The term system is derived from the Greek word ‘systema’, which means

an ‘organized rela onship among func oning units or components’. A system exists

because it is designed to achieve one or more objec ves. System defini on suggests

some characteris cs that are present in all systems: organiza on (order), interac on,

interdependence, integra on and a central objec ve.

Characteris cs of a System-

1. Core objec ve: Core objec ve system has a core objec ve or purpose

which needs to be fulfilled. It is on the core objec ve that the en re system

is built or designed. The objec ves of the system are well planned in advance

and well stated. For example, the objec ve of the INSAT satellite system is

to help in telecommunica on, TV broadcas ng and weather forecas ng.

2. Interdependence: All the components or subsystems of a system are

interdependent. The system can only func on successfully when all their

individual components func on properly and provide input or output to

each other. The coordina on of these components or subsystems makes

the system work.

3. Integra on: The en re system as a whole is weaved together as one for

the procurement of desired output. This is because all the subsystems are

integrated together.

4. Interac on: All the subsystems in a system have a mutual interdependence

on each other. Therefore, they need to interact with each other, as the change

or process in one will affect the other subsystem also.

For example, in a business system, the marke ng department creates a

demand for a product and accordingly the produc on department fulfills

that demand.

5. System Organiza on: The system is laid out according to the manner in

which the work flows. It also facilitates communica on flow and command

chain conduciveness. The a ainment of objec ves in an efficient manner is

ensured.

Some examples of systems are as follows:

 CBSE Examina on System

 Railway Reserva on System

1.3 ELEMENTS OF A SYSTEM

The following elements are essen ally required to build a system:

(1) Inputs

(2) Processor

(3) Control

(4) Environment

(5) Output

(6) Feedback

(7) Boundaries/ Interface

Inputs

Any system, in order to operate and func on, needs inputs. Inputs are what a

system processes for outputs.

Inputs should have the following characteris cs:

(i) Accuracy: The data to be input should be accurate as erroneous

data will result in wrong output, i.e., GIGO (Garbage In Garbage

Out)

(ii) Timeliness: The data should be provided to the system at the required

me, as only mely data input will only give the desired output.

(iii) Relevance: The data should be relevant as irrelevant data would not

provide the desired informa on.

(iv) Reliability: The reliability of the data needs to be ensured as wrong

input will result in wrong output.

(v) Cost Effec veness: The input data procurement should be cost

effec ve and at the lowest possible price.

(vi) Quan ty: The quan ty of the input data has to be sufficient so as to

solve the purpose of the system.

Processor is that part of the system which processes or manipulates the data or
input into output. The processing is done through various programs/ software
wherein data is transformed or modified from input to output as per the desired
output.
Control
For any system to operate efficiently and effectively, control is required in a system
to control all inputs, processing and outputs and other activities.
Environment
The system has to operate within an environment, all the components which affect
the performance of the system constitute the environment of the system. All the
external compounds that effect the system and guide how a system should function
are referred to as environment of the system. The system should to able to customize
as per the changing environment.
Output
Output is the element for which the entire system is built; Output is what the user
desires it is the end result. The output may be a product, a service or information.
The most valuable thing for the user is output.

Feedback

When the output is obtained, it is compared with the expecta on of the desired

result, and the informa on which is received is called feedback. Feedback is

essen al for the be erment of the system and for the accuracy of the output. The

actual result is compared with the standard result and the informa on received is

termed as feedback. Feedback may be posi ve or nega ve. Posi ve feedback

means the system is func oning right and nega ve feedback ini ates ac on for

improving the system.

Boundaries/Interface

Every system has certain limita ons and it has to work under those limita ons or

defined boundaries. The limita ons of the system help the interfacing of the system

with another system, if there is a requirement of integra on of two or more systems.

TYPES OF SYSTEMS

a) Open and Closed Systems

Open systems are those systems which can interact with the outer environment.

The main characteris cs of open systems are as follows:

(i) They take or give inputs or outputs to the external environment

(ii) They can change as per the change in environment

(iii) They can func on effec vely

Closed systems, on the other hand, do not interact with the external

environment.

