely
scenarios; personal resources, such as leisure time and health, may be affected as stress levels increase; and others may be negatively
affected as they deal with the moods and anxiety of the individual who fails to recognise the importance of resolving the conflict.

Causes of conflict

Cause of conflict Definition Example

Incompatible goals Conflict caused by 2 individuals/parties that strive An individual may experience indecision relating to
for different goals prioritising short- or long-term goals; for example,
saving for a new car vs going on a family holiday

Individual Conflict can exist through clashes of opinion which An exuberant and loud individual may cause a shy,
differences/personality involve an individual’s values and standards and withdrawn person to feel threatened.
their needs to strive for goals. Personalities may
differ ie aggressive/passive

Limited resources This may cause conflict when individuals or groups A young single-income family may experience
are faced with how to use their resources to best conflict when deciding on resource allocation.
achieve their needs or wants.

Ineffective communication A breakdown in communication ie listening, A person who sits and watches television instead of
sending, messages may cause conflict. Where communicating with their partner may feel isolated.
messages are received in a negative way, conflict
may occur.

Varying values Differences in values lead to different actions by Teenagers who value the company of friends will
individuals and thus can be a cause of conflict experience conflict when they are grounded or have
their phone taken away.

Multiple role expectations When pressure is put on an individual to perform A working parent may experience conflict in juggling
numerous roles this may cause stress and lead to many roles and responsibilities at work and home.
conflict. Communicating and role descriptions can
help.
Conflict resolution
Process
– negotiation, agreement, resolution
• Negotiation – is a process by which 2 parties who consider they have to be jointly involved in the making of a decision but who at first may
have different objectives, seek through argument and debate to resolve their differences in order to arrive at a mutually agreeable decision
• Mediation – the 3rd party, a mediator will help resolve conflict by ensuring the parties involved are listened to and treated fairly. In mediation
the resolution of the problem is decided by someone other than the two parties involved eg committee, umpire
• Agreement – this is the final outcome of the problems which are decided upon. The agreement of the problem which is reached will then be
implemented. The agreement will be made either after negotiation between the 2 parties or by the mediator
• Resolution – is the process of resolving a dispute or conflict by providing for the needs of the disputing parties and addressing their interests
so that they are satisfied with the outcome.

Outcomes of conflict resolution

Advocates, mediators and support personnel each play a somewhat similar role with respect to conflict resolution. Their primary aim is to
represent and work with an individual or group who may need support and encouragement to ensure that their rights are upheld. Such support
people assist in understanding the issue at hand by listening; asking questions to gain clarity; providing strategies to resolve problems;
discussing consequences that may arise from courses of action; supporting or acting as advocate if the a person is unable to speak for
themself; and provides information and referrals to other agencies until the matter is resolved.

Outcomes of conflict resolution

Win-win, Win-lose, Lose-lose
Outcomes of conflict resolution

Win-win Win-Lose Lose-lose

• Goals of both parties are maximised.
• A collaborative problem-solving
strategy is employed.
• Both parties confront the problem
rather than each other.
• The needs of each party are
considered, to allow for a mutually
agreed decision.
• The long-term relationships of parties
are paramount.
• Communication is open and direct,
resulting in trust and acceptance rather
than suspicion.
• This strategy requires a high degree
of patience and skill in problem-solving.
• This is the most common outcome and reflects
the competitive nature of people and society as a
whole; i.e. the greed, dominance and aggression.
• The decision is often made through socially
acceptable mechanisms such as judges, votes
and authoritarian leaders.
• This sometimes involves threats and bribes,
involving the belief that the end justifies the
means.
• It creates an ‘us and them’ mentality.
• The victor may gloat; the loser may shrink or
retire to lick their wounds.
• The loser may seek reprisal.
• The outcome may cause intergroup conflict.
• The disagreement is seen as inevitable, so
conflict is smoothed over in the least painful
way – with neither party as a victor.
• Each party gets some of what it wants and
resigns itself to partial satisfaction.
• It is often used to divide limited resources.
• The parties involved may not have the skills
needed to pursue the conflict resolution
process further to allow for a mutual decision.
• It is sometimes used to prevent a win–lose
situation from occurring.
 CORE 3 - FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES

