Unit 1: Understanding the Environment

1.1 Environment: concept, importance and components

1.2. Ecosystem: Concept, structure and function (food chain,
food web, ecological pyramids and energy flow)
1.3. Ecosystem services: (Provisioning, regulating and cultural)
1.4. Biodiversity: levels, values and threats and conservation
1.5. Concept and objectives of environmental education,
environmental ethics
Unit 2: Natural resources and Environmental pollution

• 2.1. Natural resources: Renewable and non-renewable (Global

status, distribution and production)
• 2.2. Management of natural resources: Individual, community
and government managed
• 2.3. Air, water and soil pollution: Causes, consequences and
control
• 2.4. Solid waste management: Collection, segregation,
transportation and disposal; 3R's
• 2.5. Climate change: Causes and consequences
Suggested Reading:
• Asthana, D. K. Text Book of Environmental Studies. S. Chand Publishing.
• Basu, M., Xavier, S. Fundamentals of Environmental Studies, Cambridge
University Press, India.
• Basu, R. |1., (Ed.) Environment. University of Calcutta, Kolkata.
• Bharucha, E. Textbook of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses.
Universities Press.
• Miller T. Cr. Jr., Environmental Science, Wadsworth Publishing Co.
• Wagner K.D. Environmental Management. W.B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia, USA
499p.
• Mckinncv, M.L. & Schoch. R.M. Environmental Science systems & Solutions. Web
enhanced edttion'
• 639p.
Environment: concept, importance and components
The word ‘Environment’ is derived from the French word ‘Environner’
which means to encircle, around or surround.
The biologist Jacob Van Uerkal (1864-1944) introduced the term
‘environment’ in Ecology.
Environment is defined as, “the sum total of living and non-living
components; influences and events surrounding an organism”.
As given by Environment Protection Act 1986, Environment is the sum
total of land, water, air, interrelationships among themselves and also
with the human beings and other living organisms.
Environment: concept, importance and components
Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms with each other
and their environment.
Environmental Science is interdisciplinary field and requires the study
of the interactions among the physical, chemical and biological
components of the environment with a focus on environmental
pollution and degradation.
This means that it requires the knowledge of various other subjects
including biology, chemistry, physics, statistics, microbiology,
biochemistry, geology, economics, law, sociology, etc.
The narrow definition of environmental science is the study of the
human impact on the physical and biological environment of an
organism.
Types of environment on the basis of human interference:
Natural Environment: is inherent, unaltered and manipulated by man.
Life processes and evolution processes are unhindered in such an
environment. However, one does not often find such places in the
present day. Core areas of biosphere reserve are examples of such
environment. Other examples, Oceans, lakes/ponds, rivers, forest,
grasslands, deserts etc.
Human-modified Environment: A natural environment that is modified
partially by human intervention. For examples, Orchards, plantations,
sanctuaries, parks, etc.
Human-made Environment: When natural environment is deliberately
controlled and converted by man kind. For examples, Industries,
cities, towns, crop fields, artificial lakes, dams, etc.
COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
The environment is composed of the following three main
components.
Abiotic components: light, humidity and water, temperature,
atmospheric gases, altitude, latitude, and seasonal changes.
Biotic components: plants (flora), animals (fauna) (including human
beings), parasites, and microorganisms.
Energy components: solar energy, geothermal energy, water energy,
and nuclear energy.
SEGMENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The four basic segments of environment are
(1) atmosphere,
(2) hydrosphere,
(3) lithosphere, and
(4) biosphere.
Structure of the atmosphere
The cover of air that envelops the earth is known as the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is normally composed of
• 79 percent nitrogen,
• 20 percent oxygen and
• one percent as a mixture of carbon dioxide, water vapour and
• trace amounts of several other gases such as neon, helium,
methane, krypton, hydrogen and xenon.
The general structure of the atmosphere has several important
features that have relevance to environmental problems.
The atmosphere is divided into several layers: troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere
Structure of the atmosphere-Troposphere
The innermost layer
The troposphere extends 17 kilometers above sea level at the equator and about
8 kilometers over the poles.
It contains about 75 percent of the mass of the earth’s air.
Temperature declines with altitude in the troposphere. All weather occurs in this
layer.
At the top of the troposphere temperatures abruptly begin to rise.
The boundary where this temperature reversal occurs is called the tropopause.
Tropopause is the boundary between the stratosphere and troposphere.
Structure of the atmosphere-Stratosphere
The stratosphere extends from 17 to 48 kilometers above the earth’s surface.
While the composition of the stratosphere is similar to that of the troposphere it
has two major differences. The volume of water vapour here is about 1000 times
less while the volume of ozone is about 1000 times greater.
This layer does not have clouds and hence airplanes fly in this layer as it creates
less turbulence.
Temperature rises with altitude in the stratosphere until there is another reversal.
This point is called the stratopause and it marks the end of the stratosphere and
the beginning of the atmosphere’s next layer, the mesosphere.
Structure of the atmosphere-Mesosphere
It extends from about 50 to 85 km above our planet.
In the mesosphere the temperature decreases with altitude falling up to –110oC at
the top. The boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere above it is
called the mesopause.
Structure of the atmosphere-Thermosphere:
It extends from about 90 km to between 500 and 1,000 km above our planet.
In this layer, ionization of the gases is a major phenomenon, thus increasing the
temperature. The temperatures can rise to 1,500 degrees Celsius, but it would not
feel warm because of the low air pressure in this layer.
The boundary between the thermosphere and the exosphere above it is called the
thermopause. The International Space Station orbits Earth in this layer.
Structure of the atmosphere-Exosphere:
It is the outermost layer of Earth’s atmosphere. This layer separates the rest of
the atmosphere from outer space.
It starts at an altitude of about 500 km and goes out to about 10,000 km. .
Only the lower troposphere is routinely involved in our weather and hence air
pollution. The other layers are not significant in determining the level of air
pollution.
The vital roles played by atmosphere in the survival of life in this
planet.
• The atmosphere is the protective blanket of gases which is surrounding the
earth. It protects the earth from the hostile environment of outer space.
• It absorbs IR radiations emitted by the sun and reemitted from the earth and
thus controls the temperature of the earth.
• It allows transmission of significant amounts of radiation only in the regions of
300 – 2500 nm (near UV, Visible, and near IR) and 0.01 – 40 meters (radio waves).
i.e it filters tissue damaging UV radiation below 300 nm.
• It acts as a source for CO2 for plant photosynthesis and O2 for respiration
• It acts as a source for nitrogen for nitrogen fixing bacteria and ammonia
producing plants.
• The atmosphere transports water from ocean to land.
Lithosphere
The lithosphere began as a hot ball of matter which formed the earth about 4.6
billion years ago. About 3.2 billion years ago, the earth cooled down considerably
and a very special event took place - life began on our planet.

