A Term Paper on

“Single & Combined Footings”

“In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course of Details of Construction (CE200)”

Submitted by:
Name Student’s ID
 Navid Aftahi Shudoy 190103033
 Shinjon Kundu Joy 190103034
 Pathan Md. Wasek Sazzad 190103035
 Badhon Singha 190103036
 Mohammad Atiqur Rahman Sakib 190103037
 Mehedi Hasan Munna 190103038
 Reaz Ahmed 180203007

Submitted to:
Mr. S M Shazeebur Rahman
Lecturer, Dept. Of Civil Engineering, AUST

Subashish Kundu Sunny

Lecturer, Dept. Of Civil Engineering, AUST

1|P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Declaration

This is to certify that this term paper work entitled “Single and Combined Footing”
has been submitted to Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology carried out
by member of this group collectively.

Navid Aftahi Shudoy

ID: 190103033

Shinjon Kundu Joy

ID: 190103034

Pathan Md. Wasek Sazzad

ID: 190103035

Badhon Singha ID:190103036

Mohammad Atiqur Rahman Sakib ID: 190103037

Mehedi Hasan Munna

ID: 190103038

Reaz Ahmed 180203007

This report results presented in the term paper have not been included in any other
paper submitted for the award of any degree to any other university or institute. This
report titled “Single and Combined Footing” has been accepted as satisfactory in
partial fulfilment of the requirement for the course of Details of Construction (CE
200) on June 29, 2021.

…………………………………. ………………………………..
Mr. S M Shazeebur Rahman Subashish Kundu Sunny
Lecturer, Dept. Of Civil Engineering, AUST Lecturer, Dept. Of Civil Engineering, AUST

2|P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Almighty, for the good health and wellbeing that were necessary to
complete this term paper.

We express our deep sense of gratitude to our honorable teachers, Mr. S M Shazeebur
Rahman and Mr.Subashish Kundu Sunny, Lecturer Department of Civil Engineering,
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology (AUST). Also we wish to express our
heart-felt thanks especially to our honorable teacher, Mr. Nafis Anwari, Assistant
Professor, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology (AUST). They inspired us to
undertake the term paper and their constant inspiration, meditative, and incentive guidance,
valuable advice and all kinds of help throughout this Term Paper period made this job in reality.

We wish to express our gratefulness to all the teachers of the Department of Civil engineering
of Ahsanullah University of science & Technology (AUST), for their proper guidance and
suggestions. We are also grateful to our classmates who helped us to initiate our work.

3|P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Abstract

With the rapid advancement, this term paper contains detailed information about two very
popular type of footing, single footing and combined footing. Whereas small structures utilize
shallow foundation (due to low weight of structure). In Indian sub-continent, small houses
(compared to residential apartment) of three story or less are most common dwelling for
residents. The modern houses being constructed are mostly using RCC frame structure with
shallow foundation (Isolated, combined or both). These foundations are usually constructed
based on prior experience of the mason, that is why they are mostly constructed with easiest
geometry (i.e., rectangular and square), rather than best suited as per structural analysis or
economy (i.e., rectangular, square, circular, trapezoidal, etc.). These all factors combined make
for the basis of this study. Which will be helpful for choosing the appropriate footing for
structure.

Due to Covid-19 pandemic situation, we could not visit any construction site. We took help
from various websites and tried to collect effective images from internet resources to make this
paper more explainable and appreciable to the reader.

4|P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Table of Contents
Declaration ________________________________________________________________ 2
Acknowledgement __________________________________________________________ 3
Abstract __________________________________________________________________ 4
Chapter-01: Fundamentals of Foundation _______________________________________ 8
Introduction ___________________________________________________________________ 8
Purpose of Foundation: __________________________________________________________ 8
Functions of Foundation: _________________________________________________________ 9
Types of Foundation: ___________________________________________________________ 10
Shallow foundation _____________________________________________________________ 11
Deep foundation: ______________________________________________________________ 13
Foundations Load:______________________________________________________________ 14
Settlement of foundations: _______________________________________________________ 15
Cause of foundation Failure: ______________________________________________________ 15
Basic Requirements of Single and Combine Footings: __________________________________ 16
Factors Affecting Foundation Selection _____________________________________________ 18
Foundation Selection Criteria: ____________________________________________________ 18
Shallow foundation or a deep foundation which is needed: _____________________________ 19
Chapter-02: Single Footing __________________________________________________ 20
Characteristics of Single footing: __________________________________________________ 20
Some typical shapes of single footing: ______________________________________________ 21
Types of Single footing: __________________________________________________________ 21
Advantages of Single footing: _____________________________________________________ 22
Disadvantages of Single Footings:__________________________________________________ 23
Chapter-03: Combined Footing _______________________________________________ 24
Types of combined footing: ______________________________________________________ 24
The advantages of Combined Footing : _____________________________________________ 27
The disadvantages of Combined Footing : ___________________________________________ 28
Chapter-04: Design of Single & Combined Footings _______________________________ 29
Requirements of Good Foundation: ________________________________________________ 29
Design steps of Single Footing: ____________________________________________________ 29
Chapter-05: Constructions of Single & Combined Footing __________________________ 31
Steps to construct single & combined footing:________________________________________ 31

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 General pre-constructions steps: _________________________________________________________ 31
Construction Steps: ____________________________________________________________________ 32

Concrete casting in foundation: ___________________________________________________ 38

Construction difficulties: _________________________________________________________ 42
Chapter- 06: Working Limitations & Economical View Point ________________________ 45
Limitations of Work: ____________________________________________________________ 45
Economical View: ______________________________________________________________ 45
References _______________________________________________________________ 46