Family
Acronyms
Family Structures - Levels Of Community Roles Individuals Adopt Influences On
Snacks For Bed! Organisation - In Families And Socialisation - Mr
S Same Sex L Local Communities - Hopp
N Nuclear S State S Satisfying Needs M Media
A Adoptive N National B Building Relationships R Relatives
C Childless G Global P Promoting Wellbeing H Health Professionals
C Communal O Online Networks
K Kinship P Print/Digital
S Sole Parent P Paid Carers
F Foster
B Blended
E Extended
D De Facto

Family My own definition: A group of people who rely on one another strongly and have a deep connection with
• defining family one another. Families today come in different forms, definitions and are constantly changing.

Studies undertaken by AIF show that according to children, family is:

- Someone they see frequently
- Carers who live in the same household
- People who will assist you in times of need
- Marriage being the act that creates a family
- Source of support
- There to provide love

• the Australian Census A family is two or more people, one of whom is at least 15 years of age, who are related by blood, marriage
Dictionary glossary definition of (registered or de facto), adoption, step or fostering, and who are usually resident in the same household.
family

Family structures
• adoptive Family structure Description
• blended
• childless Adoptive Adoption is an option whereby permanent care is provided for children who are
• communal unable to live with their birth families. It is a legal process where all legal rights
• de facto and responsibilities are transferred from birth parents to adoptive parents
• extended ➔ Function - to take in children who have been neglected and provide them with
• foster a home, love and care
• nuclear Adoption numbers have declined 50% over the past 25 years, from 668 in
• same-sex couple 1995-96 to 334 in 2019-20
• sole parent
• kinship Blended A blended family is a couple family that contains both a natural parent and
step-parent – that is, a blended family has at least one child who is the biological
child of both parents and at least one child who is the stepchild of either parent.
➔ Function - spending time developing a relationship with your stepchild will lead
to better relationships within the whole family

Childless A couple with no children (of any age) present is known as a childless family.
Childless couples can be childless for a number of reasons. It may be a
temporary stage prior to beginning a family, the children may have left the family
home or there may have been the death of a child. In other cases, some couples
have made a conscious choice regarding children: they understand the economic
and emotional demands of parenting and consequently have little desire to be
parents themselves.
➔ Function - to fulfil the emotional support, companionship and material
resources for the family members
 In 1997, 41.2% of Australian couples were childless and in 2007 this grew to 47.1

Communal A communal family is a group of families, or individuals either related or

unrelated, living and sharing resources together. Resources that are shared
include food, child-rearing, social life, living space, decision-making and usually
political or religious ideology.
➔ Function - serve the purpose for the people involved, provides a bridge for
people to enter mainstream society

De Facto A de-facto family is where a couple of the opposite or same sex live together in
the same household but are not married to each other; they are partners,
common-law husband and wife, lovers, boyfriends or girlfriends.
Young people are studying, travelling and starting their careers prior to getting
married, house and rental prices are extremely high and returning home to live
with parents may not be an option. Moving in with a partner becomes
advantageous nancially, emotionally and physically.
➔ Function - allows for parties to merge their lives together for all practical
purposes

Extended One core family plus at least one relative living in the same house.
↳ eg. A grandparent, aunt, uncle or cousin
➔ Function - allows for them to work together towards common goals eg raising
children and keeping up with household duties.

Forster When children and young people, through no fault of their own, cannot live with
their own parents or families. Foster carers can provide short- or long-term care.
Non-biological children, needing care, are placed with another individual or family
(regardless of structure) for an unspecified length of time.
➔ Function - providing the child with a safe, nurturing environment to grow up in
where they can learn and develop.

Nuclear A nuclear family can be viewed as a heterosexual couple and their offspring.
While nuclear families are traditionally the norm and are still the most common
family structure, it is the family structure type that statistically has the lowest
growth rate. Declining marriage rates and fertility, rising divorce rates and other
social trends mean that a reduced number of people will live in the family norm in
the future
➔ Function - to meet the needs of society and its members. Draws attention to
the positive aspects of family life and allows for a place where children are safe
and cared for.
In 1997, 43% were a nuclear family that included children who were 15 or
younger. In 2016 this plunged to 37% with dependant children

Same-sex couple A same-sex couple can be dened as two people of the same-sex in a sexual
relationship, living either with or without children.
➔ Function - providing appropriate structure for children, being caring, accepting
and warm and allowing the child to grow safely.
In the 2016 Census, 10484 dependant children under 25yrs old were counted as
living in a ‘same sex couple’ family.

