WATER

INTRODUCTION
 Water is the predominant chemical component of living organisms. Water (H2O) is a polar inorganic
compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless with a hint of
blue. This simplest hydrogen chalcogenide [Hydrogen chalcogenides (also chalcogen hydrides
or hydrogen chalcides) are binary compounds of hydrogen with chalcogen atoms (elements of group 16: oxygen,
sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium)] is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described
as the "universal solvent" for its ability to dissolve many substances. This allows it to be the "solvent of
life". It is the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas in normal terrestrial conditions.
 Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H 2O. A water molecule contains one oxygen
and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it
often co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state (water vapor or steam). Water also
exists in a liquid crystal state near hydrophilic surfaces. Under nomenclature used to name chemical
compounds, Dihydrogenmonoxide is the scientific name for water, though it is almost never used.
 Water covers 70.9% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known forms of life. On Earth, 96.5% of
the planet's water is found in oceans,1.7% in groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers and the ice caps of
Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction in other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air as vapor,
clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation.
 Its unique physical properties, which include the ability to solvate ( a more or less loosely bonded complex
formed between a solvent and a dissolved species) a wide range of organic and inorganic molecules, derive
from water’s dipolar structure and exceptional capacity for forming hydrogen bonds. The manner in
which water interacts with a solvated biomolecule influences the structure both of the biomolecule and
of water itself.
 An excellent nucleophile (nucleophile is a chemical species that donates an electron pair to an electrophile to
form a chemical bond in relation to a reaction ), water is a reactant or product in many metabolic reactions.
Regulation of water balance depends upon hypothalamic mechanisms that control thirst, on antidiuretic
hormone (ADH), on retention or excretion of water by the kidneys, and on evaporative loss.

STRUCTURE OF WATER:

• The two hydrogen atoms of water are linked covalently to oxygen, each sharing an electron pair, to give
a nonlinear arrangement.

• This “bent” structure of the H2O molecule is of enormous significance to its properties. If H2O were
linear, it would be a nonpolar substance. In the bent configuration, however, the electronegative ( the
tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons (or electron density) towards itself ) O atom and the
two H atoms form a dipole that renders the molecule distinctly polar.

• Furthermore, this structure is ideally suited to H-bond formation.

• Water can serve as both an H-donor and an H-acceptor in H-bond formation.

WATER TYPES:

1. Atmospheric water:
 Atmospheric water, transforming from one state to another, participates in water circulation in
nature. Moisture is mainly in a gaseous state in the atmosphere. The average content of water vapor
decreases with height and latitude and depends on the season and type of underlying surface.
 Water in the atmosphere mainly comes from evaporation, from the surface of both the ocean and
the land. Transpiration and direct evaporation from the surfaces of green plant
(evapotranspiration), and evaporation from ice (sublimation) also increase the water content of
the atmosphere. Condensation occurs when air, being saturated with water vapor, becomes
cooler, and relative humidity reaches 100 percent. Condensation can be in the form of dew or
rime.
2. River, reservoirs, lakes, and wetland:
 Surface water is that water which occurs permanently or intermittently on the land surface in the
form of different water bodies: rivers, streams and temporary watercourses, reservoirs, lakes,
swamps, glaciers, and snow cover. The process of transporting water of atmospheric origin over
the land surface under the influence of gravity is called surface runoff.

A lake is a natural reservoir filled with water within a lake basin not directly linked with the sea.
Basins are subdivided according to their origin into tectonic, glacial, fluvial, coastal, sinkhole (in
karst and thermokarst), volcanic, and dammed (artificial reservoirs and ponds). Depending on the
nature of the lake bed, three main lake types can be distinguished:
• dammed lakes: fluvial, valley, and coastal (including reservoirs)
• hollow lakes: moraine, karst, thermokarst, deflation, volcanic, tectonic
• lakes of mixed origin.
 A water reservoir is an artificial water basin, usually formed in a river valley by water supply
lines that regulate its use for purposes of the natural economy. According to the form of the
basin, reservoirs may be subdivided into fluvial, lacustrine, and mixed. Water reservoirs can be
split into permanent or temporary (a day, a week, a season, or a year).
 A wetland is an area of land characterized by constant or excess moistening, favoring
hydrophilic vegetation and the development of specific soil processes. Soil formation alternates
with short periods of peat formation, followed by its washout. In some cases siltation with
organic-mineral muds occurs, and sometimes it is only gleying.
3. Groundwater:
 This term refers to water in the Earth’s crust in all physical states, in the sedimentary rock layers
and massive-crystallized rock fractures. There are many groundwater classifications relying on
 different types of groundwater infiltration and distribution, lithological composition, geological
age, and on differences in hydrodynamics, temperature, and chemical composition.
 According to the conditions of their occurrence in rocks, the following types of groundwater are
distinguished: free gravitational, in a solid state vaporous, physically bound, chemically bound,
and water in a supercritical state.
 The chemical composition of groundwater includes a mixture of many chemical elements, in the
form of different ion types, neutral molecules, organic-mineral complexes, colloids, and isotopes.
 According to its general mineralization, groundwater is usually subdivided into fresh (with up 1
g/l mineralization), saline (from 1 to 25 g/l mineralization) and brine, with mineralization
exceeding 25 g/l (in individual cases up to some hundred g/l).
4. Soil water:
 The term “soil water” usually refers to the water localized in soil pore space (i.e. in the surficial
part of the land) in the form of liquid moisture (both closely attached to soil skeletal particles and
water freely able to move through the soil profile), a solid component in the form of ice in the
soil pore space, and gaseous water in the form of soil air.

