Technical Note

Laboratory Investigations of In Situ Stabilization of an

Expansive Soil by Lime Precipitation Technique
T. Thyagaraj 1 and Samuel Zodinsanga 2
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Abstract: The present investigation examines the efficiency of an in situ lime precipitation technique in stabilizing expansive soil through
laboratory-scale model tests. Expansive soil was compacted in a cylindrical mold and sequentially permeated with CaCl2 and NaOH solutions
into the expansive soil through a central hole filled with coarse sand. Successive permeation of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions into the compacted
expansive soil resulted in precipitation of lime in the expansive soil mass. The precipitated lime reduced the plasticity index, controlled the
swell–shrink potentials, and increased the unconfined compressive strength of the expansive soil by both strong lime modification reactions
and soil–lime pozzolanic reactions. The results are corroborated with microfabric studies on lime precipitation treated specimens, which
showed the formation of cementation bonds. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001184. © 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Expansive soils; Soil stabilization; Compressive strength; Swelling; Shrinkage; Lime; Geomaterials (includes bases/
subbases).

Introduction
Lime stabilization is the most widely adopted method of stabiliza-
tion for controlling the detrimental swell–shrink movements of
expansive soils during wet and dry seasons. Lime reacts with
expansive clays in the presence of water and alters the physico-
chemical properties of expansive clays, which, in turn, change
the engineering properties of a soil (Bell 1988). The physicochemi-
cal changes are initiated by both short-term lime modification re-
actions and long-term soil-lime pozzolanic reactions (Bell 1988;
Rogers et al. 1997; Boardman et al. 2001). Lime modification re-
actions are rapid and occur primarily from cation exchange be-
tween calcium ions in the lime and metal ions on the surface of
clay particles, and flocculation of clay particles. The cation ex-
change leads to substantial reduction in the diffuse double layer
thickness around the clay particles, and increases the flocculation
of clay particles and transforms the soil into a coarser material that
is more friable and less plastic. The pozzolanic reactions occur rel-
atively slowly and are facilitated by highly alkaline soil pH (≈12)
produced by lime, which results in the dissolution of silica and alu-
mina from clay lattice. The dissolved silica and alumina from clay
lattice reacts with the calcium available in the lime to form new
cementitious compounds, calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and cal-
cium aluminate hydrate (CAH). These compounds crystallize with
time, leading to increased soil strength and durability.
Physical mixing of lime and soil is the most effective method
of stabilizing expansive soils up to shallow depths. In situ deep
stabilization of expansive soils is commonly achieved through
lime columns, lime piles, and lime slurry injection (Glendinning
and Rogers 1996; Rao and Thyagaraj 2003; Barker et al. 2006;
1
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036, India (corresponding author).
E-mail: ttraj@iitm.ac.in; thyagarajt@gmail.com
2
Former Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036, India.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on October 30, 2013; approved on
August 20, 2014; published online on September 23, 2014. Discussion per-
iod open until February 23, 2015; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This technical note is part of the Journal of Materials
in Civil Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561/06014028(8)/$25.00.
Tonoz et al. 2006; Puppala et al. 2007). However, deep stabilization
methods using lime are ineffective or difficult to implement in some
situations, as discussed here:
1. Lime column stabilization is mostly adopted for improving
soft clays and is achieved by in situ mixing of lime and clay
soil. Unlike soft soils, expansive soils have stiff to very stiff
consistency, and consequently, the formation of lime col-
umns in expansive soils is difficult (Rao and Venkataswamy
2002; Rao and Thyagaraj 2003; Thyagaraj and Zodinsanga
2014).
2. Lime piles are constructed by creating holes in the ground,
which are filled with lime. Recent studies on lime pile treat-
ment of expansive soils by Thyagaraj (2001) and Rao and
Venkataswamy (2002) showed that lime pile treatment re-
duced the swelling potential and plasticity index, and slightly
increased the unconfined compressive strength. Lime pile
treatment increased the soil pH to 8.4–9.1 only, which is not
conducive for the soil–lime pozzolanic reactions. They have
primarily attributed this to the relatively low water content
of compacted soil; the impervious nature (coefficient of per-
meability <10−7 cm=s) of expansive soil, which inhibits the
migration of lime; and the very low solubility of lime in water
(<0.3 g=L), which inhibited the diffusion of lime.
3. Lime slurry injection involves the introduction of lime slurry
into the ground by injection (Rajasekharan and Rao 1997).
Lime slurry migration depends on the extent of shrinkage
cracks formed before the application of lime injection (Murty
and Krishna 2007; Puppala et al. 2007; Thyagaraj and
Zodinsanga 2014). The method suffers from the limitation that
it must be executed in dry season when the shrinkage cracks
are fully formed.
These limitations call for new methods of stabilization and im-
provement in existing methods of stabilization for controlling the
swell–shrink movements of expansive soils.
More recently, Thyagaraj et al. (2012) discussed the possibility
of in situ precipitation of lime in expansive soil by the successive
permeation of calcium chloride and sodium hydroxide solutions
into expansive soil according to the reaction
CaCl2 þ 2NaOH ⇒ CaðOHÞ2 þ 2NaCl ð1Þ