Sole-parent A sole-parent family consists of a lone parent with at least one dependent or
non-dependent child (regardless of age) living in the household.
↳ eg. Divorce, separation, death of a partner or the use of artificial reproductive
technologies
➔ Function - to raise the child single handedly, to be nurturing and warm, to
provide attention, positive praise and to encourage good behaviour creating a
sense of security.
When only one adult member is living in the household, they take on all the roles
traditionally expected of two parents: financial responsibility, domestic labour,
child-rearing and, ultimately, all other family functions.
2011 Census, 24.3% lived with one natural or adoptive parent
2016 Census, 15.8% of families in Australia were one parent families

Kinship Australian Aboriginal kinship care is ‘provided by a person who is a relative,


Roles individuals adopt
within families
- satisfying specific needs
- promoting wellbeing
- building relationship
• satisfying specific needs
SHESEAS
How the different family …
considered to be family or a close friend or is a member of the child or young
person’s community’.
Australian Aboriginal kinship care is ‘provided by a person who is a relative,
considered to be family or a close friend or is a member of the child or young
person’s community’.
➔ Function - to ensure the best possible lifestyle is provided to the children of
the family
SHESEAS
Safety and security People have a need to feel protected and safe from threat. This need
covers important physical, emotional and financial aspects.Housing
provides an element of security and safety. When a family has access to
shelter, in an area considered to be safe, they are meeting their security
and safety needs.For adults of all family structures, stable and secure
employment is important. It Provides financial support, which in turn creates
an element of security because family members know they will have money
to buy food, to pay the mortgage and to pay for schooling and recreational
needs. This will ensure emotional security.Rules, limits and supervision will
significantly reduce younger family members’ security and safety risks (e.g.
road safety, cyber safety and risk-taking behaviour), and will aid in the
development of their decision-making skills regardless of family structure.
Health Health is understood holistically; it includes both the physical and mental
condition of a person. A family’s values regarding health will influence their
choices in regard to diet and exercise, regardless of family structure.For
those who are health conscious, diets will consist of foods that have
complex carbohydrates, are high in fibre and low in fat, sugar and salt.
Exercise, where possible, will be prioritised. Parents may make time for
physical activity and children and teens may participate in organised sport.
Families will have regular health and dental checks and will likely recognise
any health problems early.Health choices will rely on financial resources –
private health care may be difficult to afford for low-income earners. Though
this does not depend directly on family structure, some structures have
greater earning power.
Employment Employment refers to being engaged in paid work. The earning power that
comes from employment may be crucial to fulfilling any number of the other
specific needs.A person’s earning power and employment opportunities are
related to their skills and abilities, rather than their family structure.
However, family structure may influence work hours and patterns (e.g.
full-time, part-time or casual).Within families, it is most often the adults who
are employed but, for some families, adult members may not be able to
work; in these situations, adolescents may gain employment to help support
the family. It is important to remember that earning power and
opportunities for employment come from an individual’s skills and
abilities; family structure will not influence this.
Sense of identity This is your idea of who you are. It can be influenced by family structure,
but is more related to the relationships around you and how you are
able to form them. Adult family members model behaviours that
dependants adopt. As children age, their personalities and identities evolve
due to other influences, such as peer groups, schools, the media and
other significant people in their lives (e.g. sporting coaches or
religious leaders). Culture will also influence who you are. Customs,
languages and traditions will influence friendships, hobbies and
extracurricular activities. While peer groups, schools, the media, significant
others and culture do not influence family structures, certain family
structures may place different values and ideals on these factors, which will
influence a sense of identity.
Education Education refers to learning knowledge and skills. It can be met through

