PRINCIPLES OF PHARMACOLOGY

Name: Ntando
Surname: Mdhluli
Student number: 2104725
Date: 26 may 2023
TABLE OF CONTENT

1.introduction
a brief history on adverse drug reaction
b definitions of adverse drug reaction
c risk-benefit ratio

2 Body
a Classification of adverse drug reactions
b Types of adverse reactions
c The importance of the risk-to-benefit ratio when adding to
administer a drug to a patient

3 Discussion

4 Conclusion

5 References
INTRODUCTION

The brief history of adverse drug reaction

.The earliest adverse drug reaction was reported in japan,
Anaphylactic shock caused by penicillin. The intrademal testing was
discontinued in 2004 because there were no evidence for prediction.
Thalidomide was a global issue, causing malformations of limbs
therefore it was removed from the market. Drugs are endorsed based
on a benefit-risk assessment, if the anticipated therapeutic benefits
outweigh the possible risk associated with treatment.

Adverse drug reaction

Is any toxic alteration which is expected to be due to a drug, happens
at doses normally used in a man, needs treatment or reduce in dose or
shows awareness in future use of the same drug.

Risk-benefit ratio
The risk-benefit ratio pre-clinical examination modifies whether a
candidate drug is acceptable for first-in-human testing. If the drug is
found acceptable the drug will be examined in various phases of
clinical trials for risk-benefit examination

Classification of adverse drug reactions

Augmented reactions
.are anticipated but amplified pharmacological or toxic reaction to a
drug. A secondary reaction affecting an organ other than the targeted
organ but anticipated based on the pharmacology of the drug

Delayed-time-related reaction
Some adverse reactions of a drug are not apparent until a crucial
interval of time has elapsed since the first administration of the drugs.
Drug effects occur due to a pre-longed use in a drug which does not
tend to accumulate

Bizarre drug reaction

Bizarre reactions are not anticipated reactions that are not related to
the drug’s pharmacological reaction, are not dosed related and are not
predictable and distinctive, bizarre reactions may include allergic
effects.. Direct reaction on organs that are related with reactions
unassociated to any desired reactions.

Gaffes drug reaction

The adverse reactions arise from human inaccuracy, deferred or
incorrect diagnosis, withholding treatment, prescribing an unsuitable
drug, administering an inaccurate dosages of the drug or failure to
monitor the reaction of the treatment.

End of treatment reactions

Adverse drug response happen in specific situations which the drug
treatment is terminated immediately

Chronic related
Adverse drug response which occurs only during prolonged treatment
programs e,g antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs or non-steroidal
drugs

Type of adverse reactions

Traditionally the adverse effects of drugs were arranged into two
types
Type A
Dosed- related and anticipated on the basis of the pharmacology of
the drug
Type B
Idiosyncratic and are not anticipated on the basis of the pharmacology
of the drug

Galantamine
This drug is used to manage mild to moderate dementia that is an
indication of Alzheimer’s disease. Galantamine does not heal
Alzheimer’s disease, but it can enhance the thinking abilities in
patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Galantamine can cause chest pains,
shortness of breath, irregular heartbeat, unusual tiredness, blurred
vision, dry mouth, fainting, feeling warmth, yellow eyes and skin.
Adverse reaction arising from overdose of Galantamine are confusion,
convulsions, muscle weakness, pale skin and stomach cramps

Anti-epileptic drugs
The adverse responses of anti-epileptic drugs can develop acutely or
chronically after starting the treatment and can affect any organs or
structures in your body. The reactions of this drug can have an
influence on the quality of life and play part to neglected in up to 40%
of patient. The adverse reactions are dose dependent and reversible.
Rational impairment is a particular trouble in patients who studies and
work. Idiosyncratic effects like skin rash and persistent effects like
weight gain can have a high impact on not continuing with treatment
and complicated clinical management. Anti-epileptic drugs may cause
malformation in patients that are pregnant.

Paracetamol
Acetaminophen(the active ingredient of paracetamol) can cause
unwanted adverse reactions. not all of these adverse reactions can
occur. If they do happen they will need medical attention,
acetaminophen is well-tolerated when applied in therapeutic doses.
The most common adverse reactions includes blood or black stools,
bloody urine, fever with chills or without chills, pinpoint red spots on
the skin, sore throat, sudden decrease in the amount of urine, unusual
bleeding. Adverse reactions of paracetamol that arise from overdose
are increased sweating, nausea, stomach pain or swelling in the upper
abdomen

The importance of the risk-to-benefit ratio when deciding to

administer a drug to a patient
A drug can only be prescribed to a patient when the benefits are more
than the risks involved, it is also difficult to measure the risk of the
drugs, physicians when administering a drug to a patient must depend
on literature and the pharmacoepidermiology of the drug, experience
may contribute to correct decision making when administering a drug
to a patient. Therapeutic signs of the drug becomes useful when want
to administer a drug to a patient. Also physicians should check the
serious complications of the drug before administering it to a patient,
investigate if the risks of the drug are preventable when the drug is
administered in a patient. Check if the risks can disappear after the
drug is stopped.

Discussion
Galantamine is a dosed related drug reaction is overdosed the
reactions of it are confusions, convulsions and stomach cramps a
physician should ensure that the benefits of galantamine are more
than the risk before administering it to a patient through the literature
of and the pharmaco-epidermiology of the drugs and ensure that there
are alternative treatments of the drug. And that physicians should
ensure that if there are risk on the drug to be administered they should
be preventable or stop after the drug has been stopped

Conclusion
When a physician ensures that the benefits are greater than the risk
when administering a drug the patient will not have unwanted adverse
reaction from the drug administered.
References
Anon., n.d.
E perucca et al, a. n. s. s., 2005. adverse effects of antiepileptic.
Haruo Takahashi, Y. Z., 2009. the history of adverse drug reaction,relief for these health damages and
safety measures.
kaufman, g., 2016. adverse drug reactions: classification, susceptibility and reporting.
kumar, a., 2018. risk and benefits analysis ofmedicine. 4 may.
maddrey, z. h., 1995. analysis of instance of therapeutic misadventure.
merative, m., 2023. drugs and supllements galantamine. o1 may.
talla, D. V., 2013,. Adverse drug reactions. s.l.:s.n.