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 The precipitated lime reacts with expansive soil and modifies Table 1. Properties of Expansive Soil from Siruseri
the properties of expansive soil by both lime modification and poz- Property Value
zolanic reactions. To verify the preceding proposition, Thyagaraj
Physicochemical properties
et al. (2012) and Thyagaraj and Zodinsanga (2014) conducted lab-
pH 8.02
oratory tests by consecutive mixing of calcium chloride (CaCl2 ) Pore water salinity (mg=L) 585
and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions with expansive soil. Lab- Index and engineering properties
oratory results indicated that precipitated lime promoted strong Specific gravity (GS ) 2.78
lime modification and soil–lime pozzolanic reactions. These reac- Free swell index (%) 128
tions controlled the swelling potential, reduced the plasticity index, Atterberg limits
and increased the unconfined compressive strength of expansive Liquid limit (%) 76
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soil. Thyagaraj and Zodinsanga (2014) also reported that the lime
precipitation, on consecutive mixing of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions
with expansive soil, reduced the swell–shrink potentials of lime
precipitation treated specimens. The reduction in swell–shrink
potentials increased with increased percentages of lime precipita-
tion and curing period, even after five cycles of wetting and drying.
However, the effectiveness of the lime precipitation technique in
stabilizing expansive soil by the sequential permeation of CaCl2
and NaOH solutions into expansive soil through vertical holes is
not known. Such studies are essential because the application of
the lime precipitation technique for in situ stabilization of expan-
sive soils is possible only by the successive permeation of CaCl2
and NaOH solutions through the boreholes made in expansive
soils. Therefore, the present study examines the stabilization of an
expansive soil by using the lime precipitation technique through
laboratory-scale model tests. In this technique, CaCl2 and NaOH
solutions are sequentially permeated into the compacted expansive
soil through the central vertical hole. The impact of consecutive
permeation of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions on the physicochemical
properties, index properties, swell potential, and unconfined com-
pressive strength of compacted expansive soil are evaluated. The
present study also examines the effect of cyclic wetting and drying
on the volume change behavior of lime precipitation treated expan-
sive soil. Scanning electron microscopic studies that augment the
experimental findings are also presented.
Experimental Program
Properties of Expansive Soil
Representative expansive soil was collected from Siruseri, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu state, India. The soil was air-dried, pulverized, and
sieved through a 2-mm sieve before its compaction character-
istics, swell potential, and strength characteristics were determined.
Physicochemical and index properties were determined on the soil
fraction passing a 425-μm sieve. Laboratory reagent grade CaCl2
and NaOH were used in the present investigation.
The pH of expansive soil was determined by standard electro-
metric method. The soil suspension (solids to water ratio of 1∶2.5)
prepared for pH measurement was also used for the determination