Lithosphere is the rigid, rocky outer

layer of the Earth, consisting of the
crust and the solid outermost layer of
the upper mantle. It extends to a
depth of about 60 miles (100 km).
The Earth's Crust is very thin in
comparison to the other three layers.
The crust is only about 3-5 miles (8
kilometers) thick under the oceans
(oceanic crust) and about 25 miles (32
kilometers) thick under the continents
(continental crust).
Hydrosphere
A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet. The hydrosphere includes
water that is on the surface of the planet, underground, and in the air.
Water is the essential element that makes life on earth possible. Without water
there would be no life.
Although 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water only a tiny fraction of
this water is available to us as fresh water.
About 97% of the total water available on earth is found in oceans and is too salty
for drinking or irrigation.
The remaining 3% is fresh water. Slightly more than 2% is locked in ice caps or
glaciers. The groundwater and soil water makes up about 0.63% and 0.005% of
fresh water respectively. Less than 0.03% of the earth’ total volume of water is
available in lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands.
This makes water a very precious resource. The future wars in our world may well
be fought over water.
Lithosphere
There are two types of lithosphere:
Oceanic lithosphere- which is associated with oceanic crust and exists in the
ocean basins.
Continental lithosphere- which is associated with continental crust.
The lithosphere includes a various number of different landforms such as
mountains, valleys, rocks, minerals and soil.
The lithosphere is constantly changing due to forces and pressures such as the
sun, wind, ice, water and chemical changes.
Biosphere
The part of the earth’s surface and the atmosphere in which plants and animals
live is called biosphere.
It comprises lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
Biosphere is relatively thin life-supporting stratum of Earth’s surface, extending
from a few kilometers into the atmosphere to the deep-sea vents of the ocean.
The main components of the environment are interconnected by two factors –
a) the one-way flow of energy from the sun, through the living organisms in their
feeding interactions, into the environment, and eventually to outer space as
heat.
As the solar energy interacts with carbon dioxide and other gases in the
troposphere, it warms the earth surface and lower atmosphere by the process of
greenhouse effect. The later makes the earth’s temperature sustainable for living
organisms which would otherwise be too cold to support the life on earth.
b) the cycling of the nutrients through parts of biosphere.
The nutrients that cycle through the major biogeochemical cycles are carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur – all of which are
essential for life.
These biogeochemical cycles operate at global scale and involve all of the main
components of environment, thus materials are transferred continually between
the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
Significance of the Environment for Life
Whatever type of environment organisms inhabit, they all need life supporting
elements for their survival. These include air that they breathe, food and water
they take in, and shelter either as natural (like caves and tree holes) or as artificial
dwellings (like houses). Environment is the only source that provides these life
supporting elements.
We make use of the land for cultivating crops. Soil provides nutrients needed for
the growth of plants. The landform determines the soil types found in any one
area and soil itself varies from place to place. Some soils are rich in nutrients and
other are lacking in them. The soils lacking nutrients need the addition of
fertilizers.
Climate and short term weather changes are characterized mainly by wind,
temperature, pressure and rainfall and are determined by the properties of the
atmosphere.
Air in the atmosphere provides living organisms with oxygen, without which
survival of the most of the living organisms will be threatened.
Ecosystem: Concept, structure and function (food
chain, food web, ecological pyramids and energy flow)
Ecosystem services: (Provisioning, regulating and
cultural)
Ecology and Ecosystem
Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms with each other and their
environment. The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. It is
derived from the Greek words Oikos- home + logos- study.
Sir Arthur Tansley (1935): First time used the term “Ecosystem”
Population: all of the organisms of the same species in the same place at the
same time.
Community: all populations in the same place at the same time (all living things).
Ecosystem (ecological system)-The interactions of a community with the abiotic
elements of a specific area.
Ecosystem (ecological system)-is a region in which living organisms interact with
their environment.
Modern ecology is now defined as “the study of structure and functions of
ecosystems.”
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific and recognizable landscape form such
as forest, grassland, desert, wetland or coastal area.
The nature of the ecosystem is based on its geographical features such as hills,
mountains, plains, rivers, lakes, coastal areas or islands.
It is also controlled by climatic conditions such as the amount of sunlight, the
temperature and the rainfall in the region.
The geographical, climatic and soil characteristics form its non-living (abiotic)
component. These features create conditions that support a community of plants
and animals that evolution has produced to live in these specific conditions.
The living part of the ecosystem is referred to as its biotic component. All the
living organisms in an area live in communities of plants and animals.
They interact with their non-living environment, and with each other at different
points in time for a large number of reasons.
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Life can exist only in a small proportion of the earth’s land, water and its
