Price $10.

00

The Steam Book

A PRIMER FOR
THE NON-ENGINEER INSTALLER

©Copyright 1984 Wallace Eannace Associates, Inc. (Reprinted By Permission)

PREFACE
Between November, 1982 and October, 1983 Wallace Ean-
nace Associates, the representative for Fluid Handling Division
products (listed below) in New York and New Jersey, published a
series of articles titled "The Problem Solver - Steam Without
Tears:' Their intent was to bridge the gap between highly technical
writings on steam heating and the reality of what goes on in the
field.
The Steam Book is an edited and added-to version of that
series of articles. It's not meant to be a technical piece for the design
engineer, but a useful tool for the non-engineer installer faced with
too many problems, too little time, and not enough answers.
It can be read from cover to cover if you're a young person just
starting out in the business or, hopefully, referred to for choice tid-
bits if you're a seasoned Old Timer.
It can be used by non-technical support people to help identify
customer problems over the phone or it can be used by the sales-
man whose customer may need a picture or a few explanatory
words before placing that order.
However you decide to use it, we know you'll find it useful.

FLUID HANDLING DIVISION ITT

BELL & GOSSETT

Centrifugal pumps, heat transfer equipment,
hydronic specialties, packaged products
DOMESTIC PUMP
Condensate transfer equipment, industrial and
clinical vacuum units, vacuum heating
HOFFMAN
Valves, steam traps, strainers, pumps, regulators
LAWLER
Water temperature controls, temperature regulators,
shower valves, tempering valves
McDONNELL & MILLER
Boiler controls, flow switches, liquid level controls

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter One Page 1
Components of a one-pipe steam system
System pressure drop in small jobs
Chapter Two Page 6
System pressure drop in larger jobs
Hartford Loops
Sizing steam headers
Chapter Three Page 12
Theory and operation of air vents
and pressuretrols
Chapter Four Page 19
Different types of One-Pipe steam systems

Chapter Five Page 27

Condensate pumps and boiler-feed pumps
Chapter Six Page 34
New boilers, old systems, and system time lag.
Chapter Seven Page 39
Adding condensate and boiler-feed pumps to existing jobs.
Chapter Eight Page 46
Boiler-water level controls
(Theory, operation, piping mistakes, electrical problems)

Chapter Nine Page 69

The reality of steam traps
Chapter Ten Page 75
Vacuum systems (Definitions and operation)
Troubleshooting Steam Systems Page 83
Technical Terms and Piping Layouts Page 91

v
 CHAPTER ONE
Components of a one-pipe steam system
System pressure drop in small jobs
Steam Heating .. .
We're going to start where it all started - with one-pipe systems,
the kind you find in old houses. Nobody installs new one-pipe
systems anymore so most of what you're going to be doing is
equipment replacement, pure and simple. New boilers, new radi-
ators, new zones, new controls, things like that.
But before you start replacing, look at what's there first. Look
hard and long. It's unbelievable what you'll find in those old
homes. A man's piping seemed to be his signature in those days.
You'll see loops and bends and turns where you wouldn't think
there should be any. Try to figure out what's going on before you
whip out the sledge and start breaking up fittings. Piping was a bit
different in those days, but there was usually a reason for it.
We mention this because many a job has failed to work after a
simple boiler replacement because that peculiar-looking loop or
turn isn't there anymore.
Let's take it from the top.
SUPPLY VALVE VENT VALVE

SUPPLY MAIN

HEADER\ MAIN VENT

---- .... rrI

A
i L__
DRY RETURN
DRIP CONNECTION

BOILER
r - Ii ~ WATER LINE
rT .
I_..- HARTFORD I
j LOOP ,

~--- ---·-·~WET RETURN

BASIC ONE-PIPE UP-FEED SYSTEM

This is the way a one-pipe system should look ( not the only
way, but a good place to start). Look it over. There shouldn't be
1
anything unfamiliar. We have a boiler supplying steam through a
header to a supply main. The steam branches off to the radiators,
pushing air ahead of itself. When steam enters the radiator, the
vent closes and the steam gives up its heat and turns into water
(called condensate). The condensate backs out the same way it
came in and then flows back to the boiler.
Notice the main vent at the end of the supply? Its job is to rapidly
take air out of the supply main as the steam comes up. It belongs
fifteen inches back from the drip connection and, ideally, six to ten
inches up on a nipple. The reason for this will come later.
Main vents are notorious for not being there. Guys, for some
reason, don't think they're important. They're wrong.
Any steam system can be greatly improved by installing a main
vent. By getting the air out, they make the steam move faster.
Faster steam means faster heating. And lower fuel bills! Music to
the homeowner's ears. It's a fine point that's often overlooked.
Most homeowners will go for main vents if you talk them up. They
depend on you to know what they need. Now you do!
How important are main vents? Well, in their Energy Saving
Guidelines for Article 8-A Loans, the New York City Department
of Housing Preservation and Development calls for main vents "at
the ends of all steam mains'.' They say, "this will help eliminate cold
air in the piping and furnish more and faster heat to the system
radiators'.'
You just can't depend on the radiator vents to do the job. What's
that you say? You've seen plenty of jobs working just fine without
the main vents?
What's "just fine"? Try putting a main vent on the "just fine" job
and see how much faster the boiler comes up to pressure. Then
keep a record of how much fuel is saved. You'll be convinced!
Moving right along.
O.K., the air's out and the radiator's hot. Now we have to getthe
condensate back to the boiler. This is where things get a little tricky,
especially on boiler replacements.
See that space in the drawing called "A"? We're going to talk
about that for awhile. It's important. It has to do with what we call
"system pressure drop'.'
Now we're going to ask you to do something silly. We want you
to make believe you're a puff of steam rising out of a boiler under
2
pressure. You're racing through the header and up into the piping.
You feel pretty good; you're hot stuff!
But wait a minute. As you move along you find some of you is
cooling and condensing into water. Now you've got to work your
way past all those water droplets. In fact, you've got to push them
along with you! Very tiring, isn't it? On top of this, you're rubbing
against the side of the piping, making turns, and pushing through
valves. Whew!
By the time you get to the end of the run you're pretty tired.
You've lost some of your pressure. As a matter of fact, by the time
you get to the end, you've turned completely into water! You settle
gratefully into the return pipe. You're on your way back to the
boiler to pick up some energy.
Now, thinking of yourself as a puff of steam making that
exhausting journey may seem silly, but it's the best way to imagine
a fairly complex principle called "system pressure drop'.'
Let's back up a minute and think of a glass tube in the shape of
the letter "U'.' If we pour water in one side it will automatically seek
its own level on the other side, right? That's because the pressure
on the surface of the water on both sides of the "U" tube is the
same. If, for some reason, the pressure on one side of the tube
were less than the pressure on the other side, the water under the
lesser pressure would rise up. It's simple. With less pressure to hold
it down, it's just got to rise up!
This is what happens in a steam system. The water in the boiler
has the steam pressure sitting on top of it, holding it down. That
pressure maintains a certain level. The water in the return pipe at
the end of the run also has steam pressure sitting on top of it, hold-
ing it down. But that pressure is Jess than what's in the boiler
because the steam lost some of its pressure making that trip
through the system.
So what happens next? Since the pressure in the return is less
than the pressure in the boiler, the water in the return rises up! How
much? Well, that depends on the system and it also brings us to a
technical point.
In sizing a steam system, the designer makes a decision on pipe
size based on pressure drop. In systems less than 100,000 Btus,
the piping size is based on a pressure drop of 1/sth pound per
square inch. How come? That's what has been found to work best.
O.K.? Ready for another scientific fact? If we were to drop a
3
 one-pound weight into one side of that glass "U" tube we were
looking at before, (assuming the surface area of the water under
the weight is one square inch) the water on the other side of the
tube would rise exactly twenty-eight inches. Nature is responsible
for that one.
Here comes the connection. If one pound will make the water
rise twenty-eight inches, then 1/sth pound will make the water rise
311z inches. Make sense?
Since the pressure drop we experienced in making that run
around the system was 1/sth pound, the water in the return pipe
will be 3 1/2 inches higher than the water in the boiler.
This will be true for any one-pipe system that's less than
100,000 Btus.
But wait a minute. We're not done yet. The water in the return
pipe below the boiler-water line (we call this pipe the "wet return")
also has to rub against the pipe walls and make turns on its way
back to the boiler, so we have to give it a little help, a little push.
Let's use the water to push the water. Here's how it works. Water
has weight and the higher we stack it, the more weight it has at the
bottom. Weight can also be called pressure, can't it? And pres-
sure's what we need to overcome all that resistance in the wet
return and get the water back into the boiler.
In this size system, the amount of water, in inches, needed to
overcome the resistance is 3 1/2. This we know from experience.
Let's call those 3 1/2 inches "static head:' Without this static head,
water couldn't return to the boiler.
As you can see, so far we need seven inches of vertical stacking
space in our little system (3 1/2 inches due to pressure drop and
311z inches for static head).
Now, one more thing and we'll be done. On start-up, the pipes
are cold and cold pipes will make more condensate than hot pipes.
So let's add a safety factor of twice the static head. That would be
seven inches (31/z x 2). We'll use those seven inches to hold.
the start-up condensate.
That gives us a total vertical stacking space of fourteen inches.
With us so far? Great! To play it real safe, standard piping practice
takes those fourteen inches, adds four more, and makes it eight-
een inches. Now everything's covered.
What we're left with is called "Dimension N and here's what it
4
looks like.
STEAM SUPPLY MAIN

FLOW
SAFETY FACTOR

• STATIC HEAD A

·~ PRESSU~EDROP
= OF SYSTEM
- - _..L._-

BOILER

PRESSURE DROP IN A ONE-PIPE STEAM SYSTEM

You'll notice that "Dimension P\' can't be less than the difference
between the normal boiler-water line (determined by the boiler
manufacturer) and the bottom of the last horizontal steam-
carrying pipe above the wet return.
If it's less, water will start backing up the returns and into the
mains. The automatic feeder, if one is installed on the job, will
open, and before you can say "Angry Homeowner" you could
have little waterfalls coming out of the radiators and no heat to
boot!
And now a word of warning. We've seen literature that shows
"Dimension Pt as a vertical rise from the boiler-water line to the top
of the steam header. Don't believe it. Look at the drawing again.
"Dimension Pt must be measured from the boiler-water line up to
the level of the pipe at the end of the run. That could be quite far
away. And remember, the piping is sloping down from a high at
the steam header, so check this level against your new boiler's
water level before you price the job. You may need a condensate
pump (more on that in a later chapter.) The best way to check
"Dimension Pt is to measure down from the basement ceiling
since it's probably more level than the basement floor.
Not taking the time to check this out is the most common prob-
lem on boiler replacement. It never has a happy ending.
5
 CHAPTER TWO
System pressure drop in larger jobs
Hartford Loops
Sizing Steam headers
Let's take a look at system pressure drop in jobs over 100,000
Btus. Here's our "Dimension A" drawing again.
STEAM SUPPLY MAIN

FLOW - -
SAFETY FACTOR

STATIC HEAD A

- PRESSU~EDROP
~ OF SYSTEM
-__ - _..1_ __

BOILER

PRESSURE DROP IN A ONE-PIPE STEAM SYSTEM

The big difference in larger systems shows up in "Dimension A:'

On these systems, the pipe size was based on a pressure drop of
1/2 psi. It was a conscious decision made by the original designer

based on experience.
Let's figure out "Dimension A:' Remember our glass "U" tube
from the last chapter? If we drop that same one-pound weight into
one side, the other side is still going to rise up 28 inches. Nature,
right?
Now on these larger jobs we have a lf2 psi pressure drop so the
water in the pipe at the far end of the system will rise up 14 inches
(half of 28 inches) because there's less pressure to hold it down.
And to get the water back into the boiler we have to add static
head. In systems over 100,000 Btus we add four inches. We know
that from experience.
6
 We also need a place for our start-up condensate to go. That's
the safety factor and we get it by doubling the static head. That
would be four inches times two, or eight inches.
This gives us a total of 26 inches. Here it is again:

Pressure drop of system (I/z psi) = 14"

Static Head (friction of wet return) 4"
Safety factor (twice the static head) = 8"
Total Height needed = 26"

To play it safe, it's standard practice to add two more inches and
make "Dimension A" not less than 28 inches. And keep in mind
that's from the normal boiler-water line (determined by the boiler
manufacturer) to the bottom of the last steam-carrying pipe at the
far end of the system.
We know we've said this before, but it's worth repeating. Take
the measurement before you take the job. Consider the boiler you
plan to use, make sure you know where its normal water line will
wind up (if you're going to place the boiler on blocks, take that into
consideration) then measure down from the basement ceiling to
check it.
Most of the jobs you work on are over 100,000 Btus and
twenty-eight inches is a lot of inches in an older basement without
much headroom. So measure! You won't be sorry.
Let's move back into the boiler room now and take a look at that
return piping around the boiler. Notice that cast-iron boilers have
return tappings on both sides? Steel boilers have them on only one
side. By doing it that way, the manufacturer gets the right kind of
circulation through different kinds of boilers. If you see two tap-
pings, use them both. Don't try to second-guess the manufacturer.
You may save a few bucks on the installation, but you'll wind up
with a job that doesn't work right.
Now we come to that curious arrangement called the "Hartford
Loop:' There's a story behind that loop. Here's what it looks like.
7
 THE HARTFORD LOOP
STEAM SUPPLY MAIN

HEADER FLOW - - -

DRIP
EQUALIZER AND CONNECTION
HEADER DRIP
CONNECTION

-r----
L BOILER WATER
LINE

And here's the story.

Around 1919, the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insur-
ance Company got a little sick of paying out claims on broken boil-
ers.
Up until that time it was standard to bring the wet return straight
back to the boiler, down low arid real dirty. But there was a prob-
lem. You see, condensate, at times, picks up the nasty habit of
eating through return pipes. When it was through munching,
water would flow very quickly from the boiler.
The usual "solution" was to install a check t7alve in the return just
before it went back into the boiler. But the check valve was also a
problem. It would chatter and add resistance to the returning
water. It would fill up with dirt and scale and stick open. It wasn't
really much help when the returns started to leak. The water
would leave the boiler which didn't know enough to stop firing
because low-water cutoffs hadn't been invented yet (Mr. McDon-
nell and Mr. Miller didn't get together until 1924.) Before you
knew it it was, "Goodbye Boiler, Hello Hartford?"
As we said, they were getting a little tired of this so they put their
heads together and came up with what they called the Hartford
8
Loop. They wouldn't insure a boiler unless it had one.
And it was all pretty simple (still is). What you have are two U-
tubes. The first is around the boiler. The second is made from three
things: the drip connection at the end of the run, the wet return,
and a short riser called the Loop Riser.
The U-tube around the boiler is an equalizer. The water in the
pipe will always be at the same level as the water in the boiler
because the steam pressure on top of both is the same. It's impor-
tant because we always want to return water below the boiler water
line.
The second U-tube is connected to the equalizer with a close
nipple. If a return pipe should break, the boiler water can only drop
to the close nipple which is installed safely over the crown of the
boiler. A close nipple is used to prevent water hammer at this
point.
Now take a look at the drawing. You'll notice it tells you to place
the close nipple two inches below the boiler water line. We'd like
you to pass that by and instead use the dimension that's recom-
mended by the manufacturer of the boiler you're using. Between
manufacturers, this dimension can vary by several inches. You'll
never go wrong if you follow their instructions.
Another point that often raises eyebrows is whether or not to
use a Hartford Loop with a condensate pump. If you pump into a
close nipple that's very close to the boiler water line you can get
noise because you're forcing relatively cold water into the hottest
part of the boiler.
Another school of thought says the loop is fine as long as the
close nipple is four inches below the boiler-water line.
Again, we think it's best to follow the boiler manufacturer's rec-
ommendation when it comes to this. They know what's best for
their boiler.
As long as we're in the boiler room, let's talk about the size of the
steam header. That's a question that often comes up.
On boiler replacements you'll usually leave the system piping as
is, which can be good or bad depending on whether it was right in
the first place.
The header is another story. In order to get the new boiler
matched up with the old piping you may have to change it. Take
another look at our drawing so we're both talking about the same
9
thing. The header is that horizontal pipe directly over the boiler. It
must be sized to handle the maximum system load.
The vertical supply mains between the boiler and the header are
something else again. They have to be the same size as the boiler
tappings and if there's more than one supply tapping you have to
use them both. The size of these tappings has nothing to do with
the header. See how it can get sticky?
Follow the piping diagram that comes with the boiler. If they
don't recommend a header size, you can use the following chart as
a guide. This chart gives you steam capacity in Square Feet of
Equivalent Direct Radiation (EDR). A square foot of EDR is the
amount of heating surface that will give off 240 Btus when filled
with steam at 215 degrees and surrounded by air at 70 degrees. If
you don't have a boiler rating in EDR, you can use these formulas
to convert what you do have.