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 List of Figure
Figure 1 Foundation. _________________________________________________________________________ 9
Figure 2.Traditional Strip Foundation ___________________________________________________________ 10
Figure 3. . Shallow foundation ________________________________________________________________ 11
Figure 4. Single Footing ______________________________________________________________________ 11
Figure 5. Combined footing ___________________________________________________________________ 12
Figure 6. Strip Foundation ____________________________________________________________________ 12
Figure 7. Mat/Raft Foundation ________________________________________________________________ 13
Figure 8. Pile Foundation ____________________________________________________________________ 14
Figure 9. Pier Foundation ____________________________________________________________________ 14
Figure 10. Failure of Foundation _______________________________________________________________ 16
Figure 11. Single/Isolated footing ______________________________________________________________ 20
Figure 12. Shapes of single footing _____________________________________________________________ 21
Figure 13. Flat/ pad footing __________________________________________________________________ 21
Figure 14. Sloped footings____________________________________________________________________ 22
Figure 15. Stepped footing ___________________________________________________________________ 22
Figure 16. Slab type combined footing __________________________________________________________ 24
Figure 17. Rectangular combined footing _______________________________________________________ 25
Figure 18. Trapezoidal footing ________________________________________________________________ 26
Figure 19. Strap Foundation __________________________________________________________________ 26
Figure 20. : Mat/Raft Foundation ______________________________________________________________ 27
Figure 21. Land survey & site clearance _________________________________________________________ 32
Figure 22. : Site excavation ___________________________________________________________________ 33
Figure 23. Levelling &dressing ________________________________________________________________ 34
Figure 24. CC layer __________________________________________________________________________ 35
Figure 25. CC Blocks ________________________________________________________________________ 35
Figure 26. Wooden & Steel Shuttering __________________________________________________________ 36
Figure 27. Formwork/Shuttering ______________________________________________________________ 37
Figure 28. Concrete Casting. __________________________________________________________________ 38
Figure 29. Smoothing the surface ______________________________________________________________ 39
Figure 30. Concrete curing ___________________________________________________________________ 40
Figure 31. Ponding method ___________________________________________________________________ 40
Figure 32. Curing by sprinklers ________________________________________________________________ 41
Figure 33. Wet covering _____________________________________________________________________ 41
Figure 34. Formwork removing ________________________________________________________________ 42
Figure 35. Segregation in concrete _____________________________________________________________ 43
Figure 36. Water logging in foundation _________________________________________________________ 44

7|P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Chapter-01
Fundamentals of Foundation

Introduction

Lower base of a structure is a very supreme part as it links the main body superstructure
to the earth. That lower base is known as Foundation. When it comes to build a structure it is
very crucial to construct a firm base which holds the superstructure in all climatic conditions
without collapsing or decaying. It is very important to know which type of foundation is
essential to use in a particular superstructure, which materials are more suitable, which designs
should be used. If any inappropriate material is used for foundation of structure, then high risk
is involved of collapsing of the structure. Different types of foundation base are utilized in
different types of structures, each one of them has a unique design and specific configuration
which makes a particular structure more durable and firm. Construction of any structure starts
with the built up of foundation base which holds the weight of all beams, columns, walls, slab,
and other household materials. Hence having a strong and solid base is must. Foundation is
basically classified into two major categories which is further sub divided into number of
categories based on the type of structure to be implemented.

Purpose of Foundation:

 To distribute the weight of structure over large area of soil.

 To load the sub-stratum evenly and prevent unequal settlement or differential
settlement.
 To provide a level surface.
 To increase the stability by preventing overturning.
 To provide safety to the structure.
 To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.
 To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
 To minimize distress against soil movement.

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Functions of Foundation:

 Distribution of loads

 Foundation help to distribute the loads of super-structure to a large of the soil.

 Therefore, the intensity of load at its base does not exceed the safe bearing capacity
of the soil
 In the case of deep foundations, the super imposed loads are transmitted either
through end bearing or both by side friction & end bearing

Figure 1 Foundation.

 Stability against sliding & overturning

 Foundation imparts lateral stability to the super structure by anchoring it to the
ground
 It increases the stability against sliding & overturning due to horizontal forces to
wind, earthquake, etc.

 Minimize differential settlement

 Foundation distribute the super-imposed loads evenly on the sub-soil, even in the
case of non-uniform loads.
 This can be achieved by constructing combined footing or raft foundation.

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 Safe against undermining
 Foundation provide safety against scouring or undermining by flood water or
burrowing animal.

Types of Foundation:

There are mainly two types of foundation:

 Shallow foundation
 Deep foundation

Types of Shallow foundation:

 Single footing or isolated footing
 Combined footing
 Strip foundation
 Raft or mat foundation
Types of Deep foundation: Figure 2.Traditional Strip Foundation

 Pile foundation
 Pier/ Cassion foundation

10 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Shallow foundation – a type of foundation that does not extended deep into the ground.
A shallow foundation is that type of foundation which is placed on a firm soil near the ground,
and beneath the lowest part of the super structure. Isolated/single footing transmits the load of
a single column to the beneath soil. Single footing is provided when the bearing capacity of
soil is high and loads on footing are less.

Figure 3. . Shallow foundation

 Individual / Single footing:

Isolated footing is used to support single columns. Isolated footing is one of the most-popular
and simplest
type of foundation used worldwide.
This is one of the most economical
type of footings and is used when
columns are spaced at relatively long distances.

Figure 4. Single Footing

 Combined footing:
When two or more columns are close to each other and if their foundation are overlapping
then combined foundation is constructed. Generally, it is carried out on fields which have low

11 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

soil bearing capacity. It is very economical when isolated footing columns are constructed
over it.

Figure 5. Combined footing

 Strip foundation:
Strip foundation which is also called as strip footing which is sub category of shallow
foundation are used to provide continuous level or stepped strip of support to a linear structure
for example walls or closely spaced rows or columns built in center above them. Strip
foundations can be done in mostly all sub soils, but a soil of good bearing capacity is suitable.
This type of foundation is generally used for the construction of medium or low rise domestic
buildings.