atmosphere. At a global level the thin skin of the earth on the land, the sea and
the air, forms the biosphere.
At a sub-global level, this is divided into biogeographical realms, eg.
• Eurasia called the palaeartic realm;
• South and South-East Asia (of which India forms a major part) is the Oriental
realm;
• North America is the Nearctic realm;
• South America forms the Neotropical realm;
• Africa the Ethiopian realm; and
• Australia the Australian realm.
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
At a national or state level, this forms biogeographic regions. There are several
distinctive geographical regions in India-
• the Himalayas,
• the Gangetic Plains,
• the Highlands of Central India,
• the Western and Eastern Ghats,
• the semi-arid desert in the West,
• the Deccan Plateau,
• the Coastal Belts, and
• the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
These geographically distinctive areas have plants and animals that have been
adapted to live in each of these regions.
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
At an even more local level, each area has several structurally and functionally
identifiable ecosystems such as different types of forests, grasslands, river
catchments, mangrove swamps in deltas, seashores, islands, etc. to give only a
few examples.
Here too each of these forms a habitat for specific plants and animals. Thus, the
size of ecosystems varies tremendously.
An ecosystem could be an entire rain forest, covering a large geographical area,
or it could be a single tree inhabiting a large no. of birds and/or microorganisms
in its leaf litter. It could be a termite’s gut, a lake or the biosphere as a whole with
an entire intertwined environment of earth.
The number of ecosystems on earth is countless and each ecosystem is distinct.
Thus, ecosystems have both non-living and living components that are typical to
an area giving it its own special characteristics that are easily observed.
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystems have been formed on land and in the sea by evolution that has
created species to live together in a specific region.
Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land-based ecosystems, and aquatic
ecosystems in water. These form the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s
living organisms.
Ecosystems can be:
Natural ecosystems include the forests, grasslands, deserts, and aquatic
ecosystems such as ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea.
Man modified ecosystems include agricultural land and urban or industrial land
use patterns.
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
All ecosystems have the following common characteristics as given by Smith (1966):
1. The ecosystem is the major structural and functional unit of ecology.
2. The structure of an ecosystem is related to its species diversity; the more complex
ecosystems have high species diversity.
3. The function of ecosystem is related to energy flow and material cycling through and within
the system.
4. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
The more complex the structure, the lesser the energy it needs to maintain itself.
5. Ecosystems mature by passing from less complex to more complex stages. Early stages of
such succession have an excess of potential energy and a relatively high energy flow per unit
biomass. Later (mature) stages have less energy accumulation and its flow through more
diverse components.
6. Both the environment and energy fixation in any given ecosystem are limited and cannot be
exceeded without causing serious undesirable effects.
7. Alterations in the environment represent selective pressures upon the population to which it
must adjust. Organisms which are unable to adjust to the changed environment disappear
ultimately.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Structural aspects: This refers to all the elements that make up an ecosystem-the
individuals and communities of plants and animals (biotic) as well as the non-
living natural resources (abiotic) present in the ecosystems.
Ecosystem structure is created due to interaction between abiotic and biotic
components, varying over space and time.
1. Abiotic Components: The abiotic components of an ecosystem refer to the
physical environment or the non-living factors. The organisms cannot live or
survive without their abiotic components. They mainly include, inorganic
substances, organic compounds, climatic factors, edaphic and other factors.
2. Biotic Components: The biotic components of the ecosystems are the living
organisms including plants, animals and microorganisms. Based on their
nutritional requirement, i.e. how they get their food, they are categorized into
three groups, producers, consumers and decomposers.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Structural aspects:
Abiotic Components: They mainly include
i) inorganic substances required by organisms such as carbon dioxide, water,
nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, etc. that are involved in material cycles. The
amount of these inorganic substances present at any given time in
ecosystem is called as standing state or standing quality of ecosystem.
ii) organic compounds like proteins, carbohydrates, amino acids, lipids, humic
substances and others are synthesized by the biotic counterpart of an
ecosystem. They make biochemical structure of ecosystem.
iii) climatic factors including mainly rain, light, temperature, humidity, wind and
air and
iv) Edaphic and other factors such as minerals, soil, topography, pH, etc. greatly
determine the functions, distribution, structure, behavior and inter-
relationship of organisms in a habitat.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Structural aspects:
2. Biotic Components: Based on their nutritional requirement, i.e. how they get
their food, they are categorized into three groups –
i) Producers are mainly the green plants with chlorophyll which gives them the
ability to use solar energy to manufacture their own food using simple
