Introduction to Geometry

Paul Cezanne once claimed that

‘Everything in nature takes its form from the sphere, the cone and the cylinder.’

The word geometry comes from two Greek words, geo meaning earth and metron meaning
to measure. The word geometry, therefore, was given to describe the measuring of the earth. The
discipline of geometry considers all the interrelationships on earth, how each object is composed,
going from a dot to a line to a surface, and how each of these objects relates to each other. So, as we
consider geometry, we are considering all aspects of the earth, in all its interconnectedness.

Geometry in the Natural World

Geometry is seen everywhere in the natural world. It is where the children will first see geometrical
aspects and where they will continue to make connections as they become more intellectually
conscious. They will see the dot, the line and the surface and the solids and the relationships
between these elements.

It is evident that the supranature, created by man, is primarily influenced by nature. Human beings
took inspiration and knowledge of their natural world in order to construct. See Kenneth Clarke’s
book ‘Civilisations’.

We can see geometry in the remarkable honeycomb, the compound eye of the insect, the magnified
snowflake, the planets in the lens of the telescope, the cell structure of the leaf, the curves in the
sand, and the ripples in water. We see how architects have recreated patterns and structures found in
nature, in the biology of plants and animals and in the formation of the land and the composition of
the elements, to design and construct our supranature. For example, the Great Pyramids, bridges,
apartment blocks, and Olympic stadiums. The scientific observation and study of such forms and
structures have lent focus and foundation to the environments created by human beings.

The technical term here is biomimicry. It is the practice of looking to nature for inspiration to solve
design problems in a regenerative way. ‘We borrow from nature the space upon which we build.’
Tadao Ando.

Antoni Gaudí alone serves as an example of how nature has inspired the architect. His designs
directly stemmed from observations of the natural world, both big and small. This relationship is
clear to see in both the structure and aesthetic of his work.

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Paul Cezanne, a predecessor of the cubism movement, explored nature by breaking it down into
geometric shapes. Photographers, sculptors, and other artists, likewise have sought to connect the
natural and human-made world in their work. See Barbara Hepworth and Clemente Vergara.

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History of Geometry

The Sumerians, later the Babylonians of Mesopotamia, were the first to create writing in a tablet
form. We know this as the cuneiform writing system and dates back more than five thousand years.
This system is not only related to the recording of history, but also to mathematics and science. The
Babylonian priests worked in base 60 and it was through their interest in astronomy that they
discovered that a circle is made up of 360 degrees. This marks the beginning of the study of angles.

The Harpedonaptae, the Egyptian land surveyors, worked to reclaim the peoples land after the
annual flooding of the Nile. They created a right-angled scalene triangle with a ratio of 4:3:5. This
simple mathematical aid helped the Egyptians to build the Great Pyramids as well as solve their
land ownership issues.

The Greeks later studied this technique and figured out the mathematical reasoning behind it. There
were seven wise men in Greece. Thales was the first to show interest in the Egyptians, and one of
his students was Pythagoras. Euclid was the third wise man of Greece, who took Pythagoras’
theorem and took it further. Euclid wrote the collection of thirteen books titled The Elements, which
cover both plane and solid geometry.

In the Elementary classroom, the children are free to manipulate the materials and arrive at their
own conclusions, which are relevant to the theorems outlined by the Greeks. The knowledge the
children gain through their work will help support and guide their learning in the elementary
classroom.

Geometry in the Children’s House

Children in the Children’s House experience geometry first sensorially through the material, before
attaching language to the concept and abstracting it in their mind. Such examples include:

● Geometry Cabinet
● Pink Tower
● Brown Stair
● Red Rods
● Cylinder Blocks
● Superimposed Geometric Figures
● Knobbles Cylinders
● Geometric Solids
● Metal Inset Pattern
● Constructive Triangle Boxes

‘In the Children’s House, it is at the age of about four that we first present systematic materials in
the form of plane geometric shapes…the material whose purpose is to give the child his first
sensory representation of geometric forms consists of what are called plane insets.’ Maria
Montessori

From this material (the geometry cabinet), the children first work with the figure according to its
line: unbroken curves, such as the ellipse and the oval, then the straight line, for example, the
trapezium, and the curvilinear shapes, such as the quatrefoil. Finally, the children see the

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fundamental shapes, including the circle, the square and the triangle. This work prepares for later
work on lines and angles.

