Cite this paper: Vietnam J. Chem.

, 2020, 58(6), 832-840 Article

DOI: 10.1002/vjch.202000096

Dye removal using cashew nut shell activated carbon

Dinh Sy Khang1*, Tran Duy Hai1, Ta Dinh Thi2, Phan Dinh Tuan1
1
Ho Chi Minh City University of Natural Resources and Environment,
236B Le Van Sy St., Tan Binh District, Ho Chi Minh City 70000, Viet Nam
2
Vietnam Administration of Seas and Islands,
83 Nguyen Chi Thanh St., Dong Da District, Hanoi 10000, Viet Nam
Received May 1, 2020; Accepted July 13, 2020

Abstract
Activated carbon prepared from agricultural byproducts and wastes could be used as an absorbent for dye removal
from aqueous solution. Moreover, Vietnam has presently become one of the world’s biggest cashew processing
countries. Cashew nut shell has been considered as a hazardous solid waste. The wasted cashew nut shell should be
used as a low cost source of activated carbon absorbent. The main approaches of this study are to optimize the
conditions of activated carbon production from cashew nut shell and understand the adsorption mechanism of how the
dye absorb onto cashew nut shell activated carbon. The absorption model developed in this study could be useful guide
for assessing the independent impacts as well as the interactions between the impact parameters and give a good idea to
enhance the absorption capacity. The experimental data was fitted well to the pseudo-first and pseudo-second order as
well as the Elovich model at different initial MB concentrations. The inconsistence of the best-fit-kinetic model might
result in difficulties in comprehensive understanding of adsorption mechanism. Other impacts, such as competitions of
components, particle size could be included in next studies to develop the absorption models of the specific activated
carbon prepared from cashew nut shell.
Keywords. Dye removal, cashew nut shell, activated carbon, absorption kinetic models, adsorption isotherm
model.

1. INTRODUCTION removal of dyes from the waste water. Activated

Textile wastewater contains a high concentration of
dyes and chemicals that cause color and turbidity of
wastewater.[1] Dyes is known as a source of not only
esthetically unpleasant of textile wastewater but also
ecosystem disturbance.[2] Typically, soluble dye
compounds could not be reduced by biological
treatment due to its non-biodegradable property. The
biologically anaerobic or aerobic processes alone are
ineffective for de-colorization and dye removal.[3]
Therefore, combination of the biological process and
other(s) physio-chemical technologies such as
membrane filtration, electro-coagulation,
photochemical reduction, electrochemical technique
and adsorption technique is necessary for dye
removal.[4] Methylene blue (MB) is one of common
cation dyes in textile industry.
Application of adsorption technique for dye
removal exhibit an effective method in term of
initial cost, simple design and operation, and
insensitive to toxic compounds.[5] Activated carbon
absorption is one of great potential method for
carbon has high efficiency and could be produced
from profuse sources, especially from agriculture
products and wastes. Agricultural solid wastes are
interesting as raw substances for adsorbent
preparation in dye removal application such as
cashew nut shell,[6-8] waste tea,[9] tyres.[10] Cashew
nut production in world is 880.8 Mtons in
2018/2019, accounting for 17 % of global tree nut
consumption,[11] regarding to 2,642 Mtons of cashew
nut shell produced in this section.[12] The more and
more puritanical assessments from environmental
protection policies of countries indirectly oriented a
new available application for cashew nut shell
(CNS) utilization. Activated carbons from CNS are
considered as the effective adsorbents for removal of
heavy metal ions,[13,14] anion F,[15] dye[16,17] or use of
catalytic substance.[18] MB adsorption could reach to
352 mg/g with CNS activated by CO2[6] and 226
mg/g with CNS activated by steam.[17] MB
adsorption capacity by the chemical activation of
CNS with ZnCl2 was advanced to be 476 mg/g.[7]
Moreover, Vietnam presently has become the