Figure 6. Strip Foundation

12 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Raft/Mat foundation:
Mat or raft foundation is a continuous slap resting on the soil that extends over an entire
footprint of the building, thus supporting the building the building and transferring its weight
to the ground. Mat or raft footing is basically a thick concrete slab reinforced with steel that
covers the entire contact area of the structure like a thick floor. They are large concrete slabs
which supports a number of walls and columns. In this the foundations are constructed by
excavating soil in order to compact, strong, undisturbed natural soil which is at least a few feet
below the ground level. This soil is stronger as compared to the loose soil at the surface hence
it is very good for basements. Raft or mat foundation is required in areas where soil has to
support heavy structural loads and has low bearing capacity.

Figure 7. Mat/Raft Foundation

Deep foundation – are type of foundation that provides support for a structure by
transferring loads to depth of 3 meters or deeper than it to the ground. This is because; to
construct high rise buildings it is necessary to go deep into the ground to provide necessary
support to the superstructure and protects it from collapsing.

 Pier/Cassion Foundation:
It is also known as post foundation. Pier foundation is basically a collection of large cylindrical
diameter to up hold the structure and transfer large super imposed load to the firm strata below.
It is placed few feet below the ground. This is very convenient method as the materials are
easily available and the method is easy and requires fewer amounts of materials and labors. It

13 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

is also very cost efficient. It is preferred in locations where the top strata consist of decomposed
rock overlying strata of sound rock.

 Pile Foundation:
Pier or Caisson foundations are similar to a single pile foundation, Pile foundation is type of
foundation in which columns of small cylindrical diameter are driven or cast into the ground.
It is made up of concrete, timber or steel. This type of foundation is basically used for bridge
type of construction. Pile foundation is done in the areas where the upper layer of soil is
compressible or weak. Pile foundation is basically used when the soil below the foundation
does not have sufficient bearing capacity to carry the weight of the structure into deep soil up
to hard strata.

Figure 8. Pile Foundation Figure 9. Pier Foundation

Foundations Load:

 Dead Load: This is the load of the material used for the various components of a
building such as walls, floors, roofs, etc. All the permanent load is thus included in
dead load.

 Live Load: This the movable load on the floor and hence it’s variable. It also
sometimes known as the super imposed loads. It includes the loads of a person
standing on the floor, weight of the material stored on a floor, weight of snow of a
roof etc.
 Wind Walls: In case of tall buildings, the effect due to wind should be considered.

 Structural members & uplift

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  Earthquake: Horizontal & vertical forces caused by the motion of the ground
relative to the building.

Settlement of foundations: Due to the self-weight and the live load of the structure and
due to compressibility of the soil supporting the foundation of the structure, settlement of the
structure does occur. Settlement is the vertical downward movement to the loaded base.

 Elastic compression of the foundation and the underlying soil.

 Inelastic (or plastic) compression of the underlying soils, which is much larger
than the elastic compression. The in elastic compression can be predicted by the
theory of consolidation.
 Ground water lowering repeated lowering and rising of water level in loose
granular soil tends to compact the soil and cause settlement of the ground surface.
 Vibrations due to pile driving, blasting and oscillating machineries may cause
settlement in deposits of granular soils.
 Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expensive clays.
 Ground movement on earth slopes, such as surface erosion, slow creep or
landslide.
 Other causes such as adjacent excavation, mining subsidence, underground erosion,
etc.

Cause of foundation Failure:

 Inaccurate determination of the bearing capacity of the pile.

 When the pile load is greater than the design load.
 Poor and defective workmanship while casting the pile.
 Corrosion of the timber pile because of assault by insects.
 Defective techniques used while driving the pile.
 Bearing pile laying on delicate strata.
 Buckling of the piles because of insufficient lateral support.
 Faulty soil investigation.
15 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST
  Selecting the wrong type of pile.
 Inappropriate characterization of soil.
 Inadequate reinforcement in the pile.
 A decay of piles. (Like an attack of insects, corrosion etc.)

Figure 10. Failure of Foundation

Basic Requirements of Single and Combine Footings:

 Lateral Displacement
If the foundation of the structure is embedded in the soil, lateral earth pressure can result in
shear and moment loads. Latitudinal displacement must be restricted. Bridge constructions
have a maximum tolerance of 2.5 cm.

16 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

  Vibration
If a machine or a group of machines are installed in the building, foundation will have to
address intense vibration without suffering damage. A method to tackle the issue is to isolate
the foundation from the vibration source.

 Settlement
Settlement is known as the vertical movement of the ground as a result of changes in stress.
This is the most critical requirement of all since it happens when a vertical load is added to the
base. Although some degree of settlement is expected in new constructions, it must be kept
within the appropriate limits established by regulatory standards. The most critical factor
affecting the extent of damage to a structure is whether or not the settlement is standardized.
As a structure sinks uniformly, there are no cracks or minor damage. However, if one side of
the building settles more than the other (differential settlement), significant damage will occur
to the structure.

 Ground heave:

Ground heave is the vertical upward displacement of a structure’s base caused by the expansion
of the soil. It occurs as a result of the expansion of clay soils, which expand when wet. Due to
the soil’s inherent inability to extend downward or sideways, the exposed upper surface of the
soil increases. This phenomenon must be understood during the structure’s design and
construction phases.

 Durability
A foundation must be functional for the life span of a project. Being placed underground, it
needs to address severe issues like chemical, physical, and biological processes. Some methods
to make the foundation durable include utilizing chemical resistant concrete, implementing a
thicker layer of concrete to protect steel reinforcement or using insulating materials that will
decelerate the weathering processes.

 Tilt

When heave or settlement do not occur uniformly around the foundation, the structure
tilts. Since it may cause serious damage to the structure of a building, it must be

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 prohibited. In tall buildings, the angle of tilt does not exceed 0.12 degrees from
horizontal.

