Blood Composition and Functions

Course Instructor
Dr. Anoop Kumar Gupta
Department of Chemical and
Biochemical Engineering
Email: anoopg@iitp.ac.in

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA

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 The Blood: key facts

 Body circulatory system (heart, blood vessel, blood).

 Blood is main circulating fluid in human body.
 Study of blood is known as Hematology.
 Key roles: - Transportation of oxygen, CO2, nutrients, hormones, heat, metabolic
wastes.
- Helps in regulating pH and temperature, water content.
 Blood is a connected fluid tissue.
 ~8% of adult body weight is due to blood.
 Females have 4-5 L while males have 5-6 L of blood in their body.
 pH = 7.35-7.45 (slightly basic)
 Temperature = 38 oC (100.4 oF)
 ~5 times more viscous than water. This viscosity (resistance to flow) is vital to the
function of blood because if blood flows too easily or with too much resistance, it
can strain the heart and lead to severe cardiovascular problems.
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Blood vessels (artery, vein, capillary)

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Blood composition

 Hematocrit: volume fraction of RBC in

blood.

 If a portion of blood is centrifuged and

allowed to settle for a sufficient long time,
RBC settle at the bottom of the test tube
while plasma remains on top.

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 Blood composition (contd.)

Blood is composed of:

1. Plasma (~ 55% v/v)

2. Formed Elements (~ 45% v/v)

• Red blood cells (RBC)

• White blood cells (WBC)
• Platelets

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 Plasma
 ~ 55% v/v of blood, light yellowish liquid.
 Made up of water, ions, proteins, nutrients, wastes, gases, helps to maintain blood pressure.
 Water ~ 92% by weight.
 Proteins (~6-9 g/100 mL, produced in liver) Serum = Plasma – Clotting factor
• Albumins (~ 60% of total plasma protein) (Fibrinogen protein)
• Globulin (~ 36% of total plasma protein)
• Fibrinogen (~ 4% of total plasma protein)
 Amino acids: 30-50 mg/100 mL
 Sugar (Dextrose): 70-110 mg/100 mL
 Lactic acid: 5-15 mg/100 mL
 Lipids and fats
 Ions (Na+, K+, Mg+2, Ca+2, PO4¯, Cl¯, HCO3¯,etc.)
 Respiratory gases (O2, CO2, N2)
 Nitrogenous waste (urea, creatine, uric acid)
 Vitamins
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 Red Blood Cells (RBC)

 Also called as “Erythrocytes”.

 Bi-concave disk shape which increases surface area to
volume ratio (to increase oxygen uptake).
 ~7.5 µm diameter and 2 µm width.
 RBC count: Male: 5.4 million/µL
Female: 4.8 million/µL
 Elastic cell membrane.
 No nucleus to incorporate more hemoglobin, no
mitochondria.
 95% of RBC consists of Hemoglobin (red pigment)
and remaining 5% of salts, other proteins, enzymes, etc.
 Hemoglobin is oxygen carrying protein.

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 Red Blood Cells (contd.)

 Hemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin (reversible

reaction).

 Carry oxygen from lungs to body tissues.

 Bend as they pass through capillaries.

 Life span ~ 120 days (4 months).

 Produced in bone marrow and destroyed in Liver and Spleen.

 Typically, RBC:WBC ~ 1000:1

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 Hemoglobin

 Iron carrying protein which gives red color to blood.

 Each RBC contains ~250 million hemoglobin and each binding 4 O2 molecules.
 Total amount = Male: 13-18g per 100 mL
Female: 12-16 g per 100 mL
 Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen.
 Hemoglobin is composed of Globin (polypeptide) and Heme (pigment).
 Globin protein contains 4 polypeptide chains (2α, 2β subunits).
 Each subunit binds to a Heme group.
 Each Heme group contains one Fe+2 (iron) that can combine reversibly with one
oxygen molecule.
 Therefore, each hemoglobin molecule can carry 4 oxygen molecules from lungs
to tissue cells.
 ~20% CO2 in blood binds to Globin: Carbamino-hemoglobin.
 CO competes with oxygen for Heme binding.
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Hemoglobin (contd.)

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Hemoglobin (contd.)

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 Production of RBCs

 Hematopoiesis: refers to whole blood

cell production.
 Erythropoiesis: refers specifically to red
blood cell production.