of electrical conductivity. The electrical conductivity of the soil
suspension was determined by using a direct reading digital con-
ductivity meter. The electrical conductivity measurements were
converted into pore water salinity by using the equation 1 mg=L ¼
1.56 μS (Todd 1980). Initial consumption of lime (ICL) of
expansive soil was determined based on the Eades and Grim
(1960) pH test [ASTM D6276-99a (ASTM 2006)]. The ICL value
of the representative expansive soil was 3%. The specific gravity
(Gs ), grain size distribution, and Atterberg limits of expansive soil
were determined as per IS 2720: Part 3 (IS 1980a), [ASTM equiv-
alent: D854-10 (ASTM 2010b)], Part 4 (1985a) [ASTM equivalent:
D422-63 (ASTM 2007)], Part 5 (IS 1985b) [ASTM equiva-
lent: D4318-10 (ASTM 2010a)], and Part 6 (IS 1972) [ASTM
Plastic limit (%) 28
Shrinkage limit (%) 8
Grain size distribution (%)
Sand 7
Silt 28
Clay 65
Unified Soil Classification symbol CH
Compaction characteristics
Maximum dry density (Mg=m3 ) 1.43
Optimum moisture content (%) 25
Oedometer swell potential at 6.25 kPaa (%) 10.3
Unconfined compressive strengtha (kPa) 217
a
Specimen compacted at optimum moisture content to maximum dry
density.
equivalent: D4943-08 (ASTM 2008a)], respectively. The standard
Proctor compaction characteristics were obtained according to IS
2720: Part 7 (IS 1980b) [ASTM equivalent: D698-12 (ASTM
2012)]. The swell potential and unconfined compressive strength
were determined as per ASTM D4546-08 (ASTM 2008c) and
ASTM D2166-06 (ASTM 2008b), respectively. The unconfined
compressive strength of specimens was determined at a strain rate
of 0.8%=min. The physicochemical, index, and engineering proper-
ties of the representative expansive soil are summarized in Table 1.
The scanning electron micrographs of soil samples were ob-
tained from a FEI-QUANTA 200 scanning electron microscope
(IIT Madras, Chennai).
Procedure for In Situ Lime Precipitation Tests
As discussed previously, sequential permeation of CaCl2 and
NaOH solutions into the expansive soil leads to in situ precipitation
of lime in the expansive soil mass. According to the reaction in
Eq. (1), 110 g of CaCl2 reacts with 80 g of NaOH to form 74 g of
hydrated lime [CaðOHÞ2 ]. The weights of CaCl2 and NaOH in
Eq. (1) are in the ratio of 1.375∶1 (110=80 ¼ 1.375). For example,
a 20% CaCl2 solution may be used in conjunction with 14.6%
NaOH solution to maintain the same ratio (1.375).
The laboratory-scale in situ lime precipitation experiments were
conducted in 300 mm diameter cylindrical test molds [Fig. 1(a)].
Expansive soil compacted in the test mold and sequentially per-
meated with 20% CaCl2 and 14.6% NaOH solutions through a
central hole was designated as the Test 1 specimen. Expansive soil
compacted in the test mold and sequentially permeated with 65%
CaCl2 and 47.3% NaOH solution through a central hole was des-
ignated as the Test 2 specimen. Table 2 lists the details of test
designations and concentration of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions used
for in situ lime precipitation tests.
Preparation and Compaction of Soil in Test Mold
The expansive soil required for each test was divided into six equal
fractions and thoroughly mixed with the desired amount of distilled
water to yield a moisture content of 25%. The six moist soil frac-
tions were allowed to equilibrate in sealed polythene covers placed

