Biology

Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 31
Animal Organization
and Homeostasis
Lecture Outline

31-1
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 Outline
31.1 Types of Tissues
31.2 Organs, Organ Systems, and Body
Cavities
31.3 The Integumentary System
31.4 Homeostasis

31-2
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 31.1 Types of tissue
Tissues are:
• Collections of specialized cells of the same or
similar type that perform a common function
in the body
The four tissue types are:
• Epithelial
• Connective
• Muscular
• Nervous
31-3
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 A. Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissue (epithelium)
• Forms a continuous layer over body surfaces
• Lines body cavities
• Forms glands
• Epithelial cells may be connected to one another by:
• Tight junctions
• Adhesion junctions
• Gap junctions
• Functions include:
• Protection
• Secretion
• Absorption
• Excretion
• Filtration 31-4
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 Types of epithelial tissue
Simple epithelia – A single layer of cells
• Classified according to cell type:
• Squamous epithelium – flattened cells
• Cuboidal epithelium – cube-shaped cells
• Columnar epithelium – cells resembling columns

Stratified epithelia – Layers of cells

Glandular epithelia – Secretes a product
A gland can be a single epithelial cell or can contain
many cells:
• Exocrine glands – Secrete products into ducts or
cavities
• Endocrine glands – Secrete products internally so
they are transported into the bloodstream 31-5
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 Epithelial tissues found in Vertebrates –
Simple squamous, Simple cuboidal

Simple Simple cuboidal

squamous • lining of kidney
• lining of lungs, tubules, various
blood vessels glands
• allows diffusion • absorbs molecules

© Ed Reschke

31-6
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 Additional types of epithelial
tissues found in Vertebrates

Simple columnar Pseudostratified, Stratified squamous

• lining of small ciliated columnar • lining of nose,
intestine, uterine • lining of trachea mouth, esophagus,
tubes • sweeps impurities anal canal, vagina
• absorbs nutrients toward throat • protects

© Ed Reschke

31-7
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 Endocrine and Exocrine glands
When columnar or pseudostratified
epithelium secrete a product, the structure
is called a gland.

Example: Sweat gland of skin Example: Pancreatic exocrine gland

31-8
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 B. Connective tissue

Connective tissue functions:

• Establishing a structural framework
• Transporting fluids and dissolved materials
• Protecting delicate organs
• Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting
tissues
• Storing energy reserves
• Defending the body from microorganisms
31-9
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 Connective tissue

Connective tissue is diverse in structure and function in the body.

31-10
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 Diversity of connective tissue
Connective tissue:
• Diverse in structure and function but all types have
• Specialized cells
• Ground substance – Non-cellular material
• Protein fibers:
• Collagen fibers – contain collagen providing strength and flexibility
• Reticular fibers – contain thin, highly branched collagen fibers
• Elastic fibers – contain elastin, not as strong but more elastic than
collagen
• Ground substance plus fibers are the connective
tissue matrix.
• Three categories of connective tissue are:
• Fibrous
• Supportive
• Fluid
31-11
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 1. Fibrous connective tissue
• Consists of:
• Fibroblast cells
• A jellylike matrix containing collagen and elastic fibers
Functions:
• Loose fibrous connective tissue
• Allows organs to expand
• Supports epithelium and many internal organs
• Forms protective covering over internal organs
• Adipose tissue
• Stores energy
• Insulates the body and provides padding
• Mostly white, but brown in newborns due to increased numbers of
mitochondria
• Dense fibrous connective tissue
• Strong connective tissue
• Tendons – connect muscle to bone
• Ligaments – connect bones to other bones at joints 31-12
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 Types of fibrous connective
tissue in Vertebrates

Loose fibrous Adipose Dense fibrous

connective tissue connective
tissue • cells are tissue
• has space filled with fat. • has collagenous
between • occurs beneath fibers closely
components. skin, around packed.
• occurs beneath skin heart and other organs. • in dermis of skin,
and most epithelial layers. • functions in insulation, stores fat. tendons, ligaments.
• functions in support and binds • functions in support.
organs.

a to b: © Ed Reschke;c: ©Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education

31-13
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 2. Supportive connective
tissue
• Cartilage
• Classified according to type of collagen and elastic
fibers found in the matrix (hyaline cartilage, elastic
cartilage, fibrocartilage)
• Cartilage cells lie in small chambers (lacuna) in the
matrix.
• Cartilage lacks a direct blood supply and heals very
slowly.
• Bone
• Matrix is inorganic salts deposited around protein fibers
• Bone cells are located in lacunae.
• Lacunae are arranged in concentric circles within
osteons around tiny tubes (central canals).

