CONTENTS

LECTURE 1 ................................................................
................................................................................................
...............................................................................................
............................................................... 4
14BMagnetic ccts......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1. D 0B efinition & Concepts ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.2. I1B -H & B-H Relations .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.3. M 2B agnetic Equivalent cct .................................................................................................................. 5
1.4. M 3B agnetization Curve ....................................................................................................................... 7
1.5. T4B he Magnetic cct with Air Gab ........................................................................................................ 8
1.6. I5B nductance ....................................................................................................................................... 9
1.7. T6B utorial .......................................................................................................................................... 10
LECTURE 2 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.............................................................................................
............................................................. 14
145BMagnetic cct ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14
2.1. H 7B ysteresis....................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2. S8B inusoidal Excitation ...................................................................................................................... 18
2.3. T9B utorial .......................................................................................................................................... 19
146BElectrical Actuator ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
2.4. D 10B efinitions,..................................................................................................................................... 21
2.5. L1B orentz’s force law......................................................................................................................... 21
2.6. F12B araday Law .................................................................................................................................. 22
2.7. E13B lectrical Actuators ........................................................................................................................ 22
LECTURE 3 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.............................................................................................
............................................................. 27
147B3
Induction (Asynchronous) Machines ........................................................................................................................................................................... 27
3.1. I14B ntroduction ................................................................................................................................... 27
3.2. S15B tructure of three phase induction machines ................................................................................ 28
3.3. G 16B enerating a Constant Magnitude Rotating Magnetic Field ........................................................ 30
3.4. I17B nduced Voltages ........................................................................................................................... 32
3.5. T18B orque Generation in Three Phase Induction Machines ................................................................ 34
3.6. S19B tandstill Operation ....................................................................................................................... 34
3.7. S20B lip ................................................................................................................................................. 35
3.8. M 21B odes of Operation and Torque-Speed Curve .............................................................................. 37
LECTURE 4 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.............................................................................................
............................................................. 39
148B1
Induction Motors ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
4.1. C 2B onstruction .................................................................................................................................. 39
4.2. O 23B peration....................................................................................................................................... 40
4.3. E24B quivalent Circuit of a Single-Phase Induction Motor ................................................................... 42
LECTURE 5 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.............................................................................................
............................................................. 46
149B1
Induction Motors , cntd............................................................................................................................................................................................. 46
5.1. S25B tarting of Single-Phase Induction Motors .................................................................................... 46
5.2. C 26B lassification of Single-Phase Induction Motors ............................................................................ 52
5.3. C 27B haracteristics and Typical Applications ....................................................................................... 55
LECTURE 6 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.............................................................................................
............................................................. 56
150BSeries (Universal) Motors ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
6.1. D
28B C Excitation ................................................................................................................................. 57
6.2. A 29B C Excitation.................................................................................................................................. 58