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 Central hole filled with sand
300 mm φ test 2,000 mL of NaOH solution was permeated into the soil mass in
mold approximately 10 days to facilitate in situ lime precipitation accord-
ing to Eq. (1). After the permeation of salt solutions into the soil
mass, the soil mass in the test mold was covered with a wet cloth
150 mm and cured for a period of 28 days.

Compacted soil Sampling

(a) After 28 days of curing, the thin-walled sampling tubes (38 mm
diameter and 150 mm long) were pushed to a depth of 120 mm
at radial distances of 0.8D and 1.9D (where D = diameter of central
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hole, 70 mm) from the central hole, as shown in Fig. 1(b), for the
1 determination of unconfined compressive strength. The oedometer
specimens were obtained by pushing 75 mm diameter odeometer
rings along with collar assembly to a depth of 40–50 mm into
1.9D
1.3D 1D
the treated soil at radial distances of 1D and 1.3D [Fig. 1(b)]. Repre-
sentative soil samples were also collected at radial distances of 0.8D
2 CH 2
and 1.9D for evaluating the physicochemical and index properties.
0.8D

1
300 mm
(b)
Fig. 1. (a) Cross-sectional view of test mold; (b) plan view of sampling
locations of lime precipitation treated specimens [CH: central hole
filled with coarse sand; D: diameter of central hole (70 mm); 1: uncon-
fined compression test specimen; 2: oedometer test specimen]
Table 2. Details of Laboratory-Scale In Situ Lime Precipitation Tests
Solution concentration on weight basis (%)
Test designation CaCl2 solution (%) NaOH solution (%)
Test 1 20 14.6
Test 2 65 47.3
in airtight containers for a minimum period of 24 h. At the end of
the equilibration period, the six soil fractions were thoroughly
mixed prior to compaction.
The in situ lime precipitation tests were conducted in a cylin-
drical mold of 300 mm diameter and 200 mm height [Fig. 1(a)].
The expansive soil was statically compacted to a thickness of
150 mm (in two 75-mm-thick layers) in a cylindrical test mold
using the hydraulic jack and reaction frame setup. The expansive
soil was compacted to maximum dry density of 1.43 Mg=m3 at its
optimum water content of 25%. Each test required 18.953 kg of
moist expansive soil (w ¼ 25%) for compacting the soil to a dry
density of 1.43 Mg=m3 (thickness ¼ 150 mm).
Permeation of CaCl2 and NaOH Solutions
To facilitate the permeation of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions into the
compacted expansive soil in the laboratory mold, a central hole of
70 mm diameter was created in the compacted soil mass to a depth
of 100 mm from the top [Fig. 1(a)]. The volume of this hole cor-
responds to 385 cm3 and the hole was loosely filled with coarse
sand. Through this central hole, 2,000 ml CaCl2 solution was per-
meated into the soil mass in approximately 10 days. Subsequently,
Testing Program
The physicochemical properties, index properties, swell potential,
and unconfined compressive strength of in situ lime precipitation
stabilized specimens were evaluated as per the previously described
procedures. All properties were measured on two identical speci-
mens collected at the same radial distances and the average of two
determinations is reported in this study. The durability of the in situ
lime precipitation technique in stabilizing the expansive soil was
evaluated by subjecting the treated specimens to cyclic wetting
and drying in modified oedometers.
Cyclic Swell–Shrink Oedometer Tests
The cyclic swell–shrink tests on untreated and lime precipitation
treated expansive soil specimens were performed in modified oed-
ometer test assemblies. The modified oedometer test assemblies
were incorporated with a mica band heater with ceramic blanket
and galvanized iron (GI) cover on the outer face of the oedometer
jacket. The temperature on the outer face of the jacket was controlled
by a thermostat. During the wetting process, the heating device at-
tached to the oedometer assembly was switched off. The specimens
were allowed to swell upon wetting and the changes in the thickness
of the specimens were continuously monitored by using dial gauges
with least count of 0.002 mm and travel of 25 mm. Upon swell equi-
librium, water present in the oedometer reservoirs was removed and
the heating device was switched on. The specimens were allowed to
shrink at a controlled temperature of 40  5°C until equilibrium state
was reached. The elevated temperatures primarily aid in the accel-
eration of the drying process. The wetting and drying was repeated
up to five swell-shrink cycles. The vertical strain after each wetting
and drying cycle was calculated as
Δh
× 100% ð2Þ
Hi
where Δh = change in thickness of the specimens at equilibrium
swelling or shrinkage and H i = initial height of the compacted
specimens.
Results and Discussion
Physicochemical and Index Properties
Table 3 compares the physicochemical and index properties of
Tests 1 and 2 specimens with that of the untreated soil specimen.