31-14
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 Types of cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
• Consists of very fine collagen fibers
• Matrix is translucent
• Found in nose and ends of long bones and ribs
Elastic cartilage
• More elastic fibers than hyaline
• More flexible
• Found in framework of outer ear

Fibrocartilage
• Matrix contains strong collagen fibers
• Found in structures that withstand tension and pressure
• Found in pads between vertebrae in backbone
31-15
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 Types of supportive connective tissue in
Vertebrates – Hyaline cartilage and Compact
bone

Hyaline Compact bone

cartilage • has cells in
• has cells in concentric
lacunae. rings.
• occurs in nose; • occurs in
in the walls of bones of
respiratory skeleton.
passages; at ends of bones, • functions in
including ribs. support and protection.
• functions in support and
protection.

d to e: © Ed Reschke

31-16
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 Bone
Most rigid connective tissue
Consists of hard matrix of inorganic salts
• Mostly calcium
• Provides rigidity
Deposited around protein fibers
• Especially collagen
• Provides elasticity and strength
Compact bone
• Makes up shaft of long bone
• Consists of cylindrical units called osteons
• Blood vessels in central canal carry nutrients.
Spongy bone
• Makes up ends of long bone
• Contains bony bars and plates separated by air spaces
• Site of red bone marrow, which produces blood cells 31-17
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 3. Fluid connective tissues
Blood
• A connective tissue in which cells are embedded in a liquid
matrix (plasma)
• Red blood cells – oxygen transport
Small disk-like cells without nuclei
• White blood cells – immune response
Larger than red blood cells and have a nucleus
• Platelets – involved in the clotting process
Fragments of larger cells present only in bone marrow
• Functions
• Transports nutrients and oxygen to cells
• Removes carbon dioxide and other wastes
• Helps distribute heat and plays a role in fluid, ion, and pH balance
Lymph
• A fluid connective tissue located in lymphatic vessels
• Lymphatic capillaries called lacteals absorb fat molecules
from the small intestine.

31-18
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 Blood, a liquid tissue

a.Blood sample
after centrifugation b. Blood smear

Blood, a liquid connective tissue. a. Blood is classified as connective tissue because the
cells are separated by a matrix—plasma. Plasma, the liquid portion of blood, usually
contains several types of cells. b. Drawing of the components seen in a stained blood
smear: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets (which are actually fragments of a
larger cell). 31-19
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 C. Muscular tissue
Muscular (Contractile) tissue
• Contractile cells containing actin and myosin
filaments
• Cells are called muscle fibers.
• Three types of muscle tissue:
• Skeletal muscle
Voluntary – Long, striated fibers, multinucleated
• Smooth (visceral) muscle
Involuntary – No striations
• Cardiac muscle
Striated, but mostly involuntary
Cells are bound to each other by intercalated disks.
Have one single, centrally placed nucleus
31-20
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 Muscular tissue

a, c: © Ed Reschke; b: ©Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education

Muscular tissue. a. Skeletal muscle is voluntary and striated. b. Smooth muscle

is involuntary and nonstriated. c. Cardiac muscle is involuntary and striated.
Cardiac muscle cells branch and fit together at intercalated disks. 31-21
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 D. Nervous tissue
Nervous system functions:
Sensory input
• Sensory receptors detect changes.
• Transmit information to the spinal cord and brain
Data integration
• Spinal cord and brain integrate data.
• Decision is made regarding appropriate response
Motor output
• Response is transmitted to effector (gland or muscle)
• Effector initiates the actual response
31-22
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 Nervous tissue

Nervous tissue
• Conducts electrical impulses
• Conveys information from one area to another
• Nervous tissue includes:
Neurons
• Transmit information
• Consist of dendrites, a cell body, and an axon
• An axon and its myelin sheath, if it has one, is called a fiber.
• Outside the brain and spinal cord, fibers bound by
connective tissue form nerves.
31-23
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 Nervous tissue
Neuroglia
• Support and nourish neurons
• Neuroglia in brain include:
• Microglia

• Astrocytes

• Glial cell-derived growth factor is being studied as a

possible Parkinson disease treatment.

• Oligodendrocytes

31-24
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 Neurons and Neuroglia

b.Micrograph of a neuron

a. Neurons and neuroglia

b: ©Ed Reschke

Neurons conduct nerve impulses. Neuroglia consist of cells that support and service neurons and
have various functions: Microglia become mobile in response to inflammation and phagocytize debris.
Astrocytes lie between neurons and a capillary; therefore, nutrients must first pass through astrocytes
before entering neurons. Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheaths around fibers in the brain and
spinal cord.
31-25
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 31.2 Organs, Organ systems,
and Body cavities
Organ
• Composed of two or more tissue types
working together for a particular function
Organ system
• Composed of various organs that cooperate
to carry out a general process
• Example: digestion of food

31-26
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 Organs, Organ systems, and
Body cavities
Body cavities
• Dorsal cavity (toward the back)
• It contains the cranial cavity and the vertebral canal
• The brain is in the cranial cavity
• The spinal cord is in the vertebral canal
• Ventral cavity (toward the front) is divided into:
• The thoracic cavity (includes heart and lungs)
• The abdominal cavity (most other internal organs)
• The pelvic cavity (urinary bladder, female reproductive
organs, certain male reproductive organs)
31-27
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 Mammalian organ systems
Life Processes Organ Systems
Coordinate body activities Nervous system
Endocrine system
Acquire materials and energy (food) Skeletal system
Muscular system
Digestive system
Maintain body shape Skeletal system
Muscular system
Exchange gases Respiratory system