One square foot EDR = 240 Btus

One Boiler Horsepower = 140 square feet EDR

Now here's the header-sizing guideline:

CAPACITY IN SQ. Ff. EDR

HEADER SIZE SYSTEMS UNDER SYSTEMS OVER
100,000 Btus 100,000 Btus
l1/2" 326 696
2" 648 1314
21/2" 2160
3" 3840
31/2" 5640
4" 7920
5" 14280
6" 2280
8" 45600
10" 84000
12" 132000
10
 If the system is under 100,000 Btus you won't be using a header
larger than two-inch because two-inch will carry 648 sq. ft. EDR
whichisequalto 155,520Btus (648sq. ftEDR x 240Btuspersq.
ft. = 155,520 Btus.)
We condensed a steam pipe-sizing chart to come up with these
header guidelines. We mention this to let you know there are such
things, although they're seldom used on retrofit jobs. If a new
piece of equipment, say a unit heater, goes in, most people size the
supply and return piping to the size of the equipment tappings.
This is technically known as "flying-by-the-seat-of-your-pants"
and it can really get you screwed up.
In piping to new equipment, many things come into play; things
like proper slope, take-off from the main, and pipe size. Many,
many jobs are plagued with inefficient heating or water hammer
because the piping isn't right and the sad part is you'll usually find
out when the job is finished and you'll probably be blamed for a
condition that was there long before you were. It's amazing the
things a layman expects a new boiler to solve.
What's important now is that you understand how these prob-
lems happen and that they can be solved. Our purpose here is not
to heap a pile of complicated pipe-sizing charts on you. Just be
aware that they exist and are available should you need ihem.

11
 CHAPTER THREE
Theory and operation of air vents
and pressuretrols
In 1913, up in Waterbury, Connecticut, George D. Hoffman
developed the first successful air vent for one-pipe steam radia-
tors. He called it the Number One and it worked so well that it's still
being made today.
Mr. Hoffman was responding to a problem that many people in
the early days of steam heating had discovered: steam won't enter
a radiator that's full of air.
The first vents for radiators were designed to do four things:
1. Allow air to escape under steam pressure.
2. Close when steam entered.
3. Close when water entered.
4. Reopen when the temperature went down.
Vacuum vents had one additional function. Once the air went
out, they kept it from getting back in. We'll talk more about that
later.
Now in order to get those early vents open again once they'd
filled with water, a syphon tube had to be used. It looked like a
long, curved, metal straw and was attached to the vent at the
screwed inlet. For years, this worked fine until the radiator guys
started making their units smaller and smaller. The radiator tubes
became so thin there was no room for the long vent syphon. On
top of this, the bosses on the radiators that the vents screwed into
varied tremendously in length. The shortest was only 3/16", the
longest 1/2" .
To get around the problem, the tongue you see on today's vents
was developed. Here's how it works.

12
 The tongue is hinged so it will always be close enough to the
radiator boss to allow drainage. Water drains in droplets from
under the tongue. As each drop of water leaves the vent, an equal
volume of air enters the vent over the top of the tongue.
It's very simple, but without these simple tongues, no system
would work.
So after the water's out, the vent should open, right? Well,
almost. We still have the steam pressure to consider and that
brings up a point that's often misunderstood. It's called "drop-
away pressure" and there's really nothing to it. You'll see.
But first, let's back up and take a look at the inside of a radiator
vent.

FLOAT NEEDLE

FLOAT

Go ahead. Look it over. Since air vents don't open up, you
never get a chance to see what's inside.
Interesting?
You can see how the tongue is hinged to the nipple where the
steam, air, and condensate pass each other. See the float and the
base? The float is filled with a mixture of alcohol and water that will
boil at a temperature slightly lower than the temperature of steam.
When the steam hits the vent, the mixture inside the float boils
and the bottom of the float, which is a very thin diaphram, pops
down against the base. This "pop" drives the float needle up into
the seat and closes the vent.
After the steam condenses into water and drains out, the mix-
ture inside the float cools and the float should fall back down,
opening the vent.
Notice we said should? This is where "drop-away pressure"
13
comes in and here's what it's all about.
We have to remember that even though that one radiator is
cooling down, the rest of the system is still under steam pressure.
That pressure can hold the float up even though it wants to fall
down or "drop away:' (That's where we get the name from, by the
way.)
Now, if you look in an air vent catalog, you'll see two pressure
ratings. One is the maximum pressure; that's the highest pressure
the vent can take without breaking. The other rating is called
"operating pressure" and that's what we're concerned with here.
As an example, let's look at Hoffman's #l-A. It's "operating
pressure" is listed at 1 1/2 psi. What that means is that every time
the system drops below 11/2 psi the float will "drop away" from the
seat and the vent will open to atmosphere. Drop-away pressure,
pure and simple!
Can you see a possible problem brewing? Let's say you decide
to set your pressuretrol to turn on at two psi and off at eight psi.
Don't laugh; it's done all the time.
Obviously, the system pressure will never drop below 11/2 psi
and the vents, once they close the first time, will never open again.
This is the part where we get to look like geniuses on a trouble-
shooting call. The poor installer has tried everything but still, no
heat.
We walk in, make a turn with a screwdriver, and everything gets
toasty warm! Who was that masked man?
And while we're talking about those pressuretrols, let's take a
minute to clear up one of the most confusing questions about
steam systems: What should I set the pressuretrol for?
O.K., we have two settings on a pressuretrol: low (burner on),
and high (burner off). Look closely at the pressuretrol because the
high setting is sometimes called "differential:' That means the high
setting will be the low setting plus whatever you set the differential
for.
So, what do we do? Well, the low setting is based on system
pressure drop per 100 feet of piping and the technical explanation
can get a bit sticky so we'll pass on it. Just remember the low setting
should never be less than l/4 psi and that 1/2 psi is what's usually
used.
The high setting is a whole other thing. Look it up in a textbook
14
 and you'll find, "The high setting may not be lower than that which
provides the saturated steam temperature required for 100%
heat-transfer load:'
Translated, that means the high setting has to be high enough to
heat the building. That's all.
Most low-pressure systems can get by with a high setting of two
psi. If you find you're not getting enough heat, crank it up a bit, but
two psi will normally do.
So, it's on at 1/2 psi and off at 2 psi. That's what works best on
most jobs, even the big ones and that sometimes surprises people.
They wonder how you can heat a big building with only two
pounds of steam. Don't you need more than that to push the
steam up into the building?
The answer is: No, you don't and here's why.
First of all, we have to take another look at what a square foot of
EDR is. By definition it's the amount of surface area on a radiator
that will give off 240 BTUs when surrounded by 70-degree air and
filled with 215-degree steam.
The temperature of the steam is the key to everything. We start
with a certain pressure at the boiler so that by the time the steam
has taken its pressure drop through the system and winds up in the
radiator it has enough pressure left to put out the right tempera-
ture. As you know, the higher the steam pressure, the hotter the
steam will be. Steam at one psi happens to be 216 degrees.
Now let's imagine the guy who did the first heat-loss calculation
in the building you're working on. He sized the radiators using a
book that based everything on square feet EDR! By the very defini-
tion of the term he was sizing those radiators to contain just about
one-psi steam (215 degrees). His use of the term EDR locked him
into that.
He put enough radiators in each room (often too many!) to pro-
vide comfort (70-degrees by the definition of EDR) based on one-
psi steam in the radiator.
Then he worked backwards, sizing the piping based on certain
pressure drops which would not give him excessive steam veloc-
ity.
When he got back to the boiler he figured out how much pres-
sure he would need to overcome the pressure drop and still give
him one-psi steam in the radiators. That was usually never more
15
than two psi. And that's why your high-limit setting doesn't have to
be more than two psi on most jobs.
But let's get back to our discussion of air vents by taking a look at
"adjustable" air vents. Here's what they look like.

HOFFMAN SPECIAL TV ITT

INOIANAPOLIS, IN
MADE IN USA

BASE

Internally, they're the same as the vent we looked at before. The

big difference is in the cap. Adjustable vents are calibrated for six
different venting rates. We need them today because the installers
of yesteryear didn't follow the textbook. Not that we can blame
them!
The textbook says: Make sure the supply piping is sized so all the
branches have the same relative pressure drop, at the same supply
pressure, for different lengths.
Imagine that in real life! No wonder it wasn't done.
What the textbook was looking for was an even balance and a
natural distribution of steam. It just never worked out that way.
So, one radiator was always going to get hot first while another
was always going to get hot last. Throw in the "in-betweens" and
you wind up with a pretty uneven heating system.
Adjustable air vents handle the problem this way. We know a
radiator won't get hot until the air is out of it. And we know radia-
tors close to the boiler will get hot faster than radiators far away
from the boiler.
So let's vent the air slowly from the "close" radiators and quickly
from the "far" radiators. The "in-betweens" we vent at progres-
sively faster rates as we move away from the boiler.
16
 This way, everything gets hot at the same time and we avoid the
problem of overheating and underheating.
Earlier in this chapter we mentioned the special function of vac-
uum air vents. They're not being used anymore on radiators, but
we'll take a look at them because they can cause service problems.
There's a story here, too! Let's take a look at one.

~--F=t=-1"=""' TONGUE
FLOAT DIAPHRAGM VACUUM DIAPHRAGM
ATMOSPHERIC PORT BASE

Back in the good old days, coal, not oil or gas, fired the boiler. A
vacuum vent would let air out but it wouldn't let it back in.
When steam condensed inside the system, it took up much less
space as condensate (1600 times less, in fact!) and since the vents
wouldn't let air back in to fill the void, a natural vacuum was
formed.
This was terrific because, under a vacuum, water would boil at a
much lower temperature. By banking the ol' coal pile, the water
could be kept boiling for a long, long time.
The problems started when gas and oil became popular. You
see, once a gas or oil flame shuts off, there's no heat to speak of in
the firing chamber. With no heat, the system cooled quickly and a
very deep vacuum was formed. The trouble was it happened too
fast.
With coal, you didn't have this problem because coal can't be
shut off. It would just go on glowing away, cooling the system
slowly, and pulling a nice lazy vacuum.
With the quick vacuum formation of gas and oil, any air left in
the piping after the first cycle was tremendously expanded. It
backed into the mains and kept the steam away from the radiators
during the next firing cycle.
17
 Talk about uneven heating! This was the worst.
The best thing you can do for a system if you see a vacuum vent
on a radiator nowadays is to take it off and replace it with a stan-
dard air vent. That changes the system to a conventional system
and the uneven heating problem should stop.

18
 CHAPTER FOUR

Different types of One-Pipe steam systems

Up to this point, we've been using one particular diagram to talk
about one-pipe steam systems. But this isn't the only way piping
can be run so let's spend some time looking at the other ways.
What we've been showing you so far is called a parallel flow
system and it can look like this.
SUPPLY VALVE

PITCH 1 INCH IN 20 FEET Al

-+--- ---~- ~WATER LINE_ _ _ - - - -----4-

1- HARTFORD LOOP I
L-~~~~~~---------·_;
Or it can look like this.
SUPPLY VALVE VENT VALVE

A
- - _ _ .J______ ---·--
--WATER LINE
i !
•u ~TFORD LOOP
WET RETURN

Look closely at both drawings. Notice that in both systems

steam and condensate are flowing in the same direction? That's
where we get the name "parallel" flow.
19
 Both systems have Hartford Loops, although the system in the
second drawing really doesn't need it since the entire return is
"dry',' that is, above the water line.
The big difference in these two systems shows up in "Dimension
N' Notice how it's shifted from the end of the run in the first draw-
ing to the boiler room in the second drawing? Since we're pitching
the pipe one inch every twenty feet, this could be critical depend-
ing on where the new boiler's water line winds up.
One more thing. Look at the difference in the location of the
main vent between the two systems. It's different because the main
vent has to be at the end of the dry return, just before the pipe
drops below the boiler's water line.
Let's look at how that main vent should be piped. This is what
you usually see.
MAIN VENT

INCORRECT
INSTALLATION

Not a good idea. You see that little explosion going on inside the
elbow? That's water hammer and it's caused by condensate being
shoved into the elbow under steam pressure. That pulsing explo-
sion is enough to shatter the best main vent in the world and one
start-up cycle is all it takes.
Maybe that's the reasons guys don't use them? Maybe they
bought one once and installed it wrong. The first slug of water
under steam pressure probably crushed the float into the valve
seat, closing it permanently. Most likely, there wasn't any damage
20
visible from the outside but the inside was pulverized. It wasn't an
air vent anymore.
The guy probably looked at it awhile and decided, "That thing
ain't doin' nothin~ Next job I leave it off!"
Too bad. His next job won't be as efficient as it could be.
Now here's how to do it right.

MAIN VENT

3/4" COUPLING

r
6" TO 10"

'
AT LEAST 15"

DRY RETURN

CONNECT TO WET RETURN

~fow the vent is safely away from that corner elbow and its
vicious water hammer. Of course, you're not always going to have
six-to-ten inches of headroom over the dry return. That only hap-
pens on dream jobs. But you can, at least, get it back fifteen inches
from the elbow.
Take our word for it - it's worth it.

A PITCH 1 INCH IN 10 FEET

WATER LINE

---MAXIMUM MAIN LENGTH 100 FEET

J
21
 This beast is called the "counter-flow" system and its uses are
limited to small buildings, especially those without basements.
Steam and condensate flow in opposite directions so the pitch
must be at least one inch in ten feet. Also, because of this counter
flow, the main has to be one pipe size larger than it would be on
any other one-pipe system. That's so steam and condensate can
pass each other.
The main vent is at the end of the run and even though there's
no elbow, it can still get rapped with water hammer so install it the
right way.
Look where "Dimension A" is this time. Right back at the boiler.
Remember we said some literature will tell you "Dimension A" is a
vertical rise out of the boiler? This is probably what they're talking
about. But look again; it's not really, is it?
Measure well. And do it before you take the job.
Here's another layout.

SUPPLY VALVE

HARTFORD
RETURN
CONNECTION

DRAIN COCK

This is called a parallel upfeed system and it's very common in

buildings with more than one floor.
You'll have problems with this system if the risers aren't taken off
the main right. We'll talk about that in a minute, but first, let's go
over the system.
Steam is supplied to a horizontal main that's dripped at the end
22
 of the run to a wet return. The main vent is at the end of the dry
return and "Dimension N is measured from this point as well.
Risers to the upper floors are piped off the bottom of the hori-
zontal main and dripped back to the wet return. This keeps the
main condensate-free and let's the steam flow unobstructed to the
radiators. The only exception is the first-floor radiators which
aren't dripped directly into the wet return.
Now let's look at the take-off piping.

ELEVATION
--
END VIEW

...
!!:
& ~ WET RETURN

This is how the upfeed risers are piped. Any condensate in the
horizontal main will drip back to the wet return as it reaches the
riser. Condensate from upstairs goes directly to the wet return.
If the upstairs risers can't be dripped, then the piping will have to
look like this.

.. - PITCH Y:z" PER FOOT

ONE SIZE LARGER THAN RISER

STEAM MAIN
- - - - - - - 3 F T . APPROXIMATELY---------'•
I
I

23
 Look at that pitch! One-half inch per foot. That's a lot and it's
critical to the proper drainage in this case. Notice also that the run-
out to the riser must be one size larger than the riser. This is almost
never done and the result is annoying, destructive water hammer.
Imagine you've added a radiator to an existing system and
made this mistake. You'll have a service problem that's very hard
to solve because everything looks just fine. We know because we
get the calls. Maybe you've added a piece of one-pipe baseboard
to replace a cast-iron radiator. If it bangs, you've sized your take-
off wrong. Believe it or not, you can add up to 100 feet of base-
board with just an air vent at the end providing you size the pipe
properly. Very few people do.
One more thing. We need at least three feet from the centerline
of the riser to the centerline of the main. This, too, is critical
because it gives the condensate a chance to get to the bottom on
the runout so steam can pass over it.
Upfeed branches to first floor radiators look like this.

UP FEED BRANCH
TO FIRST FLOOR
RADIATOR

STEAM MAIN
-
PITCH 'h" IN 10 FT.

ELEVATION END VIEW

They're taken off the top of the main since condensate will have
to be able to get back into the main. The takeoff, in this case, is the
same size as the riser.
This system, the parallel downfeed, is just the opposite of the
last one.
24
 SUPPLY MAIN

- AIR VENT

WET RE:URN ~ • --• - • --""'

Here, we're sending steam up to the top of the system and then
feeding it down to the radiators. Now we have steam and conden-
sate moving in the same direction.
For this to work right, the main steam supply riser has to run
directly between the boiler header and the overhead supply main.
The downfeed supplies are piped like this, from the bottom of
the main.