Page 1
 6.3. D
30B C versus AC Excitation ................................................................................................................. 60
6.4. C 31B ompensated Motor...................................................................................................................... 61
LECTURE 7 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.............................................................................................
............................................................. 65
15BSingle-Phase Synchronous Motors..................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
7.1. R 32B eluctance Motors......................................................................................................................... 65
7.2. H 3B ysteresis Motors .......................................................................................................................... 66
7.3. S34B peed Control ................................................................................................................................ 67
LECTURE 8 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.............................................................................................
............................................................. 69
152B3
Induction (Asynchronous) Machines , cntd.. ............................................................................................................................................................. 69
8.1. E36B quivalent Circuit Model................................................................................................................ 69
8.2. P 37B erformance Characteristics.......................................................................................................... 75
8.3. S38B peed Control ................................................................................................................................ 81
8.4. L39B inear Induction Motors ................................................................................................................ 85
8.5. T40B hree Phase Wound Rotor Induction Machine Extra Operations .................................................. 88
LECTURE 9 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.............................................................................................
............................................................. 90
153B3Φ Synchronous Machines ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 90
9.1. S41B tructure of Three-Phase Synchronous Machines ......................................................................... 90
9.2. S42B ynchronous Generators................................................................................................................ 91
9.3. S43B ynchronous Motors ...................................................................................................................... 93
9.4. L4B agging and Leading Power Factor ............................................................................................... 95
9.5. E45B quivalent Circuit Model................................................................................................................ 97
9.6. D 46B etermination of Synchronous Reactance  ............................................................................... 99
LECTURE 10 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.........................................................................................
......................................................... 106
154B3Φ Synchronous Machines , cntd.. ................................................................................................................................................................................ 106
10.1. P 47B ower and Torque Characteristics ............................................................................................. 107
10.2. S48B peed Control of Synchronous Motors ...................................................................................... 116
10.3. B 49B rushless DC motor (BDC).......................................................................................................... 117
10.4. S50B witched Reluctance Motors (SRM)........................................................................................... 123
LECTURE 11 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.........................................................................................
......................................................... 128
15BSpecial Machines (Servomotors) ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 128
11.1. S51B ervomotors............................................................................................................................... 128
11.2. T52B hree-Phase AC Servomotors .................................................................................................... 136
LECTURE 12 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.........................................................................................
......................................................... 137
156BSpecial Machines (SYNCHROS) ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 137
12.1. S53B elsyn (synchro) motors ............................................................................................................. 137
LECTURE 13 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.........................................................................................
......................................................... 144
157BSpecial Machines (Stepper Motors) ................................................................................................................................................................................. 144
.١٣.١ Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 144
13.2. V 104B ariable-Reluctance Stepper Motor .......................................................................................... 145
13.3. Stepper Motor Characteristics .................................................................................................... 151
13.4. S58B tepping Angle Analysis ............................................................................................................. 153
LECTURE 14 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.........................................................................................
......................................................... 155
158BApplications in Mechatronic Systems, Case Studies ....................................................................................................................................................... 155
LECTURE 15 ................................................................
................................................................................................
.........................................................................................
......................................................... 156
158BReduced Material .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 156

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15.1. P 61B ermanent-Magnet AC Motors ................................................................................................. 156
15.2. 62B ................................................................................................................................................... 160
15.3. S63B ynchros..................................................................................................................................... 161
15.4. S54B tepper Motor Characteristics ................................................................................................... 164
15.5. V 5B ariable Reluctance Stepper...................................................................................................... 166
15.6. P 56B ermanent magnet stepper....................................................................................................... 168
15.7. H 57B ybrid stepper motor ................................................................................................................ 172
15.8. S58B tepping Angle Analysis ............................................................................................................. 175
15.9. S59B tepper motor control ............................................................................................................... 177
15.10. E60B xtended Analysis for Unipolar and Bipolar drive ccts ............................................................ 182

Page 3
Electromechanical Machines & Actuators
Level 3, Mechatronics
Second Semester, 2016/2017
Dr. Hatem Al-Dois
Date:

Lecture 13
SPECIAL MACHINES (STEPPER MOTORS)
157B

(Stepper Motor Characteristics, SM Vs. Servomotors, Unipolar and bipolar; unifilar and
143B

bifilar windings, Variable Reluctance SM, PMSM, Hybrid SM, Full & Half Step, Stepping Angle
Analysis, Specifications and Speed Control)
Ref.: - Sen, Ch 4. pp 457-469
125B

-Clarence de Silva’s “Mechatronics: An integrated approach”. Ch. 8.

-Bolton, pp 194-198
-Tony R. Kuphaldt, “Lessons In Electric Circuits”, Volume II – AC, 6th Ed. 2007, pp 426-438,
Available at: openbookproject.net/electricCircuits

13.1. INTRODUCTION

A stepper motor rotates by a specific number of degrees in response to an input electrical pulse. Typical
step sizes are 2°, 2.5°, 5°, 7.5°, and 15° for each electrical pulse.
A train of pulses is made to turn the shaft of the motor by steps.
Neither a position sensor nor a feedback system is normally required for the stepper motors to make the
output response follow the input command.
Typical applications of stepper motors requiring incremental motion are printers, tape drives, disk drives,
machine tools, process control systems, X-Y recorders, and robotics.
Typical resolution of commercially available stepper motors ranges from several steps per revolution to as
many as 400 steps per revolution and even higher.
Stepper motors have been built to follow signals as rapid as 1200 pulses per second with power ratings up
to several horsepower.
Three types of stepper motors are available: (1) the variable-reluctance type and (2) the permanent
magnet type, and (3) the hybrid stepper motor.