The main characteris cs of closed systems are as follows:

(i) Usually, they only exist as a concept.

(ii) They are very rare and not operatable.

(iii) They have a very short survival me.

(iv) They do not take/give input/output from the external environment.

(b) Physical and Abstract Systems

Physical Systems: Physical Systems are the systems which you can physically

see. You can see its components, parts, etc., which can also be touched.

The main characteris cs of physical systems are as follows:

 They are measurable en es which may be sta c or dynamic.

 They can be seen and felt.

Example: Refrigera on systems, which maintain a par cular temperature and also

adjust automa cally with the external environment.

Abstract Systems

Abstract systems do not exist physically and are only conceptual in nature.

The main characteris cs of abstract systems are as follows:

 These are used to understand physical concepts.

 Conceptual abstract models are used to understand physical systems

and their interrela onships, etc.

 These are usually theories, principles and concepts,

For example: Einstein’s theory of rela vity.

c) Determinis c and Probabilis c Systems

Determinis c System

The systems whose outcomes are certain and are based on a predetermined set of

rules are called determinis c systems.

The main characteris cs of determinis c systems are as follows:

 Their outputs are predictable

 Their behaviour is totally known

 Known outputs for known inputs.

 Interrela onships and interac on with other systems is certain.

Probabilis c Systems

The systems that have uncertain outcomes not based on predetermined sets of

rules are called probabilis c systems.

The main characteris cs of probabilis c systems are as follows:

 Their outputs are unpredictable.

 Their interrela onship with other systems is uncertain.

 They can only provide probable es mates.

 These systems are controlled by chance events.

(d) Man-Made Informa on System

Man-made informa on system is an interconnected set of informa on resources

to manage data for par cular organiza on under Direct Management Control

(DMC). This system includes hardware, so ware, communica on, data, and

applica on for producing informa on according to the need of an organiza on.

Man-made informa on systems are divided into three types –

 Formal Informa on System: It is based on the flow of informa on in

the form of memos, instruc ons, etc., from top level to lower levels of

management.

 Informal Informa on System: This is employee based system which

solves the day to day work related problems.

 Computer Based System: Computer based system system is directly

dependent on the computer for managing business applica ons. For

example, automa c library system, railway reserva on system, banking

system, etc

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a systema c and sequen al approach

to solving and developing a system. In other words it refers to the various phases

which occur in a sequence to develop a system. The SDLC gives you a process

or suggests steps to convert the goals/subjects into requirements and the

requirements into design. Further that design can be developed into a system and

then the system can be tested and maintained.

Phases of the System Development Life Cycle

The phases of SDLC can be categorized as under:

(i) Ini al or preliminary inves ga on

(ii) Feasibility study

(iii) System requirement determina on

(iv) System design

(v) So ware development

(vi) System/so ware tes ng

(vii) System implementa on

(viii) Post-implementa on and maintence

Phase I: Preliminary Inves ga on

The first phase of the system development life cycle is preliminary inves ga on.

As the name suggests, it is the first and ini al inves ga on, which deals with finding

out ‘what’ the problem is, recognizing that the problem is the most important and

foremost part of SDLC. To find out the correct problem or flaw for a new system

or an exis ng system is a very important aspect. Infact, it forms the basis of the

en re SDLC.

Based on the conclusions drawn in the preliminary inves ga on, a more detailed

feasibility study is carried out. The feasibility study encompasses judging whether

the system to be developed would be feasible, i.e. whether it will prove to be

beneficial to the organiza on, whether it will be workable in various aspects,

whether it will be acceptable, whether it will be feasible in various aspects such as:

(i) Economic Feasibility/cost benefit analysis

(ii) Technical feasibility

(iii) Human/ behavioral feasibility

I) Economic Feasibility

It deals with the cost benefit analysis of the proposed system. Economic feasibility

determines the total cost of development of the system, the opera ng cost, the
 cost of the so ware and hardware, the maintenance cost, etc. If the benefits of the

proposed system outweigh the cost of developing and maintaining the system,

then a go-ahead is given to develop the new system.

(ii) Technical feasibility

Technical feasibility involves the technology aspect of the feasibility study. It will

analyse the current technologies as well the emerging technologies. The study will

also involve the so ware, hardware and upgrade requirements.

