Construction and Building Materials 167 (2018) 936–941

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Study of the implementation of waste wood, plastics and polystyrenes

for various applications in the building industry
Marius Chanhoun a, Semiyou Padonou a, Edmond Codjo Adjovi a,b,⇑, Emmanuel Olodo a, Valerie Doko a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Polytechnic School of Abomey-Calavi, The University of Abomey-Calavi, Abomey-Calavi 01-2009, Benin
b
Department of Civil Engineering, School of Building Science and Technology and Road, The National University of Sciences, Technologies, Engineering and Mathematics, Abomey
243, Benin

h i g h l i g h t s

A process for recycling waste wood, polystyrene and plastics is proposed.

The process is based on optimal formulations of polymers and composites.

The values of the properties studied show that the polymers are compatible with sawdust.

Composites can be used to produce panels and wood boards.

Wood boards and panels can be used for building wood structures.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This work enrolls in the context of sustainable development and protection of the immediate environ-
Received 25 July 2017 ment. It concerns a recycling study of wood waste, polystyrene waste and plastic waste. The objective
Received in revised form 12 January 2018 of this study is to upgrade wood waste and plastic wastes (low and high density polyethylene) and
Accepted 14 February 2018
expanded polystyrene in waste disposal in the developing countries of Africa. Two types of wood particle
composites based on plastic and polystyrene polymers have been developed. The physical properties
(density, water absorption and volumetric swelling) and mechanical properties (modulus of elasticity
Keywords:
and modulus of rupture) required for their implementation are determined. The quantities found show
Solid waste recycling
Environment
that these composites can be used to produce self-adhesive sandwich panels or boards which will serve
Plastic as a door core, false ceilings, formwork sandwich boards, interior and exterior flooring and furnishing
Polystyrene materials.
Wood particles Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Polymer

1. Introduction and multiple consequences range from the environment to human

In Benin, the daily use of plastic materials has reached a worry-
ing level (Table 1). Indeed, according to Dessau [1], Benin landfills
have welcomed more than 12,000 tons of plastic waste, more than
half of which consists of packaging bags, 86% of which are thrown
into the street after use. 5.50% are burned, 5.50% is incinerated and
the remaining 3% is used for other purposes. The general observa-
tion is that plastics are an integral part of Benin’s everyday life.
Several studies have shown that plastic bags, whose life span varies
between 100 and 400 years depending on the conditions, have a
significant influence on the living environment and their enormous
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Civil Engineering, Polytechnic School
of Abomey-Calavi, The University of Abomey-Calavi, Abomey-Calavi 01-2009,
Benin.
E-mail address: adjed2012@gmail.com (E.C. Adjovi).
health.
According to the Ministry of Animal Resources of Burkina Faso,
about 30% of the mortality of livestock is attributed to the plastic
bags following their ingestion by the animals. In Togo, it was found
that high chickens and sheep die from stomach occlusion after con-
fusing bits of plastic with worms of leaves and leaves [2].
In addition, plastic bags accumulate in the soil to form succes-
sive layers. So the soil becomes unstable and the result is land-
slides, as was the case in many Third World countries where
deaths were reported. It should be noted, among other things, that
plastic bags are also partly responsible for water scarcity. The
explanation allows us to affirm that the drying out of wells and
boreholes is also the consequence of poor management of the user
plastics which, buried under the sand, prevent the water from infil-
trating into the ground to reach the aquifers Causing flooding, with
the clogging of runoff pipes. And in Cotonou (Benin), the economic

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.080
0950-0618/Published by Elsevier Ltd.
 M. Chanhoun et al. / Construction and Building Materials 167 (2018) 936–941 937

Table 1
Quantity of different plastic waste in the cities of Benin.