Page 144
13.2. VARIABLE-RELUCTANCE STEPPER MOTOR
104B

A variable reluctance stepper motor relies upon magnetic flux seeking the lowest reluctance path through
a magnetic circuit. This means that an irregularly shaped soft magnetic rotor will move to complete a
magnetic circuit, minimizing the length of any high reluctance air gap. A variable-reluctance stepper
motor can be of the single-stack type or the multiple-stack type.

13.2.1. Single-Stack Stepper Motor

The internal construction of a variable reluctance stepper motor is shown in Figure below. The rotor has
protruding poles so that they may be attracted to the rotating stator field as it is switched.

Figure: Variable reluctance stepper motor

The shaft is frequently fitted with a drive screw. (Figure below) This may move the heads of a floppy
drive upon command by the floppy drive controller.

Figure: Variable reluctance stepper drives lead screw.

A basic circuit configuration of a four-phase, two-pole, single-stack, variable reluctance stepper motor is
shown in Fig. below. When the stator phases are excited with dc current in proper sequence, the resultant
air gap field steps around and the rotor follows the axis of the air gap field by virtue of reluctance torque.
This reluctance torque is generated because of the tendency of the ferromagnetic rotor to align itself along
the direction of the resultant magnetic field.

FIGURE. Basic circuit for a four-phase, two-pole stepper motor.

Page 145
The Figure below shows the mode of operation for a 45° step in the clockwise direction. The windings are
energized in the sequence A, A+ B, B, B + C, and so forth, and this sequence is repeated. When winding
A is excited, the rotor aligns with the axis of phase A.
Next, both windings A and B are excited, which makes the resultant mmf axis move 45° in the clockwise
direction. The rotor aligns with this resultant mmf axis. Thus, at each transition the rotor moves through
45° as the resultant field is switched around. The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the
sequence of switching the windings, that is, A, A+ D, D, D + C, etc.

FIGURE. Operating modes of stepper motor for 45° step.

A multi-pole rotor construction is required in order to obtain smaller step sizes. The construction of a
four-phase, six-pole stepper motor is shown in Fig. below. When phase A winding is excited, pole
 is
aligned with the axis of phase A, as shown in the Fig.
Next, phase A and phase B windings are excited. The resultant mmf axis moves in the clockwise direction
by 45° and pole
 , nearest to this new resultant field axis, is pulled to align with it. The motor therefore
steps in the anticlockwise direction by 15°. Next, phase A winding is de-excited and the excitation of
phase B winding pulls pole P3 to align with the axis of phase B. Therefore, if the windings are excited in
the sequence A, A + B, B, B + C, C, ... , the rotor rotates in steps of 15° in the anticlockwise direction.

FIGURE. Multiple stepper motor for 15° step.

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Variable reluctance stepper motors are applied when only a moderate level of torque is required and a
coarse step angle is adequate. A screw drive, as used in a floppy disk drive is such an application. When
the controller powers-up, it does not know the position of the carriage. However, it can drive the carriage
toward the optical interrupter, calibrating the position at which the knife edge cuts the interrupter as
“home”. The controller counts step pulses from this position. As long as the load torque does not exceed
the motor torque, the controller will know the carriage position.

Summary: variable reluctance stepper motor

• The rotor is a soft iron cylinder with salient (protruding) poles.

• This is the least complex, most inexpensive stepper motor.
• The only type stepper with no detent torque in hand rotation of a de-energized motor shaft.
• Large step angle
• A lead screw is often mounted to the shaft for linear stepping motion.

13.2.2. Multistack Stepper Motor

Multistack variable-reluctance-type stepper motors are widely used to give smaller step sizes. The motor
is divided along its axial length into magnetically isolated sections ("stacks"), and each of these sections
can be excited by a separate winding ("phase"). Three-phase arrangements are most common, but motors
with up to seven stacks and phases are available.
The Figure below shows the longitudinal cross section (i.e., parallel to the shaft) of a three-stack variable-
reluctance stepper motor. The stator of each stack has a number of poles.