 Almost all blood cells including red and

white are produced in red bone marrow.

 On average, one ounce (~28.3 g), or 100

billion blood cells, are made each day.

 Dietary requirements for Erythropoiesis:

Iron, vitamin B12, folic acid.
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 Erythrocyte Disorders

Anemia
 A condition in which the blood has an abnormally low oxygen-carrying capacity.
 Common causes of Anemia:
• an insufficient number of red blood cells.
• decreased hemoglobin content.
Polycythemia
 An abnormal excess of RBCs that increases the viscosity of the blood, causing it to
sludge or flow sluggishly.
 Common causes of Polycythemia include:
• Bone marrow cancer.
• A response to reduced availability of oxygen at high altitudes.
Leukemia
 An uncontrolled production of WBCs (also called blood cancer).
 Symptoms: tiredness, weight loss, high fever.
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 White Blood Cells (WBC)

 Called as “Leukocytes”.

 Total count = 5000-10000/µL

 Have nucleus and mitochondria, irregular in

shape, colorless.

 Primary function: defense against diseases or

infections due to bacteria (pathogens), virus,
toxins, etc., improves immunity.

 Life span: 10-14 days

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 White Blood Cells (contd.)

 Leukocytes are grouped into two major categories:

Granulocytes
- contain specialized membrane-bound cytoplasmic granules.
- include Neutrophils (~60-70% of WBC), Eosinophils, and Basophils.

Agranulocytes
- lack cytoplasmic granules.
- Include Lymphocytes (~20-25% of WBC) and Monocytes.
- Lymphocytes provide special immune response to infectious diseases, two
types: T cells and B cells, produce antibodies.

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 Platelets (cellular fragments)

 Also referred as “Thrombocytes”.

 Total count = 130,000-360,000/µL

 Small fragments of bone marrow cells (~2-3 µm diameter)

 Life span: 5-9 days

 Helps in blood clotting.

 No nucleus.

 Made in bone marrow.

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 Hemostasis

 A process to prevent and stop bleeding due to coagulation.

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Hemostasis (contd.)

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 Steps in Hemostasis
1. Vasoconstriction:
• The walls of the blood vessels “shrink” to reduce the size of the area that blood can flow through
(due to injury, wounds, cuts).
• The muscles surrounding the vessel contract, shrinking the blood vessel.

2. Platelet plug formation:

• At the site of injury, collagen helps platelets to stick to the site of the injury.

3. Blood clotting/coagulation:
• The platelet plug become reinforced with the fibrin (clotting protein) to form a “mesh net”.
• This fibrin net also traps red and white blood cells in order to form a blood clot over the site of
the injury.
• The red blood cells help in forming a solid “plug”.
• The white blood cells aid in fighting infectious agents.
• Many clotting factors in plasma are involved in clotting.
• These factors are inactive in the blood.
• They are activated when any blood vessel is broken.
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 Blood clotting

 The blood inside the body under circulation does not clot due to:
• Anti-coagulant Heparin that is secreted in liver and also by
Basophils (WBCs).
• Antithrombin protein deactivates clotting factors.
• Smoothness of the blood vessels.

 Excessive blood clotting is known as Hypercoagulation or

Thrombophilia.

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 Antigen vs. Antibodies

 Antigens are proteins that stimulate

(trigger) the immune response to produce
antibodies by B-cells of Lymphocytes
(WBC).

 Antigens can be bacteria, virus, fungi, that

cause infections.

 Antibodies are Y-shaped immunoglobins

(proteins) which recognize and bind to
antigens.

 Each antigen produces a unique antibody. 22

Blood Type

 Classification of blood, based on the presence

and absence of antibodies in plasma and antigens
on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs).

 These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates,

glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the
blood group system.

 Total 36 blood group systems have been

recognized till now.

 The two most important blood group systems are

ABO and Rh (Rhesus); they determine someone's
blood type (A, B, AB, and O) with +,− sign.
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 ABO Blood Group System

 Identified by a biologist Karl Landsteiner in 1901 (Nobel prize

in 1930).

 Involves two antigens (A and B) and two antibodies (anti-A and

anti-B) found in human blood.
 The antigens are referred as Agglutinogen which are present on
the surface of RBCs.
Karl Landsteiner
 The antibodies are referred as Agglutinin which are present in (1868-1943)
blood plasma.