• building relationships
• promoting wellbeing
Communities
Communities
• definitions of a community
• reasons for community
formation,eg common
interest/purpose
formal education (e.g. school) or informal education (e.g. life experiences).
Regardless of family structure and financial resources, all children aged
5–17 must be in some form of government-approved schooling.The value
placed on education will impact on where a child goes to school and the
rules and limits set regarding school and homework. A child’s life
experiences may relate to their family structure; this, as well as the
influences of culture, holidays, interests and meeting different people, will
expose family members to an informal type of learning.
Adequate standard of Having an adequate standard of living (including having food, clothing and
living shelter) is important to everyone. No family structure is immune to financial
crisis or trauma. Earning power and stability in earning power is usually the
responsibility of an adult family member, and will generally dictate a family’s
standard of living. Where there is a family member who is unable to work,
the family can access government payments to ensure it has an adequate
standard of living. Many charity groups also assist in meeting this need, but
this requires family members to reach out and seek help.
: Relationships are built through the interactions between individuals
- Relationships can develop through the way in which individuals are treated and the ways, standards or
boundaries they uphold for themself
- A way of encouraging the building of relationships includes demonstrating how to act appropriately with
others
- Relationships between family members are characterised by:
• showing respect for others
• having trust and confidence in each other
• sharing a purpose, intention or aspiration
• being open and honest in communication.
↳ eg. a parent may teach their child manners and the skill and capacity to share with others in order to build
relationships
: An interaction between two or more people where one member helps or encourages another to achieve
and practise a healthy sense of wellbeing.
- Role modelling healthy behaviours that lead to positive wellbeing
- This can be evident in all types of relationships
- Periods of ill being will continue until needs – such as security, safety and health – are met
- Community support services (formal resources) are available for families experiencing periods of ill being.
These resources come in a range of forms, from those that are free to access (for example, online forums
and telephone hotlines) to those that are expensive (for example, private specialists).
↳ eg. a parent offering their children a healthy snack of fruit or vegetables rather than ice cream, providing
them with knowledge about what foods are healthy and beneficial for one’s health and
those that are not
- includes enrolling or encouraging someone to play a sport or engage in
some form of physical activity
Definition: A group of people living in the same place or having a particular characteristic in common.
People may belong to a number of communities through school, social life, cultural life and sporting
activities.
Geographic reasons
Communities that are developed as a result of where they are situated. As geographical locations
become urbanised, communities are formed.
Hiking, surfing, ski, Canberra
Interest-based reasons
Developed due to the shared interests and needs of individuals.
 Communities form on the basis of culture, religion, politics, business, sport, leisure, recreation, music,
craft or friendship. Communities are predominantly linked by social and emotional bonds.
Harry potter, disabilities, sole parents, mums n bubs

Other reasons
Cultural/ethnic
Influenced by the shared beliefs and values of individuals. May promote the traditions and customs of a
culture or ethnicity and encourage participation
Chinese new year, greek communities
Sexual based
Individals who share the same sexual beliefs and preferences.
Homosexual

Questionnaires as a
primary research method
• developing reliable questions
Questionnaires are a research tool used for collecting primary data. The data collected may be qualitative or
quantitative.
- When researchers are using the qualitative method, they can use questionnaires to ask respondents
open-ended questions when an in-depth answer is required; they enable the respondents to convey their
values, ideas and opinions.
- The researchers can then analyse the responses that are either in support or in opposition to the
researchers’ hypothesis.

Questionnaire definition: A set of formally prepared questions that seek information on a person’s
knowledge, beliefs, feelings, opinions, likes or dislikes; it is completed by the respondent.
Survey definition: A set of formally prepared questions that seek information on a person’s knowledge,
beliefs, feelings, opinions, likes or dislikes; it is filled in by the researcher after asking the respondent
question.

Developing reliable questions

It is important to include questions that:
• Are easy to understand
• Use clear, simple language
• Ask only one question at a time
• Are listed in a logical order

Closed questions
Elicit a limited range of responses. They are often easier to collate and interpret.
A check box, frequency or Likert scale (such as never/sometimes/always), attitudinal scale (strongly agree
through to strongly disagree).
Open-ended questions
Provide the opportunity for an open response that is not guided by the researcher. A line or space is
provided on the questionnaire for the respondent’s answer; for example, ‘Why are informal support networks
important to your family? ______’

• collecting and recording data Qualitative

Your research data for this questionnaire activity will most likely be collected as quantitative data because it
is in a numerical form.
It can be counted and then presented in:
• graphs – bar, line or pie
• tables with statistics or percentages.

