Blood -Blood is slightly alkaline, with a pH between 7.35 and 7.45.

Its temperature 38°C, or 100.4°F) is always slightly

-Blood transports higher than body temperature because of the friction
substances such as oxygen produced as blood flows through the vessels.
and nutrients throughout the Blood accounts for approximately 8 percent of
body and participates in processes body weight, and its volume in healthy adults is 5
such as clotting and fighting to 6 liters, or about 6 quarts
infections.
-Blood is moved Plasma
through blood vessels by the -Plasma proteins are the most abundant solutes
pumping action of the heart. This in plasma.
fluid contains red blood cells to carry -Albumin acts as a carrier to shuttle certain molecules through
oxygen, clotting proteins to stop the circulation, is an important blood buffer, and contributes to
bleeding, and white blood cells the osmotic pressure of blood, which acts to keep water in the
to fight infections. bloodstream
-Transportation via blood is the only way substances
can be moved to distant body Plasma 55%
locations. In addition, clotting -Water 90% of plasma volume; solvent for carrying other
proteins are found only in substances; absorbs heat
blood—without them, a minor cut -Salts (electrolytes) (Sodium, K, Calcium, Mg,
could be life-threatening! Cl,Bicarbonate)- Osmotic balance, pH buffering,
regulation of membrane permeability
-Blood is the “river of life.” Blood transports -Plasma protein
everything that must be carried from one (Albumin- Osmotic balance, pH buffering,
place to another within the body—nutrients, hormones, Fibrinogen- Clotting of blood,
wastes (headed for elimination Globulins-.. Defense (antibodies) and lipid transport.
from the body), and body heat—through
blood vessels. Substances transported by blood
- Nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, amino
Components acids, vitamins
-Blood is a complex connective tissue in which living - Waste products of metabolism
blood cells, the formed elements, are suspended (urea, uric acid)
in plasma - Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2)
-Plasma ,(plaz′mah), a nonliving fluid - Hormones (steroids and thyroid hormone
matrix. are carried by plasma proteins)
-Erythrocytes, or red blood cells,
the formed elements that function in oxygen transport. Formed elements (cells) 45%
reddish “pellet” at the bottom of the tube
-whitish layer called the buffy -Erythrocytes (red blood cells)- 4–6 million per mm3,
coat at the junction between the erythrocytes and Transport oxygen and help transport carbon dioxide.
the plasma. - Leukocytes (white blood cells)- 4,800–10,800 per mm3,
-leukocytes, white blood cells Defense and immunity.
that act in various ways to protect the body; and
platelets, cell fragments that help stop bleeding. - Platelets, - 250,000–400,000 Blood clotting
-
Erythrocytes 45 % of total volume of blood sample How would a decrease in the amount of plasma
Hematocrit -Blood fraction proteins affect plasma volume? Plasma proteins create the osmotic pressure
White blood cells and platelets contribute less than 1 that helps to maintain plasma volume and draws leaked
fluid back into circulation. Hence, a decrease in the
percent, amount of plasma proteins would result in a reduced
Plasma 55 % of whole blood. plasma volume.

