BIO20 Name: _______________________

Blood & Immunity

Directions: Use your notes and the textbook (pages 348 - 375) to
complete the following questions.

1. Name the two major components of blood. (p. 350)

Plasma and formed elements such as platelets and blood cells.

2. Identify the 3 types of plasma proteins and each of their

functions. (p. 350)
Albumins-controls osmotic balance
Globulins- makes antibodies to protect the body
Fibrinogen- blood clotting

3. What is the function of hemoglobin? (p. 350) Explain the mechanism by which hemoglobin can do its
job. (p. 351)
The function of hemoglobin is to carry oxygen, it does this by binding with oxygens molecules. There are four
components of hemoglobin, heme, iron-containing pigment, and globin protein structure, four heme groups that
all contain an iron atom attach themselves to the protein structure and bind with the oxygen molecule.

4. What is another name for red blood cell? ___Erythrocyte__________________ What are red blood
cells’ main function?
Their main function is transporting oxygen to the cells of the body.

5. How long does a red blood cell last in the body? (p. 351)
Its life span is 120-130 days.

6. Red blood cells are enucleated. What does ‘enucleated’ mean? (p. 351)
It means there is no nucleus making it unable to perform cellular functions.

7. What is anemia? What causes it? What effects can it have on the body? (p. 351)
Anemia is when you lack the ability to carry enough oxygen to your cells. It can be caused by insufficient
production of RBC or numbers of RBC, decreased amount of hemoglobin in your RBC which has iron that
helps carry the oxygen by binding to it, or abnormally hemoglobin such as sickle cell anemia. It can make you
feel tired and weak cold hands and feet, dizziness irregular heartbeats.

8. List at least 2 factors that cause red blood cells to be produced.

Decreased oxygen levels in the blood
Decreased blood volume, from cut or major injury.
 9. What is the role of platelets? (p. 352)
The role of platelets is blood clotting at injury sites.
10. While doing a dissection in Biology 20 class, Cale accidentally cuts himself. Outline the process (step
by step) that is involved in Cale forming a blood clot to stop the bleeding using proper terminology. (see
slides/notes and text) (5 marks)
The first step is the contraction of the muscles of blood vessels walls to reduce blood loss through
vasoconstriction,
Next is the formation of a platelet plug. As the platelets go through the vessel they will snag on the edge of the
tear and become sticky and adhere to it forming a temporary plug.
Next is the formation of a blood clot through the coagulation of blood proteins and platelets
-the platelets sticking to the injury site rupture and release thromboplastin and a chemical reaction occurs in
the plasma
-the result is prothrombin
-which then produces thrombin which activates fibrinogen
-fibrinogen creates fibrin by splicing two of its amino acids
-Fibrin is a fine thread-like protein that makes a mesh covering used to hold a clot that allows WBC in but
keeps microbes out.
Fibrin forms the end result of the clot.

11. If Cale cut himself with a sharp new scalpel, what would happen to the blood clot that was formed, as
opposed to getting cut with an old dull scalpel?
Getting cut with a sharp scalpel would bleed more than the dull scissors yet hurt less, this will also cause the
clot to take longer to form because the cut is sharp and clean with no edges for the platelets to snag on to
initiate the clotting process because the vessels were cut so cleanly. The dull scalpel would be faster to heal
but hurt more because more blood vessels would be damaged due to the rough edge but this would make it
easier for the platelets to snag and start the clotting process because the edge is rough enough to snag the
platelet quickly.

12. Differentiate between a thrombus and embolus. (p. 353)

A thrombus is a blood clot that blocks off a blood vessel, which cuts off the supply of oxygen and nutrients, this
can cause a stroke if it is a cerebral thrombus or a heart attack if it is a coronary thrombus. An embolus is a
dislodged blood clot that travels through the body and can get stuck in a vital organ and cause life-threatening
situations.

13. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of artificial blood. (p. 353)
The advantages are that it will not carry HIV or hepatitis, doesn’t have to be a blood type match, can be stored
frozen over long periods of time, carries oxygen, can serve as supplements for patients with Cooley’s anemia
or aplastic anemia which require many blood transfusions. The disadvantages are that it cannot help with
blood clotting or immunity.
14. How do white blood cells differ from red blood cells? State two major functions of leukocytes. (p. 357)
WBC are responsible for immunity whereas RBCs are responsible for transporting oxygen.
The first major function is defending the body against foreign pathogens and destroying them via the immune
system. It performs phagocytosis and then it makes antibodies.
 15. Define and explain antigen, antibody, agglutination. (p. 353-354)
An antigen is a marker on the surface of every cell distinguishing it.
An antibody is a protein molecule usually Y-shaped that protects the body from invaders.
Agglutination is the clumping up of blood cells caused by antigens and antibodies and getting the wrong
blood type.