• advantages and The advantages and disadvantages of conducting questionnaires:

disadvantages
Advantage Disadvantage

• Questions can be designed to collect both
quantitative and qualitative data
• It is quick to distribute to respondents
• Data can be collected from a large group of
people in a reasonable timeframe.
• Questions are completed by respondent and
avoid interviewer bias
• Closed questions are easy to tally and present
statistically.
• Questions may be misinterpreted and cannot be
explained to the respondent
• It requires respondents to have satisfactory
literacy skills.
• The amount of information collected can be
limited
• It is time consuming to design questions and
present them neatly
• If there are too many questions or too many
 • Quantitative data is easy to interpret details required, respondents may not participate or
• Each respondent is given an equal opportunity to complete the questionnaire
respond to each question, providing greater • The researcher has to wait for responses to be
reliability. returned

Levels of community There are 4 levels of community organisation:

organisation
• local Levels of Local State National Global
• state community
• national organisation
• global
Description of Deliver services Provides services Services provided Provide services
government direct to the to all people who by the australian and support to
organisation residents of the live within that government to people regardless
community state. residents of of where they live
It could be free australia in the world
(school) or
charged (public
transport)

Example Bush care Hospital, transport, Bank, laws Refugee

volunteers, education,
Doctors, police force
Dance school,
parking police

Areas of Enhance their Meeting a need, Armed forces, Promote rights,

responsibility area and provide medicare, make sure specific
services to the needs are met
area to meet
specific needs,
Build relationships

Services that are provided for communities

Transport
Education
Counselling
Health care
Financial support
Accommodation and hoisting
Legal aid
Employment

Roles groups adopt within
communities
• satisfying specific needs
Perhaps the most highly prioritised role for community groups is the provision of resources required to
achieve an adequate standard of living for both individuals and families.
- Food may be made available in numerous forms, such as fresh food or pre-prepared meals during crisis or
emergency relief periods, daily drop-in centre meals or food parcels.
- Shelter services may focus on emergency or temporary accommodation for sufferers of homelessness or
domestic violence.
- Clothing is commonly collected from donations and re-distributed through ’opportunity’ shops, often with
up-cycling or recycling tips.

Health, education and employment needs can also be satisfied by community groups that specialise in a
specific area.
For example:
• beyondblue and the Royal Flying Doctor Service specialise in health
• Life Education and the Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden Foundation specialise in education
• Disability Employment Australia and YWCA NSW specialise in employment

• building relationships Relationships between individuals or within groups can take countless forms. Whether the relationships are
within families, between friends, at school, work or for leisure, or are short term or enduring, their
effectiveness can ultimately define the quality of an individual’s life.
 Positive and effective relationships within community groups are often characterised by:
• showing respect for each other
• having trust and confidence in each other
• sharing a purpose, intention or aspiration
• being open and honest in communication.

• promoting wellbeing
A sense of wellbeing can be very personal, but community groups have a role in promoting a positive
concept of wellbeing through their engagement with individuals and families. In times of hardship, promoting
wellbeing will emerge as part of providing a supportive environment; that is, developing caring relationships,
promoting a sense of connection and belonging, and satisfying specific needs.
Sometimes the role of a community group is focused on educational, social or recreational purposes (e.g. a
PCYC basketball program), and therefore the promotion of wellbeing may not be clearly visible. In this case
it is more likely to be holistic and integrated within routine activities, coaching, games and subsequent
interpersonal relationships.