STEAM MAIN

-
PITCH Y." IN 10 FT.
~----DOWN FEED RISER

ELEVATION ENO VIEW

Main vent location is your choice on this system. You can put it
at the top of the system or at the bottom of the downfeed risers.
Look at the drawing again. See what we mean?
If you put them on the bottom of the risers you'll get much
quicker heating since riser air will be leaving through a main vent
25
instead of a radiator vent, but watch out; the main vent must be
higher that the top of "Dimension A" or the rising water will stop the
air from venting.
If you put the vent at the top of the system, venting (and heat-
ing) will be slower, but the vent will never fill with water. And don't
forget - the take-off for the lowest radiator has to be higher than
"Dimension A~'

26
 CHAPTER FIVE
Condensate pumps and boiler-feed pumps

This chapter deals with condensate pumps. Mechanically,

there's not much to them. We could show you a cutaway diagram
(and we will); you'd look at it, nod your head, and say, "No big
deal:' You'd be right, mechanically speaking.
But most problems start after you install the units. You need a
good working knowledge of what's happening inside that system
to get everything right.
You see, when you work with steam, you work with a delicate
balance: steam leaves; condensate returns. It sounds simple, but
to keep that balance perfect, the condensate pump must be almost
married to the system it's serving. It has to be just right.
And because so many things are involved - boilers, piping,
steam traps, feeders, water temperature, pressure, and the build-
ing itself, to name just a few - the issue has become confused. Each
manufacturer tells you about his gear, but not much about how it
relates to everything else. It's never really been tied together in a
useful form.
That's what we're going to do here. Bear with us; this may take
awhile. We have to go slow to bring in all the fine points - starting
with the question: What exactly is a condensate pump?
Well, let's use a little imagination.
Picture an open container, something like an old-fashioned rain
barrel will do just fine. But let's make the rain barrel out of cast-iron
because, for condensate handling, nothing lasts longer.
Next, we'll cut a hole.in the bottom of the barrel and run a short
piece of pipe from the hole straight down into the suction side of a
centrifugal pump. Any pump will do at this point as long as its
discharge pressure is greater than the pressure inside whatever
we're going to pump into.
To operate the pump, cut a hole in the side of the barrel and
install a float-operated electrical switch in the hole. Wire it so the
pump is "off" when the float is down and "on" when the float is up.
What you have there, primitive as it may be, is a condensate
pump.
Now let's run it. To get the pump to come on we'll have to fill the
barrel with water, right? Now the easy thing to do would be to use a
27
garden hose, but the water from a garden hose is under pressure
and that wouldn't represent what's happening in our steam sys-
tem. In an actual steam system, condensate gurgles back by grav-
ity; there's no pressure behind it. So let's use rainwater off a roof.
To simulate return piping, we'll use the leaders and gutters on a
house.
Now we're close to an actual system because, to get the rainwa-
ter into the barrel, all the leaders and gutters must slope down to
the barrel. It's the same in an actual steam system; the return pipes
must slope down to the receiver of the condensate pump.
Next: we fill the barrel to a point where the float switch turns the
pump on and here's how it looks.

AIR VENT

/-----
-----
--
.:-:-. =
- '.i!

---

PUMP RECEIVER

The pump sucks the water out of the barrel and the float drops,
turning off the pump.
Just like this. FROM RETURNS 7

28
 See, mechanically simple, as promised, but now we come to
the next point which is: why would we want to use a condensate
pump in the first place?
Well, let's think about what it's doing, but first, let's see where it's
going.

HOFFMAN SUPPLY VALVE HOFFMAN VENT VALVE

STEAM SUPPLY MAIN

OPEN AIR VENT

A
i
BOILER WATER LINE
--1i TRAP

N~ ::s~~:~:N:_\ i
CONDENSATE PUMP ~

ONE-Pl PE SYSTEM WITH CONDENSATE PUMP

That's a one-pipe system, very much like the ones we've been
looking at so far. Let's take another look at that same system with-
out the condensate pump.

SUPPLY VALVE

Al
----4I
PITCH 1 INCH IN 20 FEET

- - - - ------ CwATER LINE _ _ _ - - -

,-HARTFORD LOOP

L-~-~-~~·-----.-f

29
 See the difference? We've added a float-and-thermostatic trap
to the end of the main before it drops below the boiler's water line
and we've removed the Hartford Loop. But why?
Well, in this case, the pump is supplying pressure to get the con-
densate back into the boiler. And if that's so, the next question has
to be: why do we need the pump at aJl? We had no problem getting
the water back in the boiler before.
Now we're on the right track. Let's back up to the very beginning
and take another look at our old nemesis: "Dimension A'.'
STEAM SUPPLY MAIN

FLOW--
SAFETY
FACTOR

STATIC A
-----f"_-1--'-HEAD I
_ PRESSURE DROP
~ OF SYSTEM

BOILER

PRESSURE DROP IN A ONE-PIPE STEAM SYSTEM

Remember? We were using that space (Dimension A) to give

the returning condensate a place to "stack up'.' We said water has
weight and the higher we stack it, the more weight it has at the
bottom. Then we said weight is the same thing as pressure. Recall?
We were using that pressure to return the water to the boiler.
Everything was basically simple, providing we had enough room
for "Dimension A'.'
But what if we don't? Suppose we're working in a very low, very
long building where there's no room for "Dimension N because of
the piping's long downhill slope? Or let's take it a few steps further;
suppose we're running the boiler at a pressure that's higher than
normal? Now, where would we have that? Maybe in a restaurant
where they're using steam to cook food and wash dishes as well as
to heat the building? Quite possible. And with a boiler pressure
that high, we'd need a stacking space higher than the building to
get the water back into the boiler. That's no good.
30
 Can you think of anything else that would prevent gravity
return? How about an obstruction between the end of the steam
main and the boiler? Suppose we had to run the piping over a
doorway? Gravity couldn't do that; we'd have to pump it.
Anywhere else? How about a complex with many buildings,
say, a college campus where steam is supplied from a central heat-
ing plant to all the buildings. Condensate pumps are used to get
the condensate back to the heating plant. Or take a large building,
for instance, a department store or a hospital. Condensate pumps
are used to transfer condensate from remote corners of the build-
ing back to a boiler feed pump.
Oh, there are many uses, but let's get back to our little conden-
sate pump in the basement of our one-pipe steam-heated building
because that's where we start to tie things together.
Now this may seem incredibly basic, but bear with us; this part is
the key to understanding condensate pump sizing.
Since this is our first cycle, all the system water is in the boiler.
When we fire the boiler and begin to make steam, the steam will
leave the boiler and head out into the piping. Since we used the
water in the boiler to make the steam, there's now less water in the
boiler. It's going to take some time for the steam to condense back
into water and return to the boiler and that is a crucial point known
as "time lag~'
If the time lag is short enough, we'll be able to get that missing
water back before the boiler even knows it's been gone. In other
words, before the boiler goes off on low water or adds fresh water
through a feeder.
Now, time lag is a funny thing - very unpredictable. Every build-
ing is different and it's very hard to pin down how long the conden-
sate will take to come back to the boiler. Not only that, consider
how the time lag will vary depending on how hot the pipes are. On
start-up we have to fill all the pipes with steam so that time lag will
naturally be longer than it would be during normal operation. And
don't forget that the changing loads we get during normal heating
will also change the time lag.
Another thing: when the system shuts down, all the water will
eventually work its way back to the boiler so we have to figure out
where we're going to put it. And that brings up our next point.
A curious thing has happened to boilers over the past few years -
31
 they've shrunk. Boiler manufacturers were looking for high effi-
ciencies. They discovered there was no need for all that metal with
its high stand-by losses. New burner technology meant boilers
could be tiny and still put out the same amount of heat as the old
monsters.
So an old cast-iron, 200,000-Btu steam boiler with a 40-gallon
water content became a new cast-iron, 200,000-Btu steam boiler
with a 7112-gallon water content. Both do the same job of provid-
ing 200,000 Btus per hour. And, naturally, both lose water to
steam at exactly the same rate - about one-half gallon per minute
in this case. And that's where the problems start.
We had 40 gallons of water in the old boiler, but we're really not
concerned with how much water was in the whole boile~, just the
amount in those critical couple of gauge-glass inches between the
normal water line and the low-water cutoff line. Those are the
operating points. Take a minute to let that sink in.
Here's why it's so important: if water is steaming off at the rate of
one-half gallon per minute, we have to have enough water in
those couple of inches to compensate for the time lag between
steaming and condensate return. With 40 gallons of water in the
old boiler, time lag never seemed to be a problem.
But look at what we have nowadays. If there's only 7 1/2 gallons
of water in the new, high-efficiency boiler, how much can be in
those couple of critical gauge-glass inches? Maybe two gallons?
Maybe less?
At a steaming rate of one-half gallon per minute, we'll lose those
two gallons to steam in four minutes, right? but suppose it takes
five, six, or ten minutes for the condensate to return? What hap-
pens then? See the problem? The little boiler will either shut down
on low water or add more water through an automatic feeder.
Either way, you have problems.
If the boiler shuts down, you have uneven heating; if new water
is added, the boiler will flood when the condensate finally returns.
And this is what we meant by a delicate balance. How fast the
water returns to the boiler is critical to its proper operation. We
know this. What we don't know, can't possibly know, is how long
the water is going to take to return because all systems are differ-
ent. The slope, size, and condition of the piping makes a differ-
ence. The type of equipment being heated makes a difference.
Everything makes a difference!
32
 Maybe that's why everybody beats around the bush?
The job of a condensate pump is to supply pressure to get the
condensate back into the boiler, but it's also there to meter the rate
at which that condensate returns to the boiler.
In the old days, we said a condensate pump could be used on
any job less than 8,000 square feet EDR providing the boiler was
cast-iron. That's because there's more water in a cast-iron boiler
than there is in a steel fire-tube boiler. If the job was over 8,000
square feet EDR you needed a boiler-feed pump.
But we can't say that anymore. These little boilers have changed
everything and until the dust settles we can't give you a rule-of-
thumb. Every job must be looked at carefully and all we can do is
heighten your awareness of the problem.
What we're talking about here is large residential and
commerical/industrial stuff. Little jobs are usually not a problem;
it's those small-to-medium-size jobs that surprise you.

33
 CHAPTER SIX

New boilers, old systems, and system time lag

Let's take a hard look at this business of system time lag and how
it relates to new boilers on old systems.
There are two ways to figure time lag - one's easy; the other's not
so easy. First the easy way.
If the old boiler is working, watch the pressure gauge and start
timing the cycle when the needle leaves the post. That's the start of
steaming under pressure. Do this from a stone-cold start. Keep
timing until you hear the condensate returning either through the
old condensate pump or, if there is no pump, until you hear it
sloshing back in the returns. That will be the time lag for that job.
That's how long water will be missing from that boiler. Remember,
all jobs are different but it's very easy if you have the old boiler to
work with.
Now for the hard way. If you don't have the old boiler to work
with, you'll have to use some instinct. Does it look like it will take a
long time for condensate to return? Is the building a long, low
warehouse, or is it a tall, skinny office building? What type of
equipment is being heated? Huge cast-iron radiators or short
lengths of fin tube? Steam kettles or unit heaters? Does it look like
the equipment being heated will hold a lot of condensate for a long
time? How's the pitch on the return piping? What condition is it in?
Get the idea? It's not very scientific, but it's the best you can do if
you can't use the old boiler. Time lag has no rules, no textbooks to
check. Every job is unique and time lag is the most crucial aspect of
any steam job. In many cases, it's the difference between profit and
loss.
And while you're thinking about that, we have to mention a
couple of things - very important things.
Just because there was a condensate pump on the old system,
don't assume it will work on the new boiler.
Just because there was no pump on the old system, don't
assume you won't need one on the new system.
Everything depends on the water content of your new boiler.
There must be enough water available in there to compensate for
the time lag.
34
 How can you tell? Well, just how much water is in that new
boiler? You'll probably have to call the manufacturer or his repre-
sentative to find out. And keep in mind, we're not really interested
in the total water content of the new boiler, just the amount
between those couple of gauge-glass inches - the amount
between "normal water level" and "low-water cutoff' That's your
operating range.
But when you call the manufacturer you might find he can't give
you an answer. The question never came up with the old boilers;
they had plenty of water. It seems the new boilers are so new that
some catching up is in order. In the meantime, ask them for
advice. If the boiler is a dry-base, they can estimate the operating
range content from the total content and the height of the boiler.
Wet-base is tougher, but ask them for advice; they know their
boiler better than you do.
The next step is to figure out how fast that water will leave the
boiler as steam. This is easy to do. Just get out your calculator, take
your net rating in square feet EDR, and multiply it by the factor:
0.000496. The answer will be in gallons per minute.
Here's an example. Let's say our boiler's net rating is 8,000 sq.
ft. EDR. We multiply that by 0. 000496 and we get 3. 968. In other
words, at design conditions, we'll be losing about four gallons each
minute the boiler is steaming.
How much water do we have to work with? At four gallons per
minute how much time do we have to work with? And finally,
what's our time lag?
Do you get it? If our time lag and our steaming rate match, we
won't have a problem. Water will return as fast as it leaves. If time
lag and steaming rate don't match, we'll have to use a boiler-feed
pump.
But before we get into that, let's review the conditions where
we'd need a condensate pump. There are four:

1. If the boiler pressure is too great to permit gravity return

you'll need a pump.
2. If the return mains are below the water line of the boiler, in
other words, if "Dimension A" is insufficient, you'll need a pump.
3. If the system is large and condensate must be transferred
back to the boiler, you'll need a pump, or several pumps.
35
 4. If the condensate must be pumped over a high point in the
returns, you'll need a condensate pump.
That's it. The job will either need a pump or it won't. There's no
way around it and if it does, it always did. You'll probably find it on
the job when you first get there.
The big question, when dealing with modern low-water-
content boilers, is whether it now needs the same condensate
pump or a boiler-feed pump. And that depends on the water con-
tent of the new boiler.
The distinction between condensate pumps and boiler-feed
pumps is one of the most confused subjects in the art of steam
heating. Here's where they differ:
Condensate pumps are basically for little jobs with little time
lags. They have little receivers sized to hold about one-minute's
worth of condensate. They're controlled by a float switch inside
the receiver. They don't sense what's happening inside the boiler.
They work in conjunction with automatic water feeders, in most
cases, to put the water in the boiler. But they don't know what's
happening inside that boiler. There's nothing wrong with them;
they have their place when it comes to feeding boilers-small jobs.
Boiler-feed pumps, on the other hand, have larger receivers
than the ones you'll find on the condensate pumps. They hold the
water that used to be in the old boiler but isn't in the new boiler.
They're reservoirs. They're controlled by a level switch on the
boiler. They know what's going on inside the boiler. They're not
used with automatic water feeders (although a mechanical feeder
is sometimes installed at a level below the pump cut-on level for
additional protection). Feed water is introduced through a
mechanical float inside the boiler feed pump's receiver.
The big difference between a condensate pump and a boiler-
feed pump is that, with a boiler-feed pump, feed water comes from
only one place (the pump) and it comes only when the boiler asks
for it. There's no mechanical confusion.
Here's how the cycle works.
The boiler begins to steam and water begins to leave. After
awhile, the level in the boiler begins to drop and the pump comes
on to satisfy the boiler. At this point, the condensate has not yet
returned to the boiler-feed pump's receiver. The boiler calls for
water again and the pump meets the need from its reservoir. Con-
36
densate has yet to return.
Finally, the time lag between steaming and returning has passed
and condensate enters the boiler-feed pump's receiver in great
slugs. There's plenty of room in there to accomodate it. It was sized
with that in mind. The condensate will stay there; it won't rush
back into the boiler as it would if a condensate pump were calling
the shots. The boiler continues to sip water from the receiver, just
as much as it needs. If for some reason the pump can't keep up
with the boiler's need for water, say a section cracks, the low-water
cutoff switch on the pump controller will shut off the burner and
protect the boiler.
It's as simple as that.
We mentioned the receiver was sized to accomodate the con-
densate plus a reserve. Let's take a look at how that's done.
1. Get the rating of the boiler in boiler horsepower.
2. Each boiler horsepower will condense 34.5 pounds of con-
densate per hour, so multiply the boiler horsepower rating by 34.5
to get the amount of water, in pounds, the boiler will condense in
one hour.
3. One gallon of water weighs 8.33 pounds, so divide what you
found in step #2 to get the amount of water, in gallons, the boiler
will condense in one hour.
4. Next you take the time lag as a part of an hour and divide that
into the number you got from step #3. For example a twenty-
minute time lag would be 1/3 of an hour (20 minutes times 3 = 60
minutes), a ten-minute time lag would be 1/6 of an hour (10 min-
utes times 6 = 60 minutes) and so on. If the time lag is 20 minutes,
you divide the total gallons by 3; if the time lag is 10 minutes, you
divide the total gallons by six. Get it?
5. You now have the receiver size, but since only about 75% of
the receiver can be used (some water always has to be in there as a
reservoir and to keep the pump "flooded") we increase the
receiver size by using a muliplier of 1.33 which gives us our final
sizing.
And now a word of warning. Many installers don't include a
boiler-feed pump in their original estimate and later, when the
problems start, try to manifold a storage tank to the side of the
boiler to add additional storage capacity. This is not a good idea for
two reasons.
37
 First of all, since the storage tank is subjected to boiler pressure,
it may require an ASME rating depending on your local codes.
You could be looking for trouble with the boiler inspector.
Secondly, only the part of the storage tank within the boiler
operating range (usually about 2- 1 /2 inches) is available for stor-
age. We worked a sample problem based on a 100-horsepower
boiler in a building with a ten-minute time lag and we wound up
with a tank that was two-feet wide and fourteen feet long! Not only
would it look ridiculous, it would also double the amount of water
that would have to be heated before the boiler could begin steam-
ing! Not a very good "cure:' is it?