Factors Affecting Foundation Selection

 Subsurface condition
 Type and magnitude of loading
 Type of structure
 Constraint vibration, noise
 Cost
 Time
 Logistic

Foundation Selection Criteria:

1. Loads of structure: In case of low-rise building, shallow foundation is preferred.

However, for high-rise building, deep foundation is required. Deep foundation is
provided because ground at greater depth is highly compacted.

2. Soil bearing capacity: An allowable bearing pressure of at least 100kN/m^2 or higher

is effective for shallow foundations up to 4 stories. However, higher structures can
consider a raft foundation provided that the modulus of subgrade reaction shall not be
exceeded when calculated.

3. Soil types: There are different types of soil like sandy soil, loose soil, clayey soil, and
expansive soils. Form the surface to a depth of 3m is termed as top soil, and subsoil begins
after 3m depth. Characteristics specifically bearing capacity of both topsoil and subsoil
layers would to a great extent controls the foundation selection.

4. Ease of Construction: The choice of foundation should be made keeping in mind the
ease with which it can be executed/constructed at the site. The construction of different
types of foundation requires labor of different skillset and different level of skills.

18 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 5. Water Table Level: If the groundwater table is located below the formation level of
the foundation, then a shallow footing like isolated or combined footing should be chosen.
Moreover, for higher water table, raft/mat footing should be proposed.

6. Natural Disaster and Extreme Weather: If the area has a history of severe natural
events or extreme weather, then these parameters should be selected taken these
parameters into considerations. The past record or data of natural disasters and extreme
weather should be employed as a base for foundation selection.

When we should provide a shallow foundation or a deep foundation:

Foundations may be shallow or deep foundations depending upon the load

and type of foundation soil. If the load to be supported is very high and soil is of
low bearing capacity, Deep foundations are provided. If the soil has adequate
bearing capacity at reasonable depth, then shallow footings are provided.

19 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Chapter-02
Single Footing

Isolated footing is the single or individual footing which transfers load to the underground soil.
It is provided when a single column is to be provided. A foundation is the part of the
substructure which makes a direct contact or rested inside the ground. A footing is a unit of the
foundation that could be deep or shallow.

Isolated footing is generally provided for shallow depths. Shallow foundations have their
depths less than the widths. Isolated footing is used for isolated column. Footing is provided,
either as simple footing, sloped footing or stepped footing.

In simple isolated footing, base of uniform depth is provided. In sloped footing, base of
uniformly sloping downward pattern is provided. In stepped footing, base is constructed in
steps to distribute the load uniformly to the foundation soil.

Figure 11. Single/Isolated footing

Characteristics of Single footing

 Isolate foundations are very economical.

 Isolated foundations are simple to build.
 And low-skilled jobs might well be built.
 It needs less drilling of the soil.
 The columns having enough space to provide separate individual footing.
 There would be no varying settlement.

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Some typical shapes of single footing:

Figure 12. Shapes of single footing

Types of Single footing:

 Pad/Flat footing: These kind of footings are generally square or rectangular or

circular in shape which are provided under each column
independently. Flat or Pad Footing is one of the Shallow
Foundations. It is circular, square or rectangular slab of
uniform thickness.

Figure 13. Flat/ pad footing

 Sloped footing: Sloped footings are trapezoidal footings. They are designed and
constructed with great care to see that the top slope of 45 degrees is maintained from all
sides. When compared the trapezoidal footing with the flat footing, the usage of concrete
is less. Thus, it reduces the cost of footing in concrete as well as reinforcement.

21 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Figure 14. Sloped footings

 Stepped Footings: These types of footings are constructed in olden days now they are
outdated. As from the name it’s resembling that, footings are stacked upon one another
as steps. Three concrete cross sections are stacked upon each other and forms as a steps.
This type of footings is also called as a Step foundation. Stepped footing is used generally
in residential buildings.

Figure 15. Stepped footing

Advantages of Single footing:

 Isolate footings are economical.

 For compressive soils, it helps to reduce settlement.
 Reinforcement for tension and shear can be added.
 It is used if bearing capacity of soil is high at shallow depth.
 The isolated footings are easy to construct.
 Even it can be constructed, unskilled workers.
22 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST
  It requires less earth excavation.
 No piling is required. So, it reduces a great cost.
 Can be designed to accommodate tight sites.

Disadvantages of Single Footings:

 The bearing capacity of top surface soil is less.

 If sub-soil water level is high and it is uneconomical to pump out the water from the
hole or canal.
 Foundation size can be a very large to cope with high point loads.
 Limited foundation suitability to point loads of framed buildings.
 Deep excavations for foundations would require support to prevent caving in.
 Weak against uplift forces, wind forces and earthquake forces.
 Separate foundations make this design weak against the differential settlement that
may affect the building.

23 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Chapter-03
Combined Footing

A combined footing is usually used to support two columns of unequal loads. In such a case,
the resultant of the applied loads would not coincide with the centroid of the footing, and the
consequent the soil pressure would not be uniform. Another case where a combined footing is
an efficient foundation solution is when there are two interior columns which are so close to
each other that the two isolated footings stress zones in the soil areas would overlap. The area
of the combined footing may be proportioned for a uniform settlement by making its centroid
coincide with the resultant of the column loads supported by the footing. In other words,
whenever two or more columns in a straight line are carried on a single spread footing, it is
called a combined footing. Isolated footings for each column are generally the economical.
Combined footings are constructed for two or more columns when they are close to each other
and their foundations overlap. The function of a footing or a foundation is to transmit the load
form the structure to the underlying soil.

Types of combined footing:

 Slab type combined footing: Slab type combined footing supports two or more
column with bottom slab only.

Figure 16. Slab type combined footing

 Slab-beam type combined footing: Slab-beam type combined footing supports two
or more column with bottom slab and beam.