FIGURE. Cross section of a three-stack, variable-reluctance stepper motor parallel to the shaft.

The Figure below shows an example with four poles. Adjacent poles are wound in the opposite sense, and
this produces four main flux paths, as shown in the Figure. Both stator and rotor have the same number of
teeth (12 in Fig. a). Therefore, when a particular phase is excited, the position of the rotor relative to the
stator in that stack is accurately defined, as shown in Fig. a. The rotor teeth in each stack are aligned,
whereas the stator teeth have a different orientation between stacks, as shown in the developed diagram of
rotor and stator teeth in Fig. b. Therefore, when stack A is energized, the rotor and stator teeth in stack A
are aligned but those in stacks B and C are not aligned, as shown in Fig. b.

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Next, if excitation is changed from stack A to stack B, the stator and rotor teeth in stack B are aligned.
This new alignment is made possible by a rotor movement in the clockwise direction; that is, the motor
moves one step as a result of changing excitation from stack A to stack B.
Another step motion in the clockwise direction can be obtained if excitation is changed from stack B to
stack C. Another change of excitation from stack C to stack A will once more align the stator and rotor
teeth in stack A. However, during this process (A
B
C
A) the rotor has moved one rotor tooth
pitch, that is, the angle between adjacent rotor teeth.

FIGURE. Teeth position in a four-pole, threestack, variable-reluctance stepper motor. (a) Phase A excited.
Rotor and stator teeth are aligned. (b) Developed diagram for rotor and stator teeth for phase A
excitation.

Let x be the number of rotor teeth and N the number of stacks or phases. Then

For a four poles, twelve rotor teeth motor,

Typical step sizes for the multistack variable-reluctance stepping motor are in the range 2 to 15 degrees.

13.2.3. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

105B

The permanent magnet stepper motor has a stator construction similar to that of the single-stack variable-
reluctance type, but the rotor is made of a permanent magnet material. The Figure below shows a two-

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pole, permanent magnet stepper motor. The rotor poles align with two stator teeth (or poles) according to
the winding excitation.
The Figure shows the alignment if phase A winding is excited. If the excitation is switched to phase B,
the rotor moves by a step of 90°. Note that current polarity is important in the permanent magnet stepper
motor, because it decides the direction in which the motor will move.
The Figure also illustrates the rotor position for positive current in phase A. A switch over to positive
current in phase B winding will produce a clockwise step, whereas a negative current in phase B winding
will produce an anticlockwise step. It is difficult to make a small permanent magnet rotor with a large
number of poles, and therefore stepper motors of this type are restricted to larger step sizes in the range 30
to 90 degrees.

FIGURE. Permanent magnet stepper motor.

Canstack PMSM is shown below. It has two windings, yet has 24-poles in each of two phases.

Figure: Permanent magnet stepper motor, 24-pole can-stack construction.

Permanent magnet stepper motors have higher inertia and therefore slower acceleration than variable-
reluctance stepper motors. The maximum step rate for permanent magnet stepper motors is 300 pulses per
second, whereas it can be as high as 1200 pulses per second for variable reluctance stepper motors.
The permanent magnet stepper motor produces more torque per ampere stator current than the variable-
reluctance stepper motor.

Summary: permanent magnet stepper motor

• The rotor is a permanent magnet, often a ferrite sleeve magnetized with numerous poles.

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• Can-stack construction provides numerous poles from a single coil with interleaved fingers of soft iron.
• Large to moderate step angle.
• Often used in computer printers to advance paper.

13.2.4. Hybrid stepper motor

BB5757 57BB57

The hybrid stepper motor combines features of both the variable reluctance stepper and the permanent
magnet stepper to produce a smaller step angle. The rotor is a cylindrical permanent magnet, magnetized
along the axis with radial soft iron teeth (Figure below). The stator coils are wound on alternating poles
with corresponding teeth. There are typically two winding phases distributed between pole pairs. This
winding may be center tapped for unipolar drive.

Figure: Hybrid stepper motor.

Figure: Hybrid stepper motor schematic diagram.