Transport materials Cardiovascular system

Eliminate wastes Urinary system

Digestive system
Protect the body from pathogens Lymphatic system
Immune system
Produce offspring Reproductive system
31-28
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 Mammalian body cavities –
side view

Side view. The dorsal (“toward the back”) cavity contains the cranial cavity and the vertebral canal.
The brain is in the cranial cavity, and the spinal cord is in the vertebral canal. The well-developed
ventral (“toward the front”) cavity is divided by the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity and the
abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity). The heart and lungs are in the thoracic
cavity; most other internal organs are in the abdominal cavity.
31-29
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 Mammalian body cavities –
frontal view

Frontal view of the thoracic cavity

31-30
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 31.3 The integumentary system
Functions of skin:
• Largest and most conspicuous organ system
• Covers and protects underlying body regions
• Regulates body temperature
• Contains sensory receptors
• Involved in exchange of gases with environment
in small aquatic animals
• Manufactures precursors to vitamin D after UV
exposure
Skin and its derivatives make up the
integumentary system.
31-31
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 The integumentary system
Regions of the skin:
Epidermis – Outer, thinner region
• Stratified squamous epithelium
• New cells are pushed outward, become
keratinized, and are sloughed off.
• Melanocytes produce melanin (pigment).
• UV radiation can cause mutations in the DNA of
skin cells, leading to skin cancer.

31-32
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 The integumentary system
(cont)

Dermis – Deeper and thicker than epidermis

• Fibrous connective tissue containing elastic and
collagen fibers contains:
• Receptors
• Nerve fibers
• Blood vessels

Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) – Loose,

connective tissue located below dermis

31-33
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 The Integumentary System
Accessory structures of human skin:
• Nails
• Grow from nail root and form protective covering of distal
portion of fingers and toes
• Hair follicles
• Begin in the dermis and continue through the epidermis
• Contain oil glands (sebaceous glands) which secrete sebum
• Lubricates the hair within the follicle as well as the skin
• Sweat glands
• Present in all regions of the skin
• Begin in dermis and open either to a hair follicle or to the
surface of the skin
• Function to help maintain constant body temperature
31-34
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 Human skin anatomy

Human skin anatomy. Skin consists of two regions, the epidermis and the
dermis. A subcutaneous layer, or hypodermis, lies below the dermis.
31-35
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 Layers of skin

©Eye of Science/Science Source

Layers of skin. The epidermal surface covers and protects the dermis below. A hair follicle
and the dermis are seen in cross section. Cells at the dermal-epidermal border are
becoming keratinized and pushed to the surface, from which they are eventually shed.
31-36
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 Skin cancer

a. Basal cell carcinomas b. Squamous cell carcinoma c. Melanoma

a: ©Dr. P. Marazzi/Science Source; b: ©Dr. P.
Marazzi/SPL/Science Source; c: ©James Stevenson/SPL/Science Source

Skin cancer. a. Basal cell carcinomas are the most common type of skin cancer. b.
Squamous cell carcinomas arise from the epidermis, usually in sun-exposed areas. c.
Malignant melanomas result from proliferation of pigmented cells. Warning signs include
changes in size, shape, or color of a normal mole, as well as itching or pain. 31-37
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 31.4 Homeostasis
The organ systems of the human body contribute to
homeostasis.
• The ability of an organism to maintain a relatively constant
internal environment
• Animals vary to the degree in which they can regulate
internal variables.
• Invertebrates, fish, amphibians, and reptiles are
poikilothermic (cold-blooded) – body temperature fluctuates
with environment.
• Birds and mammals are homeothermic (warm-blooded) –
internal mechanisms for regulating body temperature. This
allows for a greater range of habitats.
31-38
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 Examples of homeostatic
regulation
The organ systems of the human body contribute to
homeostasis.
a. The digestive system
• Takes in and digests food
• Provides nutrient molecules that replace used nutrients
b. The respiratory system
• Adds oxygen to the blood
• Removes carbon dioxide
c. The liver and pancreas
• Stores excess glucose as glycogen
• Later, glycogen is broken down to replace the glucose used
• The hormone insulin regulates glycogen storage
d. The kidneys
• Under hormonal control, they excrete wastes and salts that can
affect the pH of the blood 31-39
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 Homeostatic control
• Homeostasis is, to a degree, controlled by
hormones.
• It is ultimately controlled by the nervous system.
• Negative feedback is the primary homeostatic
mechanism that keeps a variable close to a set
value.
• The sensor detects a change in the environment.
• The regulatory center initiates an action to bring the
conditions back to normal.

31-40
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 Regulation of body temperature
by Negative Feedback
Regulation of body temperature by
negative feedback. Above: When
body temperature rises above
normal, the hypothalamus senses the
change and causes blood vessels to
dilate and sweat glands to secrete,
so that body temperature returns to
normal. Below: When body
temperature falls below normal, the
hypothalamus senses the change
and causes blood vessels to
constrict. In addition, shivering may
occur to bring body temperature back
to normal. In this way, the original
stimulus is removed (negative
feedback).

31-41
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