Difference between the Children’s house and Elementary material

The materials remain inviting to the child’s eye. However, unlike in the Children’s House, the
material in the elementary serves as a presentation of geometry as a discipline in its own right.

The manner in which geometry is presented in the elementary involves a lot of movement,
classification, an appeal to the imagination and intellect, and great use of language including
etymology. Grazzini once said, ‘The visual aspect is common to the Children’s House and
Elementary School, but etymology in the Elementary takes the place of the movement in the
Children’s House.’

These figures have very important roles to play and Grazzini further suggested they be given names
as other iconic characters and heroes, such as Alexander the Great and Dennis the Menace. Here we
have Triangle the Constructor, Square the Measurer and Circle the Calculator. The children will
then continue, seeing what the triangle constructs, what the square measures and what the circle
calculates. The rectangle may also be called Rectangle the Facilitator.

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Elementary Material and Presentations

● Classified Nomenclature
● Geometry Charts
● Equivalence, Similarity and Congruence
● Polygons
● Circle
● Lines
● Angles
● Insets of Equivalence
● Area
● Volume

The classified nomenclature is a support for all areas of study. It serves as a bank of information,
which the guide builds for the child, so they can refer to it with ease the information related to their
work and interest. This material is colour coded and covers all the fundamental concepts.

The geometry charts are divided into three sets: circles used for fraction work and arithmetic,
squares and triangles. Used in geometry and relating mainly to the relationship between figures. The
charts deal with symmetry, equivalence ad relationships. They are an inspiration and support the
children in their work and lead to a lot of hands-on activities during which the children can make
their own charts. As with the nomenclature material, the charts serve as support following the
presentations already given and the interests of the child.

The three concepts of equivalence, similarity and congruence are first presented using the metal
square divided insets. The children gain the concept first at a sensorial level before they are
introduced to the symbols. The word equivalence comes from the Latin meaning equal value and is
a key concept in geometry. The children have many opportunities to further explore these concepts
using the constructive triangles and other inset material, as well as their own drawings and designs.

The word polygon comes from the Greek meaning many angles. The children explore polygons
first using the box of sticks, exploring both irregular and regular polygons. By appealing to their
imaginations, they learn about the seven triangles of reality and how Pythagoras brought the
knowledge of the Egyptians to Western Civilisation. The children see the technique used by the
Egyptians and the concept becomes relevant and accessible in the mind, and as accurate language
and etymology is given, it becomes more concrete.

The circle is explored and the children see the relationship it shares with the polygon, as they
discover that a circle is essentially a polygon with infinite sides. The children continue to explore
the parts of the circle, the relationships between circle and line, and two circles, and finally the area
of the circle.

With the help of etymology, the children learn the concepts of different types of line and their
relationships. They of course touch on further work with line within other areas, for example, the
relationship between circle and line, and the lines involved when talking about certain angles.

Angles can be explored sensorially, using the body in a fun preliminary exercise.
They are primarily explored using the box of sticks and their names and etymology are given to
assist in the understanding of the concept.

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The children received a background understanding of the angle when they heard the story of the
Babylonian priests who discovered the 360 degrees in the circle through their interest in the stars.
Then the relationships between angles and lines are explored.

The Insets of Equivalence work involves the exploration of the relationships based on
equivalence. Starting with the triangle, then the quadrilaterals, rhombus, trapezium, and pentagon,
the children see the relationships between shapes using the metal inset material. They are presented
first on a sensorial level and then on a reasoning level, appealing to the elementary mind. The final
plates demonstrate the theory of Pythagoras and lastly of Euclid.

The work with equivalence is a direct reparation for the children’s work on the area. A practical
application of geometry is the measuring of surface areas and the children learn this through the
etymology of the name itself, and through the story of how geometry got its name. This inspires the
children to use geometry practically in this way, measuring the surface areas of their environment.
They use the Yellow Area Material to see clearly the relationships, drawing on the equivalencies
seen in the preparatory work with the Insets of Equivalence.