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  Rectangular footing: Rectangular footing is constructed when one of the projections
of footing is restricted or width of the footing is restricted. In longitudinal direction, it
acts as an upward loaded beam spanning between columns and cantilevering beyond.

Figure 17. Rectangular combined footing

 Trapezoidal footing: In trapezoidal footing two columns carry unequal load and the
distance outside the column of the heaviest load is limited. In such scenario using any other
footing method may result in resultant of load does not fall at the middle length of footing.
The solution to this problem is using trapezoidal footing in such a way that the center of
gravity of the footing lies under the resultant of the loads. Trapezoidal footing is more
economical than other foundation types as it saves concrete. While designing the
foundation, the bending moments are critical at the face of the column and the depth
requirement reduces as we go further away from it. As a result, we should use slope or else
we will end up using more unnecessary concrete. In colder regions where water freezes on
footing results in additional pressure crack formation in the foundation (freezing and
thawing effect), in such area it is very necessary to give slope to the footing so that water
will slide over it causing no damage to the foundation.

25 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Figure 18. Trapezoidal footing

 Strap footing: Strap footing is also known as cantilever footing. When two columns
having independent footing base, connected by a beam is called as strap foundation. Strap
footing consists two or more columns footing connected by concrete beam. Such type of
footing distributes the load of heavy or eccentrically loaded column footing to adjacent
footing. Strap footing works as a conjunction with columns which are located along
builder’s property line or lot line. Main benefit of using strap footing is it gives extra
stability to the footing by sharing of loads. Strap footing can also be used in soft soil as it
avoids the sinking of an individual footing. In strap footing the strap is attached to the
footing and column by the use of dowels in such a way that the footing and the strap act as
unit. The footing is subjected to one-way end.

Figure 19. Strap Foundation

 Raft Foundation: Mat or raft foundation is a continuous slap resting on the soil that
extends over an entire footprint of the building, thus supporting the building the building
26 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST
 and transferring its weight to the ground. Mat or raft footing is basically a thick concrete
slab reinforced with steel that covers the entire contact area of the structure like a thick
floor. They are large concrete slabs which supports a number of walls and columns. In this
the foundations are constructed by excavating soil in order to compact, strong, undisturbed
natural soil which is at least a few feet below the ground level. This soil is stronger as
compared to the loose soil at the surface hence it is very good for basements. Raft or mat
foundation is required in areas where soil has to support heavy structural loads and has low
bearing capacity.

Figure 20. : Mat/Raft Foundation

Other types of raft foundation:

 Solid slab rafts,
 Slab beam rafts
 Cellular rafts,
 Piled raft foundations; and,
 Balancing (or floating) rafts

The advantages of Combined Footing are as follows:

 A combined footing is required to construct two or more columns in a small area.

 Having a combined footing in the area where soil is low helps in laying a solid
foundation.
 A combined footing is widely used to distribute pressure evenly under the footing.
 Another advantage of combined footing is where the load-bearing capacity of the soil is
low there we construed combined footing.

27 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

  Where the soil capacity of the Construction area is unequal to distribute the load evenly
to the sub-soil we construed combined footing. This is another advantage of combined
footing.
 The common advantage of combined footing is when a column closes the property line
and footing is not spread the front of the property line then combined footing help to
construct the column.
 To get uniform pressure distribution under the footing the combined footing is widely
used. And help to maintain the center of gravity of the column.
 This type of combined footing is more profitable than another footing.
 The combined footing is provided to equally distribute the load to the super-structure to
the sub-soil. This is another advantage of combined footing.

The disadvantages of Combined Footing are as follows:

 When the combined footing is used the reinforcement sometimes the groundwater level
rises.
 One of the common disadvantages of combined footing is the size of the footing varies.
 If the foundation raft thickness is high, the problem may arise due to the heat difference

28 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Chapter-04
Design of Single & Combined Footings

Requirements of Good Foundation:

 Location of the Foundation:

 The location of the foundation should be such that it can be able to resist the total
load of the structure.
 Foundation must be located at an appropriate location and design as per the
bearing capacity of the soil.

 Settlement of Foundation:
 The main function of the foundation is to prevent the settlement of the
foundation. The settlement of the foundation mainly depends upon soil strata.
 The foundation of the structure should not be settled under the action of load
and it should prevent the differential settlement of the structure.

 Durability of Foundation:
 Durability is also important aspects should be considered while foundation
construction.
 The foundation of the structure should be constructed such that it should be
durable. The foundation should be designed such that it should be able to carry
the Lord of the structure and prevent settlement of the foundation.

 Stability of Foundation:
 One of the most important functions of the foundation is to provide stability
such that it should be able to safely transfer the load into the soil.

Design steps of Single Footing:

Footings may be designed by adopting the following procedure (Teng 1962):

 Calculate the loads acting on the footing.

29 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST
  Obtain a soil profile or soil profiles showing the soil stratification at the site.
 Establish the maximum water level.
 Obtain the pertinent field and laboratory measurements and test results.
 Determine the depth and location of the footing
 Determine the bearing capacity of the supporting stratum.
 Proportion the footing sizes.
 Check the footing contact pressure.
 Check the stability of footing against sliding, overturning and uplift pressure.
 Estimate the total and differential settlements.
 Design the footing structure.
 Assess the need for foundation drains, waterproofing or damp proofing.

30 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Chapter-05
Constructions of Single & Combined Footing

Building foundations are provided to carry the load of the structure and then to distribute the
load to the soil in larger cross sectional area. The foundation must be able to withstand the load
of the structure including live loads and environmental factors. A safety factor is provided for
safety during foundation design. The foundation is constructed according to the design. Here
are 10 steps that are generally followed during building foundation construction. The following
steps are provided for a general idea. These are not fixed steps and steps can be varied many
ways during practical implementation depending on the construction project.