38
 CHAPTER SEVEN
Adding condensate and boiler-feed
pumps to existing jobs
In this chapter we'll talk about things to watch out for when
you're adding a condensate pump or boiler-feed pump to a job
that never had one before. All of these things, horror stories really,
have happened to real people in real-life situations. We'd like to
put a stop to that.
Let's begin by looking again at our basic system without the
pump.
HOFFMAN
HOFFMAN AIR VALVE
RADIATOR
VALVE ) MAIN VENT

FLOW SAFETY
FACTOR
STATIC A
HEAD
----1..+
.. __.__..,... I
: PRESSURE DROP
'°' OF SYSTEM

BOILER

Look only at the wet return. Without a condensate pump, this

can be considered a "closed" or "pressure balanced" system. What
we mean is that water in the return pipe will seek its own level
minus the system pressure drop. We covered the reasons why in
an earlier chapter.
"Dimension A" acts as a sort of a plunger on the returning con-
densate, providing the push it needs to get back into the boiler.
Because of this, it was possible in a pressure-balanced system to
make return condensate flow uphill!
As long as the return piping was below the boiler's water line it
could rise up to go over an obstruction because "Dimension A" was
pushing it.
Here's where it can cause you problems.
39
 RECEIVER VENT~
,.-STEAM MAIN
RETURN LINE
TO RECEIVER
SAFETY VALV~ \ \ PUMP CONTROL SWITCH

COLD WATER --:!)- - - -\-~ rWATER COLUMN

SUPPLY
,,,,,
BOILER FEED

LINE/ JI
NORMAL

......__--.-__,.,,......._ II
AUTOMATIC
FIRED BOILER

Here's a new low-water-content boiler with a boiler-feed pump.

Notice the receiver vent? That opens the system to the atmos-
phere and it is no longer "pressure balanced'.' Because of this, the
system's return piping can no longer tolerate any "l..lps and downs"
on its way back to the receiver. Everything must flow by gravity.
Let's look at another angle.

HOFFMAN SUPPLY VALVE HOFFMAN VENT VALVE

OPEN AIR VENT

A

BOILER WATER LINE

--+-Ii ----•
NO-P~~~~~~N :=\ i
CONDENSATE PUMP -1

40
 We've seen this before. It's a condensate pump, but the piping
would be the same if it were a boiler feed pump. When we opened
that system to atmosphere by adding that open vent line on the
receiver we had to make some sort of provision for keeping the
steam in the system. This, we did with a float-and-thermostatic
trap on the end of the dry return. If that trap is left out, steam will
rush right through the system piping and exit out the receiver vent.
And this happens all the time!
Yes, as crazy as it may seem, installers go as far as installing a
condensate pump or boiler feed pump on a system which never
had one before without giving any thought to steam traps or pitch.
The result is disasterous. The boiler room fills with steam, nothing
works, and the installer winds up fixing it for free.
Back in Chapter Five when we began to talk about condensate
pumps we said they were mechanically simple, but you need a
good working knowledge of what's going on in that system to get
everything right. This is a perfect example of why that's true. Know
the system before you take the job.
Now we're going to talk a bit about the piping between the con-
densate or boiler-feed pump and the boiler. Here's how the piping
around the pump should look.

BOILER

41
 Notice the service gate valves? They're always a good idea. Full-
port ball valves work well if you don't have gate valves, but don't
use globe valves. They have too many dirt-collecting internal ups
and downs.
The strainer is there to keep the gunk out of the pump. Before
you leave the job, tell the person in charge to keep it clean.
Now look at the discharge piping. This is the only part of the
system affected by the pump. Contrary to popular belief, conden-
sate and boiler-feed pumps don't suck water back from the
returns. There's a check valve to keep the boiler water in the boiler,
a service gate valve, and a plug cock to balance the pressure of the
pump. Here's how that works.
The pump takes a certain amount of condensate and injects it
into the boiler under a certain pressure which is determined by the
working pressure of the boiler. If the boiler operates under 50 psi,
the pump must discharge at least 5 psi higher than the boiler oper-
ating pressure. If the boiler operates over 50 psi, the pump must
discharge at least 10 psi higher than the operating pressure of the
boiler.
Most standard condensate and boiler-feed pumps come with
pumps that discharge at 20 psi. That's because most of them are
used on low-pressure systems (maximum 15-psi working pres-
sure). Fifteen psi (the maximum boiler pressure) plus 5 psi
(needed to overcome the 15 psi inside the boiler) equals 20 psi
(the standard pressure for most "stock" pumps.) Make sense?
Now just because a boiler can operate at 15 psi doesn't mean it
will. In fact, as we've said, most heating systems never go above 2
psi. The plug cock is there to make up the difference between the
needed discharge pressure of seven psi (2-psi boiler pressure plus
5 additional psi for the pump) and the potential pump discharge
pressure of 20 psi. The plug cock adds resistance to the pump and
that's a good thing because without that resistance to flow, the
water would scream through the short run of pipe to the boiler and
cause the check valve to chatter.
Let's look at some additional problems discharge piping can
cause. All of these cases deal with piping that rises up out of the
pump, runs horizontally, and then drops down either into a boiler
or into a vented boiler-feed pump receiver. Piping is often installed
this way when the pump is not right next to the boiler or feed
pump. It's less expensive to run the pipes over the top than it is to
42
 bury the piping, besides, buried pipes are harder to get at later on.
And here's the situation we sometimes wind up with.

POSSIBLE FLASHING

WATER COLUMN

12 5 i
l INLET TO
VENTED TANK

DISCHARGE

-
This drawing shows only the discharge piping from a conden-
sate transfer pump to a boiler-feed pump with a vented receiver.
When the hot condensate falls down that vertical pipe into the
receiver it creates a negative pressure in the horizontal pipe and
the condensate there will "flash" into steam.
As soon as the pump starts on the next cycle it adds pressure to
the "flash" steam in the horizontal pipe and you get a loud water
hammer. That's because the "flash" steam collapses and water on
both sides smash into each other.
You can solve the problem by installing a vacuum breaker at the
top of the vertical drop into the receiver as you see here.

,,,,-------
- VACUUM BREAKER

PLUG COCK

l
12.5

GATE VALVE

CHECK VALVE \
\ 15

1 INLET TO
VENTED TANK

-
PUMP\
DISCHARGE V--<:X~<Xll--'

43
 Notice also the double elbow off the horizontal run. This pre-
vents drainage of the horizontal pipe. The vacuum breaker will
open when the pump stops and the vertical line will drain into the
receiver. The double elbow, as we've said, prevents drainage in
the horizontal run which will now be at atmospheric pressure so no
"flashing" can occur.
If you're pumping back into a boiler, you can prevent "flashing"
by installing a spring-loaded back-pressure valve as shown in this
drawing.

12.5 5.4 PSI SPRING

1
LOADED VALVE

INLET TO VENTED OR
DISCHARGE - PRESSURIZED VESSEL

This keeps the vertical pipe pressurized above the flash temper-
ature of the condensate. You should set the spring-loaded valve to
have a tension of 1.13 psi for every foot of vertical drop.
Sometimes you'll get a water hammer when the pump stops.
This often happens when you have a long horizontal run of piping
or the piping is relatively large. The water hammer is caused by the
motion of the water when the pump stops and can be cured by
installing a back-pressure valve at the end of the run.
Sometimes one boiler-feed pump will feed several boilers
through motorized valves {see Chapter Ten). The discharge piping
in this case would look like this.

PLUG COCK

GATE VALVE

CHECK VALVE \
\

\~...(:*-........t)('.').......J
l
12.5WATER COLUMN

5.4
BOILER

PUMP
DISCHARGE

- MOTORIZED VALVE
OR CHECK VALVE

44
 And we can have problems here, too. That motorized valve is
going to close very tightly, but the check valve on the pump dis-
charge, as it gets old, may begin to leak. When that happens, the
vertical line closest to the pump will drain and the condensate in
the horizontal line will flash to steam. Here, again, you'll get a loud
bang when the pump comes on.
There are several solutions to this. First of all, you could install
drip-tight check valves, but even they can leak as time goes by.
You can repipe the job so you don't have that rise, but chances are
that will be too expensive.
A simple solution is to install a small 1/4-inch check valve in a
line around the motorized valve. This will keep boiler pressure on
the discharge piping, but here, too, the check valves have to be
kept tight.
Probably the best solution would be to relocate the motorized
valves near the pump discharge and below the water line of the
boiler-feed pump. This works well, but you'll need separate pipes
to each boiler.
There's always a solution. Some are just more expensive than
others.

45
 CHAPTER EIGHT
Boiler-water level controls (Theory, operation,
piping mistakes, electrical problems)

At the heart of every steam system are the boiler-water level

controls - low-water cutoffs, automatic feeders, and pump con-
trollers. These basic devices are often misunderstood so we're
going to spend some time with them, starting with the simple and
working our way up to the more complex.
Let's lay some groundwork. A low-water cutoff is a safety con-
trol. It's designed to sense the water level in the boiler and shut off
the burner if that level drops too low.
The vast majority of low-water cutoffs you'll find in the field are
float operated so that's what we're going to concentrate on here.
Let's look at a typical one.

·~~

That's McDonnel & Miller's #67. Look it over; it's not often you
get to see inside one. The #67 uses "quick hook-up" fittings to
attach directly to the boiler's water-gauge glass. There's a mark cast
into the body of the #67, as there is on all low-water cutoffs. This
mark indicates the cutoff level. It should be one-half inch higher
than the lowest visible point in the gauge glass. When the boiler-
water level reaches that mark, the burner shuts off. To get the
burner back on, you have to raise the level up to the mark and
keep going until it's one half inch higher.
The wiring is simple. Here's what the switch looks like.
46
 CUT-OFF
TERMINALS

ALARM OR
ELECTRIC FEEDER
TERMINALS

Since the #67 can be used with an automatic water feeder or an

alarm, there are four terminals. For now, we'll just look at the top
ones: numbers one and two.
Power is brought into terminal #2 and the burner is wired to
terminal #1. Note that terminal #2 is the "hot" terminal. You may
be used to having #las the "hot" on your other controls, but you
have to remember it's different here.
Here's why. If you're using the #67 with an automatic feeder,
you have to get power to the bottom two terminals. If you have
your power to # 1, your operating sequence goes out the window.
Let's look at that sequence; you'll see what we mean.

WATER LEVEL NORMAL. BURNER

ON-ELECTRIC FEED VALVE OR
ALARM OFF'

WATER LEVEL DROPPED TO ELECTRIC

FEED VALVE OR ALARM OPERATING
LEVEL. BURNER ON.

LOW WATER LEVEL. BURNER

OFF- ELECTRIC FEED VALVE
OR ALARM ON.

47
 Terminals #3 and #4 are for the feeder. To get to those lower
terminals you have to use a "jumper" from #2 to #3. There's a slot
cut into the switch for the jumper.
When everything's wired properly, the control works like this.
(Follow this on the drawing.) When the water level is normal, ter-
minals #land #2 to the burner are closed and terminals #3 and #4
are open. A slight drop in the water level closes terminals #3 and
#4 and the feederfeeds. Notice that# 1 and #2 are still closed; the
burner is still firing.
If the water level continues to drop, #l and #2 open and the
burner shuts off, but the feeder remains open to replace the water.
As the water rises again, the burner comes back on and the
feeder shuts off. That's a normal cycle.
Now let's see what happens if you bring your "hot" lead into
terminal #l instead of #2.
Everything will be fine for awhile. When the level is normal, #l
and #2 will be closed and #3 and #4 will be open. As the level
drops, #3 and #4 will close and the feeder will start feeding. But
then if the level drops anymore, #l and #2 will open and since
your power is to #l, not #2, your feeder will shut off.
Now your burner is down and your feeder is off. You have a
service call. If the low-water condition was caused by a leak in the
system, you can forget about the burner coming on by itself. It's a
mistake that's often made.
Let's take a look at the automatic water feeder. This is the one
that's used with the #67 low-water cutoff. It's called the #101-A.

48
 The first thing to keep in mind with an automatic water feeder is
that it should never be supplied with hot water, only cold. That
may go against everything you believe in, but it's true. Let's talk
about it.
First of all, when you heat water, you force certain minerals out
of solution. This phenomenon is called "inverse solubility" which is
a fancy way of saying that certain minerals, calcium, for instance,
turn from a liquid back into a solid when you heat water. Think of it
this way. If you pour sugar into hot coffee, the sugar will dissolve,
right? Picture pouring liquid sugar into hot coffee and watching it
turn into a rock! That's inverse solubility, and that's what happens
inside a boiler. That also answers the age-old question: Where
does all this junk come from when I flush out the boiler?
See what we're getting at? If yoti put hot water into your feeder,
you can bet your life all that nasty stuff is going to come out of
solution and find a home on the feeder's seat. And junk on a valve
seat means a valve that won't close, and a valve that won't close
means a flooded boiler. Why look for trouble?
And don't worry about "shocking" the boiler. First of all, you're
not pouring ice water over an exposed cherry-red crown, you're
feeding into a return full of hot condensate. The little bit of water
you add, immediately warms up before it gets near the boiler.
There are literally hundreds of thousands of boilers being fed with
cold water and not one of them has been "shocked'.'
Save yourself a lot of heartache and do it right. Use cold water.
If you are looking for heartache you can sell the automatic
feeder as a convenience item instead of a safety item, which is
what it really is. Then tell your customers they never have to look
at their boiler again because they have a feeder now.
Better yet, fiddle around with the "quick hook-up" fittings to
raise the water level of the boiler over what it should be in an
attempt to make the system "truly automatic'.' (Happens all the
time!) Do this and watch what happens. As soon as you steam off a
normal amount of water, the feeder will replace it. It'll do exactly
what it's being paid to do. Now watch what happens when that
water comes back as condensate and finds out there's no room at
the Inn. Instant flooded boiler. Happens all the time.
So much for your convenience item.
The reason a feeder cuts off so low in the gauge glass is because
49
it maintains a safe (there's that word again) minimum water level,
not a normal operating level. Normal operating levels are set by
hand. Remember our discussion on time lag? In a small system,
the distance between the feeder-cutoff level and the normal water
line is the compensation for your time lag. It really doesn't pay to
mess around with it.
Nobody makes a "convenience" item. All steam systems must
be checked periodically. You want something you can ignore? Sell
them a passive solar system.
If you're having a problem with the boiler-water level don't jump
on the feeder before you check it. The problem may be some-
where else.
We're going to show you the right way to install a feeder. (By the
way, hardly anyone does it this way.)