(iii) Human/ behavioral feasibility

Human feasibility deals with the people of the organiza on. It studies the acceptability

level of the employees of the organiza on. It is human tendency to resist change.

So, for a new system to be implemented, it is much be er if you study in advance,

how the people in the organiza on are going to react and what would be the

strength of their reac on so as to assess the situa on in advance.

Phase III: System Requirement Determina on

The systems analyst/business analyst iden fies the requirement of the system and

finds and understands the complete details of the system. This includes the func onal

and opera onal processes of exis ng systems, the flaws of the exis ng system as

well as the expecta ons from the new system.

The purpose of the system requirement determina on analysis is to gather

all data and informa on to understand user requirements.

This phase results in a So ware Requirement Specifica on (SRS) document.

SRS is an agreement between the analyst and the client, which men ons the

requirement from the new system including all performance and opera onal

requirements.

The SRS will also describe the inputs and outputs of the system. The be er

the SRS, the be er the so ware will meet its expecta ons. The SRS document

helps the system developers and so ware engineers to design and develop the

system with the least possibility of errors.

Phase IV: System Design

System design is the most important phase before system development. It is the

blue print of the requirements that will help in developing the so ware. All the
technical specifica ons are finalized for the development of the system at this stage.

The design phase men ons the type of data to be input, the processes used, the

output format, etc.

The major steps involved in system design are:

(i) Output Design: Output design describes the format of the output as

per the requirement.

(ii) Input Design: It describes the type of data requirements for the output

design format.

(iii) File Design: Files are made up of data. The file design men ons the

process of file crea on, data storage in files and data retrieval.

Phase V: So ware Development

At this stage, the following ac vi es take place:

 The design gets converted into the actual system. The blue prints are translated

into so ware, (i.e. programs).

 The en re project according to the size is broken into modules and each

module is assigned to separate teams as per the exper se of programmers

in the respec ve teams.

 The modules developed are made independent so that they can be executed

and tested individually.

 The design specifica ons are converted into codes (programs) by the

programmers.

 As per the design requirement, it is decided to develop new programs or

modify the exis ng programs.

 The procurement of new so ware or hardware is also assessed and

purchases are made accordingly.

 Some mes, the en re system development is outsourced to an external

Organiza on.

Phase VI: System Tes ng

To check and see if the system is performing as per the expecta ons, system

tes ng is done. So ware tes ng finds the errors in so ware, so ware design, etc.

During so ware tes ng, bugs and errors in the so ware are detected and removed.
Tes ng is a quality control system technique in so ware development. As

per IEEE (Ins tute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers), tes ng is the process

of evalua ng a system and its components, using manual or automated techniques.

This is done to verify that the so ware sa sfies the specified requirements and

determine the difference between expected and actual results.

There is a proper Test-Plan which iden fies the type of test to be performed,

the schedules of tests, guidelines for tes ng and the resources to be allocated.

es ng iden fies the errors and the errors are removed using debugging techniques.

Tes ng also ensures performance issues, safety and capacity of the system.

Tes ng Techniques

There are two types of tes ng techniques:

1. Black Box Testing

2. White Box Testing

Phase VII: System Implementa on

Pu ng the system into opera on is what known as system implementa on. The

system implementa on phase involves installa on of the system, training of the

users, crea on of computer files and installa on of all the hardware and so ware

components.

The main mo ve of the system implementa on phase is to:

(i) Make a proper working system

(ii) Install the system

(iii) Replace the old system

(iv) Finalize user and system documenta on

(v) Train the users

(vi) Provide support systems for users

Phase VIII: Post-Implementa on and Maintenance

This is the last phase of So ware Development Life Cycle (SDLC) and it is an

ongoing phase. This is because it deals with fixing the problems of the changing

business environment as well enhancing the system. The maintenance involves

ac vi es across all the phases of the system development life cycle. Correc ng code, upda ng
documenta on, correc ng design errors, making the system more
user friendly etc. are some of the ac vi es involved in system maintenance.

Maintenance ac vity is the most me consuming and costly ac vity of SDLC.