• Enough torque applied to the shaft to overcome the hold-in torque would move the rotor by one tooth.

Summary: hybrid stepper motor

• The step angle is smaller than variable reluctance or permanent magnet steppers.
• The rotor is a permanent magnet with fine teeth. North and south teeth are offset by half a tooth for a
smaller step angle.
• The stator poles have matching fine teeth of the same pitch as the rotor.
• The stator windings are divided into no less than two phases.
• The poles of one stator windings are offset by a quarter tooth for an even smaller step angle.

Page 150
13.3. STEPPER MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Stepper motors are rugged and inexpensive because the rotor contains no winding slip rings, or
commutators. The rotor is a cylindrical solid, which may also have either salient poles or fine teeth. More
often than not the rotor is a permanent magnet. Determine that the rotor is a permanent magnet by
unpowered hand rotation showing detent torque, torque pulsations. Stepper motor coils are wound within
a laminated stator, except for can stack construction. There may be as few as two winding phases or as
many as five.
Steppers are truly small low power devices compared to other motors. They have torque ratings to a
thousand in-oz (inch-ounces) or ten n-m (newton-meters) for a 4 kg size unit. A small “dime” size stepper
has a torque of a hundredth of a newton-meter or a few inch-ounces. Most steppers are a few inches in
diameter with a fraction of a n-m or a few in-oz torque. The torque available is a function of motor speed,
load inertia, load torque, and drive electronics as illustrated on the speed vs torque curve. (Figure below)
An energized, holding stepper has a relatively high holding torque rating. There is less torque available
for a running motor, decreasing to zero at some high speed. This speed is frequently not attainable due to
mechanical resonance of the motor load combination.

Figure: Stepper speed characteristics.

Stepper motors move one step at a time, the step angle, when the drive waveforms are changed. The step
angle is related to motor construction details: number of coils, number of poles, number of teeth. It can be
from 90° to 0.75°, corresponding to 4 to 500 steps per revolution. Drive electronics may halve the step
angle by moving the rotor in half-steps. Steppers cannot achieve the speeds on the speed torque curve
instantaneously. The maximum start frequency is the highest rate at which a stopped and unloaded stepper
can be started. Any load will make this parameter unattainable. In practice, the step rate is ramped up
during starting from well below the maximum start frequency. When stopping a stepper motor, the step
rate may be decreased before stopping.
The maximum torque at which a stepper can start and stop is the pull-in torque. This torque load on the
stepper is due to frictional (brake) and inertial (flywheel) loads on the motor shaft. Once the motor is up
to speed, pull-out torque is the maximum sustainable torque without losing steps.
There are three types of stepper motors in order of increasing complexity: variable reluctance, permanent
magnet, and hybrid. The variable reluctance stepper has s solid soft steel rotor with salient poles. The
permanent magnet stepper has a cylindrical permanent magnet rotor. The hybrid stepper has soft steel
teeth added to the permanent magnet rotor for a smaller step angle.

Page 151
13.3.1. Stator poles and phases
106B

The number of phases of the stator will not necessarily be equal to the number of stator poles. For
example a motor might have 3 phases and 4 poles per phase resulting in 12 stator poles. The number of
stator phases does not affect the stepping angle. The stepping angle only depends on the number of rotor
poles and the number of stator poles.

13.3.2. Full stepping, half stepping and micro-stepping

107B

By applying full voltage to one phase of the motor, full stepping is achieved. The motor will advance by
the stepping angle (derived in the equations discussed earlier using the number of stator poles and the
number of rotor poles). By applying equal voltage to adjacent phases, half stepping can be achieved. By
applying fractions of voltage to adjacent phases, micro-stepping is achieved. Micro-stepping can be
applied in very small steps down to around 125th of the full step. However, it is important to note that the
ratio of voltages or currents applied to adjacent phases is not necessarily linear.