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Vietnam Journal of Chemistry
world’s leading cashew processing center with about
50% of raw cashew compared to global production.
It may result in some serious environmental
problems from solid waste of cashew nut shell.
Thus, the approaches of using cashew nut shell
activated carbon for dye removal should be
promoted in Vietnam.
This study aims to understand the adsorption
operation that is one of important steps affecting on
adsorption efficiency. Several parameters of MB
adsorption on activated CNS carbon such as pH,
adsorbent dosage and initial concentration were
optimized, but adsorbent preparation has not been
paid attention enough. The effects of activation
conditions on properties of CNS carbon were
reported, but MB adsorption were experimented
under set conditions. This study considers not only
activation parameters through temperature and time
but also MB adsorption performance through pH and
initial concentration. Kinetic and isothermal models
of MB adsorption on the activated CNS carbon are
also established.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
2.1. Materials and experimental procedure
Liquid mechanical extracted cashew nut shell was
collected from Binh Phuoc province, Vietnam. A
fixed-bed vertical tubular reactor in 6 cm of inside
diameter was used for adsorbent preparation under
nitrogen atmosphere with 200 cm3/min. A 100 g of
the raw material in 0.1-4 mm of size range was
pyrolyzed at 500 oC for 1 hour before next heating
up to activation temperature (800, 850 and 900 oC).
When the final temperature was reached, nitrogen
flow was switched to normal pressure steam with 0.5
cm3/min during expected durations (30, 50 and 70
minutes). At the end of activation process, the
Table 1: Selected adsorption models
Isotherm models
 Langmuir
qe 
qLmax K LCe
1  K LCe
 Freundlich
qe  K F C
1
nF
e
 Dubinin–Radushkevich (DR)

   1  
2
 ks qe2t
qe  qDR exp  K DR  RT ln 1    
max

   Ce   
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Dinh Sy Khang et al.
reactor was cooled to reach room temperature. The
activated carbon was then crushed and classified to
0.1-1.0 mm of particles.
Methylene blue (MB) with analytical grade was
purchased from Merck. The stock solution (1,000
mg/l) was prepared by dissolving an accurate weight
of 1,000 mg MB in 1.0 liter of distillated water.
Batch adsorption experiments were performed with
various concentration (100, 150, 200, 250 and 300
mg/l) of MB working solution which resulted by
diluting calculated volumes of the stock solution in
distillated water. pH of the working solutions were
adjusted to expected values (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10) using
0.010 M of NaOH and/or HCl solution(s). Constant
amounts (250 mg) of the activated carbon were
added onto 250 ml of each the working solution,
which contained in a glass breaker.
2.2. Adsorption models
Common adsorption isotherm models and kinetic
models are shown in table 1. Well-known isotherm
model for both physical and chemical adsorption is
the Langmuir isotherm.[19] This empirical model was
established in assume of uniform homogeneous and
adsorption energy of adsorbent surface and one by
one of adsorbent by active site. In aqueous media,
the controlling mechanism of an adsorption involves
mass transfer (diffusion) and adsorbent-adsorbate
interaction. In order to interpret the adsorption
controlled by surface and/or pore diffusion, the
Weber and Morris model[20] are usually applied. If
multilayer adsorption occurs and be limited by size
of pores, it is common to use the n-layer BET
isotherm model[21] that assumes a maximum n layer
of adsorbate adsorbed onto the internal surface. The
Cn parameter indicates to relation of adsorption
energy and attractive energy between adsorbent and
liquid phase.[22]
Kinetic models
 Weber and Morris
(1) qt  K WM t  CWM (6)
 Pseudo-first-order
(2) 
qt  qe 1  exp k f t  (7)
 Pseudo-second-order
(3) qt  (8)
1  qe ks t
833