N° Plastic type Tons of plastic waste in the cities of Benin Percentage

Cotonou Porto-Novo Parakou Other cities Total
1 HDPE 2314.67 84.47 118.17 544.27 3061.58 36.30
2 LDPE 191.25 534.00 244.79 3440.85 4410.89 52.29
3 PP 32.09 28.16 – 181.42 241.67 2.87
4 PET 103.49 12.20 126.61 78.64 320.94 3.8
5 PVC – 7.21 8.44 46.44 62.09 0.74
6 PS – 18.93 16.88 121.98 157.79 1.87
7 PUR 81.87 12.01 8.44 77.44 179.72 2.13
8 Total 2723.37 696.98 523.34 4491.00 8434.69 100

Source: Etude Eco Plan-Tractebel [3].

capital, this situation increases the risks, due to the occupation of Table 2
the natural passages of the water by the houses. Quantity of timber and sawdust produced in Benin (West Africa) in 2013, 2014 and
2015.
In Table 1, (HDPE) refers to: High Density Polyethylene, (LDPE):
Low Density Polyethylene, (PP): Polypropylene, (PET): Polyethy- Year Volume of timber Quantity of sawdust
lene Terephthalate, (PVC): Polyvinyl Chloride, (PS): Polystyrene, (m3) (tone)

(PUR): Polyurethane. 2013 8517.200 2981.02

In addition, there are significant quantities of wood residues
(Fig. 1, Table 2) resulting from the different uses of sawmills wood
in Benin. These residues are either dumped in the wild or burnt,
thus contributing to pollution of nature and increasing greenhouse
gases. We must not lose sight of also the expanded polystyrenes of
packing which become bulky after unpacking the goods household
appliances and motorcycles.
Municipalities and companies involved in the management of
developing countries are currently seeking ecological ways and
means to exploit non-biodegradable waste because they can only
dispose of it by burial and incineration. This practice has a negative
impact on the ambient air and soil.
It is in order to change this practice, that we propose in this
work an approach to transform plastic waste, expanded polystyr-
ene and sawdust collected in composite materials for use in woo-
den structures.
Composites are solid materials obtained by combining rein-
forcement and/or without a filler and a matrix of complementary
characteristics. These two materials are linked together by a con-
tact zone which constitutes the interface. The quality of the inter-
face affects the mechanical properties of composites [5,6]. The
reinforcement forms the skeleton, or else the framework of the
composite. Its function is to bear the bulk of the mechanical stress
applied to the composite material, whereas the matrix ensures the
bonding of the reinforcements to each other, their protection of the
external environment and the distribution of the mechanical load
2014 13260.300 4641.10
2015 13033.500 4561.72
Source: DGFRN/ONAB [4].
within the material [6,7]. The combinations giving rise to the best
properties (rigidity, mechanical strength, lightness, corrosion resis-
tance, etc.) are the ones that attract attention. Clyne and Hull men-
tioned in their work [8] that composites can also be classified
according to the nature of their matrix, into five main families.
Ceramic matrix composites (CMC), metal matrix composites
(MMC), intermetallic matrix composites, carbon-carbon compos-
ites (CCC), polymer matrix composites (PMC). The reinforcements
used in general are fibers such as glass, carbon or aramid fibers
and natural fibers.
The present work relates to polymer matrix composites with
reinforcements such as wood particles. Wood particles, unlike
wood fibers, have no privileged dimensions. According to EN 309
[9], lignocellulosic particle boards are a combination of lignocellu-
losic materials and an adhesive matrix in which the components
retain their integrity. The matrix may be constituted by natural
resins, artificial resins. Maloney [10] mentioned that their develop-
ment is carried out in a process whereby any gap between the par-
ticles is filled by the binder; others can be added during
manufacture to improve certain characteristics of the panel. It
has also subdivided particleboard into two main categories accord-
ing to the pressing method. We distinguish:

- Panels pressed flat when the pressure is exerted perpendicu-

larly to the faces as in conventional multi-plate heating presses;
- Extruded panels when the direction of application of the pres-
sure is parallel to the faces.