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 Table 3. Comparison of Physicochemical and Index Properties of Tests 1 and 2 Specimens with Untreated Specimen
Specimen Radial Pore salinity Free swell Liquid limit Plastic limit Shrinkage limit Plasticity
designation distance pH (mg=L) index (%) (%) (%) (%) index (%)
Untreated — 8.02 585 128 76 28 8 48
Test 1 0.8D 12.25 9,167 10 — — — —
Test 1 1.9D 12.05 8,961 11 56 37 28 19
Test 2 0.8D 12.30 12,628 6 — — — —
Test 2 1.9D 12.20 12,308 8 49 39 31 10
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The pH of Test 1 specimens increased from 8.02 to 12.25 and 48 to 10–19%. The shrinkage limit increased drastically from
12.05 at radial distances of 0.8D and 1.9D, respectively. Compa- 8 to 28–31%. The free swell index reduced drastically to 6–11
ratively, the pH of Test 2 specimens increased to 12.30 and 12.20 from 128%. The marked reduction in plasticity index and free
at radial distances of 0.8D and 1.9D, respectively. Similarly, the swell index are obviously attributable to the reduction in diffuse
pore salinity of the Test 1 specimens ranged from 8,961 to
9,167 mg=L, whereas that of Test 2 specimens ranged from 12,308
Specimen Radial ρd w Swell potential
to 12,628 mg=L. The strong alkaline pH values and high pore Symbol
designation distance (Mg/m3) (%) (%)
salinity values of Tests 1 and 2 specimens indicate that sequential Untreated - 1.43 25 10.3
Untreated - 1.41 29 5.24
permeation of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions into the expansive soil Test 1 1D 1.41 29 0.00
mass resulted in the in situ precipitation of lime. At these pH values Test 1 1.3D 1.40 28 0.00
(≥12), the silica and alumina in the clay lattice dissolved and com- Test 2 1D 1.40 28.5 0.00
Test 2 1.3D 1.41 28 0.00
bined with calcium ions, which leads to the formation of new ce- * Untreated - 1.40 28 5.32
mentitious compounds; namely, CSH and CAH (Eades and Grim * Untreated - 1.40 28.5 5.25
* Untreated - 1.41 28 5.60
1960; Wang et al. 1963; Diamond et al. 1964; Rajasekaran and Rao *Time-swell plots for these compaction conditions are not
1998; Rogers et al. 2000; Boardman et al. 2001; Barker et al. 2006). 10 shown here
The liquid limit of the Tests 1 and 2 specimens decreased Vertical stress = 6.25 kPa

Percent swell (%)

from 76 to 49–56%; the plasticity index also decreased from 8

6
60
4
50 Untreated
2
CL CH
Plasticity index (%)

40 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (min)
30
Fig. 3. Comparison of time swell plots of untreated specimens and
20 Test 1 Tests 1 and 2 specimens sampled at different radial distances

10 Test 2
MH
ML Specimen Radial ρd w qu
Symbol
designation distance (Mg/m3) (%) (kPa)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Untreated - 1.43 25 217
Untreated - 1.45 30 208
(a) Liquid limit (%)
Test 1 0.8D 1.45 30 365
Test 1 1.9D 1.44 29 304
45 Test 2 0.8D 1.45 30 421
Test 2 1.9D 1.44 29 441
* Untreated - 1.44 29 203
500
*Stress-strain plot for this compaction condition is not
35 shown here
hrinkage limit (%)