inorganic abiotic substances, through the process of photosynthesis.
They are also called as photoautotrophs (photo-light, auto-self, troph-
nutrition). This group is mainly constituted by green plants, herbs, shrubs,
trees, phytoplanktons, algae, mosses, etc.
There are some chemosynthetic bacteria (sulphur bacteria) deep beneath in
the ocean which can synthesize their food in absence of sunlight, thus known
as chemoautotrophs (chemo-chemical, auto-self, troph-nutrition).
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Structural aspects:
2. Biotic Components: Based on their nutritional requirement, i.e. how they get
their food, they are categorized into three groups –
i) Consumers lack chlorophyll, so they depend on producers for food. They are
also known as heterotrophs. They mainly include herbivorous (feed on
plants), carnivorous (feed on other animals), omnivorous (feed on both plants
and animals) and detritivores organisms (feed on dead parts, waste, remains,
etc. of plants and animals,).
ii) Decomposers (saprotrophs) are the microorganisms, bacteria and fungi,
which break down complex dead organic matter into simple inorganic forms,
absorb some of the decomposition products, and release inorganic nutrients
that are reused by the producers.
All ecosystems have their own set of producers, consumers and decomposers
which are specific to that ecosystem.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Functional aspects: Ecosystems exhibit a natural tendency to persist which has
been made possible by a variety of functions performed by the structural
components.
‘Functions’ refer to the biological, geochemical and physical processes that take
place within an ecosystem.
Ecosystems are thermodynamically open, which exhibit the exchange matter and
energy with their environment. The key functional aspects of ecosystems are-
1) Energy flow.
2) Food chains and food webs
3) Nutrient cycles-biogeochemical cycles
4) Ecosystem development
5) Ecosystem regulation and stability
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Everything that organisms do in ecosystems (breathing, running, burrowing, growing) all require
energy. So, how do they get it?
In an ecosystem, there is a continuous interaction between plants, animals, and their
environment to produce and exchange materials. The energy needed for this material cycling
comes from the Sun. Sun is the ultimate source of energy, directly or indirectly, for all other
forms.
The green plants capture the solar energy and convert it through the process of photosynthesis
into chemical energy of food (organic matter) and store it into their body. This process is called
as primary production.
The rate of total organic matter production by green plants (primary producers) is known as
gross primary productivity. The green plants use some of the energy in the process of
respiration. Rest amount of energy is called as net primary production, the amount of energy left
for the heterotrophic organisms.
In this stored form, other organisms take the energy and pass it on further to other organisms.
During this process, a reasonable proportion of energy is lost out of the living system. At the
consumer level, the rate of assimilation of energy is called secondary productivity.
The whole process is called as flow of energy.
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Primary productivity of an ecosystem depends upon the solar radiations,
availability of water, nutrients and upon the plants and their chlorophyll content.
Productivity of tropical rainforest and estuaries is highest.
The greater productivity of tropical rainforests to a large extent is due to the
favorable combination of high incident solar radiation, warm temperatures,
abundant rainfall, and rich diversity of species. These factors result into longer,
almost year-round growing season.
In estuaries, the natural wave currents bring lots of nutrients with them
congenial for growth.
On the other hand, desert ecosystems have limitations of adequate water supply
while tundra ecosystems have low water temperature as limiting factor and
hence show low primary production.
The most important feature of
the energy flow is
unidirectional or one-way or
non-cyclic flow.
It flows from producer to
herbivores to carnivores
organisms; it is never reused
back in the food chain unlike
the nutrients which move in a
cycle.
As the flow of energy takes
place, there is a gradual loss
of energy at each level. Schematic diagram showing unidirectional flow of
energy and nutrients cycling in an ecosystem.
Ten percent (10%) Law of energy flow in an ecosystem: At each step up the food
chain, only 10 percent of the energy is passed on to the next level, while
approximately 90 percent of the energy is lost as heat.
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
The energy in the ecosystem can be depicted in the form of a food pyramid or
energy pyramid.
The food pyramid has a large base of plants called ‘producers’. The pyramid has
a narrower middle section that depicts the number and biomass of herbivorous
animals, which are called ‘first order consumers’. The apex depicts the small
biomass of carnivorous animals called ‘second order consumers’.
Man is one of the animals at the apex of the pyramid. Thus to support mankind,
there must be a large base of herbivorous animals and an even greater quantity
of plant material.
When plants and animals die, this material is returned to the soil after being
broken down into simpler substances by decomposers such as insects, worms,
bacteria and fungi so that plants can absorb the nutrients through their roots.
Further, animals excrete waste products after digesting food, which goes back to
the soil. This links the energy cycle to the nitrogen cycle.
FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The flow of energy is mediated through a series of feeding relationships in a
definite sequence or pattern i.e. from producers to primary consumers to
secondary consumers and to tertiary consumers. Nutrients too move in along
this food chain.
The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain.

Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk (Grassland ecosystem)

Plants → Deer → Lion (Forest ecosystem)
Phytoplanktons → Zooplanktons → Small fish → Large fish (Pond ecosystem)
FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The food chains can be of two types –
1. Grazing food chain: The food chain that starts from green plants and ends in a
consumer. Some examples are:
• Grass → Insect → Sparrow → Eagle
• Tree → Bird → Snake → Hawk
• Plants → Deer → Tiger
• Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Small fish → Big fish → Human beings
2. Detritus food chain: In many cases, the principal energy input is not green
plants but dead organic matter. These are called detritus food chains.
The detritus food chains are commonly found in forest floors, salt marshes and
the ocean floors in very deep areas. Example of detritus food chain is as follows:
Leaf litter → Bacteria → Protozoa → Small fish → Large fish
FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Each organism in the ecosystem is assigned a feeding level or trophic level
depending on its nutritional status.
Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk (Grassland ecosystem)
Thus, in grassland food chain, Plants (Primary Producers)
grass occupies 1st trophic Trophic Level (T 1)
level, grasshopper the 2nd, frog Grass, plants, trees, shrubs, phytoplankton
the 3rd, snake the 4th and hawk Herbivores (Primary Consumers)
5th trophic level. Trophic Level (T 2)
In a food chain only around 10 Insects, Grasshopper, Deer, Giraffe
percent of the energy is passed First order Carnivores (Secondary Consumers)
on to the next trophic level. Trophic Level (T 3)
Therefore, the number of Frog, Lizard, Crabs, Snake
trophic levels in a food chain is Second order Carnivores (Tertiary Consumers)
limited. Trophic Level (T 4)
Eagle, Tigers, Sea otters, Crocodiles
FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
These food chains are not isolated
sequences, but are interconnected with each
other. In an ecosystem there are a very large
number of interlinked chains. This
interlocking pattern is known as the food web.
A food web consists of all the food chains in a
single ecosystem.
Each step of the food web is called a trophic
level. These trophic levels together form the
ecological pyramid.
If the linkages in the chains that make up the
web of life are disrupted due to human
activities that lead to the loss or extinction of
species, the web breaks down.