Type of community Satisfying specific Building relationships Promoting wellbeing

group needs

Community Provide actual needs Support through Provide clothes (health)

Charity group(e.g. The (food and clothing) and conversations and social (talking), sense of
Smith Family) money chechens identity

Religious group (e.g. Raise money Hold events where Social wellbeing
The Salvation Army) people are able to come (talking)
together

Health services group Foundational mental Build a community Overall wellbeing will be
(e.g. beyondblue state and educational around those people benefitted
and information

Emergency services Emergency care, aids Encouraging the quality Being available in
group(e.g. Careflight) recovery and diversity of the emergency situations,
workplace, donations having someone they
can count on

Decision making in Legislation

communities • The development and implementation of laws that can be debated and voted on. Things such as land-use
• influences on decision making zones, protection of the natural environment, noise pollution, child protection and industrial relations are
– legislation examples of legislation
– environmental factors Environmental factors
– lobbying and community • Decisions about community resources need to be made after considering its possible impact on the
petitions environment
– protesting Lobbying and communities petitions
• When a group of people tries to influence the decisions of local, state or federal policymakers
Protesting
• A declaration of disapproval to a behaviour or act that a person is otherwise limited in there ability to
prevent or avoid

• processes
– arbitration Decision making processes
– consensus The type of decision-making process selected will be influenced by the nature of the issue, the complexity
– election of the decision and the target group involved; resources, such as the amount of time and money available
– voting to support the decision-making, must also be considered. The following decision-making processes are
– referendum examples that are commonly found in community groups.

Arbitration
Arbitration is a process that seeks to resolve a dispute. First, evidence is presented and a discussion is
had between the different parties. Then, a ruling is made by the chairperson (arbitrator). This decision is
legally binding.

Consensus
Consensus aims to include everyone in the decision-making process. Opinions are discussed and any
objections are resolved so that widespread agreement is achieved without taking a vote
 Election
The election process gives individuals an opportunity to express their views and be involved in the
decision-making process by choosing (voting) for one option over another. The choice may be public
(seen) or private (unseen).

Voting
A vote is a formal expression of an individual’s choice in a decision-making process. It may be for or
against a proposed motion, a certain candidate, a selection of candidates, or a political party.

Referendum
A referendum aims to include all adults in an electorate in the decision-making for an important policy
proposal or change in the constitution. It requires the support of a two-thirds majority to be successful.
The declaration of change can only come about if there is a double majority vote – this means that more
than half of the population have to agree to the change, and half of all the states need to agree to the
change (so, in Australia, 50 per cent of the population in four or more states need to agree to the change).

Managing change in families and communities

Nature of change
• internal and external Types of change In families In communities
• planned and unplanned
• temporary and permanent Internal • Marriage Refer to internal change in
Change that happens within the • Divorce families
group • Birth of a child
• Adoption
• Change of address

External • Economic change: reduced Refer to external change in

A change in the wider community
that has influenced the
functioning of a family.
economic activity can lead to families
unemployment
• Legal change: maternity leave
entitlements, Family Law Act
parenting orders
• Social change: delayed
marriage ages, greater
acceptance of gay and lesbian
relationships/marriage
• Technological change:
smartphone technology has both
enhanced and reduced
communication within families
and communities
• Demographic change: improved
public health has increased male
and female life expectancy
• Environmental change: natural
disasters, such as flood and
global warming

Planned • Retirement A demographic study that shows

A change that occurs with prior
knowledge. Aspects of the
decision-making process have
occurred prior to the
implementation of the change.
• Marriage population growth or reduction
• Adult children or aged parents can influence the diversity of
moving in services available in
• Child leaving home to attend communities (e.g. medical
university facilities, leisure centres).
• Re-partnering

Unplanned • Death of a spouse or family Natural environmental disaster

A change that is unexpected, so member • Flood, cyclone
a response to the change cannot • Illness or injury • Fire
be prepared in advance • Homelessness • Drought
• Unplanned pregnancy Unnatural environmental
• Unemployment disasters, such as gas
 explosions, bombings, air, water
and food contamination

Temporary • Treatable illness, such as • Seasonal unemployment

A change that lasts for an chickenpox or a broken leg • Road detours due to
unspecified period of time. • A young adult moving back construction
Members can see a possible home to save money
return to routine. Such change
can last for a couple of days to a
number of years

Permanent • Divorce or death of a family Growth of new industry (e.g.