Physical Characteristics and Volume
-Blood is a sticky, opaque fluid that is heavier than
water and about five times thicker, or more viscous,
largely because of its formed elements.
Depending on the amount of oxygen it is carrying,
the color of blood varies from
scarlet (oxygen rich)
dull red or purple (oxygen-poor).
- Blood has a characteristic metallic, salty taste (something we
often discover as children).
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs), function
primarily to ferry oxygen to all cells of the body. They are superb
examples of the link
between structure and function. RBCs differ from
other blood cells because they are anucleate
(a-nu′kle-at); that is, they lack a nucleus. They
.also contain very few organelles.
Hemoglobin (he″moglo′bin) (Hb), an iron-bearing protein,
transports most of the oxygen that is carried in the blood. (It
also binds with a small amount of carbon
dioxide.
Globular, or functional, proteins have tertiary structure,
meaning that they are folded into a very specific shape.
-Anemia -A decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the
blood,( lacking blood).
-Sickle cell anemia (SCA), the body does
not form normal hemoglobin (as in the RBC
shown in part (a) of the figure). Instead, abnormal
hemoglobin is formed that becomes spiky
and sharp when either oxygen is unloaded or the oxygen
content in the blood decreases below normal
-Polycythemia -An excessive or abnormal increase in the
number of erythrocytes (pol″e-sithe me-ah). Polycythemia
may result from bone marrow cancer (polycythemia vera). It
may also be a normal physiologic (homeostatic)
Types of Anemia
Hemorrhagic anemia-Decrease in RBC number , Sudden
hemorrhage.
-Hemolytic (he″mo-lit′ik) anemia- Lysis of RBCs as a result of
bacterial infections
-Pernicious (per-nish′us) anemia- Lack of vitamin B12 (usually
due to lack of intrinsic factor required for absorption of the
vitamin; intrinsic factor is formed by stomach mucosa cells
-Aplastic anemia- Depression/destruction of bone marrow by
cancer, radiation, or certain medications.
-Iron-deficiency anemia- Inadequate hemoglobin
content in RBCs. Lack of iron in diet or slow/prolonged bleeding
(such as heavy menstrual flow or bleeding ulcer),
which depletes iron reserves needed to make
hemoglobin; RBCs are small and pale because they
lack hemoglobin.
-Sickle cell anemia- Abnormal hemoglobin
in RBCs. Genetic defect leads to abnormal hemoglobin,
which becomes sharp and sickle-shaped under
conditions of increased oxygen use by body; occurs
mainly in people of African descent
-leukocytes, or white blood cells
(WBCs), are far less numerous than red blood
cells, they are crucial to body defense. On average,
there are 4,800 to 10,800 WBCs/mm3 of blood,
and they account for less than 1 percent of total
blood volume.
-Leukocytes form a protective, movable army
that helps defend the body against damage by
bacteria, viruses, parasites, and tumor cells.
-Diapedesis (di″ah-p˘e-de′sis; “leaping across)- White blood
cells, by contrast, are able to slip into
and out of the blood vessels.
-Positive chemotaxis- WBCs can locate areas of tissue
damage and infection in the body by responding
to certain chemicals that diffuse from the damaged
cells.
Once they have “caught the
scent,” the WBCs move through the tissue spaces
by amoeboid (ah-me′boid) motion (they form
flowing cytoplasmic extensions that help move
them along).
-Leukocytosis- A total WBC count
above 11,000 cells/mm3 is referred to as leukocytosis
(lu″ko-si-to′sis)
(cytosis = an increase in cells). Leukocytosis generally
indicates that a bacterial or viral infection is stewing in
the body. Leukocytosis is a normal and desirable response to
infectious threats to the body.
leukopenia
(lu″ko-pe′ne-ah), is an abnormally low WBC
count (penia = deficiency). It is commonly caused
by certain drugs, such as corticosteroids and anticancer
agents.
Leukemia (lu-ke′me-ah), literally
“white blood,” the bone marrow becomes
cancerous, and huge numbers of WBCs are turned
out rapidly.
WBCs are classified into two major groups—
granulocytes and agranulocytes—
1.Granulocytes (are granule containing WBCs. They have
lobed nuclei, which
typically consist of several rounded nuclear areas
connected by thin strands of nuclear material. The
granules in their cytoplasm stain specifically with
Wright’s stain. The granulocytes include neutrophils
eosinophils and Basophils.
• Neutrophils are the most numerous WBCs.
They have a multilobed nucleus and very fine
granules that respond to both acidic and basic
stains. Consequently, the cytoplasm as a whole
stains pink. Neutrophils are avid phagocytes at
sites of acute infection. They are particularly
partial to bacteria and fungi, which they kill
during a respiratory burst that deluges the
phagocytized invaders with a potent brew of
oxidizing substances (bleach, hydrogen peroxide,
and others).
• Eosinophils have a blue-red nucleus that resembles
earmuffs and brick-red cytoplasmic
granules. Their number increases rapidly during
infections by parasitic worms (tapeworms, etc.) ingested in
food such as raw fish or entering through the skin. When
eosinophils encounter
a parasitic worm, they gather around
and release enzymes from their cytoplasmic
granules onto the parasites surface, digesting
it away.
• Basophils, the rarest of the WBCs, have large
histamine-containing granules that stain dark
blue.
-Histamine is an inflammatory chemical
that makes blood vessels leaky and attracts
other WBCs to the inflamed site
2.) Agranulocytes,
lack visible cytoplasmic granules. Their nuclei
are closer to the norm—that is, they are spherical,
oval, or kidney-shaped. The agranulocytes
include lymphocytes and monocytes.

• Lymphocytes have a large, dark purple nucleus

that occupies most of the cell volume.
Only slightly larger than RBCs, lymphocytes
tend to take up residence in lymphatic tissues,
such as the tonsils, where they play an important
role in the immune response. They are
the second most numerous leukocytes in
the blood.
• Monocytes are the largest of the WBCs.
Except for their more abundant cytoplasm and
distinctive U- or kidney-shaped nucleus, they
resemble large lymphocytes. When they migrate
into the tissues, they change into macrophages
(macro = large; phage = one that eats)
with huge appetites. Macrophages are important
in fighting chronic infections, such as tuberculosis,
and in activating lymphocytes.

list the WBCs in order of relative abundance in the blood—

from most to least. The following phrase may help you with Hematopoiesis (Blood Cell
this task:
Never -neutrophils Formation)
let - lymphocytes Hematopoiesis
monkeys- monocytes Blood cell formation, or hematopoiesis, occurs in red bone
eat - eosinophils marrow, or myeloid tissue. In adults, this tissue is found
bananas- basophils. chiefly in the axial skeleton, pectoral and pelvic girdles, and
proximal epiphyses of the humerus and femur.