Steps to construct single & combined footing:

 General pre-constructions steps:

 Selection of land/Site Evaluation: Location and site conditions can have a

magnitude of impacts on construction costs and schedule. Therefore, this should be
evaluated carefully and early in the process. At first owner of the project select the
land to start construction work. A proper land selection is very much essential for
any project to start.

 Hiring technical consultant/expert: After selecting proper land for building,

seek the help / constantan of a professional architect to create building designs,
and take advice.

 Design process: It must be done by professional hand. This is the one of the
most important part of construction work

 Estimating construction budget: Cost estimation and budgeting are essential

tools for planning in the construction industry and play a central role in both
preconstruction and construction phases of a project. Best practices dictate a total
project budget should be developed as early as possible in a project.

31 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

  Approaching a contractor: A contractor for construction needs to be chosen
carefully because it’s a major factor for securing building construction quality and
timely construction of work.

 Construction Steps:

 Survey and Stake out Footprint: This step is generally completed by a

professional surveyor who will come out and determine the appropriate distances
from the property lines. This ensures that the building will start out correctly and to
code. The digging for the foundation will be done using the offset stakes as the
guides. The stakes and points set during the process of construction surveying are
not usually set at the actual construction point, but usually on some sort of offset.
This is done so that the survey stake is not disturbed by excavation or other activities
that will take place at the actual point of construction. The stakes are marked with
an "offset" and a "grade", which provides the construction crew with the special
relationship of the construction stake to the actual point of construction.

Figure 21. Land survey & site clearance

 Site Clearance: Site clearance, also known as land clearance, is the removal of
all accumulated waste from an area to ensure that it's free from any hazards,
obstacles or unsightly mess. In case of any hill like appearance on the ground, that
also has to be cleared of the excess earth, and when there’s a pit, it’s required to be
filled up. This total job is named as site clearance.

32 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

  Excavation: Excavation is the process of moving earth, rock or other materials
with tools, equipment or explosives. It includes earthwork, trenching, wall shafts,
tunneling and underground. Excavation has a number of important applications
including exploration, environmental restoration, mining and construction. Among
these, construction is one of the most common applications for excavation.
Excavation is used in construction to create building foundations, reservoirs and
roads. Some of the different processes used in excavation include trenching,
digging, and dredging and site development. Each of these processes requires
unique techniques, tools and machinery to get the job done right. The processes
used will depend upon the structure that will result from the construction process.
The entire excavation process includes:

 setting out corner benchmarks

 surveying ground and top levels
 excavation to the approved depth
 dressing the loose soil
 making up to cut off level
 the construction of dewatering wells and interconnecting trenches
 making boundaries of the building

Figure 22. : Site excavation

 Leveling & Dressing: After excavation, the most important step is to level the soil
surface. The load of the construction should be vertical & for this, leveling & dressing is
must. Otherwise, the construction might be subjected to tilting to one side. Sand layer &
brick chips are often used for leveling & dressing.

33 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Figure 23. Levelling &dressing

 Brick flat Soling placement: Brick flat soling is normally applied to foundation and
ground level. Brick Flat Soling (BFS) is mostly used in building construction and road
construction. The purpose of using it as concrete bed is to make concrete bed smooth and
stable. Procedure of Brick flat soling:-

1. First of all, compact the surface by hand rammer and sprinkling water.
2. Lay the bricks on the surface so that they contact with each other. And keep
the frog mark upwards.
3. Make the brick joints in the subsequent row of bricks in English bond pattern.
Joints should not be in the same line. Use broken bricks (if any) at the edge of
the area.
4. Fill the gaps or joints among the bricks with sand. The minimum FM of sand
should be 0.50. Use a brush to properly fill the joints with sand. Don’t use
water for flushing sand to fill the gaps.
5. Finally, check the finish surface is leveled both longitudinally and
transversely.

 CC Layer Placement: Generally, a C.C (cement concrete) layer having 3” height is

kept on the brick layer. It is named as CEMENT CONCRETE LAYER. It provides a
smooth, uniform & strong surface for reinforcement frame.

34 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Figure 24. CC layer

 CC Block Placement: This type of block is placed to maintain clear cover. [Clear cover
in RCC, is the distance between the outer surface of the concrete and the surface of the
reinforcement bar. The cover is provided to protect the reinforcing bar from corrosion and
fire block. It varies with size of footing & clear cover. Sometimes brick or half brick can
be used instead of CC block]

Figure 25. CC Blocks

 Preparing the rebar’s, and rebar placement: Now it’s time cut the rebars in their
accurate shapes for different purpose like preparing the horizontal rebars, the stirrups, the
tie bars, the hooks, the bars for the joint etc. Here to rebars a cutting with strong steel
blades is used but at the case of bending the rebars, somte of this work is done manually
fixing then rotating the rebars in wooden board stirrups tie bars, them in Rebar tie wire,
also known as rebar tying wire.

35 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

  Shuttering/Formwork:

The essential requirements of formwork or shuttering are:

 It should be strong enough to take the dead and live loads during construction.
 The joints in the formwork should be rigid so that the bulging, twisting, or
sagging due to dead and live load is as small as possible. Excessive deformation
may disfigure the surface of concrete.
 The construction lines in the formwork should be true and the surface plane so
that the cost finishing the surface of concrete on removing the shuttering is the
least.
 A formwork should be easily removable without damage to itself so that it could
be used repeatedly

Formwork are mainly of two types:

- Steel formwork

- Wooden formwork

Steel formwork is made of

- Steel sheets

- Angle Iron

- Tee Iron

Wooden formwork consists of

- Props

- Planks battens

- Ledgers Figure 26. Wooden & Steel Shuttering

- Sheeting

36 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

Advantages of timber formwork:
 Easy handling because it’s light weight
 Easy to disassemble
 Damaged parts can be replaced with new one
 Very flexible

Disadvantages of timber formwork:

 Can’t be used for long. Have limited re-use. Can only be re-used 5 or 6 times.
 If the timber is dry, it will absorb moisture from wet concrete which could weaken
the resultant concrete member.