A change that lasts forever member agricultural, mining,
• Parenthood manufacturing)
• A serious injury, such as • Infrastructure change, such as
paraplegia a new motorway bypass
• New service, such as a
swimming pool
• Drought

Impact of change on • family and community wellbeing

families and communities
• family and community Positive Negative
wellbeing
• legislation
Families • Joy/happiness • Severe grief/loss/injury
• environmental
• Resilience, personal strength and • Mental illness
• roles individuals adopt
empowerment • Extreme financial cost/burden
• technology
• Identification of support

(FLERT) Communities • Increase employment • • Decreased employment opportunities • •

Community attraction Unattractive community
• Increase in social network • Decrease in social networks
• legislation
Laws and regulations form a framework for protecting public health, safety and morals, and for advancing
the general welfare of the population through the protection of people’s fundamental rights and basic
liberties.

• environmental
All communities experience some amount of environmental change. Some changes occur over a short
period, and are expected and cyclical; for example, seasonal variations in temperature or rainfall.
Responses may also be planned by local governments or community groups, to reduce the impact of
environmental damage upon families and communities. Examples are the New South Wales Rural Fire
Service’s back burning hazard reduction and the promotion of bushre survival planning.

• roles individuals adopt

The circumstances that cause change to family member roles may also determine whether the roles
individuals adopt are temporary or permanent. In either case, a family adapting to change may have to
evaluate and reallocate responsibilities associated with particular family roles. Often responsibilities will be
taken on according to individual suitability rather than traditional stereotyping. For example, if a husband’s
role is that of the main income earner, a retrenchment may lead to an increase in his responsibilities
satisfying specific needs, doing the weekly shopping and preparing meals. When a new family forms due to
remarriage, a step-parent may wish to enhance their relationship with their stepchildren through interaction
and communication.

• technology
During circumstances when families and communities are experiencing change, technology is able to
perform various functions. It is possible to enhance wellbeing by:
• Connecting individuals and communities
• Providing services
• Enabling procedures, systems or techniques to take place
• Providing access to learning and education.
Types of support Informal
• informal, eg relatives, Informal support can come from people such as relatives, friends and neighbours. Relatives provide and
friends,neighbours receive support and assistance from family members who reside either within the same household or in
• formal, eg government another household. Friends and neighbours may also provide support and assistance; for example, they
agencies, community may share childcare duties or be available for a social chat
organisations
Formal
Formal support comes mostly from government agencies or community organisations; for example,
childcare facilities, recreational and sporting facilities, employment agencies, community centres, social
security allowances and disability services. The need for these formal supports may vary throughout an
individual’s life span and a family’s life cycle.

Socialisation of individuals within families and communities

Stages of the life span

• infancy Life Stages SHESEAS In Life Stages (SHESEAS)
• childhood
• adolescence Infancy (0-4) It is a time period characterised by the infant’s intense growth, and a
• adulthood dependency on family to full their needs.
• the aged Security and Safety
• Nurturing and feeling of safety - from parents or other significant family
members
• Safe environment
Health
• Immunisations against diseases such as tetanus, whooping coughs etc.
(vaccines)
• Physical activities such as swimming and/or gymnastics (sport) - develops
gross motor skills + muscle development
Education
• Development of both gross and fine motor skills
• Stimulation through experiences, communication and play Doesn’t occur
through formal education, may come from parents or childcare (nannies, day
care)
Sense of Identity
• Manners, love and security
• Religious values of family - through attending a church school Employment
• Parents with infants must be flexible with employment, finances go towards
child
Adequate Standard of Living
• Nutritious diet - including breast milk if possible
• Clothing - should be size specific and suitable for all weather