13.3.3. Drive Circuit

The command signals for a stepper motor are normally obtained from low power logic circuits that are
built with TTL or CMOS digital integrated circuits (ICs).
The driving current available is either 20 mA at 5 V (TTL) or 1 mA at 5-15 V (CMOS). However, a
typical variable-reluctance stepper motor producing a torque of 1.2 N.m has a rated winding excitation of
5V and 3A. Therefore power amplification stages are required between the low-power command signals
and the high-power stepper motors.
Variable-reluctance stepper motors require more than two phases (three phases are typical). The phase
currents need only be switched on or off and current polarity is irrelevant for torque production.
Permanent magnet stepper motors require two phases, and the current polarity is important.

Unipolar Vs. Bipolar and Unifilar Vs. Bifilar Windings

Coils can either be unipolar or bipolar. Unipolar windings can have current only flowing in one direction.
Unipolar coils usually have the common wire of all the coils connected together to the ground. Usually in
a motor with a permanent magnet rotor, there is a requirement to reverse the current in the stator pole in
order to produce the required pole in order to attract the nearby permanent magnet rotor pole. This cannot
be done with a unipolar stator pole. In such a case, two coils can be wound around the same stator pole
and it is called in this case bifilar windings. Where the polarity of the stator pole has to be reversed, one
of the two coils is switched off and the other switched on.
Bipolar windings can have current flowing in both directions. Each coil has two wires coming out to
allow full connection flexibility. In this case, the polarity of the stator pole can be reversed by reversing
the polarity of the current in the coil (this can be either done by having two power supplies, or the use a
switching arrangement that is referred to as an ‘H’ bridge, because it comprises a four transistors used as
switches in an ‘H’ shape arrangement).
The use of bifilar windings makes the size of the coils smaller for the same size of stator pole compared to
the unifilar windings. This has an effect of increasing the torque from the unifilar motor compared to the

Page 152
bifilar motor. However, it takes longer to reverse the direction of current in a unifilar coil and a higher
stepping speed can be achieved with a bifilar windings motor compared to a unifilar windings motor.
So to summarize, where reversal of magnetic polarity is required in the same stator pole, there are two
options to use:
- Unifilar bipolar windings
- Bifilar unipolar windings

13.4. STEPPING ANGLE ANALYSIS

58B

The following analysis derives the formula for the stepping angle of the stepper motor. It has been
reproduced and edited from Clarence de Silva’s “Mechatronics: An Integrated Approach”.
Assume that:
-  is the number of stator poles
-  is the number of rotor poles
-  is the number of steps per revolution
-  is the stator angle
-  is the rotor angle
- ∆ is the stepping angle
-
is the largest feasible integer
-  is the number of phases of the stator

The number of steps per revolution is related to the stepping angle as follows:

Note that when the motor has been given a number of pulses equal to the number of phases of the stator, it
advances by the angle of the rotor:

Case 1:

Assume that the number of stator poles is more than the number of rotor poles (i.e.,  
  
In this case we can find the stepping angle as follows:

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Case 2:

Assume that the number of stator poles is less than the number of rotor poles (i.e.,   
   In
this case we can find the stepping angle as follows:

The value of r is selected such that it is the largest possible integer that keeps the stepping angle positive.

13.4.1. Example on calculation of the stepping angle for various stepper motors.
102B

The following two examples illustrate the use of the relevant equations to arrive at the stepping angle of
the stepper motor.
A stepper motor (SM1) has the following parameters:
- 8 stator poles (thus the stator angle is 45 degrees).
- 50 rotor poles (thus the rotor angle is 7.2 degrees).
- So using the value of
 6 gives a stepping angle 1.8 degrees.
Another stepper motor (SM2) has the following parameters:
- 12 stator poles
- 3 phases
- 4 stator poles per phase
- 8 rotor poles
Note that the number of phases has no effect on the stepping angle for the motor. In the case the rotor
angle will be larger than the stator angle. The stator angle is 30 degrees. The rotor angle is 45 degrees. So
the largest value of the integer r is 1, giving a stepping angle of 15 degrees.
It is worth noting that not all rotor and stator arrangement are physically realizable. For example, some
soft iron rotors can rotate but in an undefined direction (i.e., for a specific sequence of excitation pulses,
the motor might rotate in a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction). If already travelling in one direction,
the inertia will force it to carry on moving in that direction. But if stationery it might run in either
direction.