Finally, the children move on to work with volume. This chapter follows the same pattern as the
chapter on the area.
“After having studied the cube of numbers by the aid of the cube beads it is easy to recognise the
fact that the volume of a prism is found by multiplying the area by the altitude”.
Montessori, Maria. The Montessori Elementary Material. Schocken Books. New York. 1973,
292

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Storytelling

● The story of how geometry got its name

● The story of the star
● The family of quadrilaterals

It is important to remember the power of storytelling in the elementary classroom. Anything can be
made into a story, so based on the interest and needs of the child, you may adapt certain information
and knowledge into a more relatable and memorable anecdote of information, which may reach the
child’s imagination and intellect in a more efficient way. Stories such as the above will transport the
children to the origins and purpose of the concept, they will see it within history, in relation to the
solving of the fundamental human needs. These stories will captivate and pull the child, through the
eye of imagination, into the world of geometry.

As guides, it is our responsibility to bring the beauty of geometry to the second plane child, to
appeal to the imagination and reasoning mind. We must do it in such a way that the child begins to
see the world in a different way, with a different lens and perspective.

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Bibliography
(Micaela Kuh)
‘Everything in nature takes its form from the sphere, the cone and the cylinder.’
Paul Cezanne (1839-1906)

‘To the medieval people, God was the greatest geometer because he inspired the architects of the
Middle Ages in Europe with regards to the great cathedrals.’
Kenneth Clark, Civilisation, 1969

‘The Egyptians were not interested in why this material worked but in the fact that it did. This very
simple mathematical aid helped build the great structures such as the pyramids. We have to wait for
the coming of the Greeks for the reasons behind this imperative knowledge.’
Ann Dunne, Citation, An Introduction to Geometry, Chennai, 2021

‘Through these drawings, then, in which the children delight, producing an indefinite
quantity…attracted as they are by the work itself, by the colours, and by the pleasure…, small
children of four and five years old gradually acquire by experience an intuitive feeling for the
detailed characteristics of the geometric figures: their sides, angles, etc.’
Montessori, Maria. Psychogeometry. Montessori- Pearson Publishing Company. 2011,19

‘The visual aspect is common to Children’s House and Elementary School but etymology in the
Elementary School takes the place of movement in The Children’s House.’
Grazzini, Camillo. Citation. Bergamo 1984

‘These figures have very important roles to play which will be seen later. We can give a clue to their
future roles by giving them names like heroes have. For example, we have Alexander the Great and
Dennis the Menace. Here we have Triangle the Constructor, Square the Measurer and Circle the
Calculator. We are going to see what the triangle constructs, what the square measures and what the
circle is used for as regards calculating.’
Grazzini, Camillo. Citation. Bergamo 1984

‘These means could almost be described as a gymnasium for the mind, which is evidently able to
discover relationships and therefore not just carry out research and make observations, but also
make discoveries. The discovery of relationships is certainly most likely to arouse real interest. The
theorem itself is not interesting to a child who hears it enunciated without understanding it and
without being able to appreciate its aims, having to tire his mind by studying the solution he is
given. However, discovering a relationship oneself, formulating a theorem and possessing the words
to describe it correctly, is something truly able to fire the imagination. A single one of these
discoveries is sufficient to open up a brilliant, unexpected path to the mind. And so interest is
aroused- and where there is interest, indefinite conquests are assured.’
Montessori, Maria. Psychogeometry. Montessori- Pearson Publishing Company. 2011, 55-6

‘For every discovery, the child makes they are worthy of one Nobel prize after the other.’
Montessori, Mario. Citation, Source Grazzini, Camillo. Bergamo 6-12 Course, 1984

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‘One practical application of geometry is that of measuring surface areas. The very origin of
geometry and its name comes from the concept of measuring land. The first part of the word
geometry, geo, means land, and the second part, metros, means measurement. In ancient times, the
Egyptians needed to measure the land along the banks of the Nile, which was extremely fertile.
However, the Nile used to break its banks every year, flooding the land and washing away the
stones and signs that the inhabitants used to divide their property.
Measurements were thus developed that could be used to establish the boundaries of the land year
after year.’
Montessori, Maria. Psychogeometry. Montessori- Pearson Publishing Company. 2011,
181-2

´After having studied the cube of numbers by the aid of the cube beads it is easy to recognise the
fact that the volume of a prism is found by multiplying the area by the altitude.’
Montessori, Maria. The Montessori Elementary Material. Schocken Books. New York. 1973,
292