Generally, the particle board is produced in four main stages:

1. The fractionation which is the phase of preparation of the

woody material into particles of a certain granulation;
2. Impregnation consists of mixing the fibrous material with the
binder material. It is carried out by spraying the resin into a col-
loidal suspension in water, in a mixer of the solid. The distribu-
tion of the resin is a determining factor for the quality of the
panels. When the matrix is thermoplastic, the mixture can be
made by incorporating the fibers into the melt-compounding
Fig. 1. Sawdust dump at the Saclo/Bohicon wood processing plant in Benin (West polymer;
Africa).
938 M. Chanhoun et al. / Construction and Building Materials 167 (2018) 936–941
3. Forming, which is also called molding, consists in introducing
into a mold the amorphous or powdered mixture which hard-
ens or consolidates by adopting the shape of the interior of
the mold;
4. Finishing of particle boards in relation to operations aimed at
dimensional stability of panels, formatting by sawing, sanding,
post-forming treatments such as painting, coating of varnish,
protection products against aggressions Biological and
veneering.
The binder used in industries is a thermosetting adhesive poly-
mer such as urea formaldehyde (UF), melamine urea formaldehyde
(MUF), phenol formaldehyde (PF), methylene diphenyl diiso-
cyanate (PMDI), the choice of which depends mainly on the type
to which the panels are intended. Although these adhesives con-
tribute to the mechanical and biological performance of particle-
board, the use of formaldehyde in resins causes significant
human and environmental health problems due to its volatility.
The work of Kim [11] and Collins [12] shows that formaldehyde
used in resin synthesis is a chemical belonging to the family of
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) capable of passing into the gas-
eous state at room temperature. The occupants of spaces where
formaldehyde-based panels are used have a more or less serious
health risk due to emissions in their indoor environment. Apart
from these conventional binders which have been found to pro-
duce nasal carcinomas, there are the condensed tannin-based
resins which are so-called unconventional and less toxic adhesives.
They have been used for nearly thirty years in the wood industry
[13,14].
In the manufacture of composites, synthetic polymers based on
plastic materials are also used increasingly in an increasing num-
ber of applications. There are a wide variety of synthetic polymers
and there are many ways to combine them, with each plastic meet-
ing specific needs in terms of physical, mechanical or even electri-
cal characteristics. Two main categories of polymers are used for
the production of plastic wood composites: thermosetting cross-
linked polymeric materials (epoxy, polyurethane, phenol glues)
and thermoplastics which, unlike the foregoing, have the ability
to be molded, shaped once Their temperature sufficiently high
(Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene (PE), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC),
etc.) [15]. These polymers have crosslinked structures forming a
3D network and are characterized by covalent bonds which ensure
bridging between the chains. Each of these polymer groups has a
set of specific properties and manufacturing processes. However,
the incorporation of fillers (or reinforcements) can modify their