CITY WATER
SUPPLY SWING CHECK VALVE

CLOSING LEVEL OF FEEDER

A

EXAMINE THIS
BY-PASS VALVE
TO MAKE SURE
IT CLOSES TIGHT

CAUTION

BEFORE TURNING UNION@)

ON CITY WATER
PRESSURE BE SURE
TO OPEN THIS VALVE

UNION©

CONNECT TO RETURN
HEADER ON BOILER
SIDE OF ALL VALVES

Most people decide they can save a few bucks on those valves
and unions, but then they have no way to peform the "broken-
union test" which is the only way to tell if the feeder is working or
not.
Here's how it works:
1. Make sure the water level in the boiler is above the closing
level of the feeder (A).
50
 2. Next, close valve (B) in the feed pipe. That's the one between
the feeder and the boiler.
3. Now break the union (C) between the feeder and the valve.
At this point, since the boiler-water level is above the closing level
of the feeder and the union is broken, no water should come out of
the feeder. If it does, you have your answer. (You'll probably also
find that you're feeding with hot water and that's the reason the
feeder is leaking.)
If the feeder is O.K., the next thing to do is open the gate valve
(B). You should get a strong backward flow of water from the boiler
through the supply pipe. If you don't, that means the pipe is scaled
closed and you'll have to replace it. You see, a plugged pipe will
cause a back pressure that can hold the feeder open when it's sup-
posed to be closed. This applies mostly to mechanical-type feed-
ers, not electrical, but it is conceivably, and there have been
reports from time to time of clogs so severe that even electrical,
solenoid-type feeders have fallen prey to backpressure.
And other things can cause a boiler to flood? Take your pick:
1. Dirty water (which causes surging, which causes the feeder
to bounce open and closed, and which is the biggest cause of
flooding.)
2. A leaking hot-water coil in the boiler (Isolate it and watch the
water level.)
3. A boiler attendant and a hand by-pass (Put the two together;
it'll happen every time.)
4. A condensate pump gone berserk.
5. Not enough "Dimension N (Everything builds until the walls
come-a-tumblin' down.)
6. A plugged equalizing-pipe connection (Which is like cutting
a feeder's brain out. More on this later.)
7. City water pressure over 150 psig. (You may need a reducing
valve.)
8. A faulty swing check in the return (Which doesn't belong
there in the first place, but which can stick until it has enough pres-
sure behind it to open. Stand back when it does!)
Maybe, just maybe, it's not the feeder.
And then we have the other side of the coin - the boiler that
never seems to have enough water. Let's spend some time with
51
that problem.
The first thing that comes to mind is that boiler with the "tempo-
rary thirst" - the one with the time-lag problems. It'll appear
thirsty for awhile. Until the condensate finally returns, that is. You
can look back on Chapters 5 and 6 for a review of this.
As we move into the other reasons, keep in mind that none of
these things can be checked out unless you've installed those
important valves and unions around the feeder. Take another look
at how that's done.
Assuming everything is installed as it should be, let's see what
can cause a low-water condition.
First, the big one: float chamber filled with sediment. This usu-
ally happens a few weeks after you tell your customer his system is
now "truly automatic" and he never has to go down the basement
again.
Remember, this is safety equipment, not convenience equip-
ment. Float-operated controls must be blown down weekly. It's up
to you to tell the customer, especially if you've just installed a new
boiler. The reason is simple; a new boiler acts like a giant scouring
pad on an old system. Here you have this system with about sixty-
years-worth of gunk in it and this new boiler sending hot, dry
steam screaming through the piping. It's a bad combination. All
that garbage is going to find its way back to your new boiler and
your new float-operated control.
If the float chamber fills with "mud" the low-water cutoff won't
cutoff, the feeder won't feed, and the boiler will get thirsty - to the
point of suicide!
If you don't believe us, take a look at this attempt to make a job
"truly automatic:'

EXTREME CASE OF
NEGLECTED BLOW-DOWN.

NOTE SOLID PLUG

IN BLOW-DOWN
TAPPING.

52
 This guy removed the blow-off valve and replaced it with a plug!
Think he learned something about automation?
Another cause is a plugged feeder strainer which will prevent
water from entering. Clean it or replace it.
Priming or foaming due to dirty system water can drop the level
in the gauge glass below what's actually in the boiler and make it
seem like there's a low-water condition when there's not. Here's
how that happens.

/ T R U E WATER LINE

0 COLD WATER
0 (>

00
0
C>
G

Oc.

G
BOILER
0
0

Steam has a tough time breaking through oily or dirty water.

The bubbles emulsify the water in the boiler making it less dense
and lighter than the water in the gauge glass. Since the water in the
gauge glass is heavier than the water in the boiler, it will sink to
compensate for the difference in weight. You wind up with a false
water line. Remember, water will always seek it's own level, but in
doing so it will also compensate for any difference in weight or
pressure. It's the same principle that gives you "Dimension A:'
53
 Another one: dirt can hold water up in the system. It increases
the internal surface area of the pipes and condensate will cling to it
until it has enough weight to fall down. "Mud-packed" returns
don't help much either. Clean the system!
If a boiler-feed or condensate pump fails, your boiler will obvi-
ously not have enough water. Just thought we'd mention it.
If the city water pressure is lower than the boiler pressure you
can have low-water problems (and a lot of other problems, as well,
such as backflow, but that's another subject.) This is, admittedly a
rare cause, but it has happened.
If your firing rate is too high you can have low-water problems.
This is very common; the water gets carried out with the steam.
You can have a closed valve in the return which seems silly, but
sometimes we ignore the obvious in troubleshooting.
More? An improper connection between boilers connected in a
battery. There are always slight differences in pressure and the
higher-pressure boiler will shove its water into the lower-pressure
boiler.
You could also have a faulty swing-check valve in the return
even though, as we've said, it doesn't belong there. It will cause a
low water condition, but it brings up an even more interesting
point - that mysterious condition where water seems to back out
of the boiler.
Oh, there's no question that's what's happening, but it's not hap-
pening for the reason you think it is.
In Chapter 3 we talked a bit about the reasons why you only
need, in most cases, two pounds of pressure to heat most build-
ings. By the very definition of a square foot of EDR the piping was
sized for a certain pressure drop. Many times, in a misguided effort
to get the steam up faster, someone will crank up the pressuretrol
to a pressure that's higher than the system was designed to handle.
This increases the pressure drop across the entire system and
forces the system to produce a higher "Dimension A" at its far end.
This causes the water level in the boiler to drop and it seems as
though the water is backing out of the boiler. The "cure" for this is
to add a check valve to the return piping just before it enters the
boiler. This only increases the pressure drop on the return side
and, in most cases, makes a bad situation worse. The feeder feeds
and gets blamed for the problem that's not its fault. The solution
54
 lies elsewhere. The system should be run only at the pressures it
was designed for. If the piping has corroded so badly that it can't be
run effectively at the proper pressure, then a condensate or boiler-
feed pump, not a check valve, is the answer.
Let's take it a step further. You decide to modernize an old
gravity-return system by adding electric zone valves right at the
take-offs from the header.
As the zone valve close, the pressure drop across the system
increases; it has to. The steam flow to the open zone increases and
the water backs out of the boiler.
A check valve's not going to help you and that's why we don't
like them on returns. When you modernize a gravity-return sys-
tem with zone valves you have to also add a boiler-feed pump. It's
the only way around this shifting pressure-drop problem. And,
please, don't forget about the traps and the proper pitch on the
returns.
And speaking of electric zone valves, if you install them, make
sure you drip the outlet side of the valve through a steam trap into
a wet return. If you don't, you'll have enough condensate to fill a
horse trough waiting to meet live steam when the valve opens.
The Hammers of Hell will seem melodic by comparison.
Here's another thing nobody thinks of. Even if you do every-
thing right: use a boiler-feed pump and drip the outlet side of the
zone valves, you can still have a problem when all the zone valves
close at the same time. The steam in the boiler will condense and
form a deep vacuum. Think about it; what's there to break it?
Unless the pressuretrol is wired into the zone valves, it'll kick the
burner on when it shouldn't be and the water level in the gauge
glass will go nuts.
So, as you see, sometimes you can't believe your own eyes.
What's happening inside a gauge glass isn't necessarily what's hap-
pening inside the boiler. It all depends on the piping.

55
 To prove the point, here are four classic errors in piping.
0

WRONG

Look at the equalizing pipe (A). It's connected into the bottom
part of the boiler. Circulation in the water leg of the boiler will pull
the level in the gauge glass down. How much? Would you believe
two to eleven inches? Looks fine at first glance, though, doesn't it?

WRONG

Here's a good one. The steam equalizing line (B) is connected

into the steam-flow line. The steam velocity leaving the boiler pulls
56
the water up. There could be no water in the boiler and everything
would look fine from the outside. (So much depends on the
installer following directions. Safety can only be assured by proper
installation.)

WRONG

This is a bad, but common, one. The equalizing line (A) is

hooked into the indirect-heater tapping in the back of the boiler.
The circulation is very rapid back there. You'll never get a true
reading.

WRONG
And last, but not least, (this one could make you famous around
57
the shop) the equalizing line is connected into the direct-feed line.
It feeds right into the float chamber!
Has it happened? Often enough to have a formal drawing of it!
Here's the correct way to do it.

RIGHT

The equalizing line (A) is connected into a tapping in the water

space in front of the boiler - six inches below the bottom of the
water glass (or above the fire box of the boiler) . In this section there
is a large volume of water and a slow circulation.
The steam equalizing pipe is connected to the top of the boiler,
but not in the steam line. Burn it into your brain!
Now that you have a good idea of how improper piping can
cause problems, let's take a look at a more subtle problem - the
improper use of electrical switches.
Boiler-feed pumps are turned on and off by devices called
pump controllers which brings to mind a very common mistake.
Oftentimes, an installer will try to run a boiler-feed pump off of a
#6 7 low-water cutoff, a control which was never intended for that
sort of heavy-duty use. Compared to the switch in a pump control-
ler, the switch in the #67 is rather light - perfect for what it's
58
intended for, but not meant for the near-constant on-and-off use a
pump controller gets.
All McDonnell & Miller switches are conservatively rated and
UL listed, but you have to use them to run things they're supposed
to run. Just keep this in mind when you're planning your job.
What else can cause a switch to fail? It's impossible to list all the
reasons in this space, but here are a few of the common ones to
watch out for.
1. Burner motors that draw higher amperage than shown on
the manufacturer's nameplate.
2. A motor having a "dead spot" may stall and heat causing the
switch to overload.
3. The grounding of a wire in the control circuit.
4. A switch that's been submerged in water.
5. Lightning striking the electrical service in the building caus-
ing a tremendous overload. It's happened!
6. An overloaded circuit in the building resulting in a low-
voltage condition which, in turn, causes a too-heavy amperage
draw and consequent switch burn-out.
7. Other limiting devices, like pressure controls, relays, and
thermostats may short-circuit overloading all the switches on the
line.
These are the common ones, but the biggest one is misapplica-
tion. Be sure to check the limitations of the control you plan to use.
Let's look at a pump controller.

330 N

59
 ___ a 11eavy-duty float-operated switch designed to run a
•<J

pump. The picture shows the #150 which is the most widely used.
It has two mercury-tube switches: one to turn the pump on and off,
the other to act as a low-water cutoff. The amperage rating is the
same as for the switch in the #67 low-water cutoff, but the key
difference is the design of the switch itself. The mercury-tube
design can stand up to the rigors of near-constant off-and-on
cycles. Here's how the control fits into the system.
McDONNELL
PUMP CONTROL AND
LOW WATER CUT-OFFO========::::t":<

,,
l t
t I
11
,,
l' CONDENSATE
RECEIVER CITY
,1',
1'
TANK WATER
IL--------- SUPPLYQ
:sTEAM .---+-------__._._,I
~BOILER
McDONNELL
r-----..::,.-:_:OOOJ/MAKE-UP WA TE R
FEEDER

The controller responds to the water level in the boiler and turns
the pump on and off as the boiler calls for feed water.
Here's what the terminals look like.
CUT-OFF
PUMP AND ALARM
TERMINALS TERMINALS

1~ @~
NO. 150 SWITCH BOILER FEED PUMP-ON
USED ON NO. 150 AND BURNER ON-ALARM OFF
157 SERIES

1~
BOILER FEED PUMP-OFF BOILER FEED PUMP-ON
BURNER ON-ALARM OFF BURNER OFF-ALARM ON

60
 Really nothing to it, is there?
Another thing to keep in mind is that the pump controller must
be perfectly level on its vertical plane. This may seem silly to men-
tion, but it has caused problems in the field. The mercury in these
switches is very slippery and if the controller isn't level, you'll get all
sorts of false readings.
In Chapter Six we mentioned that with boiler-feed pumps, all
the water should come to the boiler from one source - the pump.
But we also mentioned that in many cases a mechanical water
feeder is added at a lower level as an extra margin of safety to
cover the possibility of a failed boiler-feed-pump motor. This is
what we mean.

CITY WATER
SUPPLY

CONDENSATE
RECEIVER
TANK

McDONNELL
t--------<:-:"1~ MAKE-UP Wt
FEEDER

Here, the feeder I cutoff combination is installed below the oper-

ating level of the pump controller. Normally, it would never be
used, but given the condition, the extreme condition, where both
the pump motor and the low-water cutoff switch in the controller
fail, you'll still have a mechanical feeder supplying water to the
boiler and a secondary electrical cutoff to shut off the burner. Sort
of like a belt and suspenders, but it multiplies your safety margin
tremendously.
Which brings up a good point. A question that constantly comes
up is: What is the best method of water control in a simple system.
The answer is always the same - a mechanical water feeder
and an electrical low-water cutoff. Here's why. A mechanical
feeder will always maintain sufficient water in the boiler regardless
61
of what happens electrically. You could have a power failure to the
feed pump. A fuel-regulating device could go berserk. A burner
could be placed on manual operation (jumped out of the normal
cycle) and left there.
It happens.
Now you may say: What about freeze-up, clogged sediment
strainers, closed feed valves? To which we say, of course! If some-
one isn't following directions, something is bound to go wrong.
The point is a mechanical feeder and an electrical cutoff give you a
better chance against mishaps because you're not putting all your
eggs in one basket. Simple as that.
Back to pump controllers. Suppose you have more than one
boiler being fed by the same boiler-feed pump? Since the different
boilers will have different feed-water needs they have to be kept
separate. If they're not, the call from one boiler will flood another.
Here's what you can do.

CITY WATa SUPPLY

'
L __ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.l------·---- - -- - -- . . '.

When a boiler needs water, the pump controller opens a motor-

ized valve. The motorized valve has an end-switch which is tripped
when the valve is fully opened, turning on the boiler-feed pump.
Each boiler is independent and the possibilities are limitless. Natu-
rally, the pump has to be sized to the maximum load.
If you use a duplex pump you'll have full stand-by capability and
if you want to add the suspenders, you could do it this way by
adding the feeder I cutoff at a lower level.
62
 And as long as we're at it, let's get a bit exotic.

MOTOI oPtllATtD MOTOl.OHRATED

NOKll.tlOHINGYALVE PROt'OlTIOllli.NGYALV(

What we're using here are proportioning regulators. They work

sort of like dimmer switches, letting in only the amount of water
needed at the time. You'd get into something like this if you had a
boiler (or boilers) with a widely varying load (take, for intance,
process work). The water level is monitored continuously and the
possibility of cold water suddenly entering in large amounts,
throwing the level off, is avoided. Notice also, the high-water cut-
offs and alarms (reverse "suspenders") on this job. Not something
you run into everyday, but keep it in mind; you never know when
you'll need it.
The controls you see in this diagram are McDonnell & Miller's
#193-78 and #94-78.
There are other controls you may not be familiar with. They're
not run-of-the-mill, but they can get you out of trouble. Look over
these examples and let your imagination run wild. See if you can
think of any other applications.
Let's look first at the wiring of the # 158 pump controller which
has two, 3-wire mercury switches.
63
 TO TO TO
ELECTRIC LOWWATER LOWWATER
VALVE ALARM CUT-OFF
\.

0 ·)

Here's what you can do with it. When wired to a 3-wire motor-
ized valve, this controller can be used to feed a boiler carrying up to
150 psi pressure directly from the city water supply even when the
supply pressure is only one or two psi higher than the boiler pres-
sure. It eliminates a high-pressure feed pump. A mechanical
feeder wouldn't have sufficient feeding capacity at such a low dif-
ferential pressure, but a motorized valve would. (Check your local
codes before you try this.)
MOTORIZED VALVE

BOILER
FEED LINE

McDONNELL
NO. 158

64
 Here's another way you could use the # 158. Let's say you had a
process application where you were dumping most of the conden-
sate. Let's also say, in this case, you needed a feed pump and
receiver tank for whatever reason (local codes?), but you had only
enough room (or only enough money in the job!) for a small
receiver.
You could do this.