16. Why is type O blood considered the Universal Donor? Why is type AB blood the Universal Recipient?
(p. 354)
Blood O is the universal donor because it has no antigens or markers on its surface telling the other
blood cells that it is harmful and to destroy it so anyone can receive this blood. AB is the universal
recipient because it has no antibodies and has both A and B antigens making it able to receive from
any blood type.

17. How does Rh+ blood differ from Rh- blood? (p. 355 and handout)
Rh+ blood doesn’t make antibodies against itself and approximately 85% of Canadians are Rh+. Rh- can only
receive Rh- blood as the immune system treats the Rh- as a foreign pathogen and tries to destroy it.

18. Why does a fetus with erythroblastosis fetalis develop anemia? Or possibly die? (p.355)
Because the mother’s antibodies cross the placenta and will attach themselves onto the antigens of the baby’s
RBC causing them to be destroyed, however, if they didn’t completely be destroyed the hemoglobin could be
damaged or there wouldn’t be enough RBC to carry the oxygen resulting in suffocation as the fetus wasn’t
getting enough oxygen.

19. Complete the table on Blood Types.

Blood Type Antigen Antibody Can Donate To... Can Receive From?

A A B A AB A, O

B B A B, AB O, B

AB A+B None AB ALL (universal

recipient)

O None A+B ALL (universal O

donor)

20. How is being Rh- a risk factor in pregnancy. Be DETAILED.

A mom with Rh- blood is at risk in her second pregnancy if her first child is Rh+ because during the first birth
the RBC will mingle with the mom’s causing the mom’s immune system to make antibodies against the Rh
antigen. This affects the second pregnancy if that baby is Rh+ the mom’s antibodies made from the mingling of
blood from the last Rh+ birth will cross the placenta and attack the baby’s RBC. A mom can be given rhogam
to help prevent this after a Rh+ birth but if not erythroblastosis fetalis can occur which is also know as a blue
baby. This is when the mom’s antibodies attack the baby’s antigens and blood will agglutinate which is the
blood clumping and destroy the RBC of the fetus and cause anemia as oxygen cannot circulate so the baby
can suffocate in utero causing stillborn or spontaneous abortion.
 21. Use figure 7 on page 356 to answer the following questions.

a. Cancer of the white blood cells is called

Leukemia. Like other cancers, leukemia is associated with rapid uncontrolled cell production.
Examine the test tubes shown in figure 7 and predict which subject might be suffering from
leukemia AND GIVE YOUR REASONS.
Test tube B is the subject with leukemia as they have the highest WBC count and with leukemia
it causes an abnormal amount of leukocytes to be produced but they don’t act in the proper way
causing cancer.

b. Most physicians would not diagnose leukemia on the basis of one test. What other conditions
might explain the appearance of the test tube you chose in ‘a’? GIVE YOUR REASONS.
The subject may be sick with another disease, bacterial or viral infection, as they have an
incredibly high WBC.

c. Lead poisoning can cause bone marrow destruction. Which of the subjects might have lead
poisoning? GIVE YOUR REASONS.
Subject C may have lead poisoning as both red blood cells and white blood cells are made in the
bone marrow so having drastically less RBC and WBC than the rest of the subjects could indicate that there is
something wrong with cell production due to poisoning.

d. Which subject lives at a high altitude? GIVE YOUR REASONS.

Subject A lives at a high altitude due to the higher than average amount of RBC. Because you take in
less oxygen with every breath you will have less oxygen in your blood making your body produce new and
more RBC to make it easier for your body to get the oxygen and nutrient supply it needs.

22. How does a lysosome protect the body against invading microbes? (p. 357)
Tears, perspiration and saliva have organelles with acids enzymes and chemicals to kill the invaders, called
lysosomes. This helps kill the invaders before they get into the body. Another way is when the neutrophil
releases the lysosomal enzyme that will engulf the microbe and destroy it that way too.
 23. Outline protective mechanisms provided by the respiratory tract. (p. 357)
The respiratory tract has mucous membranes that trap foreign materials in our noses and we will sneeze,
cough to remove matter. We have hair-like tentacles from cells called cilia to trap and remove particles.