physical and mechanical characteristics [16].
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Process for obtaining plastic wood and polystyrene wood boards
or panels
Plastic wood and polystyrene wood boards or panels are made
using sawdust, plastics and expanded polystyrene waste. The
stages of this implementation are as follows:
- Formulation of polymers and composites plastic wood and
polystyrene wood;
- mixing by blending wood particles with polymers;
- formatting of formulated composites.
2.1.1. Formulation of polymers and plastic wood and polystyrene wood
composites
Sawdust used in the manufacture of wood composite is those of
Diospyros crassiflora or Diospyros mespiliformis of the Ebenaceae
family. It was collected in sawmills in Cotonou (Benin) and
screened. In Fig. 2, it is shown the granular characteristics of col-
lected wood waste. Thus, the granular compositions and dimen-
sions of the following wood particles (Cg/d) were retained:
rejection of the sieves with a diameter of 0.630 mm (Cg1/0.630 <
d < 1.25); 0.315 mm (Cg2/0.315 < d < 0.630); 0.16 mm (Cg3/0.16
< d < 0.315) and mixtures of these rejections (Cg4gross and
Cg4fine/0.16 < d < 1.25) according to the proportions shown in
Table 3. The curves of granular composition of the mixture gross
and mixture fine shown in Fig. 3.
The basic raw materials used in obtaining the polymers are
expanded polystyrene and plastic bag made of low density poly-
ethylene (LDPE). Particularly, we have been interested in white
plastic bags because of their high use throughout Benin, their envi-
ronmental cumbersomeness and especially their label of non-
biodegradable material.
The polymer of the polystyrene wood composite is obtained by
dissolving the expanded polystyrene in solvent (hydrocarbon). The
weight ratio of the solvent to polystyrene was 1:1.22.
While the composite itself is produced by a mixture of this
polymer with the sawdust. The weight ratio of the polystyrene-
based polymer to sawdust is 1:1.5.
The polymer of the plastic wood composite is obtained by melt-
ing the plastics up to a temperature of 282.5 °C. Its use with saw-
dust to produce a homogeneous mixture requires its cooling at a
temperature of between 170 and 185 °C.
The dosage (D) by weight making it possible to have a homoge-
neous mixture is obtained for a weight ratio of the plastic-based
polymer to sawdust equal to 3.
2.1.2. Formatting of the plastic wood and polystyrene wood
composites
The manufacturing process of plastic wood and polystyrene
wood boards [17,18] consists of formatting each composite in
molds of the desired dimensions and solidifying them by exposure
to the open air at ambient temperature. The formatting of the plas-
tic wood composite is made simply by molding, given that in the
hot state, its consistency is fluid. While the formatting of the poly-
styrene and sawdust-based polymer blended mixture is done by
cold pressing, in order to obtain a desired final thickness of the
boards or panels corresponding to maximum compaction.
2.2. Study of the physical properties and mechanical behavior of
boards or panels developed
As the use of materials is essentially related to their mechanical
behavior, mechanical behavior tests on the composites according
to ASTM D 1037-89 [19] have been carried out. The test consists
of making samples of dimensions 11 mm, 76 mm wide and 314
Fig. 2. Granular curve of the collected sawdust.
 M. Chanhoun et al. / Construction and Building Materials 167 (2018) 936–941 939

