Introduction to Digital Control System

1. Introduction:
A digital control system model can be viewed from different perspectives
including control algorithm, computer program, conversion between analog and
digital domains, system performance etc. One of the most important aspects is
the sampling process level. In continuous time control systems, all the system
variables are continuous signals. Whether the system is linear or nonlinear, all
variables are continuously present and therefore known (available) at all times. A
typical continuous time control system is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: A typical closed loop continuous time control system

In a digital control system, the control algorithm is implemented in a digital

computer. The error signal is discretized and fed to the computer by using an A/D
(analog to digital) converter. The controller output is again a discrete signal which
is applied to the plant after using a D/A (digital to analog) converter. General block
diagram of a digital control system is shown in Figure 2.

e(t) is sampled at intervals of T. In the context of control and communication,

sampling is a process by which a continuous time signal is converted into a
sequence of numbers at discrete time intervals. It is a fundamental property of
digital control systems because of the discrete nature of operation of digital
computer.

Figure 3 shows the structure and operation of a finite pulse width sampler, where
(a) represents the basic block diagram and (b) illustrates the function of the same.
T is the sampling period and p is the sample duration

Figure 2: General block diagram of a digital control system

 Figure 3: Basic structure and operation of a finite pulse width sampler

In the early development, an analog system, not containing a digital device like
computer, in which some of the signals were sampled, was referred to as a
sampled data system. With the advent of digital computer, the term discrete-time
system denoted a system in which all its signals are in a digital coded form. Most
practical systems today are of hybrid nature, i.e., contains both analog and
digital components.

Before proceeding to any depth of the subject we should first understand the
reason behind going for a digital control system. Using computers to implement
controllers has a number of advantages. Many of the difficulties involved in
analog implementation can be avoided. Few of them are enumerated below.

1. Probability of accuracy or drift can be removed.

2. Easy to implement sophisticated algorithms.
3. Easy to include logic and nonlinear functions.
4. Re-configurability of the controllers.

1.1 A Naive Approach to Digital Control

One may expect that a digital control system behaves like a continuous time
system if the sampling period is sufficiently small. This is true under reasonable
assumptions. A crude way to obtain digital control algorithms is by writing the
continuous time control law as a differential equation and approximating the
derivatives by differences and integrations by summations. This will work when
the sampling period is very small. However various parameters, like over shoot,
settling time will be slightly higher than those of the continuous time control.

Example: PD controller

A continuous time PD controller can be discretized as follows:

where k represents the discrete time instants and T is the discrete time step or the
sampling period. We will see later the control strategies with different behaviors,
for example deadbeat control, can be obtained with computer control which are
not possible with a continuous time control.

1.2 Aliasing

Stable linear systems have property that the steady state response to sinusoidal
excitations is sinusoidal with same frequency as that of the input. But digital
control systems behave in a much more complicated way because sampling will
create signals with new frequencies. Aliasing is an effect of the sampling that
causes different signals to become indistinguishable. Due to aliasing, the signal
reconstructed from samples may become different than the original continuous
signal. This can drastically deteriorate the performance if proper care is not taken.

2. Inherently Sampled Systems

Sampled data systems are natural descriptions for many phenomena. In some
cases sampling occurs naturally due to the nature of measurement system
whereas in some cases it occurs because information is transmitted in pulsed
form. The theory of sampled data systems thus has many applications.

a. Radar: When a radar antenna rotates, information about range and direction is
naturally obtained once per revolution of the antenna.

b. Economic Systems: Accounting procedures in economic systems are generally

tied to the calendar. Information about important variables is accumulated only at
certain times, e.g., daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly or yearly even if the
transactions occur at any point of time.

c. Biological Systems: Since the signal transmission in the nervous system

occurs in pulsed form, biological systems are inherently sampled.

All these discussions indicate the need for a separate theory for sampled data
control systems or digital control systems.

3. How Was Theory Developed?

a. Sampling Theorem: Since all computer controlled systems operate at discrete

times only, it is important to know the condition under which a signal can be
retrieved from its values at discrete points. Nyquist explored the key issue and
Shannon gave the complete solution which is known as Shannon’s sampling
theorem. We will discuss Shannon’s sampling theorem in proceeding lectures.

b. Difference Equations and Numerical Analysis: The theory of sampled-data

system is closely related to numerical analysis. Difference equations replaced the
differential equations in continuous time theory. Derivatives and integrals are
evaluated numerically by approximating them with differences and sums.

c. Transform Methods: Z-transform replaced the role of Laplace transform in

continuous domain.

d. State Space Theory: In late 1950’s, a very important theory in control system
was developed which is known as state space theory. The discrete time
representations of state models are obtained by considering the systems only at
sampling points.

4. Discrete time system representations

As mentioned above, discrete time systems are represented by difference

equations. We will focus on LTI systems unless mentioned otherwise.