Childhood (5-12) This stage is characterised by beginning school, learning and trying different
activities and establishing friendship groups.
Security and Safety
• Housing - to provide security from elements
• Perception of danger and being cyber safe- lacks while child's brain &
decision making skills are still developing - this puts children at risk of danger
Health
• Nutritious diet - variety of foods
• Physical activity to enhance balance and coordination
Education
• Develops friendships through independent interaction
• Begins using technology Sense of Identity
• Appropriate gender construction and roles
• Self concept,self esteem and growing independence
Employment
• Flexible employment for parents is available
• Carers may be used Adequate
Standard of Living
• Safe housing
• Appropriate clothing (clean/fitting)
Adolescence (13-18) It is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood. Is characterised
by physical changes as a result of hormones and the physical changes
accompanied by social and emotional adjustments.
Security and Safety
• Understanding of risk taking behaviour (drugs and alcohol)
• Knowledge of safe sexual activity
Health
• Regular exercise
• Hygiene, association with body odour, menstruation (girls) and skin
maintenance
Education
• Move to and completion of secondary school (potential of boarding school -
ROSA and HSC)
• Learning about laws; rights and responsibilities
Sense of Identity
• Opposite or same sex attraction, hormonal fluctuations (stress and
confusion)
• Coming of age cultural rituals ( bar mitzvah, conformation ) religious rituals
and celebrations
Employment
• Work experience / placement for experience
• Work health and safety, ability to be assertive and know their rights
Adequate Standard of Living
• Knowledge about lifestyle disease and access to foods that are nutritious
• Clothing that projects an appropriate image and conforms to adolescent
sense of identity

Adulthood (18-65) It is a time of complex decision-making; individuals must make such decisions
as whether to study further, get a job or travel, leave the home, marriage,
children are born and careers are established.
Security and Safety
• Safe housing (location)
• Secure employment
Health
• Sexual peak
• Balanced diet and exercise/leisure required
Education
• Furthering in education/employment
• Education in technology
Sense of Identity
• New relationships
• Alcohol/drug use/contraception - personal freedom
Employment
• Time off - re-establishing careers
• work/family/recreation balance
Adequate Standard of Living
• Nutritious foods
• Housing close to resources and infrastructure

The aged (65+) It is characterised by a reduction in physical ability, deteriorating health, and
the loss of a spouse and friends, little responsibility therefore, if health is good,
individuals can look forward to travel, a stress-free retirement.
Security and Safety
• Close proximity to services
• Government payments (pension)
Health
• Dealing with previous lifestyle choices
• Knowing medication
Education
• Understanding new cultures and technologies
Sense of Identity
• Contact with others (support)
• Involvement with family
Employment
 • Phased retirement/complete retirement
• Offer skills training
Adequate Standard of Living
• Financial stability
• Suitable housing and home care

Literature review as a
secondary research
method
• accessing sources of data
• advantages and
disadvantages
Literature review - a secondary research method involving a search and evaluation of existing knowledge
on a particular topic. The steps of this are:
1. Research information on the given area
2. Summarise that^ information
3. Analysing information and identifying areas of controversy
4. Presenting information in a logical/organise style or format

Accessing sources of data from:

• The internet • Magazines
• Videos • Pamphlets
• Databases • Statistical reports
• Reference and textbooks • Precious research projects

Advantages Disadvantages

- Demonstrate the readers knowledge - Declined access to information

- Provides historical contexts - The data may not be on current behaviours
- Save time - No access to certain information. They may
spend unnecessary time and resources

Influences on Media - Easy communication to a large quantity of people

socialisation • Creating and reinforcing, or breaking down stereotypes
MRHOPPP Relatives - Blood relation. ​Grandparents, cousins, aunts and uncles
• media • Usually share the same values and culture as the immediate family
• relatives Health professionals -studied to care for health. Doctors, nurses, dentists, physiotherapists, psychologists
• health professionals and counsellors
• online networks • Offering condentiality and accurate information regarding sexuality, sexual relationships and other, often
• peers taboo, subjects; this makes health professionals a common choice for young people going through the
• paid carers socialisation process
• print and digital information Online networks - Social media. Facebook, Snapchat, Twitter, Instagram, Messenger
• A sense of belonging achieved through online groups; meeting like people can enhance self-esteem and
confidence
Peers - Usually similar age, share interests and close proximity
• Feel acceptance and belonging, which may contribute to a positive self-concept
Paid carers - Paid to care for young people. Nannies or babysitters, or employees at family day care, long
day care or preschool centres.
• Setting clear and appropriate rules and establishing boundaries for behaviour
Print and digital information - Newspapers
• Moulding and shaping young people’s behaviour; children as young as ve are taught to read print
information, and to use the internet