Type of water

Chemical basis:

On the basis of mineral contents, water may be subdivided into Hard water and Soft water

Hard water:
Hard water is water that has high mineral content (in contrast with "soft water"). Hard water is formed when
water percolates (get into) through deposits of limestone and chalk which are largely made up
of calcium and magnesium carbonates.
Hard drinking water may have moderate health benefits, but can pose serious problems in industrial settings,
where water hardness is monitored to avoid costly breakdowns in boilers, cooling towers, and other equipment
that handles water.
In domestic settings, hard water is often indicated by a lack of foam formation when soap is agitated in water,
and by the formation of limescale (chalky deposit found in kettles, hot-water boilers) in kettles and water
heaters.Wherever water hardness is a concern, water softening is commonly used to reduce adverse effects of
hard water.
Hard water contains a significant quantity of dissolved minerals, such as calcium and magnesium. In
general, hard water is not harmful for health. In fact, it may confer some benefits because it is rich
in minerals and reduces the solubility of potentially toxic metal ions such as lead and copper. However, there
are some industrial applications where hard water may lead to inefficiencies or damage to containers and pipes.
In such instances, water softening methods are used. When water is softened, metal cations are exchanged for
sodium ions.
Soft water:
Soft water is surface water that contains low concentrations of ions and in particular is low in ions
of calcium and magnesium. Soft water naturally occurs where rainfall and the drainage basin of rivers are
formed of hard, impervious and calcium poor rocks.
The term may also be used to describe water that has been produced by a water softening process although such
water is more correctly termed softened water. In these cases the water may also contain elevated levels
of sodium and/or bicarbonate ions.
Because soft water has few calcium ions, there is no inhibition of the lathering action of soaps and no soap
scum is formed in normal washing. Similarly, soft water produces no calcium deposits in water heating systems.
Water that is not soft is referred to as hard water.

Differences and Comparision:

Hard Water Soft Water

Contains Minerals such as calcium and magnesium Sodium

Reaction with soap Film Suds

Problems Leaves deposit called “scale” None

Lather formation Doesn't form lather with detergents Forms lather with detergents

Removed by permutit process, by exchange of ions none

THE MAJOR CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER ARE:

 Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure.
 Water is transparent in the visible electromagnetic spectrum.
 Since the water molecule is not linear and the oxygen atom has a higher electronegativity than
hydrogen atoms, it carries a slight negative charge, whereas the hydrogen atoms are slightly
positive. As a result, water is a polar molecule with an electrical dipole moment.
 Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent.
 All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are also dissolved in
water.
 Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases significantly with the dissolution
of a small amount of ionic material such as sodium chloride.
 The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure. For
example, on the top of Mt. Everestwater boils at 68 °C (154 °F), compared to 100 °C (212 °F) at
sea level. Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of
hundreds of degrees and remain liquid.
 At 4181.3 J/(kg·K), water has a high specific heat capacity ( Specific heat is the amount
of heat needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of mass by 1 kelvin ) , as well as a high heat of
vaporization (heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of energy (enthalpy) that must
be added to the liquid substance, to transform a quantity of that substance into a gas) (40.65 kJ·mol−1),
both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two
 unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in
temperature.
 The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F). It has the anomalous ( deviating from
what is standard) property of becoming less dense, not more, when it is cooled down to its solid
form, ice.
 It expands to occupy 9% greater volume in this solid state, which accounts for the fact of ice
floating on liquid water, as in icebergs.
 Water is miscible with many liquids, such as ethanol, in all proportions, forming a single
homogeneous liquid. On the other hand, water and most oils are immiscible, usually forming
layers according to increasing density from the top. As a gas, water vapor is completely miscible
with air.
 Water forms an azeotrope (a mixture of two liquids which has a constant boiling point and composition
throughout distillation) with many other solvents.
 Water can be split by electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen.
 As an oxide of hydrogen, water is formed when hydrogen or hydrogen-containing compounds
burn or react with oxygen or oxygen-containing compounds.
 Water is not a fuel, it is an end-product of the combustion (  is a chemical process in which fuel
reacts with an oxidant to give out heat ) of hydrogen. The energy required to split water into
hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis or any other means is greater than the energy that can be
collected when the hydrogen and oxygen recombine.
 Elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen such as lithium, sodium, calcium,
potassium and caesium displace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides. Being a flammable
gas, the hydrogen given off is dangerous and the reaction of water with the more electropositive
of these elements may be violently explosive.