https://www2.nau.edu/lrm22/lessons/food_chain/food_chain.html (Figure)
FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Food webs give greater stability to an ecosystem due to their complexity. In a
linear food chain, if one species become extinct or one species suffers, then the
species in the subsequent trophic levels are also affected. In a food web, on the
other hand, there are a number of options available at each trophic level. So if
one species is affected, it does not affect other trophic levels so seriously.
Keystone Species: In some food webs, there is one critical "keystone species"
upon which the entire system depends. In the same way that an arch collapses
when the keystone is removed, an entire food chain can collapse if there is a
decline in a keystone species. Often, the keystone species is a predator that
keeps the herbivores in check, and prevents them from overconsuming the
plants, leading to a massive die off. When we remove top predators like grizzly
bears, orca whales, or wolves, for example, there is evidence that it affects not
just the prey species, but even the physical environment.
Apex Predators: These species are at the top of the food chain and the healthy
adults have no natural predators.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Ecological pyramids are the way to show the structure of ecosystems, the term
was first described by Charles Elton in 1920s.
Ecological pyramids are graphical representations that show the relative amounts
of various parameters (such as number of organisms, energy, and biomass)
across trophic levels. They can also be called as trophic pyramids or energy
pyramids.
Three types of ecological pyramids are generally described:
1) Pyramid of Numbers, in which individuals at each successive trophic level are
counted per unit area and their numbers are plotted in the form of pyramids.
2) Pyramid of Biomass, in which the total biomass existing at each of the
successive trophic levels is measured in terms of dry weight or caloric value, per
unit area and plotted.
3) Pyramid of Energy, in which energy flow per unit time at each of the successive
trophic levels is measured and plotted. It is also called as pyramids of
productivity.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
Pyramid of Numbers: Pyramid of numbers may be defined as graphical representation of number
of individual organisms per unit area at each trophic level arranged stepwise with producers at the
base and top carnivores at the top.
The shape of pyramid of numbers may vary from one ecosystem to another ecosystem.
 In grassland and aquatic ecosystems, pyramid of number
is upright.
The producers in the grassland are the grasses and in
aquatic ecosystems are phytoplanktons (algae etc.) which
are small in size and large in number per unit area. So the
producers form a broad base in the pyramid. The herbivores
in the grassland are the insects; carnivores are frogs, birds,
etc. and top carnivores are hawk, eagle, foxes etc. which are
gradually less and less in number and so the pyramid apex
becomes gradually narrower forming an upright and erect
pyramid.
Similar is the case with herbivores (zooplanktons, etc.),
carnivores (small fishes, etc.) and top carnivores (large
fishes, crocodile, etc.) in aquatic ecosystems (pond, lake or
marine ecosystem) which decreases in number at higher Pyramid of Numbers in Grassland Ecosystem
trophic levels, thus forming an upright pyramid of numbers. (Upright)
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
Pyramid of Numbers: In a forest ecosystem, large sized trees are the producers, which are less in
number and so form a narrow base.
The trees support large number of herbivores like insects, birds, frogs, etc. including several
species of animals that feed upon leaves, fruits, flowers, bark, etc. of the trees. They are large in
number than trees and hence form a middle broad level.
The secondary consumers like predatory birds
(hawks, eagle, etc.), foxes, snakes, lizards, etc.
are less in number than herbivores while top
carnivores like lion, tiger, etc. are still smaller in
number making the pyramid gradually narrow
towards apex.
So the pyramid assumes a spindle shape with
narrow on both sides and broader in the middle.

