Critique and Scope of Qualitative Research.

Application of qualitative research

methodology to research in Psychology; Mixed methods, Ethical considerations in
qualitative research.

CRITERIA FOR CRITIQUING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is often criticized as biased, small scale, anecdotal, and/or lacking rigor;
however, when it is carried out properly it is unbiased, in depth, valid, reliable, credible and
rigorous. In qualitative research, there needs to be a way of assessing the “extent to which claims
are supported by convincing evidence.” Although the terms reliability and validity traditionally
have been associated with quantitative research, increasingly they are being seen as important
concepts in qualitative research as well. Examining the data for reliability and validity assesses
both the objectivity and credibility of the research. Validity relates to the honesty and
genuineness of the research data, while reliability relates to the reproducibility and stability of
the data.
Trustworthiness is at the heart of a qualitative research critique and addresses five criteria: •
credibility, • dependability, • confirmability, • transferability, and • authenticity.

Credibility refers to the believability of the data and the confidence one has in the truth of the
findings. Dependability focuses on the sta- bility of the data over time and in different contexts
and conditions. Confirmability deals with objectivity, which is viewed as an agree- ment between
two or more people reviewing the findings for accuracy and meaning. Trans- ferability refers to
the ability of the findings to be transferred to other contexts (eg, do the results have applicability
to other groups?).
Authenticity focuses on the degree to which researchers faithfully and fairly described par-
ticipants’ experiences. Additional questions to the ones provided in Table 1 can be asked to
evaluate each of these concepts of trustworthi- ness. For example, when evaluating the credi-
bility of a study, one can ask the following: • Did the researcher validate the findings with the
participants? • Did the researcher keep in-depth field notes?7
Scope of Qualitative Research
Qualitative research has a broad scope in marketing research. It can be used to explore customer
attitudes and behavior, brand perception, product development, and marketing communication
strategies. Qualitative research can also be used to gain a deeper understanding of customer
needs and preferences, as well as to explore the reasons behind customer behavior.

Methodology of Qualitative Research

The methodology of qualitative research involves collecting non-numerical data through

techniques such as interviews, focus groups, and observational studies. The data collected is
often analyzed using methods such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and narrative analysis.
The methodology of qualitative research is flexible and allows for a deeper exploration of the
research question.

Importance of Qualitative Research in Marketing Research

Qualitative research is important in marketing research because it provides a deeper

understanding of customer behavior and preferences. It can provide insights into the reasons
behind customer behavior and can inform the development of marketing communication
strategies. Qualitative research can also be used to explore new ideas, develop hypotheses, and
generate insights that can inform quantitative research.

RESEARCH ETHICS

During the process of planning and designing a qualitative project, a need to consider what
ethical issues might surface during the study and plan how these issues need to be addressed. A
common misconception is that these issues only surface during data collection. They arise,
however, during several phases of the research process, and they are ever expanding in scope as
inquirers become more sensitive to the needs of participants, sites, stakeholders, and publishers
of research.
Research ethics deals primarily with the interaction between researchers and the people they
study. Professional ethics deal with additional issues such as collaborative relationships among
researchers, mentoring relationships, intellectual property, fabrication of data, and plagiarism,
among others.

Why is research ethics important in qualitative research?

The history and development of international research ethics guidance is strongly reflective of
abuses and mistakes made in the course of biomedical research. This has led some qualitative
researchers to conclude that their research is unlikely to benefit from such guidance or even that
they are not at risk of perpetrating abuses or making mistakes of real consequence for the people
they study. Conversely, biomedical and public health researchers who use qualitative approaches
without having the benefit of formal training in the social sciences may attempt to rigidly enforce
bioethics practices without considering whether they are appropriate for qualitative research.
Between these two extremes lies a balanced approach founded on established principles for
ethical research that are appropriately interpreted for and applied to the qualitative research
context. Agreed-upon standards for research ethics help ensure that as researchers we explicitly
consider the needs and concerns of the people we study, that appropriate oversight for the
conduct of research takes place, and that a basis for trust is established between researchers and
study participants.
Whenever we conduct research on people, the well-being of research participants must be our
top priority. The research question is always of secondary importance. This means that if a
choice must be made between doing harm to a participant and doing harm to the research, it is
the research that is sacrificed.

What are the fundamental research ethics principles?

Three core principles, originally articulated in The Belmont Report, form the universally
accepted basis for research ethics.
Respect for persons requires a commitment to ensuring the autonomy of research participants,
and, where autonomy may be diminished, to protect people from exploitation of their
vulnerability. The dignity of all research participants must be respected. Adherence to this
principle ensures that people will not be used simply as a means to achieve research objectives.