Advantages of steel formwork:

 a) Very strong and able to carry heavy load

 b) Easy to be fixed

 c) Uniform size and surface

 d) Can be used for a very long time

Disadvantages of steel formwork:

 Limited size or shape

 Excessive loss of heat

 A very smooth surface will be produced which give problems for finishing would
process.

Figure 27. Formwork/Shuttering

37 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Concrete casting in foundation:
Casting concrete in foundation is considerably crucial task in building construction
and requires great planning and accuracy, in addition to proper execution sequence.

Foundation Pre-concreting Checks:

 Check whether the formwork is fixed properly or not for example sleeves and
supports.
 Damaged materials employed for formwork or shutter should not be utilized.
 All formwork surfaces in contact with concrete need to be treated with shuttering
oil and dampen with water sometime prior to concrete placement.
 Check and approve that reinforcements are fixed as per the approved drawings.
 Examine reinforcement spacing (including vertical (for columns) and horizontal
spacing) and cover.
 Columns reinforcements must be set before foundation casting.

Figure 28. Concrete Casting.

Concrete Pouring:

 Proper walkways/platforms shall be arranged so that the supports of the

pipeline and manpower are not directly stand on reinforcement.
 Sufficient carpenters along with supervisor shall inspect the behavior of
supports below the slab during the casting.
 Extra Props shall be stocked below slab to provide additional supports in case
of any failure of supports.

38 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

  Before discharging concrete from the mixer, concrete shall be inspected and
acceptance shall be conducted like slump tests.
 Required number of concrete specimens shall be taken for compressive
strength test and other tests.
 It is recommended to discharge the concrete within 90 minutes from the
batching plant loading time.

Vibration & Compaction of concrete: Compaction is the process which expels

entrapped air from freshly placed concrete and packs the aggregate particles together so as to
increase the density of concrete. It increases significantly the ultimate strength of concrete
and enhances the bond with reinforcement. A Concrete vibrator is a tool or a machine that
vibrates the concrete to expel the water and air traps in it. Vibration helps in minimizing the
internal friction by randomizing the concrete mixture. Vibration rearranges the cement and
aggregate particles in concrete; this helps concrete in achieving the close configuration. The
vibrator is kept immersed in one place until the surrounding concrete is fully compacted. This
is usually judged by observing the formation of a circular shaped laitance around the
compacted area.

Finishing Concrete Surface: Use the power float for the smooth finish surface purpose.
The casted area or member shall be protected by placing barricade to prevent plants and
machineries damaged the concrete.

Figure 29. Smoothing the surface

 Concrete Curing:

Curing is the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture content and temperature in

freshly cast concrete for a definite period of time immediately following placement. Curing
begins immediately after finishing and placement so that the concrete can develop the desired
39 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST
durability and strength. Without an adequate supply of moisture, the cementitious materials in
concrete can’t react to form a quality product. The process serves two major purposes:

- It prevents or replenishes the loss of moisture from the concrete;

- It maintains a favorable temperature for hydration to occur for a definite period.

Figure 30. Concrete curing

Some methods of curing for foundations:

 Ponding method: Continuously wetting the concrete surface is done in the method
without allowing the concrete surface to dry. Most of the time, a kerb cast around the
slab helps to pond the relevant area. This method is very useful in dry environments
as it is not required to pour the water continuously.

Figure 31. Ponding method

 Use of sprinklers: It is a must not allowing the concrete surface getting dry due to the
evaporation. Continuous spraying the water at a constant rate and uniformly is a must to
40 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST
 fulfill the adequate curing. Sprinklers set at adequate spacing will be used for this
purpose.

Figure 32. Curing by sprinklers

As indicated in the above figure, moisture level will not reduce from the required level, and
this is a very easy method as it does not require lots of involvement like hand curing (cure
manually).

 Wet Covering: Wet curing is a method of maintaining the surface moisture level by
placing materials like hessian. Use of gunnery bae is also common.

Figure 33. Wet covering

These covering shall place on the concrete surface when it hardens enough to work to please
covers. Further, the drying of the concrete surface shall not be allowed due to any reason.

 Removal of shuttering and backfilling:

The formwork should be planned and constructed in such a manner that it is possible to
remove the different components in a particular order. Duration of times up to which the

41 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

formwork should be kept in place depends upon many factors such as type of cement used,
shape and position of the member, loads to be carried by the members and the temperature of
the air. As the column shutter does not bear any load it can be removed after 3 days. Its purpose
is only to provide shape. If the shuttering bears load it is removed after 14 days. All formwork
should be eased gradually and carefully in order to prevent the load being suddenly transferred
to concrete. The formwork should, under no circumstances be allowed to be removed until the
concrete reaches strength of at least twice the stress to which the concrete may be subjected to
at the time of removal of formwork. Where the shape of element is such that formwork has re-
entrant angles, the form work is removed as soon as possible after the concrete has set, to avoid
shrinkage cracking due to the restraint imposed. After completion of curing, the excavated soil
is filled up which is called backfilling. Ideal backfill materials are purely granular soils (clean
sand, gravel, or sand and gravel) containing less than about 5% of very fine sand, silt, or clay
particles. Normally the soil that has been excavated out is used for this purpose but if the
condition of the soil is not good then soil from a different area is used for this purpose. While
backfilling, anti-termite chemical mixed water is sprayed on the sides and bottom of foundation
trench. The filling is done in layers and then it is compacted since loosely placed backfill
material will eventually settle under its own weight and will not be capable of supporting
structures.

Figure 34. Formwork removing

Construction difficulties:

1. Segregation of concrete: Segregation in concrete is a case of particle segregation in

concrete applications, in which particulate solids tend to segregate by virtue of differences
in the size, density, shape and other properties of particles of which they are composed.