Page 154
Electromechanical Machines & Actuators
Level 3, Mechatronics
Second Semester, 2016/2017
Dr. Hatem Al-Dois
Date:

Lecture 11
SPECIAL MACHINES (SERVOMOTORS)
15B

(DC Servomotors, AC Servomotors, T.F. and B.D., Radar Servomotor, 3
 

  )
14B

Ref.: Sen, Ch 4. pp 424-439

12B

There are many special applications where continuous energy conversion provided by dc and ac machines
is not required. For example, robots require position control for movement of the arm from one position
to another. The printer of a computer requires that the paper move by steps in response to signals received
from the computer. Such applications require special motors of low power rating. The basic principle of
operation of these motors is the same as that of other electromagnetic motors. However, their
construction, design, and mode of operation may be different. Such motors are the servomotors, synchro
motors, and stepper motors.

11.1. SERVOMOTORS
51B

Servomotors, or “control motors” are electric motors specially designed and built, primarily for use in
feedback control systems, as output actuators.
- Their power rating can vary from a fraction of a watt up to a few hundred watts.
- They have a high speed of response, which requires low rotor inertia.
- These are smaller in diameter and longer in length.
- They normally operate at low or zero speed and thus have a larger size for their torque or power
rating than conventional motors of similar rating.
- They may be used for various applications, such as robots, radars, computers, machine tools,
tracking and guidance systems, and process controllers. Both dc and ac servomotors are used at
present.

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11.1.1. DC Servomotors
92B

DC servomotors are separately excited dc motors or permanent magnet dc motors. A schematic diagram
of a separately excited dc servomotor is shown in Fig. a below. The basic principle of operation is the
same as that of the conventional dc motors. These dc servomotors are normally controlled by the armature
voltage. The armature is designed to have large resistance so that the torque-speed characteristics are
linear and have a large negative slope as shown in Fig. c. The negative slope provides viscous damping
for the servo drive system. Recall that the armature mmf and excitation field mmf are in quadrature in a
dc machine (Fig. b ). This provides a fast torque response because torque and flux are decoupled.
Therefore, a step change in the armature voltage (or current) results in a quick change in the position or
speed of the rotor.

FIGURE. DC servomotor. (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Armature mmf and field mmf. (c) Torque-speed
characteristics.

11.1.2. AC Servomotors
93B

The power rating of dc servomotors ranges from a few watts to several hundred watts. In fact, most high-
power servomotors are dc servomotors. At present, ac servomotors are used for low-power applications.
AC motors are robust in construction and have lower inertia. However, in general, they are nonlinear and
highly coupled machines, and their torque-speed characteristics are not as ideal as those of dc
servomotors. Besides, they are low-torque devices compared to dc servomotors of the same size.
Most ac servomotors used in control systems are of the two-phase squirrel cage induction type. The
frequency is normally rated at 60 or 400 Hz; the higher frequency is preferred in airborne systems. A
schematic diagram of a two-phase ac servomotor is shown in Fig. below.
The stator has two distributed windings displaced 90 electrical degrees apart. One winding, called the
reference or fixed phase is connected to a constant voltage source,  ∠  0°. The other winding, called
the control phase, is supplied with a variable voltage of the same frequency as the reference phase but is

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phase-displaced by 90 electrical degrees. The control phase voltage is usually supplied from a servo
amplifier. The direction of rotation of the motor depends on the phase relation, leading or lagging, of the
control phase voltage with respect to the reference phase voltage.
For balanced two-phase voltages, |  |  |  | , the torque-speed characteristic of the motor is similar to
that of a three-phase induction motor. For low rotor resistance this characteristic is nonlinear, as shown in
Fig. b below. Such a torque-speed characteristic is unacceptable in control systems. However, if the rotor
resistance is high the torque-speed characteristic, as shown in Fig. b, is essentially linear over a wide
speed range, particularly near zero speed. To control the machine it is operated with fixed voltage for the
reference phase and variable voltage for the control phase. The torque-speed characteristics are essentially
linear (high rotor resistance assumed) for various control phase voltages, as shown in Fig. b.

FIGURE. Two-phase ac servomotor. (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Torque-speed characteristics.