Test 2 Flocculation
400
Test 1
Axial stress (kPa)

25
300
Aggregation
Sh

15
200
Dispersion
Untreated
5 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
(b) Liquid limit (%)
0
0 2 4 6 8
Fig. 2. (a) Representation of the effect of lime precipitation treatment Axial strain (%)
on expansive soil in the Casagrande plasticity chart; (b) representation
of the effect of lime precipitation treatment on expansive soil in the Fig. 4. Comparison of stress-strain plots of untreated specimens and
Sivapullaiah et al. (2000) chart Tests 1 and 2 specimens sampled at different radial distances

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 double layer thickness occurring from short-term modification and
long-term pozzolanic reactions. The reduction in diffuse double
layer thickness leads to the increase in particle flocculation/
aggregations and changes the clay-sized particles into silt-sized
particles, which, in turn, alters the soil plasticity characteristics
(Mitchell and Soga 2005; Rao and Thyagaraj 2003). The shrinkage
limit values corroborate the particle flocculation: soils with floccu-
lated particles shrink less. The changes in particle size and particle
flocculation are depicted in Casagrande’s plasticity chart [Fig. 2(a)]
and the chart of Sivapullaiah et al. (2000) [Fig. 2(b)], respectively.
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The lime precipitation treated (Tests 1 and 2) specimens at both
the radial distances did not swell (swell potential ¼ 0%, Fig. 3),
whereas the swell potential of untreated soil specimens (at corre-
sponding compaction conditions) ranged between 5.24 and 5.60%,
which is distinctly higher than the treated specimens. The marked
reduction in swell potential of Tests 1 and 2 specimens is evidently
attributable to strong lime modification reactions and soil–lime
pozzolanic reactions occurring on lime precipitation, as described
previously. As discussed in a subsequent section, the scanning elec-
tron microscopic studies also reinforce that cementation products

The charts clearly demonstrate the changes in particle size and
soil structure attributable to soil–lime reactions from the in situ
precipitation of lime.
Oedometer Swell Potential
Fig. 3 compares the time swell plots of Tests 1 and 2 specimens
sampled at radial distances of 1D and 1.3D with untreated
soil specimens. In Fig. 3, the time swell plot of the untreated soil
specimen in compacted condition (dry density ¼ 1.43 Mg=m3 ;
water content ¼ 25%) is also shown as a reference. Sequential
permeation of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions into the compacted
expansive soil, through a central hole in the laboratory mold, in-
creased the water content to 28–29 from 25% and reduced the
dry density to 1.40–1.41 from 1.43 Mg=m3 (Fig. 3). Because
the dry density and water content have significant effects on the
swell potential, additional oedometer swell potential tests were
performed on untreated soil under compaction conditions corre-
sponding to those of Tests 1 and 2 specimens, as shown in Fig. 3.
are formed in the in situ lime precipitation treated specimens.
Unconfined Compressive Strength
Fig. 4 compares the stress-strain plots of Tests 1 and 2 specimens
sampled at radial distances of 0.8D and 1.9D with untreated
soil specimens. In Fig. 4, the stress-strain plot of the untreated soil
specimen corresponding to compacted condition (dry density ¼
1.43 Mg=m3 ; water content ¼ 25%) is also included as a reference.
The water content of lime precipitation treated specimens increased
to 29–30 from 25% and dry density slightly increased to 1.44–1.45
from 1.43 Mg=m3 owing to the sequential permeation of CaCl2 and
NaOH solutions into the compacted soil in the test molds (Fig. 4).
Additional unconfined compression tests were performed on un-
treated specimens under compaction conditions corresponding to
that of Tests 1 and 2 specimens (Fig. 4), which aid in evaluating
the effectiveness of the treatment. The unconfined compressive
strength of in situ lime precipitation treated specimens was 1.5–
2.17 times higher than that of the untreated soil specimens (Fig. 4).

Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrographs: (a) untreated specimen at 14,000× magnification; (b) Test 2 specimen at 9,000× magnification; (c) Test 2
specimen at 30,000× magnification; (d) Test 2 specimen at 75,000× magnification

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Fig. 6. EDAX elemental analysis: (a) untreated specimen; (b) Test 2 specimen

The higher strength and brittle nature of lime precipitation treated
specimens indicate the formation of cementation bonds from poz-
zolanic reactions, as described earlier.
Scanning Electron Microscopic Studies
The scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) of untreated soil at
magnification of 14,000× is shown in Fig. 5(a). In untreated soil,
a dispersed arrangement of particles can be seen in Fig. 5(a). The
SEMs of the Test 2 specimen sampled at radial distance of 1.9D
at magnifications of 9,000, 30,000, and 75,000× are shown in
Figs. 5(b–d), respectively. At 9,000 and 30,000× magnification,
distinct aggregations of clay particles are visible in the lime precipi-
tation treated specimen [Figs. 5(b and c)]. The white precipitates
also indicate the aggregations and bonds formed. At higher mag-
nification of 75,000×, the formation of bonding compounds on
the surface and edges of the treated soil is very evident. Energy
dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) of untreated and Test 2 speci-
mens are shown in Figs. 6(a and b), respectively. The elemental
analysis shows that the calcium concentration of the Test 2 speci-
men is far higher than that of untreated soil, which corroborates the
formation of cementitious compounds, as discussed previously.
Effect of Cyclic Wetting–Drying on Volume Change
Behavior
The durability of the in situ lime precipitation technique in stabi-
lizing the expansive soil is evaluated by subjecting the treated

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 20
Vertical deformation, Δh/Hi (%) 15
10
5
0 Bell, F. G. (1988). “Stabilisation and treatment of clay soils with lime.
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0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of cycles
-5
Fig. 7. Variations in vertical deformations with wetting–drying cycles
for untreated and Test 1 specimens sampled at different radial distances
specimens to cyclic wetting and drying in modified oedometers.
Fig. 7 compares the cyclic swell–shrink behavior of untreated
and Test 1 specimens sampled at radial distances of 1D and
1.3D. The second swell was the maximum for the untreated speci-
men and equilibrium state was reached after four to five cycles. Test
1 specimens at both radial distances showed no sign of vertical de-
formations with wetting and drying cycles (Fig. 7). Similar behav-
ior was observed in Test 2 specimens. The volume stability of Tests
1 and 2 specimens is attributable to the strong soil–lime pozzolanic
reactions, as discussed previously.
Conclusions
The sequential permeation of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions into com-
pacted expansive soil resulted in the precipitation of lime in the
expansive soil mass and increased the soil pH levels (pH ≥ 12),
which are conducive conditions for pozzolanic reactions to occur.
The strong lime modification reactions, together with pozzolanic
reactions, very effectively reduced the plasticity and controlled
the swell potential. The well-developed cementation bonds from
pozzolanic reactions substantially increased the unconfined com-
pressive strength of lime precipitation treated specimens. Cyclic
wetting and drying tests on lime precipitation treated specimens
established the durability of lime precipitation treatment.
The present laboratory investigation clearly demonstrated the
effectiveness of lime precipitation technique in stabilizing expan-
sive soil. However, further investigations through pilot scale field
trials have to be performed for evaluating the efficiency of this lime
precipitation technique for stabilizing in situ expansive soils. Pilot-
scale field investigations will also aid in developing design charts
and tables that include parameters such as diameter, depth, and
spacing and pattern of boreholes.
References
ASTM. (2006). “Standard test method for using pH to estimate the
soil-lime proportion requirement for soil stabilization.” D6276-99a,
West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. (2007). “Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils.”
D422-63, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM. (2008a). “Standard test method for shrinkage factors of soils by the
wax method.” D4943-08, West Conshohocken, PA.
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