BOILER FEED LINE MOTORIZED

--·
----------.
VENT
~
VALVE

McDONNELL ~/
COLDWATER
NO. 158
SUPPLY
RETURN LINE TO
RECEIVER
, RECEIVER
.-/' ___.. &
PUMP
FLOAT ~ . (STARTER
SWITCH , SWITCH
,~..::-I
--~ i
0
-L _,./
/
ELECTRIC .,, _-_,./
./
PUMP -

The # 158 opens a motorized valve in the supply line to the

receiver. A conventional tank float switch in the receiver then
starts the pump. When the boiler water level is restored, the #158
closes the motorized valve, shutting off the supply to the receiver.
This way, your little receiver thinks it's a big receiver and acts just
like one. There's also a second switch in the #158 to act as a low-
water cutoff.
And then there's the.#159. This one has two, 2-wire mercury
switches and can run two pumps at the same time. The wiring
looks like this. NO. 1 PUMP NO. 2 PUMP
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT

0 i)

65
 Where would you use it? Well, let's say you had a boiler that
occasionally needed more water than one feed pump could sup-
ply. A boiler with a varying load. It would be wasteful to size a feed
pump to the maximum condition if that maximum condition was
only an occasional thing. Two smaller pumps would be much
more efficient. The beauty of the # 159 is that it can call in pump #2
when pump #l can't handle the load.
The hook-up would look like this.)

McDONNELL NO. 159

I
COLDWATER CONDENSATION
SUPPLY RETURN
VENT

McDONNELL
MAKE UP
WATER FEEDER

PUMP 2
If you add an additional controller (the # 150) to the above
hook-up, you'll also have a low-water cutoff and alarm.
And here's how that would look.
COLDWATER CONDENSATION
SUPPLY RETURN

/'

·"'--NORMAL
ml~~ WATER LINE

/
McDONNELL
MAKE UP
WATER
FEEDER

66
 We're showing you all these oddballs to make a point. We don't
expect you'll run into a need to do these things today. You may
never have a need to do these particular things, but look at the
bigger picture. They can be done. And if these things can be done,
other things can also be done.
We'll close this chapter with two miscellaneous thoughts.
First: there's going to come a time when you'll do everything
you can think of to stop boiler-water surging but to no avail. Here's
one last thing to keep in your "bag of tricks'.' It's called a "surge
column" and it looks like this.

f
(
(
/
You build it by using the dark-shaded fittings. Most of the surg-
ing will take place in the surge column leaving you with a much
more stable level in your control and gauge glass.
Keep it in mind.
Another thought: When you install a feeder, you may be
tempted to reverse the feeder valve-and-strainer assembly to sim-
plify piping. Doing this can only cause you trouble. You see, the
valve seat is made from a softer stainless steel than the valve pin.
These two parts are "set" into each other at the factory. Reversing
the casting upsets the way the pin is "set" and the feeder will leak.
It's a very common problem in the field.
The same goes for a replacement valve-and-strainer assembly.
These are "set" with drive screws as shown in this drawing.

67
 If you remove these drive screws to reverse the casting, you'll
cause the feeder to leak. Why look for trouble.
One last thought on controls: M & M, for years, published this
message on the back of their service guide. It went like this.
"HASN'T IT EARNED ITS RETIREMENT?"
"That's the question to ask yourself and your customers before
making repairs.
Think of the many improvements and the greater security that
go with a brand-new control. Consider the labor and material cost
of putting in even a single part or assembly!
If it's an older model that's done its job well - earned its retire-
ment - you will find a factory-fresh up-to-the-minute product is
best and most profitable for all concerned:'
To that we say, Amen. Ask yourself honestly, "Do I pay close
attention to controls when I'm doing my day-to-day service?
When I do a tune-up, do I also check the condition of the
controls?"
Start looking closely at that older stuff- the stuff that's "earned its
retirement:'
As they say, "it's the most profitable answer for all concerned:'

68
 CHAPTER NINE
The reality of steam traps
The reality of steam traps.
Most of your work is on low-pressure space-heating systems.
Jobs with high-pressure steam and high-tech traps usually have an
engineer attached to them who figures out all the ins and outs of
what's going to happen in that system. In this chapter we're going
to concentrate on what you're likely to find in the field.
For instance ...

·HOFFMAN SUPPLY VALVE

_;;;:~~;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;:;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;:~:;;;;E;;;;;T;;;;;U;;i,RN MAIN )

UPFEED CONNECTIONS TO RADIATOR

This is what you're likely to find in the field. That steam trap is
there for several reasons. It has to pass air; it has to pass water, and
it has to stop steam until the steam can turn into water. Let's take a
closer look.
You'll always have air in a steam system. It comes in through the
air vents when the system is off and it comes from the water during
the boiling phase. Since it's such a great insulator, you have to get
rid of it before you can do any heating. Otherwise, your radiators
will never get hot. On top of that, we have carbon dioxide which
comes in with the feed water. If we let that gas hang around in the
system too long it will mix with the condensate and form an acid.
Which helps to explain the sorry shape of some of the pipe in those
older systems. Acid eats pipes. A working steam trap will get rid of
the carbon dioxide and the condensate before it can cause dam-
age.
69
 There's nothing complicated about the way air and gas get out.
Steam pushes it. The trap stays wide open to let it pass.
Here, take a look.

A-TRAP BODY E - VALVE PIN (Fastened to

B - COVER Thermal Element "C")
C- THERMAL ELEMENT F - CONNECTION NIPPLE
D - VALVE SEAT G - COUPLING NUT

B
FLEXIBLE DIAPHRAGM
G

That bellows inside the trap is filled with a mixture of alcohol and
water and "set" to boil at a temperature lower than the tempera-
ture of steam. Air and gas will pass, but steam will make the mix-
ture boil. When that happens, the bellows expands and closes the
trap.
The trap stays closed until the steam cools enough to turn into
water. Then the trap opens and passes the water to the return.
Obviously, if the trap isn't working, steam will just blow right by,
wasting a lot of heat and causing considerable damage in the
returns. Remember what we said in earlier chapters about water
hammer?
From a number of industry sources we find the average life you
can expect from a steam trap on an average system is three years.
Keep that in mind when you're working on those old systems.
Chances are the traps haven't worked in a lifetime, but nobody's
concerned because a trap looks the same from the outside
whether it's working or not.
"How to test a steam trap" fills pages and pages in books about
steam traps. It can become a full-time job. But we're talking about
reality here and about the best way for you to test a steam trap in
that low-pressure system is to use a temperature-sensitive crayon.
These crayons will melt if you touch them to a pipe that's hotter
70
than it should be. They're not the ultimate answer, but they do give
you a good idea of where the problem is. The crayons are called
"Tempilstiks" and you can get more information about them by
writing to:
Tempi! Division
Big Three Industries, Inc.
South Plainfield, New Jersey 07080
They're a useful, inexpensive tool, one you can put to good
use.
Since thermostatic traps won't open until the condensate has
cooled, you sometimes have to use what's called a "cooling leg:'
That's the length of pipe before the trap that gives the condensate a
place to collect and cool off enough to open the trap.
Here's what we mean .
./ DOWNFEED RISERS

(HOFFMAN SUPPLY VALVE

HOFFMAN TRAPS

I
' \ MINIMUM COOLING LEG 5' - O" LONG
\ DRY RETURN MAIN

DRIPPING HEAL OF DOWN FEED RISER INTO DRY RETURN

We need a five-foot cooling leg off the drip of the downfeed riser
or else condensate will back up into the supply valve on the radia-
tor. Notice we're not using one on the radiator? We don't need one
there because the radiator has so much space inside itself it acts as
its own cooling leg.
And while we're on the subject, let's consider another reality.
Take another look at that last drawing. That steam trap on the drip
of the downfeed riser is picking up the condensate being formed
inside that riser. It's not serving heating equipment, just the pipe,
and most of the condensate formed inside that pipe will be formed
during warm-up. That drawing, by the way, is from the original
Hoffman Data Book published during the 1930s. There's a mis-
71
take in it. See the downfeed riser to the left of the one feeding the
radiator? There should also be a drip trap on that line. Looks like
even the old-timers made mistakes!
Here are a couple more examples of main drip traps.

TRAP INSTALLATIONS

SUPPLY MA IN~-;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;,;;;;;---~
MINIMUM COOLING LEG 5' - O" LONG

TRAP ,!!'SAME SIZE AS TRAP '

~ ......_DRY RETURN

DRIPPING END OF SUPPLY MAIN INTO DRY RETURN

, DROP RISER OR END OF MAIN

MINIMUM COOLING 5'-0" LONG

SAME SIZE AS TRAP

:?";~::MAN
DRY J ~ e
RETURN
DRIPPING DROP RISER OR END OF
MAIN INTO DRY RETURN

Notice also the dirt pockets which should be eight-to-12 inches

long. They keep system gunk out of the steam traps.
Using thermostatic traps for this purpose was very common in
the good old days when boilers steamed slowly and condensate
formed slowly in the pipes.
Today, boilers have less water inthem and they reach their high-
limit setting much faster than the old clunkers could ever hope to.
Consequently, condensate is formed much faster in the pipes and
thermostatic traps aren't the best choice for drip-leg service. Since
condensate has to cool before the trap can open, they're just too
slow for modern boilers. What you need here are float & thermo-
static traps. Without them, you may find your old system doesn't
work with your new boiler.
What's so different about an F & T trap? Let's take a look.
72
 AIR
PASSAGE BODY

OUTLET
F & T traps pass air and gas through the thermostat which will
close to steam just as our thermostatic trap did. The difference is in
the float which doesn't care about temperature. It's only con-
cerned with water. When there's enough water, the float lifts the
pin off the seat and the trap dumps. Because of this, you don't
need a cooling leg. The condensate doesn't have to be cool. It can
be almost as hot as the steam - as long as it's condensate.
See the difference? Because it doesn't have to wait, it can act
much faster than a thermostatic trap. This is what makes it the right
choice for new boilers. You should be looking at the whole system
when you replace a boiler if you want to stay out of trouble.
Now, sizing these things is a fairly big deal so we're going to try to
avoid it. You have to look at the weight of all the pipe, the tempera-
tures involved, the latent heat of the steam, and the specific gravity
of the steel. Sounds like fun, doesn't it?
We've gone through the exercise of sizing traps for all sorts of
common piping set-ups. We were trying to find some guidelines
for you. You're going to love this.
Keep in mind we're talking about your basic low-pressure steam
system - the kind you'll find in a house, apartment building, or
small commercial building. Time after time, using all different sizes
(typical, logical sizes) of pipe, we kept coming up with a 3 /4-inch F
& T trap. (Hoffman's 53-FT) for riser or end-of-main drips. Its
capacity is fine and its operation is swift. That's the way you should
go when you replace a boiler.
The problem is most people look once at what it takes to size
73
 traps and just decide to use a line-size trap. This is really a silly
practice since you're almost always going to pay more than you
should. Look at what we just did with the drip traps. We came up
with a 3/4-inch trap for piping that was, in most cases, 2 to 2 1 /z-
inch. Now why would you pay nearly four-times as much money
for a two-inch trap when a 3/ 4-inch will work just fine? And
besides, the line-size trap won't work as well since it's oversized.
Oversized traps "ride the seat" and fail long before their time.
Nobody wins. It's dumb.
So, taken together, thermostatic radiator traps and F & T traps
for riser and end-of-main drips will cover just about anything
you're going to need for the average low-pressure steam job.
The size of the thermostatic trap is based strictly on the heat
output of the radiator it's serving. We went looking for another
guideline and here's what we came up with. A half-inch thermo-
static trap should cover 99% of the radiators you're going to find.
Here's what we mean. A half-inch thermostatic trap (Hoffman's
#l 7-C) is rated for 200 square feet of EDR, or48,000 Btus. You'd
have to have a heck of a big radiator before you went to a 3/4-inch
trap.
From data on old cast-iron radiators, we found a radiator capa-
ble of putting out 200 square feet of EDR. It would be a six-tube
radiator, 37-inches high, and over seven-feet long. That's a big
radiator! You won't find it in the average building.
So we can safely say that, in general, half-inch thermostatic,
and 3/4-inch F & T traps, should be about all you'll ever need for
most heating jobs.
Surprised? Don't be. Traps are traditionally oversized to match
the line size. Maybe they look neater that way, but now that you
know the facts, just think of all the money you're going to save.

74
 CHAPTER TEN
Vacuum systems (Definitions and operation)
When we look at vacuum systems from a service point of view,
we wind up with a chapter that's more " what was" than "what is:'
Here, we're dealing with antiques. Work on steam long enough
and you're bound to run into an old vapor/vacuum system. And
it'll probably present some real head-scratching problems.
Since these old systems are totally obsolete in the world of oil
and gas burners, you have to go way back in the archives to find
out what they are all about. And here, more than anywhere else,
you'll find the "signatures" of our grandfathers. The piping, in
many cases, was based more on experience than something you
can look up in a textbook nowadays.
The best way to handle an old vapor/vacuum system is to get
rid of it, so that's what we're going to deal with here. Our point of
view is service.
There were many generations of vapor/vacuum systems,
many phases of development. We could spend a lot of time on
those differences, but your job is to get those old systems running
properly so let's concentrate on the pitfalls.
We'll begin with some definitions.
Vacuum System - This is a two-pipe system with the same equip-
ment as a standard two-pipe system. The only difference is the
addition of a mechanical vacuum pump on the end of the return. If
the system doesn't have a vacuum pump it's not a vacuum system.
Vapor/Vacuum System-These were either one or two-pipe
systems. They looked remarkably like standard systems. The dif-
ference was in the air vents which were designed to eliminate air
from the system and then prevent its return. (See Chapter Three)
Vapor/vacuum systems ran at a low pressure, usually not more
then one-half psi unless they employed a device called a "boiler
return trap'.' They also ran into a vacuum which was produced
"naturally" when the system cooled.
Vapor Systems- This one sometimes causes confusion. A vapor
system was not a vacuum system. It was a system that ran on very
low pressure (one-half psi maximum) but never into a vacuum. It
used oversized pipe to provide an almost constant flow of steam
vapor. It was one of those ph::ises we were talking about.
Now that we've defined it, we'll forget it and deal with the other
two.
75
 Vapor/vacuum systems present some interesting service prob-
lems, the biggest one being uneven heat. We said they won't work
with gas or oil burners and gave a brief explanation of why in
Chapter Three. We'll go over it again here.
We start with a basic fact: if you take a quart of water and boil it,
you'll wind up with 1600 quarts of steam. That's the ratio of
expansion-1600 to 1.
In our vapor/vacuum system we had these special air vents that
would allow the steam to push the air out but wouldn't allow the air
to return. When those 1600 quarts of steam condensed they
turned back into only one quart of water. Since no air could get
into the system to fill the space the steam took up, we wound up
with a natural vacuum as the system cooled.
Another fact: water under vacuum will boil at temperatures
lower than 212 degrees. The deeper the vacuum, the lower the
boiling point so we were able to supply low-temperature steam
vapor to the building. It was sort of like a hot water system where
the pump runs constantly and the water temperature varies.
Sound great, doesn't it? The only problem was that you could
never seem to get all the air out of the system before the vacuum
began to form. In the coal-fired systems this wasn't a big problem
because the system cooled slowly and the vacuum was formed just
as slowly. That's because the coal fire, once banked, still held a
great deal of heat. It has all night to cool. The air that was left in the
radiators expanded slowly and didn't back out into the mains. Had
it done that, it could have stopped the flow of steam.
But consider a gas or oil fire. Once the thermostat shuts off the
burner there's no heat to,speak of in the chamber. Because of this,
the system goes very quickly into a very deep vacuum and any air
left in the radiators will expand rapidly. It can move into the mains
and stop the steam from flowing. You can wind up with a building
that heats only in certain sections or not at all.
The only way out of this problem is to replace the old vacuum
vents with standard air vents. In other words, you'll be converting
the old vapor/vacuum system into a conventional system.
You'll also have to replace the vaporstat with a pressuretrol
which brings up another interesting problem.
We told you vapor/vacuum systems couldn't run above one-
half psi unless they has one of those boiler return traps. The reason
76
goes back to "Dimension A'.' Any pressure over one-half psi in
these systems would prevent the water from returning to the
boiler.
Here, take a look at this.

'
... _.._ ____

-
~ .&...