42 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Segregation in concrete is a case of particle segregation in concrete applications, in which
particulate solids tend to segregate by virtue of differences in the size, density, shape and
other properties of particles of which they are composed.

Causes of Segregation of Concrete:

- Use of high water-cement ratio in concrete. This generally happens in the case of
concrete mixed at the site by unskilled workers.
- Excessive vibration of concrete with mechanical needle vibrators makes heavier
particles settle at the bottom and lighter cement sand paste comes on top.
- When concreting is done from height in the case of underground foundations and
rafts, which causes concrete to segregate.

Figure 35. Segregation in concrete

Prevention of segregation:
- Always use concrete which is predesigned with optimum quantity of water i.e. not too
wet nor too dry.
- Make sure the concrete is properly mixed at the correct speed in a mixture.
- If ready mix concrete is used, choose the supplier in such a way that the transportation
of concrete should be done via shortest route.
- Place the concrete in its final position as soon as possible. Never pour concrete from
higher heights. Remember that the distance between the mixing and pouring place is
minimum.
- Use proper shuttering materials and make the formwork water tight. This will prevent
the leakages of cement paste from the formwork and will give smooth finished
concrete.
- Do the compaction of concrete properly while placing of concrete. There are different
methods of compaction and types of vibrators to be used to vibrate a concrete. To

43 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 overcome the effect of segregation, vibrate concrete at the particular location for the
particular time of interval. i.e. vibrate the fresh concrete for just the right time-not too
long, not too less.
- Use admixtures in concrete such as air entraining agent in the mix. Entrained air
reduces the danger of segregation.
- If any segregation is observed in concrete, remixing should be done to make it
homogeneous again.

2. Inadequate clear cover: For the structure under the ground, clear should be
maintained at least 3”. If clear cover is not maintained properly then the moisture content
around the structure will penetrate into the structure & cause corrosion to the
reinforcement and finally collapse the structure.

3. Water logging during concrete casting: Waterlogging occurs when there is too
much water in a casting zone. It may reduce the expected strength of concrete after
casting. The source of water can be rain water or leakage from nearby pipes or drains.

Figure 36. Water logging in foundation

4. Damage/ losing of construction material: If the materials which are bought for
construction kept in open place without managing properly, quantity / quality maybe
lost due to weather action such as wind, rain, storm

44 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 Chapter- 06
Working Limitations & Economical View Point

Limitations of Work:

This term paper has been written when we are in global pandemic situation. Some of group
members are inside Dhaka and others are outside. Lack of communication / distance problem
we could not visit any construction site, if it could be possible this term might be delivered
more practical information. Besides, this major problem we have also faced some other
problems such as:

- Some collected photos aren’t clear enough.

- Some website were giving wrong information.

Economical View:

Generally Deep foundations are more expensive than shallow foundations. Shallow
foundations does not necessitate as much earthwork or material as a deep foundation. It is both
cost effective and sustainable structure method in rural areas where high raised buildings are
not built and 2/3/4 store buildings are commonly created. Furthermore, low-skilled employees
are welcome to work here. The most cost-effective footing is isolated footing. Because it is not
as deep as a pile foundation and does not require as much reinforced concrete as a raft or mat
foundation. In certain cases, such as when columns are close to each other, combined footing
might be cost-effective. Isolated footing would either cross the property border or become odd.
For example. In the case of low-rise buildings when the soil's load bearing capability is poor,
combined footing is both more cost-effective and more durable than single footing. From other
study we got Providing Combined footings for closely spaced area is more cost effective.

45 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST

 References

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering
 http://www.civilquery.com/
 http://www.theconstructor.org/geotechnical/foundation-types-and-uses
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 https://www.civillead.com/combined-footing-definition-and-types/
 http://www.understandconstruction.com/types-of-foundations.html
 https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/reinforcement-detailing-isolated-
footing/8486/
 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Single-Foundation-Model_fig5_277012837
 https://www.civillead.com/combined-footing-definition-and-types/
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example/8/
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engineering/capabilities/geotechnical/
 https://constructionreviewonline.com/concrete/tips-to-concrete-curing/
 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Figure-1-Concrete-casting-and-
molding_fig1_319718728
 https://structville.com/2020/03/important-checklists-before-casting-concrete-on-
site.html
 https://www.pinterest.com/pin/457889487123031963/
 https://gharpedia.com/blog/concrete-mix-design-cmd/
 https://myroofhub.com/flat-roofs/water-ponding/
 https://www.structuralguide.com/factors-affecting-concrete-mix-design/
 https://precast.org/2010/05/the-proper-use-of-vibrators/
46 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST
 https://civiljungle.com/concrete-mix-ratio/
 https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/honeycombs-in-concrete-and-
remedies/6889/
 https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-reinforcement-2795414
 https://www.forconstructionpros.com/asphalt/article/10753350/grooving-asphalt-
for-safety-and-stability
 http://www.definecivil.com/isolated-footing
 http://www.civiconcepts.com/blog/types-of-foundation-their-uses-in-building-
construction
 http://www.theconstructor.org/geotechnical/foundation-types-and-uses
 http://www.civiljungle.com/combined-footing
 http://www.definecivil.com/isolated-footing
 https://www.civilenggnotes.com/foundation-engineering/
 https://www.slideshare.net/VivekMishra16/pile-foundation-pp
 thttps://expertcivil.com/types-of-foundation-their-uses-in-building-construction/
 https://skyciv.com/docs/tutorials/foundation-design-tutorials/types-of-foundations/
3eb46242aad791aefa762d89a01f631aa5c09f1c73c3bae55df33bcaaa769c33caeea5a
dbc48
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 https://civilengineeringnotes.com/combined-footing-types/
 https://civilengineeringmagic.com/types-of-foundations-used-in-buildings/

Thank You

47 | P a g e Dept. of Civil Engineering, AUST