Vietnam Journal of Chemistry
Isotherm models
 n-layer BET
n n 1
C  C 
1   n  1  e   n  e 
max
q CC
qe  n n e  Cs   Cs 
n 1 (4)
Cs  Ce Ce  Ce 
1   Cn  1  Cn  
Cs  Cs 
 Guggenheim Anderson de-Boer (GAB)
qGmax CG K G Ce
qe 
1  KGCe  1   CG  1 KGCe 
There are several valid kinetic models for
illustration of rate and mechanism of adsorption
process as presented in table 1. In aqueous media,
the controlling mechanism of an adsorption involves
mass transfer (diffusion) and adsorbent-adsorbate
interaction. In order to interpret the adsorption
controlled by surface and/or pore diffusion, the
Weber and Morris model are usually applied. The
constant CWM in this model reflects the effect of
boundary layer on diffusive resistance of the
adsorbate-adsorbent interface. The higher value
CWM , the more effect of diffusion control on
adsorption mechanism. In the other mechanism, the
kinetic model for chemisorption can also be
established using rate laws of chemical reactions. In
this aspect, the adsorption process is considered as
simple irreversible reaction. Therefore, the
adsorption rate is expressed:
dqt
 kr  qe  qt  r
n
dt
In case of nr  1 , the integrated solution of the eq.
(10) yields the pseudo-first-order kinetic model, also
known as the Lagergren model. If nr  2 , the
pseudo-second-order kinetic model is given.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Characterizations of the CNS activated
carbons
3.1.1. Effects of activation temperature
Development of CNS carbon surface through
activation process is indicated from results of
morphology observation as presented inf 1. It clearly
shows a roughness and no-pore surface of the
pyrolyzed CNS carbon (figure 1a) due to wrapping
of tar and char, which formed under thermal
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Dye removal using cashew nut…
Kinetic models
 Elovich
(9)
1 1
qt  ln  ab   ln t
b b
(5)
treatment. However, interaction of water vapor and
the solid residue on the pyrolyzed CNS surface in
activation step generated sponge clusters (known as
ash) and released the complex structure (Figure 1b-
d). The higher activation temperature may result in
the higher intensity of this interaction. The ash layer
thickness on the CNS carbons increased with
increment of temperature as shown by the outer
layers of the dot lines in the insets. Under activation
conditions, the volatile mater in or on the pyrolyzed
CNS carbon particles was formed and escaped
resulting a channels matrix over the activated CNS
carbons. As consequently, an irregular mesoporous
structure was clearly exhibited on surface of the
CNS carbon activated at 850 oC, leading to future
enhancement of surface area. The high activation
temperature not only destroyed extremely tar and
char but also decomposed carbon - the target
component. At 900 oC of activation temperature,
therefore, formed more ash clusters, and the CNS
(10)
carbon particle with thick ash layer (~50 nm) was
produced (figure 1d). The presence of the ash layer
on the obtained carbons surface relates to resistance
of internal and external diffusion that contribute to
adsorptive mechanism explanation.
3.1.2. Effects of activation time
Biomass activation process for activated carbon
production is considered as a reaction of activating
agent with organic compounds. Therefore, the
activation time plays an important role affecting to
product properties. Figure 2 presents morphologies
of the CNS carbons activated within 50 and 70 mins
at 850 oC. The roughness layer surrounding carbon
particles and the valley topography were displayed
instead of an expected mesoporous structure.
Increase in activation time results a thicker ash,
which separated by the outer part of the dot lines in
the insets of figure 1c and figure 2a; and the particle
almost completely converted with 70 min of
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Vietnam Journal of Chemistry Dinh Sy Khang et al.

activation time. It found in meticulously observation
that micro-channel on the activated CNS carbons
surface formed more and more with activation time
increment. Additionally, micropore structure of the
obtained carbons was partly contributed to
lignocellulose content in CNS material that known
as a rich lignin source. The results in Figure 1b-d
and Figure 2a-b indicate that the ash layer thickened
with increment of both activation temperature and
time regarding to the activating reaction between
steam and volatiles approached the shirking core
model as examined in literatures.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 1: SEM and TEM (inset) images of (a) the pyrolyzed CNS and CNS carbons activated at
(b) 800 oC, (c) 850 oC and (d) 900 oC

3.1.3. Effect of pH solution exhibited significantly in pH arranges of 2-6 and

Not only MB molecule is protonated and get to
positive charge in acidic media but also adsorptive
sites on the activated CNS carbons surface
generating a repulsive force between dye and
adsorbent. Additionally, competitive adsorption of
H+ and cation dye for active sites results a
consequence of decrement both adsorption rate and
equilibrium adsorption capacity at lower pH as
shown in figure 3A (experimental data plotted by
discrete points). Oppositely, the activated CNS
carbons surface was more negatively charged in
higher pH solution, which enhances attraction of
cation groups in MB structure due to greater affinity
on the adsorbent surface. This phenomenon
lightly in pH arrange of 6-10. The higher pH value,
the higher MB adsorption capacity for any
adsorption time was. Improvement of both MB
adsorption rate and adsorption capacity on the
activated CNS carbon was indicated under high pH
condition. It can see the empirical database in figure
3A that the maximum MB removals in solution with
pH arranged 6 to 10 close to 92 mg/g after 80 min of
adsorption time. It can be concluded that the solution
pH arranged from 6 to 10 is feasible to remove MB
by using the activated CNS carbon. However,
adsorption rates at pH 8 and 10 are faster than that of
in pH 6. As a result, solution pH 9 is considered as
the reasonable condition for subsequent
experiments.