4.1 Approximation for numerical differentiation

1. Using backward difference

(a) First order

(b) Second order

2. Using forward difference

(a) First order

(b) Second order

4.2 Approximation for numerical integration

The numerical integration technique depends on the approximation of the

instantaneous continuous time signal. We will describe the process of backward
rectangular integration technique.

Figure 4: Concept behind Numerical Integration

As shown in Figure 4, the integral function can be approximated by a number of

rectangular pulses and the area under the curve can be represented by
summation of the areas of all the small rectangles. Thus,
The above expression is a recursive formulation of backward rectangular
integration where the expression of a signal at a given time explicitly contains the
past values of the signal. Use of this recursive equation to evaluate the present
value of u(NT) requires to retain only the immediate past sampled value e((N −1)T)
and the immediate past value of the integral u((N −1)T), thus saving the storage
space requirement.

In forward rectangular integration, we start approximating the curve from top

right corner. Thus the approximation is

The recursive relation of the forward rectangular integration is:

Polygonal or trapezoidal integration is another numerical integration technique

where the total area is divided into a number of trapezoids and expressed as the
sum of areas of individual trapezoids.

Example 1: Consider the following continuous time expression of a PID

controller:

Where u (t) is the controller output and e (t) is the input to the controller.
Considering t = NT, find out the recursive discrete time formulation of u (NT) by
approximating the derivative by backward difference and integral by backward
rectangular integration technique.

Solution: u (NT) can be approximated as

which is the required recursive relation.

Similarly, if we use forward difference and forward rectangular integration, we

would get the recursive relation as

4.3 Difference Equation Representation

The general linear difference equation of an nth order causal LTI SISO system is:

where y is the output of the system and u is the input to the system and m≤n.
This inequality is required to avoid anticipatory or non-causal model.

Example 2: If you express the recursive relation for PID control in general
difference equation form, is the system causal?
Solution: The output of the PID controller is u and the input is e. When
approximated with forward difference and forward rectangular integration, u(NT)
is found as:

By putting N = k+1 and comparing with general difference equation, we can say n
= 1 whereas m = 2. Thus the system is non-causal. However, when the
approximation uses backward difference and backward rectangular integration,
the approximated model becomes causal.
5. Mathematical Modeling of Sampling Process
Sampling operation in sampled data and digital control system is used to model
either the sample and hold operation or the fact that the signal is digitally coded.
If the sampler is used to represent S/H (Sample and Hold) and A/D (Analog to
Digital) operations, it may involve delays, finite sampling duration and
quantization errors. On the other hand if the sampler is used to represent
digitally coded data the model will be much simpler. Following are two popular
sampling operations:

1. Single rate or periodic sampling

2. Multi-rate sampling

We would limit our discussions to periodic sampling only.

5.1 Finite pulse width sampler

In general, a sampler is the one which converts a continuous time signal into a
pulse modulated or discrete signal. The most common type of modulation in the
sampling and hold operation is the pulse amplitude modulation.

The symbolic representation, block diagram and operation of a sampler are

shown in Figure 5. The pulse duration is p second and sampling period is T
second. Uniform rate sampler is a linear device which satisfies the principle of
superposition. As in Figure 5, p (t) is a unit pulse train with period T.

where us(t) represents unit step function. Assume that leading edge of the pulse
at t = 0 coincides with t = 0. Thus f*p (t) can be written as
Figure 5: Finite pulse width sampler: (a) Symbolic representation (b) Block diagram
(c) Operation.

Frequency domain characteristics:

Since p(t) is a periodic function, it can be represented by a Fourier series, as

Using complex shifting theorem of Fourier transform

The above equation implies that the frequency contents of the original signal f(t)
are still present in the sampler output except that the amplitude is multiplied by
𝑝
the factor 𝑇 . For n ≠ 0, Cn is a complex quantity, the magnitude of which is,
Sampling operation retains the fundamental frequency but in addition, sampler
output also contains the harmonic components.

According to Shannon’s sampling theorem, “if a signal contains no frequency

higher than wc rad/sec, it is completely characterized by the values of the signal
measured at instants of time separated by T = π/wc sec.”

Sampling frequency rate should be greater than the Nyquist rate which is twice
the highest frequency component of the original signal to avoid aliasing.

If the sampling rate is less than twice the input frequency, the output frequency
will be different from the input which is known as aliasing. The output frequency
in that case is called alias frequency and the period is referred to as alias period.

The overlapping of the high frequency components with the fundamental

component in the frequency spectrum is sometimes referred to as folding and the
𝑊𝑆
frequency is often known as folding frequency. The frequency wc is called
2
Nyquist frequency.

A low sampling rate normally has an adverse effect on the closed loop stability.
Thus, often we might have to select a sampling rate much higher than the
theoretical minimum.