Table 3 tion. The apparent dry density u is calculated as the ratio of mass
Proportions used for the formation of mixtures of sieve rejections. by volume, while the compaction rate of the wood Polystyrene
Undersize Gross mixture Fine mixture composite is defined by C (%) = (e0  e)  100/e0, with e0: initial
(Cg4gross) (Cg4fine) thickness before pressing, e: final thickness after pressing.
Refusal on sieve 0.630 50% 20% On the basis of the law of mechanical behavior of composites,
mm rigidities and rupture loads were determined and introduced in
Refusal on sieve 0.315 30% 30% expressions (1) and (2) to calculate the modulus of elasticity and
mm
Refusal on size 0.160 mm 20% 50%
the modulus of rupture:
3
kd
MOE ¼ 3
ð1Þ
4bh

3dF R
MOR ¼ 2
ð2Þ
2bh
With FR: breaking load, k: stiffness, d: distance between supports, b:
Sample width, h: Sample thickness.

4. Results and discussion

Through the study, polymers and composites based on plastic

Fig. 3. Granular curves of gross and fine particles.
mm long, to be stored for at least 40 h before testing, in a room in a
controlled environment at 23° ± 2° C and a relative humidity of 50
± 5%, then subjected to three-point bending (the distance between
the supports is equal to 264 mm). Finally, the strength-
displacement diagram is constructed, and the rigidity and the rup-
ture force are deduced to determine the modulus of elasticity
(MOE) and the modulus of rupture (MOR).
Studies on some physical properties have been done. These are
the tests of dimensional stability (TS), water absorption (WA),
apparent dry density (u) and compactness (C). Water absorption
and dimensional stability are in accordance with ASTM D 1037.
These tests consist of submerging the samples in water at 20° C
± 1° C for 24 h.
and polystyrene waste are formulated and implemented. The
weight ratios used in the formulation of polymers and composites
are optimized values. Indeed, during the manufacture of the glue, it
is found that it is the value 1.22 which produces a viscous glue or
plastic consistency. Any value inferior or superior to 1.22 results in
insufficient or overabundant solvent. The weight ratio of polymer
to sawdust equal to 1.5 for the polystyrene wood polymer and
3.0 for the plastic wood polymer are justified by the fact that any
value inferior or inferior these values causes to the disintegration
or the significant shrinkage of the board or panel.
The values of thickness swelling (TS), water absorption (WA),
apparent dry density (u), compaction rate (C), modulus of elasticity
(MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) are shown in Table 4.
The flexural behavior of the different types of composite studied
is presented in Fig. 4. This figure showed that the tested board
specimens do not have a flow threshold, but their ruptures have
ductile and plastic behavior.
600
500
400
P_WPsC_Cg3_D1.5
Strenght(N)

P_WPsC_Cg2_D1.5
3. Theory/calculation 300
P_WPsC_Cg1_D1.5
P_WPsC_Cg4gross_D1.5
200
In order to identify each sample, we have designated them by P_WPsC_Cg4fine_D1.5
symbols: P_WPC_Cg_D (P_WPsC_Cg_D), where P designates - 100 P_WPC_Cg1_D3.0
board or panel, WPC (WPsC) – Wood plastic composite (wood
polystyrene composite), Cg –granular composition, D - dosage. 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Thickness swelling is calculated by the expression TS (%) =
Displacement (mm)
thickness increase  100/initial thickness, and water absorption
by the formula WA (%) = mass increase  100/initial mass of the Fig. 4. Strength-Displacement variation curve of a sample of each type Wood
composite; all increase being due to moisture content augmenta- Polystyrene Composite WPsC and a sample of WPC.

Table 4
Physical and mechanical characteristics of wood composites plastics and polystyrene.

Sample designation Diameter of the Compaction Absorption Density Thickness MOE MOR
particles (mm) rate (%) (%) (g/cm3) swelling (MPa) (MPa)
(%)
P-WPsC-Cg1-D1.5 0.630 < d < 1.25 17 19.07 0.667 9.09 2830.678 ± 68.170 21.244 ± 0.766
P-WPsC-Cg2-D1.5 0.315 < d < 0.630 27 16.33 0.721 2.86 2325.752 ± 34.701 20.096 ± 0.670
P-WPsC-Cg3-D1.5 0.16 < d < 0.315 30 11.39 0.770 2.00 2057.821 ± 28.295 14.067 ± 0.670
P-WPsC-Cg4gross-D1.5 0.16 < d < 1.25 21 18.91 0.757 0 4604.893 ± 39.805 16.507 ± 1.052
P-WPsC-Cg4fine-D1.5 0.16 < d < 1.25 28 19.14 0.720 5.00 2147.222 ± 22.151 11.914 ± 0.957
P-WPC-Cg1-D3.0 0.630 < d < 1.25 – 16.02 0.981 0 694.883 ± 43.160 5.732 ± 0.695
940 M. Chanhoun et al. / Construction and Building Materials 167 (2018) 936–941