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Vietnam Journal of Chemistry Dye removal using cashew nut…

(a) (b)

Figure 2: SEM and TEM (inset) images of the CNS carbons activated during (a) 50 and (b) 70 minutes

100 200 (b)B)

A)(a)
Adsorption capacity, mg/g

80
Adsorption capacity, mg/g

160

60 120

40 pH 10 80 300 mg/L
pH 8 250 mg/L
20 pH 6 40 200 mg/L
pH 4 150 mg/L
pH 2 100 mg/L
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, mins Time, mins
Figure 3: (a) MB adsorption in different solution pHs (C0 = 100 mg/L) and (b) MB adsorption with various
initial concentrations (pH = 9)

3.2. Validation of kinetic and isotherm models
3.2.1. Adsorption isotherm model
Adsorption process attains to equilibrium when rates
of adsorption and desorption equal together. It
means that remaining MB concentration in solution
reach a non-change with time that obtained after 120
minutes of adsorption time in this study. The qe
values from the adsorption experiments were used
for isotherm adsorption model fit following to the
Langmuir, Freundlich, DR, n-layer BET and GAB
models.
Parameters in term of isotherm models and R2,
which carried out from non-linear fitting, are shown
in table 2. The applicability of isotherm model is
indicated by closeness of R2 to 1 and in order: n-
layer BET > DR > Langmuir > GAB > Freundlich.
© 2020 Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi & Wiley-VCH GmbH www.vjc.wiley-vch.de
Heterogeneous surface energies in Freundlich
assume[23] are unsuitable in order to characterize the
activated CNS carbon surface because of the lowest
R2 (0.8066) following this isotherm model.
Contribution of water sorption in adsorption process
can be pointed from the GAB isotherm model.[24] It
can see that non-effect of water molecules to free
enthalpy energy and degree of freedom of MB
adsorption on the activated CNS carbon was
indicated from not only the quite appositeness of the
GAB equation fit (R2 = 0.9665) but also KG  1 .
The inapplicable fit (R2 = 0.9669) with Langmuir
isotherm equation proves that the multilayer MB
adsorption formed on outer surface of the adsorbent.
3.2.2. Kinetic models
In order to investigate adsorption kinetic, the kinetic
parameters were determined in term of the non-
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Vietnam Journal of Chemistry Dinh Sy Khang et al.

linear forms of the pseudo-first-order, pseudo- the selected kinetic model with experimental data
second-order, Elovich, and Weber and Morris was indicated through the calculated correlation
models (summarized in table 3). The consistency of coefficient, R2.

Table 2: Calculated parameters for isotherm adsorption models

Model Parameters Model Parameters
qmax
L  189.2 mg/g q max
n  38.5 mg/g
Langmuir KL  0.136 L/mg n  4.63

R2  0.9669 n-layer BET Cs  10.36 mg/L

nF  5.41 Cn  8048
Freundlich K F  75.6 R2  0.9974
R2  0.8066 qGmax  190 mg/g
max
qDR  170.5 mg/g CG  14426 mg/L
GAB
DR KDR  7.66 106 mol2/kJ2 KG  9.5 106
R2  0.9738 R2  0.9665

Table 3: Calculated parameters from the kinetic models

Calculated Initial concentration, C0 (mg/L)
Kinetic model
parameters 100 150 200 250 300
First order 1 0.095 0.028 0.048 0.061 0.087
k f , min
equation
q e , mg/g 89.9 144.6 161.7 166.5 164.4

R2 0.9814 0.9984 0.9939 0.9558 0.9685

Second order ks, (g/mg)/min 1.6310–3 9.5310–5 2.3610–4 3.8010–4 6.6510–4
equation qe, mg/g 97.7 206.4 197.6 191.8 181.5
R2 0.9857 0.9684 0.9867 0.9690 0.9831
Elovich a, (g/mg)/min 222.2 9.9 28.2 63.8 205.18
equation b103 , g/mg 80.27 22.80 26.08 30.79 39.07
R2 0.9500 0.9828 0.9782 0.9885 0.9848
Weber and Kwm, mg/g/min 6.97 13.56 14.38 14.21 13.23
Morris Cwm, mg/g 29.19 4.03 27.20 38.11 48.81
R2 0.7643 0.9643 0.9130 0.8888 0.8109

