Chapter 48 • Suppressing CO2 Emissions 375

• An improvement in separation efficiency will also permit a reduction in the tower’s

top reflux rate. As the reflux comes from the reboiler, this will result in energy
savings by reducing the heat input into the reboiler.

Distillation Tower Tray Efficiency

Tray decks and weirs need to be level. Out-of-level tray decks promote tray weeping. As the
vapor will flow through the high point of the tray deck, and the liquid will weep through
the low point of the tray deck, vapor-liquid channeling will result (Fig. 48.4). This will
degrade tray contacting efficiency, and thus result in more reflux and hence more reboiler
duty. One way out of this problem is to use old style bubble cap trays. Bubble cap trays
cannot leak, if they are reasonably mechanically intact.
Weirs need to be level. If the crest height is less than the out of levelness of the weir, then
the liquid will channel across the tray. Stagnant areas of the tray will not contribute any-
thing to the tray efficiency. The vapor will simply bubble through these stagnant layers of
liquid, without undergoing any change in composition. Of course, it’s better to level up the
weirs. But, if the liquid flow over the weirs is small, I’ll resort to the use of picket weirs. Such
picket weirs encourage the liquid to overflow the weir in a more uniform pattern. This will
largely eliminate stagnant areas on the tray panels.
There has been a lot written about new tray design by the vendors to enhance tray frac-
tionation efficiency. Mostly B.S.! The real answers to enhanced tray efficiency are bubble
cap trays and/or picket weirs. Also, maximizing weir and tray deck levelness.

Tilted
tray
deck

Vapor

Liquid

FIG. 48.4 Out-of-level trays cause low tray efficiency.

376 UNDERSTANDING PROCESS EQUIPMENT FOR OPERATORS AND ENGINEERS

Heat Exchanger Design

Of the newer, high-tech options for heat exchanger design, the best option appears to be
use of helical tube support baffles (Fig. 48.5). These baffles cause the shell side liquid flow
to swirl past the tubes in a circular pattern. However, for new exchangers, it’s cheaper to
purchase a somewhat bigger exchanger, to increase heat recovery. The use of helical tube
support baffles is a good retrofit option for increased heat recovery.
Helical baffles serve little purpose if the controlling resistance to heat transfer is on the tube
side, as is often the case. If the main resistance to heat transfer is on the tube side of an
exchanger, then tube inserts, in the form of springs, are used by some of my clients, but with
variable success. I myself have never used these spring-type inserts, which promote turbulence
inside the exchanger’s tubes. In general, the use of helical baffles to aid in heat transfer effi-
ciency is more common in the process and refining industry, than tube inserts or twisted tubes.
The best way to maintain a good level of heat recovery in a shell and tube exchanger (for
liquids) is to maintain high velocities. For example:
• Shell Side—Keep the fluid cross-flow velocity between 3 and 5 ft per second.
• Tube Side—Keep the fluid linear velocity between 6 and 12 ft per second. Much above
12 ft per second, the liquid becomes erosive.
Excessively low velocities lead to laminar flow, and excessive heat transfer film resistance
and fouling.

FIG. 48.5 Schematic arrangement showing helical tube support baffles in relation to tube alignment.
 Chapter 48 • Suppressing CO2 Emissions 377

Fired Heaters—Excess Oxygen

Adjusting excess oxygen is important. If the heater is being operated at a fixed fuel rate, then
the excess air should be adjusted to maximize the heater process outlet temperature
(Fig. 48.6).
If, more commonly, the heater is being operated on automatic temperature control,
then the excess air should be adjusted to minimize the fuel gas rate, to achieve the desired
heater outlet temperature.
Note that I have not made reference to oxygen analyzers or any excess oxygen concen-
tration target in the stack or firebox. Excess oxygen analyzers are not needed for an effective
program to maximize energy efficiency. When I adjust excess oxygen, either with the stack
damper or with the burner air registers, I do not use, and do not need, an oxygen analyzer.

Stack damper

Process fluid
inlet

Shock tubes
Convective
section

Fire box
Radiant
section

Process
fluid outlet

Air register

Fuel gas

FIG. 48.6 Typical natural draft gas-fired process heater.

378 UNDERSTANDING PROCESS EQUIPMENT FOR OPERATORS AND ENGINEERS

Tramp Air Leaks—Radiant Section

Air drawn into the firebox will increase the supply of combustion air. Tramp air in-leakage
will not mix efficiently with the fuel. This degradation of the air-to-fuel mixing efficiency
will require more excess O2 for the same degree of fuel oxidation completion. The most
common source of tramp air leaks in the radiant section is defective secondary air regis-
ters of burners that are not in service. Sight-ports that have fallen off are another potential
cause of poor air-fuel mixing efficiency.
More combustion air means more flue gas up the stack which is the major portion of
wasted heat in a fired heat.