DRY RETURN-MAfN
F.T. DRIP TRAP

HARTFORD RETURN CONNECTION

DRAIN COCK CHECK VALVE

That's a two-pipe vapor/vacuum system. Unless you knew

what the main air vent was, you could easily mistake it for a con-
ventional two-pipe system. Many people have. And here's what
can happen.
A guy runs in on a service call. The complaint is uneven heating
(probably caused by the vacuum vents and the oil or gas fire). The
first thing the guy looks at is the pressure. He figures the more
pressure, the more heat. He looks for the pressuretrol and finds,
instead, a vaporstat. The vaporstat was there to keep the system
accurately operating below one-half psi, but this guy doesn't know
that's because he's never seen one before.
He looks around the boiler room and decides the vaporstat's
nothing more than an old pressuretrol. After all, everything else is
old! He takes it off, throws it away, and installs a brand-new pres-
suretrol.
Then he jacks the pressure up to eight pounds.
That ought to give them heat!
Well, you can imagine what happens next. At 8 psi, he needs a
77
"Dimension A" taller than the building to get the water back into
the boiler. Everything backs up; the feeder comes on and floods
the boiler. The guy gets a call to go back to the job and what does
he do? He changes the feeder, of course!
(Sure don't make 'em like they used to.)
This, he soon learns, does nothing, so on his next call he
removes the feeder. Now the boiler goes off on low water and he's
back again.
By this time he's on a first name basis with the building owner
who spends most of his time looking over the guy's shoulder.
It happens all the time. That guy can lose his mind on that job
because he doesn't understands what's happening inside that sys-
tem. The subtlety of that one main vacuum vent that went unno-
ticed has him buffaloed. Had he changed it when he changed the
pressuretrol he wouldn't have had a problem.
While we're dealing with obscure things, let's touch on one of
those systems that falls into the crack between one and two-pipe
vacuum systems.

SUPPLY MAIN

I
: i
•L ~VACUUM RETURN
AIR PUMP
\ STRAINER
CONDENSATE PUMP

ONE-PIPE Al R LINE PAUL SYSTEM

78
 This is called a "Paul System" and there are still many around. It
works like a one-pipe system with the addition of a vacuum air
pump to suck the air out of the piping. Special "vents:' really more
like steam traps, are installed where a one-pipe system air vent
would go. They close when steam hits them and have nothing to
do with returning the condensate; they just speed up the steam on
start up.
During the early development of steam heating, the Paul Sys-
tem was the phase that appeared just before the two-pipe systems
were developed.
Look carefully at this drawing.

HOFFMAN SUPPLY VALVE HOFFMAN VENT VALVE

BOILER
RETURN [~RY RET~~- I F & ;r
TRAP

~--"-·
,BOILER WATER LINE
A= 19 °MIN. •
j
I
TRAP

.
J A

BOILER
B=7MIN.
C=15MIN . I
_c"'.v_.__ . ..J:.O_P~ E_s_s~_R_E ~-E-T~ R N·'l
...-c..,.v.....

_ _ __.ONE PIPE SYSTEM WITH BOILER RETURN TRAP

Someday you'll walk into a boiler room and you'll see hanging
from the pipes what looks like the world's largest float and thermo-
static trap. When that day comes you'll be introduced into the
strange world of boiler return traps, an idea that time has
passed by.
Boiler return traps, using a mysterious combination of floats,
cams, and levers, used the boiler's pressure to return condensate
to the boiler. They produced a vacuum almost as a byproduct.
They were used on jobs where "Dimension A" was insufficient. In
other words, they did the job of a condensate pump.
At this point, the only thing you need to know about boiler
return traps is that they can't be fixed. Even when they were brand
new they were uneconomical. The only thing you can do is
remove them and install a condensate pump. (And don't forget to
79
 look for and remove any vacuum vents you may find throughout
the system. And please don't forget to add the steam traps and
check the pitch of the return piping!)
One of our good friends ran into one of these boiler return traps
not too long ago. The first thing he did was go out to his truck for
his Polaroid. He wanted to be able to remember where everything
was - after it wasn't.
We think this is a great idea. The piping in those old systems can
get strange and a few quick photos will really help you remember
where everything was, just in case. At the very least, it makes for a
great before-and-after portfolio for your prospective customers.
Next. Since there's no longer any such thing as a vapor/vacuum
system, we're left with those systems that produce the vacuum by
using mechanical vacuum pumps.
Vacuum systems are strictly two-pipe systems. Here's what they
look like.

SUPPLY VALVE THERMOSTATIC TRAP

~----.1
STEAM SUPPLY
MAIN
I
PITCH ~O FEET:
,ii.
I OPEN VENT
VACUUM PUMP I•
STRAINER
F & T TRAP
EQUALIZER I
I
I
I
1
TO DRAIN I
BOILE WATER LINE ii--""l
--+-+-----
CONTROL-LI NEl I
VACUUM
SWITCH -~

GATE VALVE
CHECK VALVE

TYPICAL TWO-PIPE VACUUM SYSTEM

80
 The pump is always installed at the low point of the system, the
same place a condensate pump would go. It produces a vacuum
by pumping some of the condensate through a venturi fitting in its
upper chamber. The lower chamber handles the actual return of
the condensate to the boiler.
Initially, the pump helps remove the air when the system is first
starting up. Then, after the steam traps are closed, the pump pro-
duces a vacuum that varies between three and eight inches of mer-
cury on the returns. When the trap opens to discharge the conden-
sate, it's discharging into a partial vacuum so the return
condensate gets back to the boiler much faster than it would if it
were flowing only by gravity.
Another plus of the vacuum system is in the original installation.
Since the returns are under vacuum, the traps and the returns can
be smaller than you would use in a standard system. That's impor-
tant to remember if you're working on an old system where the
vacuum pump has failed. Without the vacuum pump, the start-up
and the return of condensate are sluggish. The system can't be as
efficient as it would be with the pump.
If the system was initially sized for vacuum it must remain a vac-
uum system. Don't try to get it to work as a standard system, the
piping is just too small. You're looking for problems.
When you size a replacement vacuum pump you have to take
one thing into consideration. When the original pump was
installed it was installed on a new system. Everything in that new
system was tight. As the system got older, leaks began to show up.
Joints weren't as airtight as they used to be. Neither was the valve
packing throughout the system.
Now comes the time when you're asked to replace the old vac-
uum pump. The thing to keep in mind here is that the old pump's
air removal capacity was based on an airtight system which you
don't have anymore so the new pump will have to have the ability
to remove even more air than the old one did. The biggest mistake
you can make is to look at the old pump's label and order a new
pump to meet the same specs. It simply won't work. Air will be
rushing into the leaks faster than the new pump can remove it. It's
even possible this inrush of air is what caused the old pump to fail
in the first place - it was worked to death.
It's by far cheaper to increase the size of the replacement vac-
uum pump than it is to search out and repair all the leaks in an old
81
 building. The question is: how much of an increase in capacity?
Too much is wasteful; not enough is disastrous.
Sizing for replacement gets a bit sticky so we're not going to
cover it here. If you need help you should consult a pump expert.
Another thing to watch out for in those old systems is the tem-
perature of the condensate coming back to the pump. Most old
systems have defective steam traps which discharge live steam
into the returns. This raises the temperature of the condensate
which is enough of a problem in a standard condensate pump
dealing with water at atmospheric pressure. Under vacuum, this
hot water will boil at an even lower temperature so the vacuum
pump is in even more danger. Remember, you can't pump steam.
There are temperature limiting devices available for vacuum
pumps which will turn them off if the returns are too hot. All of
these things are taken into consideration when we size a vacuum
pump. So is the motor speed with an eye on the lowest possible
horsepower usage. High speed, 3500 rpm, pumps are the state-
of-the art in condensate pumps. They allow for much smaller, less
expensive pumps which use much less electricity.
Pump sizing, as we've said, is touchy and you should consult an
expert. It's your insurance against trouble jobs.
We want to mention variable-vacuum systems for reference
only because they, too, should be left to the experts.
During operation, standard vacuum systems have a vacuum
only on the returns. A variable-vacuum system has a vacuum on
both the supply and the return sides of the system. This is all done
with special controls. The result, and please take this as an ex-
treme oversimplification, is a sort of blending of the old vapor/
vacuum system with the vacuum-return system.,
And last, but not least, is the vacuum/boiler-feed pump, a new
innovation that takes care of two problems. As we've said, vac-
uum systems must be kept as vacuum systems if you're looking for
good system efficiency. But then we need a boiler-feed pump
when we replace an old boiler with a new low-water-content
boiler.
This new unit takes the place of two units - a vacuum pump
and a boiler-feed pump. It does both jobs in less space at less cost.
The science, the art, the beauty of the steam system goes on
through new technology. Hope you've enjoyed yourself!
82
 Troubleshooting Steam Systems
These are guidelines for the most common problems you'll find
with steam systems.
Boiler Troubles
1. If the boiler doesn't deliver enough heat it may be
caused by:
a. Poor draft.
b. Poor fuel.
c. Improper attention or firing.
d. A too-small boiler.
e. Improper piping.
f. Improper arrangement of sections.
g. Heating surfaces that are covered with soot.
h. Improper firing rate of oil or gas.
2. If the water line is unsteady it may be caused by:
a. Priming due to grease or dirt in the boiler.
b. A water column that is connected to a very active section
which doesn't show the actual water level in the boiler.
c. A boiler operating at excessive output.
3. If the water disappears from the gauge glass it
may be caused by:
a. Priming due to grease or dirt in the boiler.
b. Too great a pressure difference between supply and return
piping causing water to back into the return.
c. A closed valve in the return line.
d. The connection of the bottom of the water column into a
very active section or a thin waterway.
e. Improper connections between boilers in battery permitting
the boiler with the highest pressure to push water into the
boiler with the lower pressure.
f. Too high a firing rate.
4. If the water is carried over into the steam mains it
may be caused by:
a. Grease or dirt in the boiler.
b. A boiler of the type not right for the job.
c. A too-small outlet connection
d. Using a boiler beyond its rated capacity.
83
 e. A water level that's higher than required.
f. A too-high firing rate.
5. If the boiler is slow to respond it may be caused
by:
a. Poor draft.
b. Inferior fuel.
c. Improper attention.
d. A too-small boiler for the job.
e. Improper firing rate.
6. If the flue collects soot quickly it may be caused
by:
a. Poor draft.
b. Smoky combustion.
c. Too low a rate of combustion.
d. Excess air in the firebox causing chilling of gasses.
e. Improper firing rate.
7. If the boiler smokes through the fire door it may
be caused by:
a. A defective draft in the chimney or incorrect setting of the
damper. ·
b. Air leaks into the boiler or the breeching.
c. A gas outlet from the firebox that's plugged with fuel.
d. A dirty or clogged flue.
e. Improper reduction in the breeching size.
8. If the pressure builds up very quickly in the
gauge but steam does not circulate it is proba-
bly due to grease and dirt in the boiler.
Piping Troubles
Water hammer is one of the chief causes of noise in steam sys-
tems and also a major cause of trap and air vent damage. When
high velocity steam passes over condensate it can set up waves
such as this

84
 The wave that forms at "B" will cause the steam in the pocket,
"A',' to rapidly condense which will bring the two slugs of water
together in a violent hammer.
1. Water hammer in the Hartford Loop results if a close
nipple is not used between the two loops. If the nipple at that point
is too long and the water level drops, the boiler will hammer.
2. Water hammer in the mains can be caused by:
a. A water pocket formed by a sagging pipe. Check this with a
chalk line between two fittings.
b. Improper pitch of the main.
c. Too great a pressure drop due to insufficient pipe sizes,
unreamed piping or other restrictions in the line.
d. Insufficient water line difference between the low point of the
horizontal main and the boiler water line. In one-pipe gravity
systems, this distance should normally be 18 inches or more
and in vapor system, the ends of the dry return mains should
be 24 inches or more above the water line depending on the
size of the installation and the pressure drop.
e. The improper location of air vents for venting the steam
main.
f. Excessive water in the main due to priming boiler or
improper header construction. All boiler tappings should be
used and connected full size to the boiler header.
g. Insufficient drainage of the main. There should be a new
drain connection to the header wherever the total area of the
take-off pipes exceed the area of the header.
h. The main may be wrong size to handle steam and conden-
sate at the same time.
Radiator Troubles
1. Pounding in one-pipe system radiators may be
caused by:
a. A too-small radiator supply valve or one that is partially
closed.
b .. A radiator that is pitched away from the supply valve.
c. A vent port on an air vent that is too large and allows steam
to enter the radiator too quickly.
2. Radiators in a one-pipe system fail to heat
because:
a. The venting rate is not right.
b. The branch supply to the radiator is too small.
85
 c. The drainage tongue of the air vent is damaged or gone.
d. The branch supply to the radiator is not pitched properly.
e. The steam pressure is higher than the operating pressure of
the air vent. This is especially likely to happen where the
steam is supplied through a pressure-reducing valve from a
high-pressure supply.
f. There m~y be a vacuum-type vent on the radiator. Remove
it and install a conventional vent.
3. Radiators in a two-pipe system fail to heat
because:
a. The radiator does not pitch from the supply valve to the ther-
mostatic trap.
b. The trap is clogged or defective and failed in the closed posi-
tion.
c. The branch supply to the radiator is too small or not pitched
for condensate drainage.
4. The radiators are hot but the building remains
cold because:
a. There aren't enough radiators to compensate for the heat
loss.
b. The building is drafty.
c. The steam pressure is too low.
d. High ceilings are causing an upflow of the heated air.
5. Unit heaters do not put out enough heat
because:
a. They are undersized for the load.
b. Their heat exchanger surfaces are fouled with lint and dust.
c. Water or air pockets are obstructing steam circulation.
d. The unit heaters are too far from the exterior walls.
e. The supply pipe is being cooled because of improper insula-
tion.
f. The thermostats are not functioning properly.
g. Cold drafts from doors or windows are negating the output
from the unit.
h. The steam pressure is too low.
i. The steam is oily and coating the heat-transfer surfaces.
Cleaning A Steam System
After installation, or boiler replacement, all steam systems
should be cleaned. This is rarely done and results in many system
problems, especially when a new boiler is added to an old system.
86
 An effective way to clean a steam system is to break the return at
the Hartford connection and install a full-size ball valve on the sys-
tem side and a cap on the boiler side. This opens the system loop
and allows you to intercept the dirt before it can return to the boiler.
Once the piping is broken and the valve and cap are installed,
add about one pound of MEX, a cleaning compound available in
hardware stores, to the boiler through the relief valve. Dissolve the
MEX in hot water before you put it in. MEX contains no petroleum
products and is safe for boilers with rubber pushnipples.
Now fire the boiler up to about 5 psi, making sure the water
feeder is open. Then open the ball valve and collect the waste
condensate in buckets or drain it through a line-size hose to a
sewer. Keep doing this until the water runs clean. You may be
surprised at what comes out. We've seen rocks up to one-half inch
size flush out the return!
If the system has a condensate pump do the same thing but
waste the condensate directly from the discharge of the pump
instead of through the ball valve. Whatever the type of system, be
sure to close the radiator valves first so the air vents aren't
damaged.
Troubleshooting Steam Traps - Thermostatic
When the trap discharges continuously (trap hot, blowing
steam) the bellows has gone bad or there is dirt on the seat. The
trap should be cleaned or the bellows replaced.
A cold trap which doesn't discharge condensate could have a
ruptured bellows which causes the trap to remain closed (this
applies to some traps; others will stay open when the bellows rup-
tures.) The bellows should be replaced in this case. The bellows in
these traps is very thin and can be damaged by water hammer.
This is usually the problem when the bellows fails.
Troubleshooting Steam Traps - Float
& Thermostatic
This check list will help you locate and fix F & T traps.:
Trap cold - no discharge
1. Strainer screen clogged - clean or replace.
2. Obstruction downstream - locate and remove.
3. Trap clogged - clean out.
87
 Trap hot - Blowing steam
1. Thermostatic element not closing - replace
2. Valve pin and seat worn - replace
Slow or uneven heating
1. Trap too small - replace with proper size
2. Thermostatic element not eliminating the air - replace.
These traps are easily dismantled for cleaning or parts replace-
ment by removing the cover. Have gaskets and replacement parts
at hand before beginning the repair since the old cover gasket may
be damaged when the cover is removed.
Troubleshooting Steam Traps - Bucket Traps
Continuous discharge from the trap
1. Trap is too small - install larger trap or another in parallel.
2. High-pressure trap may be installed on low-pressure appli-
cation - replace with proper trap.
Trap cold - no discharge
1. Pressure too high and trap will not open - replace with prop-
erly rated trap.
2. No flow through trap due to obstruction in line - locate and
remove obstruction.
3. Trap clogged - clean out.
Trap hot - blowing steam
1. Trap may have lost its prime - prime trap with water.
2. Worn valve mechanism - replace parts
3. Valve stuck open by scale or dirt - clean out
Slow or uneven heating
1. Trap too small - replace with larger trap or another in parallel.
2. Insufficient air handling capacity - install auxilliary air vent.
Troubleshooting Condensate Pumps
Pump will not start
1. The power supply has been interrupted, disconnect switch is
open, or selector switch is improperly positioned.
2. Incorrect voltage for motor. Check voltage and wiring with
motor characteristics.
3. Incorrect starter coil for power supply
4. The overload relays and the starter have tripped out and
must be reset. Ambient temperature may be too high.
88
 5. Check pump controls or other controls for proper operation.
6. The strainer is dirty thus retarding flow. Clean.
Pump runs continuously
1. Pump is running counter-clockwise looking down on the
motor. Rotation of three-phase motors may be corrected by inter-
changing any two of the three wires.
2. Steam traps are blowing through causing condensate to
return at excessive temperatures. This may reduce the capacity of
the pump below it's rating, depending on the unit and type of
pump furnished. Traps should be repaired or replaced.
3. The total pressure at the pump discharge is greater than the
pressure for which the pump was designed. Check the total pres-
sure which includes atmospheric pressure, the friction head, and
the static head.
4. A valve in the discharge line is closed or throttled too tightly.
Check valve is installed backwards.
5. The eye of the impeller is clogged with trash.
6. The pump is too small for the system.
Condensate pump is noisy
1. The pump is working against a lower pressure than designed
for. While pump is discharging, adjust the plug cock in the dis-
charge line until the pressure at the pump approaches the pump
rated pressure.
2. Excessive condensate temperature. Correct system condi-
tions.
3. Magnetic hum or bearing noise in motor. Consult motor
manufacturer.
4. Starter chatters. Trouble is caused by low line voltage, poor
connections, defective starter coil, or burned contacts.
5. Pump is running backwards.
(See Chapter Seven for additional troubleshooting information.)