The adsorption kinetic models established on
chemical reaction approach (Eq. 10) shown an
applicability for kinetic data modelling of the MB
adsorption in the initial concentration less than 250
mg/L per gram of adsorbent. The best-fit-kinetic
model depended upon initial concentration. That
opposite to indication in the previous study[25] that
the best-fit-kinetic model unchanged in variation of
dye initial concentration. It note that the initial MB
concentrations in this work were significantly higher
than that in these literatures. The higher initial
concentration of MB, the higher driving force in
mass transfer hence more dye molecules reached the
adsorbent surface within short period adsorption
time. The excess of MB molecule over available
adsorptive capacity of the adsorbent not only caused
a thick boundary layer but also enhanced internal
diffusion of MB onto mesopores. The multilayer
adsorption process occurred due to non-uniform
distribution of adsorption surface energy that
generated under high adsorbate concentration. As
consequently, the Elovich equation that considers
contribution of energetically heterogeneous
interaction exhibited the more suitable for
description of the MB adsorption in 250 and 300
mg/L/g of initial MB concentrations as presented in

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Vietnam Journal of Chemistry
table 3. Moreover, the good coherence of the
Elovich model with empirical data signified a
chemisorption process of MB as evidenced DR
model fit.
The intraparticle diffusion model is the poorest
agreement in term of the selected kinetic models
(low R2) for modeling. These results indicate the
absence of contribution of mass diffusion to rate-
limiting mechanism due to the strong stirred
solution. Consequently, overall adsorption rate
depends on the adsorbate/adsorbent interaction that
occurs at the external adsorbent surface.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Cashew nut shell that is a waste of cashew
processing could be recommendable source of
activated carbon production to absorb dye from
wasted water. The main goal of this study is to
propose a new approach of absorption mechanism of
dye on activated cashew nut shell carbon. The
effects of parameters, such as temperature,
activation time and pH condition of activated carbon
preparation are investigated to find the optimal
operation conditions: 850 oC, 70 min and pH 9. The
results are also integrated into the kinetic models,
such as the non-linear forms of the pseudo-first-
order, pseudo-second-order, Elovich, Weber and
Morris models; and isothermal models in order of
applicability: layer BET > DR > Langmuir > GAB >
Freundlich. The proposed models could be useful for
the explanation of adsorption mechanism in this
study.
Acknowledgement. This work was financially
supported by the Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment, through the Project coded
TNMT.2018.04.09.
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Nomenclature:
a initial adsorption rate, mg.g-1.min-1 KL Langmuir adsorption constant, L.mg-1
b Elovich kinetic constant K DR activity coefficient in the DK model,
mol2.kJ–2
C0 initial dye concentration, mg.L-1 K WM diffusion rate constant, mg.g-1.min-0.5
m
-1
Ce dye concentration at equilibrium, mg.L chemisorption stoichiometric number
CG the GAB constant mCNS used mass of activated CNS carbon, g
Cn BET adsorption constant n maximum number of adsorption layers
Cs dye monolayer saturation concentration, nF Freundlich constant
mg.L-1
Ct dye concentration at time t, mg.L-1 nr chemisorption reaction order
-1
CWM boundary layer effective constant, mg. g qe adsorption capacity at equilibrium, mg.g-1
E Energy of adsorption, kJ.mol-1 qt adsorption capacity at time t, mg.g-1
h step high in the Runge-Kutta 4th method qGmax maximum multilayer adsorption capacity,
mg.g-1
k1 toward rate constant in the eq. (12), min-1 qLmax maximum monolayer adsorption capacity,
mg.g-1
k2 rate constant in the eq. (13), qnmax maximum multilayer adsorption capacity,
 g.L.mg 1 p
.min 1 mg.g-1

k1 reverse rate constant in the eq. (12), max

qDR maximum adsorption capacity in DK
g.L.mg 1.min 1 model, mg/g
kf rate constant for pseudo-first-order R2 correlation coefficient
adsorption, min–1
kr chemisorption rate constant Rg ideal gas constant, J.K-1.mol-1

ks rate constant for pseudo-second-order t adsorption time, min

adsorption, g.mg–1.min–1
k T temperature, K
K1 ratio of 1
k 1

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Vietnam Journal of Chemistry Dye removal using cashew nut…

solution volume, L
K2 ratio of k2 Vs
k 1
KF Freundlich constant [M] relative concentration, mg.L-1.g-1
KG the GAB constant [M]0 initial relative concentration, mg.L-1.g-1

Corresponding author: Dinh Sy Khang

Ho Chi Minh City University of Natural Resources and Environment
236B, Le Van Sy St., Tan Binh District, Ho Chi Minh City 70000, Viet Nam
E-mail: khangds@hcmunre.edu.vn
Tel.: +84- 968269302.

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