 Agglutinogens are specific glycoproteins present on red blood

cell membrane.

 All RBCs in an individual carry the same type of Agglutinogens. 24

 Landsteiner’s rule

 If an agglutinogen/antigen is present on red blood cell

membrane, the corresponding agglutinin/antibody must be
absent in the plasma.

 If an agglutinogen/antigen is absent on red blood cell

membrane, the corresponding agglutinin/antibody must be
present in the plasma.

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 ABO Blood Group System (contd.)

 Four blood groups: A, B, AB, and O based on the presence/absence of

A & B antigens on red blood cell membrane.

Antigen (in RBC): A-antigen

Antibody (in plasma): anti-B

Antigen (in RBC): B-antigen

Antibody (in plasma): anti-A

Antigen (in RBC): neither A nor B

Antibody (in plasma): both anti-A
and anti-B

Antigen (in RBC): both A and B

Antibody (in plasma): neither anti-A nor anti-B
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ABO Blood Group System (contd.)

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ABO Blood Group System (contd.)

Antibody Antibody
ABO blood type Antigen A Antigen B
anti-A anti-B

A YES NO NO YES

B NO YES YES NO

O NO NO YES YES

AB YES YES NO NO

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Blood Group inheritance

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 Rh Blood Group System

 Second most popular blood-group

system.

 The presence/absence of Rh
antigen or Rh factor (D antigen or
Rh-D) on the surface of RBC is
signified by the + or − sign.

 For example, the A+ group is type-

A blood and has the Rh (Rh-D)
antigen.

 ~85% of population is Rh positive.

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Rh Blood Group System (contd.)

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 Rh incompatibility in blood transfusion

 Transfusion: the process of transferring blood or blood components from a

donor into the bloodstream of a recipient.

 Used in variety of medical conditions in order to replace the whole blood or

only the lost components of the blood (RBC, WBC, platelets, clotting factors).

 In blood transfusion, Rh- person cannot receive blood from Rh+ person,
whereas Rh+ person can receive blood from Rh- person without any problem.

 If Rh- person receives Rh+ blood for the first time, the formation of antibodies
(anti-RhD) takes place.

 In case of second transfusion with Rh+ blood, the antibodies (anti-RhD)

which are already present cause clumping.
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 Blood Transfusion (contd.)

 People with “type O” blood group are Universal Donors because there are no
antigen molecules on the surface of RBCs that can trigger an immune
response.

 People with “type AB” blood group are Universal acceptors because they do
not have any antibodies that will recognize type A or type B surface antigen
molecules.

 It is important to carefully match the donor and recipient blood types.

 If the donor blood cells have surface molecules that are different from those
of the recipient, antibodies in the recipient’s blood recognize the donor’s
blood as foreign. This triggers an immune response resulting in blood clotting
(agglutination).
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Transfusion reaction

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 Agglutination of RBC

 The clumping (grouping) of RBC due to binding of

antibody with the corresponding antigen.
OR
A reaction between antigens present on RBC (of
donor) and antibodies present in serum (of recipient).

 For instance, anti-A antibody binds with A-antigen.

 Agglutinogens (antigens) which are present on the

surface of RBCs, will stimulate the production of
agglutinin (antibody) in the plasma in case of the
incompatible blood transfusion.
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 Agglutination of RBC (contd.)

 If blood types do not match, the recipient’s antibody attaches to the

donor’s RBC and agglutinate.

 In case of blood group O (universal donors), recipient’s antibodies

cannot agglutinate donor’s RBCs.

 In case of blood group AB (universal recipient), recipient’s blood (lack of

anti-A and anti-B antibodies in plasma) cannot agglutinate donor’s RBCs.

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 Blood-type determination test

 Serum with anti-A and anti-B antibodies

is mixed with a drop of blood.

 Agglutination between antigen (present in

RBC) and antibody (present in serum)
determines the blood type.

 For instance, if an individual’s blood

sample is agglutinated by anti-A serum
but not by anti-B serum, this indicates
that A antigen is present on RBC surface,
therefore, the blood type is A.

 If blood type A is agglutinated by anti-D

(Rh) serum, then it is A+ blood (+ve Rh).
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Anti-D antibody is for the
determination of Rh factor.

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Videos to watch
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yj7bfZKlIp8

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35--8dAcZGw

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