5.2 Flat-top approximation of finite-pulse width sampling

The Laplace transform of f*p (t) can be written as

If the sampling duration p is much smaller than the sampling period T and the
smallest time constant of the signal f(t), the sampler output can be approximated
by a sequence of rectangular pulses since the variation of f(t) in the sampling
duration will be less significant. Thus for k = 0, 1, 2…..... f*p (t) can be expressed
as an infinite series

Taking Laplace transform,

Since p is very small, e−ps can be approximated by taking only the first 2 terms,
as

In time domain,

where, δ(t) represents the unit impulse function. Thus the finite pulse width
sampler can be viewed as an impulse modulator or an ideal sampler connected in
series with an attenuator with attenuation p.

5.3 The ideal sampler

In case of an ideal sampler, the carrier signal is replaced by a train of unit

impulse as shown in Figure 6. The sampling duration p approaches 0, i.e., its
operation is instantaneous.
 Figure 6: Ideal sampler operation

The output of an ideal sampler can be expressed as

One should remember that practically the output of a sampler is always followed
by a hold device which is the reason behind the name sample and hold device.
Now, the output of a hold device will be the same regardless the nature of the
sampler and the attenuation factor p can be dropped in that case. Thus the
sampling process can be be always approximated by an ideal sampler or impulse
modulator.

6. Data Reconstruction
Most of the control systems have analog controlled processes which are
inherently driven by analog inputs. Thus the outputs of a digital controller
should first be converted into analog signals before being applied to the systems.
Another way to look at the problem is that the high frequency components of f(t)
should be removed before applying to analog devices. A low pass filter or a data
reconstruction device is necessary to perform this operation.

In control system, hold operation becomes the most popular way of

reconstruction due to its simplicity and low cost. Problem of data reconstruction
can be formulated as:
 “ Given a sequence of numbers, f(0),f(T),f(2T),··· ,f(kt),···, a continuous time signal
f(t), t ≥ 0, is to be reconstructed from the information contained in the sequence.”

Data reconstruction process may be regarded as an extrapolation process since

the continuous data signal has to be formed based on the information available
at past sampling instants. Suppose the original signal f(t) between two
consecutive sampling instants kT and (k + 1)T is to be estimated based on the
values of f(t) at previous instants of kT, i.e., (k − 1)T, (k − 2)T, ···0.

Power series expansion is a well-known method of generating the desired

approximation which yields

Since the only available information about f(t) is its magnitude at the sampling
instants, the derivatives of f(t) must be estimated from the values of f(kT), as

6.1 Zero Order Hold

Higher the order of the derivatives to be estimated is, larger will be the number of
delayed pulses required. Since time delay degrades the stability of a closed loop
control system, using higher order derivatives of f(t) for more accurate
reconstruction often causes serious stability problem. Moreover a high order
extrapolation requires complex circuitry and results in high cost.

For the above reasons, use of only the first term in the power series to
approximate f(t) during the time interval kT ≤ t < (k+1)T is very popular and the
device for this type of extrapolation is known as zero-order extrapolator or zero
order hold. It holds the value of f(kT) for kT ≤ t < (k + 1)T until the next sample
f((k + 1)T) arrives. Figure 7 illustrates the operation of a ZOH where the green

line represents the original continuous signal and brown line represents the
reconstructed signal from ZOH.
 Figure 7: Zero order hold operation

The accuracy of zero order hold (ZOH) depends on the sampling frequency. When
T → 0, the output of ZOH approaches the continuous time signal. Zero order hold
is again a linear device which satisfies the principle of superposition.

Figure 8: Impulse response of ZOH

The impulse response of a ZOH, as shown in Figure 8, can be written as

to − can be regarded as a phase change of −1800. Thus the phase Characteristics
of ZOH is linear with jump discontinuities of −1800 at integral multiple of ws.
The magnitude and phase characteristics of ZOH are shown in Figure 9.

6.2 First Order Hold

When the 1st two terms of the power series are used to extrapolate f(t), over the
time interval kT < t < (k + 1)T, the device is called a first order hold (FOH). Thus

Impulse response of FOH is obtained by applying a unit impulse at t = 0, the

corresponding output is obtained by setting k = 0,1,2,.....
 Figure 9: Frequency response of ZOH

f(t) = 0 for t ≥ 2T. Figure 10 shows the impulse response of first order hold.

Figure 10: Impulse response of First Order Hold

If we combine all three regions, we can write the impulse response of a first order
hold as,
One can verify that according to the above expression, when 0 ≤ t < T, only the
first term produces a nonzero value which is nothing but (1+t/T). Similarly, when
T ≤ t < 2T, first two terms produce nonzero values and the resultant is (1 − t/T).
In case of t ≥ 2T, all three terms produce nonzero values and the resultant is 0.

The transfer function of a first order hold is:

The frequency response is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Frequency response of FOH

Figure 12 shows a comparison of the reconstructed outputs of ZOH and FOH.

Figure 12: Operation of ZOH and FOH
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