Tramp Air Leaks in the Convective Section

Cold ambient air will degrade the heat recovery in the furnace’s convective section. This
happens because of a combination of two malfunctions:
• Excessive Furnace Draft
• Tramp Air Leaks in the Convective Section
A reasonable target for draft in the lower portion of the convective section is 0.0500
H2O. However, this is only a reasonable target in areas where the wind does not gust
at the top of the furnace stack. I have seen moderate wind gusts cause draft to vary
by as much as 0.200 H2O. Here’s the problem. If you are running with a minimum draft
(0.0500 H2O), and the wind stops, the firebox may go positive. Hot flue gas, which may
contain high concentrations of SO2 (which is toxic), can then blow-out of the upper por-
tions of the firebox. This happened to me once in Aruba at the Coastal Plant. Quite a ter-
rifying experience.
Perhaps a minimum safe draft in a windy area is 0.15–0.20 in. of H2O.
Reducing the draft is typically done by throttling on the stack damper. I was working at
the CVR refinery in Kansas recently and reduced the fuel consumption on their natural
draft crude heater by 2%. Admittedly not a lot. But, it only required a few hours. Restricting
the damper too much will cause a dangerous positive pressure.

Finding Tramp Air Leaks

I have two methods of finding tramp air leaks in the convective section of a natural
draft heater. While in operation, I use a silk cloth to see which locations in the convec-
tive box will attract the silk cloth. When a heater is out of service during a unit turn-
around, I will get an old tire and set it on fire. Or, throw colored smoke bombs into the
idle firebox. With the stack damper shut, the convective section air leaks will then be
easily observed. Fixing leaks is simple. Use a roll of aluminum duct tape or insulator’s
mud. Do not expect any dramatic improvement in efficiency. About one or 2% is all that
can be expected.
 Chapter 48 • Suppressing CO2 Emissions 379

Not all convective boxes leak. On a new heater that I’ve inspected, the percent oxygen
below and above the convective tube banks was 2%. However, for older heaters, the oxygen
above the convective tube bank is typically one to 4% higher than the flue gases leaving the
radiant box, due to ambient air leaks. Unless you measure the O2 above and below the con-
vective tube bank, you’ll never know the potential energy savings to repair these convective
box leaks.

Vacuum Systems
Once, I was making a presentation at a refinery in California. I was trying to sell my services
as an energy expert consultant. Halfway through my talk, I noticed that no one was listening.
So, I said, “Look guys. Take me to any part of your plant, and I will save energy within
twenty minutes.”
The training manager, Mr. Henry, escorted me to their lube oil vacuum tower. I asked the
operator on the control panel if he had any problem on the vacuum tower controls (Fig. 48.7).
“Yeah Lieberman. The vacuum tower pressure control’s runnin’ too far open. That spill-
back control valve can’t control the tower pressure in a mostly open position. It needs to be
50% open, not 90% open for good control.”
So, I climbed up to the three primary steam jets, and blocked-in the process and steam
side of the center jet of the three jet system. Steam consumption dropped by one-third
(12,000 pounds per hour of 450 psig steam), and the spill-back pressure control valve
closed to the optimum of 30%.
“See Mr. Henry, I just saved you 12,000 pounds per hour of steam.”
But Mr. Henry was not impressed, “So what Lieberman? Anybody could have done that.
We didn’t need any energy conservation expert to close off that ejector steam.”
And that, Ladies and Gentlemen, is the point. Anyone can effect these changes to save
energy, if they will get out of their office, escape from computer-land, and work with the
operators in the field.
The simplest way to save 10%–30% of the energy for ejectors is to throttle back on
motive steam pressure. Excess steam pressure, above design, reduces the compression
ratio that the ejector can develop. Also, the reduction in motive steam pressure will be lin-
ear with the reduction in the motive steam flow rate. That is, if I throttle back the steam
pressure from 150 psia (135 psig), down to 120 psia (105 psig), I will save 20% of the steam
consumed in the ejector. The majority of ejectors I work with suffer from fouled down-
stream condensers and/or worn steam nozzles. For these jets, the optimum steam pres-
sure is typically 10%–50% below the manufacturer’s nameplate motive steam pressure.

Air Coolers
Fin-fan air coolers must be sized for peak summertime operations. Thus, for much of the
year, most plants have excessive air cooler capacity. To reduce this excess capacity, many
air coolers have louvers on top of the tube bundles. The louvers are closed to restrict