The MOE and MOR ranged respectively from 694.88 to 4604.89 improve when the percentage of the fine particles is small. What JL.
MPa and 5.73 to 21.24 MPa. Julson [22] also showed in his work.
Based on ANSI [20], the values of the modulus of elasticity and Comparison of the results of the P-WPC-Cg1-D3.0 and P-WPsC-
modulus of rupture are respectively between 550 and 2750 MPa Cg1-D1.5 products (Table 4), whose granular composition of saw-
and 3.0 to 23.5 MPa for general uses and furniture manufacturing. dust is the same, shows that the nature of the binder has an influ-
Also, the MOR requirement according to EN 312-2 [21] is 11.5 N/ ence on the density, water absorption, thickness swelling, modulus
mm2 for general-purpose boards. According to ANSI, all the com- of elasticity and modulus of rupture. The use of the polystyrene
posite boards made in this study satisfies the modulus of elasticity polymer gives a lighter product and is very resistant mechanically.
and modulus of rupture requirements for general uses and furni- On the other hand, when the plastic polymer is combined with the
ture manufacturing application. But when referring to EN 312-2, wood particles, there is a very low mechanical strength (Figs. 5, 6).
the particleboards produced with polystyrene-based polymer had
the required level of MOR.
Based on standards, particle board should have a maximum TS
value of 8% (for 2 h immersion) for general uses. The TS of the stud-
ied specimens ranged from 0 to 9% (for 24 h immersion). According
to the test results, panels satisfied the TS requirement for general
uses.
The compaction rates (C) of the various wood polystyrene com-
posites values obtained ranged from 17 to 30% (Table 4). These val-
ues show that the compaction rates (C) of the various wood
polystyrene composites is a function of the modulus of fineness
(granular composition) of the particles:

- C(Cg1) < C(Cg2) < C(Cg3)

- C(Cg4gross) < C(Cg4fine)

With regard to the granular composition of the sawdust used, it

can be deduced that the panels or boards which contain a high
level of fine particles have a better compaction rate. This can be
explained by the fact that the fine particles to occupy the voids
filled with glue and make it rise towards the outer faces of the
composites during pressing. This promotes the coating of wood
particles. As a result, the density and permeability of the panels
are improved; water absorption and swelling are minimized. On
the other hand, the analysis of the histograms of the Figs. 5 and
6 show that the modulus of elasticity and the modulus of rupture Fig. 7. Furniture in WPsC.

5000 4604.893

4000
MOE (MPa)

2830.678
3000
2325.752 2147.222
2057.821
2000

1000 694.883

Types of composite

Fig. 5. Histogram of the variation of wood polystyrene composites of the modulus

of elasticity according to the granular composition.

25 20.096 21.244
MOR (MPa)

20 16.507
14.067
15 11.914
10 5.732
5
0

Types of composite

Fig. 6. Histogram of the variation of wood polystyrene composites of modulus of

rupture. Fig. 8. Door in WPC.
 M. Chanhoun et al. / Construction and Building Materials 167 (2018) 936–941
Fig. 9. Self-adhesive sandwich boards in WPsC and WPC.
Fig. 10. Cobbles in WPC.
Fig. 11. Floors in WPC.
By joining the Research and Development approach, and in
order to demonstrate the applicability of the composites devel-
oped, the panels manufactured have been machined an trans-
formed into various products presented in Figs. 7–11.
5. Conclusion
In this paper, we have examined the possibility of upgrading
plastic waste, expanded polystyrene and wood, that pollute the
941
environment of cities in Africa in general and those of Benin in
particular.
This Possibility is based on a process of transformation wood
sawdust, plastic waste and expanded polystyrene packing into
polymers then composites polystyrene wood and plastic wood.
To ensure compatibility of polymers with wood sawdust, their for-
mulations have been optimized as well as the polymeric ratio on
sawdust. Composites are manufactured and tested. The values of
the mechanical and physical characteristics are consistent with
those of the current standards for wood particle board.
This study showed that, for the same polymer, the physical and
mechanical characteristics are different depending on the granular
composition (modulus of finesse) of the wood particles. In addi-
tion, the expanded polystyrene polymer provides high mechanical
performance composites than those obtained with the plastic-
based polymer.
The physical and mechanical characterization tests and the
applications realized show that polymers based on expanded poly-
styrene and plastic waste are compatible with the wood particles.
Composites can be used to produce self-adhesive sandwich panels
and boards for use in furniture, carpentry and building.
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