In low-power control applications (below a few watts) a special rotor construction is used to reduce the
inertia of the rotor. A thin cup of nonmagnetic conducting material is used as the rotor, as shown in Fig.
below. Because of the thin conductor, the rotor resistance is high, resulting in high starting torque. A
stationary iron core at the middle of the conducting cup completes the magnetic circuit. With this type of
construction the rotor is called a drag-cup rotor.

FIGURE. Drag-cup rotor construction.

11.1.3. Transfer Function and Block Diagram

94B

Consider the servo system shown in Fig. below. The input variable is the control phase voltage  and the
output variable is either position  or speed  . Most loads are a combination of inertia  and viscous
friction  .

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 FIGURE. Servo system using a two phase motor.

The torque-speed characteristics of the unbalanced two-phase motor shown again in Fig. below are
assumed to be linear and equally spaced for equal increments of the control phase voltage.

FIGURE. Torque-speed characteristics of two-phase ac servomotor

The motor torque can be written as

Note that  is just the slope of the torque-speed curves at constant control phase voltage  . Also,  is
the change in torque per unit change in control phase voltage at constant speed.
The equation of motion of the servomotor driving the load is

If  is the angular position of the load


  is the speed of the system.


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Note that the negative slope ( ) of the torque-speed characteristic of the motor corresponds to viscous
friction and therefore provides damping for the system.
Taking the Laplace transforms of Eqs. 8.4 and 8.5,

Equations 8.6 and 8.7 are shown in block diagram forms in Fig. below.

FIGURE. Transfer functions.

Consider a step change in the control phase voltage  , as shown in Fig. a below,

 !" 
!
From Eq. 8.6

The corresponding time function is

The steady-state speed is

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The corresponding time function is

The speed response and the position response are shown in Figs. b and c, respectively.

FIGURE. Step response in a two-phase servo system. (a) Step change in  . (b) Response in speed. (c)
Response in position.

Example 8.1

Solution:

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11.1.4. Application: Radar Position Control
95B

A typical closed-loop position control system using a two-phase ac servomotor is shown in Fig. below.
With this system the position of a radar antenna can be controlled.
Two potentiometers are used as position transducers. The reference potentiometer generates a voltage
#$%& depending on the desired position command $%& . The second potentiometer coupled to the shaft of
the servomotor produces a voltage # proportional to the output shaft position . The difference in the two
voltages, #%$$'$ ( #$%&  #), is therefore proportional to the position error $%&   . This error is fed to

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a servo amplifier, which generates the necessary voltage  for the control phase winding of the
servomotor to reduce the position error to zero.

FIGURE. Radar position control system.

Example 8.2
For the position control system shown above, let the potentiometer transducers give a voltage of 1 volt
,- ,.-.-,01,2"
per radian of position. The transfer function of the servo amplifier is + !"  . Assume that
1 . 2"
the initial angular position of the radar is zero. The transfer function between the motor control phase
4.155
voltage v. and radar position  is 3 !"  2 ,.-.-,01,2".

(a) Derive the transfer function of the system.

(b) For a step change in the command angle of 180°  8 9:;<:=!" , find the time response of the
angular position of the antenna.

Solution
(a) The block diagram is shown in Fig. a below. This can be simplified to the block diagram shown in
Fig. b.

From Fig. b,

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This equation represents a second-order system. The corresponding block diagram is shown in Fig. c.

The position response is shown in Fig. d.

11.2. THREE-PHASE AC SERVOMOTORS

52B

DC servomotors have dominated the area of high-power servo systems. Recently, however, a great deal of
research has been conducted on the use of three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors as servomotors for
application in high-power servo systems.
A three-phase induction motor is normally a highly nonlinear coupled-circuit device. Many researchers
have operated this machine successfully as a linear decoupled machine, similar to a dc machine, using a
control method known as vector control or field-oriented control. In this method the currents in the
machine are controlled so that torque and flux are decoupled as in a dc machine. This provides a high
speed response and high torque response. In Japan, three-phase induction motors with vector control are
being increasingly used as servomotors.

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Position Feedback Sensor: Rotational Encoders

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