24. Explain, in detail, the body’s nonspecific defence mechanism of phagocytosis. (p. 357)
The non-specific response relies on phagocytosis for the ingestion and destroying of the invading microbes.
Neutrophils and macrophages do this. The foreign matter will penetrate the skin so the monocytes and
neutrophils will travel in the blood to the infection site. Monocytes will then form macrophages where they will
then extend long protrusions called pseudopods that will attach themselves to the surface of the invading
microbe then engulf it and destroy it.

25. Explain why swelling and pus at the site of an injury are signs that the immune system is functioning.
(p. 357)
Swelling is the extra WBC rushing to the site and removing bacteria whereas the pus is the dead WBC and
microbe that have been destroyed meaning that your immune system won.

26. Complete the table on the Lymphocytes Involved in the Specific Immune Response.
Cell Function

Helper T Cells Identifies invader by antigen and releases interferons to call other WBC to site
and lymphokines which activate B-cells to make antibodies.

B Cells Makes antibodies in presence of foreign antigens as a result of a chemical

signal from the helper T-cells.

Killer T Cells Recognizes abnormal body cells and destroys them by secreting enzymes that
break down the membrane of the pathogen. This also kills the killer T-cell.

Suppressor T Cells Signals the immune system to shut down after the other cells have
successfully killed an invader. They regulate the balance of antibodies and
immune responses to contain the invaders and decrease B and T-cells as
necessary.

Memory B Cells These cells secrete chemicals for the macrophages to help them identify the
antigen faster if the pathogen ever re-enters the body. They hold an imprint of
the antigen for immediate recognition.

27. Explain why the second time an organism invades the body, the person is not likely to get seriously ill.
Due to the memory T-cells and B-cells, the macrophages can not only recognize the antigen but also have
antibodies ready to engulf the microbe immediately because they have the response team lined up from
memory of the last encounter.

28. Briefly outline the steps of the specific immune response. (p.364-365) (5 marks)
The helper T-cell reads the antigen and releases lymphokine that causes the B-cells to make the antibodies for
that antigen, next the helper T-cell activates the killer T-cell which punctures the membrane of the pathogen
and destroys it and itself with it. After the pathogen has been destroyed the suppressor T-cells come in and
stops the immune response, the memory T-cells are next and they make sure the body can immediately
identify the antigen of the pathogen and have the antibodies ready to destroy it.

29. How do viruses gain access into the cell? (p. 360)
They enter through receptor sites by injecting their hereditary material into the cell but will usually leave their
outer protein in the site and so different viruses attach to different types of cells.

30. Explain why T cells have difficulty identifying antigens from HIV.
Because the HIV virus attaches its material into the receptor sites of the T-cell and is engulfed by the T-cell so
even though the cells know something is wrong it cannot tell what because the virus is in the cell because the
protein coat hides the virus inside the sentry cells responsible for identifying viruses.

31. What are allergies? (p. 367)

They are the hypersensitivity to environmental antigens that would otherwise be harmless to humans.

32. Explain how an allergic reaction can be life-threatening.

When cells believe they are in danger they release a chemical messenger called bradykinin which then starts
the release of histamine which is produced by Basophil and changes capillaries permeability making the area
around it redden and then the WBC go searching for that invader which they won’t find and that changes the
osmotic pressure. The proteins in the extracellular fluid create a force that opposes the osmotic force in the
capillaries and less water is absorbs making tissues swell.

33. Why is epinephrine administered as a treatment for a severe allergic reaction? (p. 368)
Because it stops the allergic reaction long enough for the person to receive professional help.

34. What causes autoimmune diseases? Why does the likelihood of autoimmune disease increase with
age? (p. 368)
Autoimmune diseases are caused by the body not being able to distinguish its own cells from harmful invaders
so the body attacks its own cells. It increases with age because the number of suppressor T-cells decreases
with age leaving the body more vulnerable to an autoimmune disease like rheumatoid arthritis.
BE SURE TO WATCH THE MAGIC DOCTOR VIDEO (IF YOU HAVEN’T ALREADY. (It’s in the Immunity Notes.)