Beneficence requires a commitment to minimizing the risks associated with research, including
psychological and social risks, and maximizing the benefits that accrue to research participants.
Researchers must articulate specific ways this will be achieved.
Justice requires a commitment to ensuring a fair distribution of the risks and benefits resulting
from research. Those who take on the burdens of research participation should share in the
benefits of the knowledge gained. Or, to put it another way, the people who are expected to
benefit from the knowledge should be the ones who are asked to participate.

Respect for communities “confers on the researcher an obligation to respect the values and
interests of the community in research and, wherever possible, to protect the community from
harm.” We believe that this principle is, in fact, fundamental for research when community-wide
knowledge, values, and relationships are critical to research success and may in turn be affected
by the research process or its outcomes.

What is informed consent?

Informed consent is a mechanism for ensuring that people understand what it means to
participate in a particular research study so they can decide in a conscious, deliberate way
whether they want to participate. Informed consent is one of the most important tools for
ensuring respect for persons during research. But forms are really only one part of an informed
consent process. In some cases, forms may not be the best way to ensure informed consent.
There are also situations where obtaining informed consent from individual participants may not
be feasible or necessary.

In general, data collection activities that require more than casual interaction with a person
require individual informed consent from that person, regardless of whether community-level
permissions exist. Examples of such activities include in-depth interviews and focus groups. The
person should be told:
• the purpose of the research
• what is expected of a research participant, including the amount of time likely to be required
for participation
• expected risks and benefits, including psychological and social
• the fact that participation is voluntary and that one can withdraw at any time with no negative
repercussions
• how confidentiality will be protected
• the name and contact information of the local lead investigator to be contacted for questions or
problems related to the research
• the name and contact information of an appropriate person to contact with questions about
one’s rights as a research participant (usually the chair of the local ethics committee overseeing
the research)

Individual informed consent may be written or oral.

• Written consent means that a person receives a written form that describes the research and
then signs that form to document his or her consent to participate. For illiterate participants, the
form is read to them, they make some kind of mark in place of a signature, and then a witness
usually signs as testimony that the consent is authentic. Written informed consent may also be
described as documented informed consent.
• Oral consent means that a person receives all of the information needed for consent either
verbally or in writing and then verbally consents to participate. The participant does not sign a
consent form; therefore, this is often described as waiving the requirement for documentation of
informed consent.

How do we protect confidentiality?

Because qualitative research is conversational, it is important for data collectors to maintain clear
boundaries between what they are told by participants and what they tell to participants. As
qualitative researchers, we “take” a lot of information from participants and therefore can feel a
strong need to “give” similar information in return. People also enjoy talking about what they
hear and learn – and researchers are no different. It may be tempting to pass along seemingly
inconsequential information from one participant to another – for example, a funny statement or
some news that appears to be common knowledge. But some situations will require unique
strategies. The ways in which confidentiality might be breached should be carefully considered
before data collection begins and explicit strategies be put in place for protection.

Institutional approval
Much research takes place in organisations such as the police, prisons, schools and health
services. Many, if not all, of these require formal approval before the research may be carried out
in that organisation or by members of that organisation. Sometimes this authority to permit
research is the responsibility of an individual (for example, a headteacher) but, more likely, it
will be the responsibility of a committee which considers ethics.

Concern for welfare

“Welfare” in this context covers all aspects of the well-being of the person, group, or community
affected by the research, including physical, mental, emotional, spiritual, social, and economic
well-being. A very basic “welfare” concern in social research involves respect for privacy and
confidentiality. Researchers have to be especially resourceful in situations where participants
prefer to remain anonymous. One method that is sometimes employed is the random response
technique, which was origin- ally designed for interview situations in which the respondent is
asked about controversial or illegal activities. One reason for developing this technique was to
protect researchers as well as respondents from the risk that police would examine the data and
then bring the researchers into court as witnesses.

The use of deception in research

The fundamental ethical position is that deception should not be used in psychological research
procedures. There are no circumstances in which deception is acceptable if there is a reasonable
expectation that physical pain or emotional distress will be caused. However, it is recognised that
there are circumstances in which the use of deception may be justified. If the proposed research
has ‘scientific, educational or applied value’(or the prospect of it) then deception may be
considered.

Debriefing
As soon as the research is over (or essential stages are complete), debriefing should be carried
out. There is a mutual discussion between researcher and participant to fully inform the
participant about matters such as the nature of the result, the results of the research and the
conclusions of the research. The researcher should try to correct the misconceptions of the
participant that may have developed about any aspect of research. Of course, there may be good
scientific or humane reasons for withholding some information – or delaying the main debriefing
until a suitable time.

Conclusions
These ethical principles provide an invaluable guide for the conduct of social research. Their
implementation can be challenging, however, especially when acquiring informed consent might
lead participants to behave less naturally than they otherwise would. Balancing risks and
potential benefits can also be problematic. However, it is incumbent on re- searchers to be
vigilant in protecting the rights of re- search participants, and to maximize the benefits and
minimize the harm that is created by their research.