Pyramid of Numbers in Forest Ecosystem (Spindle shaped)

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
Pyramid of Numbers: In a parasitic food chain, for example, the producers like a few big trees
offers food to quite a lot of frugivorous birds which are the herbivores and more in number than
trees.
The birds harbor and sustain a good number of ecto-parasites like lice, bugs, etc., while a greater
number of hyperparasites like bugs, fleas, microbes, etc. feed upon them.
This when graphically represented form an inverted pyramid.

Pyramid of Numbers in a Parasitic Food chain (Inverted)

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
Pyramid of Biomass: A pyramid of biomass shows the relationship between biomass and trophic
level by quantifying the biomass present at each trophic level at a particular time.
It is a graphical representation of biomass (total amount of living organic matter in an ecosystem)
present in unit area at a particular time in different tropic levels.
The pyramid of biomass may be upright or inverted.

For example, in a forest ecosystem, the plants and

trees (primary producers) make up a large
percentage of the biomass, with gradually
lessening of biomass present at herbivores,
carnivores and top carnivores level respectively
per unit area at a particular time.
Therefore, the pyramid of biomass in a forest
ecosystem is upright with producers forming the
broad base and consumers forming narrow top.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
Pyramid of Biomass: In contrast, in a pond ecosystem, the pyramid of biomass is inverted as the
standing crop of phytoplanktons, the major producers, at any given time make up less biomass
than the consumers, such as fishes and insects.
As with inverted pyramids of numbers, the inverted biomass pyramid is not due to a lack of
productivity from the primary producers, but results from the high turnover rate of the
phytoplankton.

The phytoplanktons are consumed rapidly by the

primary consumers, which minimizes their
biomass at any particular point in time.
However, since phytoplanktons reproduce quickly,
they are able to support the rest of the ecosystem.
One problem with pyramids of biomass is that
they can make a trophic level appear to contain
more energy than it actually does.
For example, all birds have beaks and skeletons,
which despite having mass are not typically
digested by the next trophic level.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
Pyramid of Energy: The pyramid of energy is by far the most practical of all the three ecological
pyramids as it depicts the actual functional relationships between trophic levels. It represents the
amount of energy present at each trophic level. Likewise it starts with the producers and ends
with consumers at higher trophic levels. It is also called as pyramid of productivity. Since the
productivity or energy flow is expressed per unit time basis, the pyramid is always and for all the
ecosystems is an upright position.
For ecosystem to be self sustaining, lower trophic levels should
have more amount of energy than the higher trophic levels.
This helps the organisms at lower levels to maintain a stable
population, but also to transfer energy up the pyramid.
As per the second law of thermodynamics, energy flow declines
from producer level to successive trophic levels.
When energy is transferred to next trophic levels, only about
10% of it is utilized to assemble body mass and become stored
energy. Remaining 90% is lost in metabolic activities. This
decline in energy at subsequent level is referred to as
Lindeman’s data or 10% law.
Therefore, pyramid of energy is always upright.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
Pyramid of Energy: The advantages of pyramid of energy are as follows:
1. It takes account of the rate of production over a period of time.
2. The shape of the pyramid of energy is not affected by size or rate of
metabolism of organisms, while the other two pyramids (number and biomass)
are affected by them. Animals may have larger biomass per unit area than
plants, but their production per unit time per unit area would be smaller than
the plants.
3. The energy content of two species bearing same mass or weight may be
different; in such case biomass may be a misleading factor whereas energy is
truly comparable.
4. In energy pyramids, the relative energy flow within an ecosystem can be
compared and so also different ecosystem can be compared using energy
pyramids.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
Pyramid of Energy:
However, there are some disadvantages of pyramid of energy.
Firstly, the rate of biomass production of an organism is required, which involves
measuring growth and reproduction through time.
Further, one organism can exist at two or more trophic level. So there is a
difficulty while assigning the organisms to a specific trophic level.
Also problem exists for assigning the decomposers or detritivores to a particular
trophic level.
In the nutshell, pyramids of energy are the most consistent and representative
models of ecosystem structure in the study of energy flow through the
ecosystem.
Ecosystem services
The specific ecosystem functions that are directly or indirectly beneficial to human
beings are called ecosystem services.
These functions provide life support services to humans and other species.
According to Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), a major UN-sponsored
effort to analyze the impact of human actions on ecosystems and human well-
being, identified four major categories of ecosystem services:
• provisioning,
• regulating,
• cultural and
• supporting services.
Ecosystem services
1. Provisioning services: are the material benefits people get from ecosystems for
e.g. supply of food, water, fibers, wood and fuels.
2. Regulating services: are the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem
processes e.g. the regulation of air quality and soil fertility, climate regulation,
control of floods or crop pollination.
3. Cultural services: These are the non-material benefits that people obtain from
ecosystems such as spiritual enrichment, intellectual development, recreation and
aesthetic values, tourism.
4. Supporting services: are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem
services, for e.g. by providing plants and animals with living spaces, allowing for
diversity of species, and maintaining genetic diversity.