Troubleshooting Boiler-Water Level Controls

Refer to Chapter Eight for a complete discussion of this subject.

89
Technical Terms
and
Piping Layouts

91
 The Steam Table Explained
Absolute Pressure . ..
This is a pressure reading which doesn't include atmospheric
pressure. Atmospheric pressure is equal to 14. 7 psi at sea level.
Gauge reading at sea level . ..
This is absolute pressure plus atmospheric pressure. It's the
reading you'll find on your boiler gauges.
Temperature 0 F. ..
As steam pressure builds, the temperature of the steam rises.
This column shows that relationship.
Heat in water BTU per Lb . ...
Also known as "sensible heat:' this is the amount of heat needed
to raise one pound of water from 32°F, water to 212°F, water.
Latent heat in Steam Vaporization . ..
"Latent heat" is the amount of Btus you have to add to one
pound of water to make it change state from water at 212°F to
steam at 212°F. Water can exist in two states, liquid or gas, at the
same temperature.
Volume of 1 lb. steam cu. ft ....
This is the amount of space in cubic feet a pound of steam will
take up at different pressures. The higher the pressure, the more
it's compressed.

92
 PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM (APPROX.)

Latent Heat
Heat In
R;:.ri~g ~~e~'
in Steam Volume
Absolute Temp. Water (Vaporlza- ol 1 Lb.
Pressure at
Sea Level
"F. B.T.U.
per Lb.
lion) B.T.U.
per Lb.
Steam
Cu. Ft. L~~:ft':'
i 0.0
0.18 29.7 32 1076 3306 62.4
0.50 29.4 59 27.0 1061' 1248 62.3
1.0 28.9 79 47.0 1049 653 62.2
2.0 28 101 69 1037 341 62.0
4.0 >- 26 125 93 1023 179 61.7
cc
:::::>
6.0 (.)
cc 24 141 109 1014 120 61.4
>-
8.0 cc w 22 152 120 1007 93 61.1
:::::> ::!:
10.0 (.) u.. 20 161 129 1002 75 60.9
cc 0
12.0 UJ U) 18 169 137 997 63 60.8
14.0 ::!:
u.. :i:
w
16 176 144 993 55 60.6
r - - - 0 - t-U
~
16.0 ff3 14 182 150 989 48 60.5
I
18.0 i3 ::!: 12 187 155 986 43 60.4
20.0 ~ :::::> 10
:::::> 192 160 983 39 60.3
(.)
22.0 8 197 165 980 36 60.2
~
24.0 6 201 169 977 33 60.1
r--- -~

26.0 4 205 173 975 31 60.0

28.0 2 209 177 972 29 59.9
29.0 1 210 178 971 28 59.9
30.0 . i 0 212 180 970 27 59.8
14.7 i i 0 212 180 970 27 59.8
15.7 1 216 184 968 25 59.8
16.7 2 219 187 966 24 59.7
17.7 3 222 190 964 22 59.6
18.7
,..___ - t - 4 225 193 962 21 59.5
19.7 5 227 195 960 20 59.4
20.7 6 230 198 958 19 59.4
:i:
21.7 (.) 7 232 200 957 19 59.3
~
22.7 8 235 203 955 18 59.2
:i:
23.7 (.) d
U) 9 237 205 954 17 59.2
-~- t-CC
w
25 d c... 10 240 208 952 16 59.2
U)
30 U)
cc Cl 15 250 219 945 14 58.8
35 w z 12 58.5
c... :::::> 20 259 228 939
0
40 U)
Cl
c... 25 267 236 934 10 58.3
45 z I 30 274 243 929 9 58.1
~s- t-~
50 c... :::::>
U)
35 281 250 924 8 57.9
55 U)
w 40 287 256 920 8 57.7
cc
60 c... 45 293 262 915 7 57.5
65 50 298 268 912 7 57.4
70
,_______ 55 303 273 908 6 57.2
-t-

75 60 308 277 905 6 57.0

85 70 316 286 898 5 56.8
95 80 324 294 892 5 56.5
105 90 332 302 886 4 56.3
115 100 338 309 881 4 56.0
140 i i 125 353 325 868 3 55.5
93
 TWO PIPE STEAM SYSTEMS RADIATOR CONNECTIONS

f zc SUPPLY MAIN
.
HOFFMAN SUPPLY VALVE

[[[[[ [[[[[ [[[[[ 1

DRY RETURN
HOFFMAN TRAP

TWO PIPE STEAM SYSTEMS RADIATOR CONNECTIONS

HOFFMAN SUPPLY
VALVE

SUPPLY MAIN RETURN MAIN)

' .
r HOFFMAN SUPPLY VALVE

UPFEED CONNECTIONS TO RADIATOR

..,......- /.,..
., HOFFMAN TRAP

RADIATOR CONNECTIONS
TAKEN FROM UP OR DOWN FEED R !SERS

94
 TWO PIPE STEAM SYSTEMS RADIATOR CONNECTIONS
./ DOWN FEED RISERS
(HOFFMAN SUPPLY VALVE

HOFFMAN
TRAPS

f \MINIMUM COOLING LE_G_5' - O" LONG

\DRY RETURN MAIN HOFFMAN RISERS CONCEALED
DRIPPING HEEL OF DOWN FEED ;1
RISER INTO DRY RETURN -----··::
PROPER PROVISION
,,11
FOR EXPANSION OF
·:'•
RISER MUST BE MADE
WITH THIS
CONNECTION.

TWO PIPE STEAM SYSTEMS RADIATOR CONNECTIONS

FULL SIZE
OF TAPPING

DRY RETURN
HOFFMAN SUPPL y HOFFMAN TRAP
VALVE WITH FULL SIZE OF
CONNECTIONS TO CEILING RADIATOR TAPPING
LOCATED ABOVE SUPPLY & RETURN.

NO-PRESSURE WET RETURN

CONNECTIONS TO CEILING RADIATORS

WITH RETURN BLED INTO WET RETURN

95
 TWO PIPE STEAM SYSTEMS CONVECTOR CONNECTIONS

DISTANCE FROM
CENTER OF HOFFMAN SUPPLY
~==========3i~~ RADIATOR TAPPING VALVE WITH
TO FACE OF SILL OFF SET
MUST BE GIVEN EXTENDED STEM
STRAIGHT
EXTENDED STEM
ON HOFFMAN
SUPPLY VALVE
HOFFMAN TRAP

HOFFMAN
HOFFMAN VERTICAL
SUPPLY VALVE TRAP

OR UNION ~-PIT~!::I
DOWN HOFFMAN
ANGLE
TRAP

~
PITCH DO~
~
NN-
HOFFMAN
ANGLE TRAP

HOFFMAN I Dlllr.~
SUPPLY VALVE PITCH DOWN- HOFFMAN
OR UNION ...___SWIVEL
TRAP

BLAST COi LS CONTROLLED BY THERMOSTATIC SUPPLY VALVE

--~~THERMOSTATIC CONTROL VALVE

_,/ :------
- SUPPLY MAIN

VACUUM BREAKERS HOFFMAN FLOAT &

THERMOSTATIC TRAPS

I
I I
I .J-----
.J..~- - - -

MAIN RETURN
96
 EXPOSED PIPE COILS-TWO PIPE STEAM

CONNECTIONS TO HEADER COILS

HAVING MORE THAN 8 PIPES

ONE PIPE STEAM SYSTEMS RADIATOR CONNECTIONS

SUPPLY MAIN

HOFFMAN VENT VALVE

111111111111111 /
HOFFMAN PACKLESS RAD. VALVE
t
NOT LESS THAN 18"
REDUCER ___ L£~~TER LINE OF BOILER

CAN BE REDUCED
(NEVER LESS THAN %") :b. DOWNFEED CONNECTIONS
WITH WET RETURN

CwETRETURN ~
....,-lll-liiiiijiii;;;;-£iilSUPPL Y MAIN
40

HOFFMAN VENT VALVE

HOFFMAN
1
PACK LESS
RAD. VALVE
1111111 II I 11111
DOWNFEED CONNECTIONS
DRIPPING RISER INTO CONDEN
MINIMUM SATION PUMP RETURN
COOLING LEG n. HOFFMAN TRAP
5'-0" LONG ·p
i; ; ; ;.:O; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; •;.-; ; ; ; i~Siil
...a
DRY RETURN

97
HOFFMAN MAIN VENT STEAM MAIN
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilFJiiiiiiiiil ,;;;iiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiii1j~iiiii~~~ AT LE AST 24"
AT LEAST 12" p -
DRIPPING ENDO;m;;;;;;ii~=~Gi;;;;~~===~~=~Ei
OF ONE PIPE AT LEAST 18"
STEAM MAIN ABOVE W.L.
__t__
WHERE SAME
EXTENDS
BEYOND WET
RETURN

WET RETURN/ EXPANSION JOINT MADE

UP OF PIPE FOR HORIZONTAL

b PIPES- DRIPPED INTO

WE;- RETURN

EXPANSION JOI NT MADE

UP OF PIPE FOR
HORIZONTAL PIPES
NOT DRIPPED

ONE PIPE STEAM SYSTEMS RADIATOR CONNECTIONS

~l~;l;l;;N
HOFFMAN
STRAIGHT SHANK AMBER
AIR VALVE AIR VALVE

HOFFMAN PACKLESS
PITCHDOW~N
HOFFMAN /
RAD. VALVE AIR VALVE HOFFMAN
SUPPLY VALVE
VENTING CONCEALED RADIATOR OF AIR CHAMBER OR UNION
HEADE'R TYPE - Al R VENT TAPPING IN TOP

ONE PIPE STEAM SYSTEMS

CONVECTOR CONNECTIONS

HOFFMAN SUPPLY VALVE OR UNION

98
 PIPING CONNECTIONS FOR
UNIT HEATERS (STEAM)

SUPPLY LINE
UNIT HEATER e>;.;a,:~;;;;;;;i HOFFMAN
UNIT HEATER
VENT VALVE
LOW PRESSURE CLOSED
GRAVITY SYSTEM
CHECK VALVE
I AT LEAST
SEDIMENT
POCKET
.!\A
~
t-12 INCHES
·RETURN
/1>-_,,_...___S UPP LY LINE

VACUUM OR LOW PRESSURE

UNIT
OPEN GRAVITY SYSTEM
HEATER
HOFFMAN
F & TTRAP
RETURN ,...,.__,,-.,.___SUPPLY LI NE
UNIT
SEDIMENT ,'lltl~===
HEATER HOFFMAN UNIT
POCKET HOFFMAN STRAINER
HEATER VENT
VALVE
HIGH PRESSURE
SYSTEM
HOFFMAN
SEDIMENT ~K~TR
POCKET HOFFMAN~
STRAINER

SUPPLY MAIN

SAME SIZE AS TRAP

( HOFFMAN A
FULL SIZE OF
i SUPPLY MAIN-·(;'---iiii:f'lli:~::;~~iiiiiiiiii~
c. TRAP
t>-==~;ie;;;;;;p;('":I GATE VALVE_...--....
TAPPING
MINIMUM COOLING LEG 5'-0" LONG)
HOFFMAI\
GRAVITY OR VACUUM DRY RETURN MAIN
TRAP~;
UNIT HEATER CONNECTIONS FOR TWO PIPE
GRAVITY OR VACUUM SYSTEM

MINIMUM COOLING LEG 5"-0" LONG;_:;;;; /

GRAVITY OR VACUUM DRY RETURN MAIN
UNIT HEATER CONNECTIONS FOR TWO
PIPE GRAVITY OR VACUUM SYSTEM WIT
SUPPLY BRANCH DRIPPED THRU TRAP.

99
 TWO PIPE-STEAM
TRAP INSTALLATIONS

DRY

I
I rDROP RIS&R OR END OF MAIN
I
I
MINIMuMc·o6:1NG LEG s·-o.. LONG
SAME SIZE AS TRAP
HOFFMAN
=-~TRAP ' RETURN RISER
DRY V a HORIZONTAL BRANCHf
RETURN PIPES'-
DRY ;..-450ELBOWS
DRIPPING DROP RISER OR END OF RETURNAi;a:l--;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;a
MAIN INTO DRY RETURN MAIN SUPPLY
CONNECTIONS FOR UPFEED RISERS MAIN

BRA~ r ECCENTRIC REDUCER

~ -6
METHOD OF REDUCING SIZE OF MAIN

ONE PIPE STEAM SYSTEMS RADIATOR CONNECTIONS

HOFFMAN HOFFMAN AIR VALVE

PACK LESS
RADIATOR
VALVE
111() .
\ I
HOFFMAN AIR VALV

RISER 1111
I

• I~
./I
UPFEED CONNECTION TO RADIATOR -
v"""'-HOFFMAN PACK LESS
. IP'"" RADIATOR VALVE
~ PITCH DOWN F ROM HERE

RADIATOR CONNECTION TAKEN

FROM UP OR DOWN FEED RISER

100
i

I RISER RISER

UPFEED BRANCH
CONNECTION TAKEN EXPANSION JOINT
FROM MAIN AT 45° MADE UP OF PIPE FOR

-
RISERS

DROP RISER BRANCH TAKEN DROP RISER BRANCH

FROM TOP OF MAIN AT 45° TAKEN FROM BOTTOM
OF MAIN

--- - ....
RISER -
t RADIATOR
BRANCH

i-"RISER

WET
RETURN
- --
RISER BRANCH TAKEN METHOD OF TAKI NG
FROM BOTTOM OF MAIN AND DOUBLE RADIATOR
DRIPPED INTO WET RETURN BRANCH CONNECTIONS
FROM RISER

101
 ACCEPTABLE PREFERRED

METHODS OF TAKING BRANCHES FROM MAINS

6--- METHOD OF REDUCING SIZE OF MAINS

AST 1"
~

AT LEAST 1"
LOOPING MAIN
AROUND BEAM - ...
.,,
"'
__L
-- "---

,.w
_ ....

PLUG FOR CLEANOUT T

LOOPING DRY RETURN

MAIN AROUND DOOR

B CONSTANT
11 Y. 0 5.126
22Y:. 0 2.613
30° 2.000
45° 1.414
60° 1.155
TO FIND C MULTIPLY A BY
CONSTANT FOR ANGLE B

102
 RADIATOR ENCLOSERS
To enclose or partly enclose a radiator reduces its heat output and
changes the distribution of heated air in the room. The additional
surface usually added to column or tube radiation for various en-
closures is indicated below.

2"

DEDUCT10% ADD20% DEDUCT5%

2"
2"

*NO CHANCE ADD 30% ADD 5%

*If A is 50% of width of radiator, add 10%; if 150%, add 35% .

.tB = 80% of A. C = 150% of A. D = A.

Example: A room requires 50 sq. ft. radiation radiator recessed flush

f
with wall, -50 + 20% = 60 ~ radiator required' If radiator for same
room is ,to have grille over entire face onry, -50 iji+ 30% = 65 iji
required.

103
Acknowledgements . ..
We'd like to thank the people at the Fluid Handling Division of
ITT for allowing us to use the fine graphics from Hoffman Spe-
cialty, Domestic Pump, and McDonnell & Miller which appear in
this book.
We'd also like to thank the hundreds of mechanics who, for
years, have shared their "tricks of the trade" with us. Without
them, we'd all be in hot water!
Wallace Eannace Associates, Inc.

104