https://www.fao.org/ecosystem-services-biodiversity/en/
Ecosystem services
Some examples of key services provided by ecosystems:
1. Local climate, water availability and air quality: The forests influence rainfall and
water availability both locally and regionally. They also regulate air quality by
absorbing pollutants from the atmosphere.
2. Waste management: Ecosystems such as wetlands filter waste produced by
human activities and act as a natural buffer to the surrounding environment. The
bio-degradable waste is broken down through the biological activity of
microorganisms in the soil. Thereby the level of overall pollution is reduced.
3. Carbon sequestration and storage: Ecosystems regulate the global climate by
storing and sequestering greenhouse gases. The plants remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis and effectively lock it away
in their tissues. In this way, forest ecosystems are carbon stores, and thus reduce
impacts of global warming.
Ecosystem services
Some examples of key services provided by ecosystems:
4. Maintenance of genetic diversity: Genetic diversity is the variety of genes
between and within species. Genetic diversity distinguishes different breeds or
races from each other and provides the basis for locally well-adapted cultivars and
a gene pool for developing commercial crops and livestock.
Some areas are having high species richness and endemism which add more
genetic diversity than others and are known as biodiversity hotspots.
5. Moderation of extreme events: Extreme weather events or natural hazards
include floods, storms, tsunamis, avalanches and landslides. Ecosystems and
living organisms create buffers against natural disasters, thereby preventing
possible damage.
For example, wetlands can soak up flood water whilst trees can stabilize slopes.
Coral reefs and mangroves help protect coastlines from storm damage.
Ecosystem services
Some examples of key services provided by ecosystems:
6. Pollination: Animals, wind and water pollinate plants and trees which is
essential for the development of fruits, vegetables and seeds.
Animal pollination is an ecosystem service mainly provided by insects, birds and
bats.
7. Aesthetic and cultural appreciation: Language, knowledge and the natural
environment have been intimately related throughout human history.
Biodiversity, ecosystems and natural landscapes have been the source of
inspiration for much of our art, culture and science.
8. Medicinal resources: Ecosystems and biodiversity provide many plants used as
traditional drugs and medicines. They provide the raw materials for the
pharmaceutical industries. All ecosystems are a potential source of medicinal
resources.
Ecosystem services
Some examples of key services provided by ecosystems:
9. Erosion prevention and maintenance of soil fertility: Soil erosion is a key factor
in the process of land degradation and desertification. Plant cover provides a vital
regulating service by preventing soil erosion. Soil fertility is essential for plant
growth and agriculture and well functioning ecosystems supply the soil with
nutrients required to support plant growth.
Ecosystem services
Despite the ecological and economic importance of these services, ecosystems and the
biodiversity are being degraded and lost at an unprecedented scale.
One major reason for this is the value of ecosystems to human welfare are poorly understood and
not fully recognized in every day planning and decision-making.
In simplistic economic terms, the value of ecosystem services is larger than the global economy.
Ecosystem services go beyond the direct economic benefits derived from exploitation of very
specific ecosystem functions such as timber from forests.
It is ecosystems ongoing capacities to provide a stream of life supporting and life enhancing
services that are vital to human well being.
Many of these services are non-market services by virtue of their inherent characteristics eg. both
the atmospheric ozone layer, and the climate stability provided by the global carbon cycle, cannot
be owned by anyone who can control their use by others.
Furthermore, the costs of externalities of economic development (e.g. pollution, deforestation) are
usually not accounted for, while inappropriate tax and subsidy (incentive) systems encourage the
over-exploitation and unsustainable use of natural resources and other ecosystem services at the
expense of the poor and future generations.