Platelets Hemocytoblast;“blood cell former”), which resides in red

are not technically cells. They are fragments
of bizarre multinucleate cells called megakaryocytes
Megakaryocytes
), which pinch off thousands of anucleate platelet “pieces” that
quickly seal themselves off from the surrounding fluids. The
platelets appear as darkly staining, irregularly shaped bodies
scattered among the
other blood cells.
bone marrow. Their development differs, however, and once a
cell is committed to a specific blood pathway,
it cannot change.
The hemocytoblast forms two types of descendants—the
lymphoid stem cell, which produces lymphocytes, and the
Myeloid stem cell, which can produce all other classes of
formed elements.
Erythropoietin
The rate of erythrocyte production is controlled
by a hormone called erythropoietin
.Normally a small amount of
erythropoietin circulates in the blood at all times,

Why do many people with advanced kidney disease

become anemic?
-The kidneys produce most of the body’s
erythropoietin, which stimulates red blood cell
production by the bone marrow.

Formation of White Blood Cells and Platelets

-Like erythrocyte production, the formation of
leukocytes
and platelets is stimulated by hormones.

These colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins not

only prompt red bone marrow to turn
out leukocytes, but also enhance the ability of
mature leukocytes to protect the body. Apparently,
they are released in response to specific chemical
signals in the environment, such as inflammatory
chemicals and certain bacteria or their toxins.
-hormone thrombopoietin
accelerates the production
of platelets from megakaryocytes, but little is
known about how that process is regulated.
Hemostasis
Normally, blood flows smoothly past the intact lining
(endothelium) of blood vessel walls. But if a
blood vessel wall breaks, a series of reactions
starts the process of hemostasis (hem = blood;
stasis = standing still), or stopping the bleeding.
Phases of Hemostasis
Hemostasis involves three major phases, which
occur in rapid sequence:
1.vascular spasms,
2.platelet plug formation,
3. coagulation, or blood
clotting.
1.Vascular spasms occur. Smooth muscle contracts,
causing vasoconstriction
The immediate response to blood vessel injury is
vasoconstriction, which causes blood vessel spasms. The
spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing
blood loss until clotting can occur.
2. Platelet plug forms.
• Injury to lining of vessel exposes collagen
fibers; platelets adhere. Platelets release
chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky;
platelet plug forms.
Coagulation events occur.
• Clotting factors present in plasma and released
by injured tissue cells interact with Ca2+ to
form thrombin, the enzyme that catalyzes
joining of fibrinogen molecules in plasma to
fibrin.
• Fibrin forms a mesh that traps red blood cells and
platelets, forming the clot.
which
-are essential for many steps in the clotting process,
to form an activator that leads to the formation
of thrombin, an enzyme. Thrombin
then joins soluble fibrinogen (fi-brin′o-jen)
proteins into long, hairlike molecules of insoluble
Fibrin forms a meshwork that traps RBCs
and forms the basis of the clot
Serum (plasma minus the clotting
proteins) from the mass and pulling the ruptured
edges of the blood vessel closer together.
Disorders of Hemostasis
Thrombus
A clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel
If the thrombus
is large enough, it may prevent blood from flowing
to the cells beyond the blockage.
-hypoxia (inadequate oxygen delivery to
body tissues).
-embolus, If a thrombus breaks away from the
vessel wall and floats freely in the bloodstream.
-cerebral embolus may cause a stroke, in which brain tissue
dies.
Bleeding Disorders
The most common causes of abnormal bleeding
are platelet deficiency (thrombocytopenia) and
deficits of some of the clotting factors, such as
might result from impaired liver function or certain
genetic conditions.
Thrombocytopenia
results from an insufficient number of circulating platelets. It
can arise from any condition that suppresses the bone marrow,
such as bone marrow cancer, radiation, or certain drugs. In this
disorder, even normal movements cause spontaneous bleeding
from small
blood vessels. This is evidenced by many small
purplish blotches, called (petechiae that resemble a rash on
the skin.)
-hemophilia applies to several different hereditary bleeding
disorders
that result from a lack of any of the factors needed
for clotting. The hemophilias have similar signs and
symptoms that begin early in life. Even minor tissue
trauma results in prolonged bleeding and can
be life-threatening. Repeated bleeding into joints
causes them to become disabled and painful.
Blood Groups and Transfusions
-The usual blood bank
procedure involves collecting blood from a donor
and mixing it with an anticoagulant to prevent clotting.
The treated blood can be stored (refrigerated
at 4°C, or 39.2°F) until needed for about 35 days.
Human Blood Groups
-antigen) is a substance
that the body recognizes as foreign; it
stimulates the immune system to mount a defense
against it. Most antigens are foreign proteins, such
as those that are part of viruses or bacteria that
have managed to invade the body

“recognizers” are antibodies

present in plasma that attach to RBCs bearing
surface antigens different from those on the
patient’s (recipient’s) RBCs

Agglutination- Binding of the antibodies

causes the foreign RBCs to clump
*The RBC antigens that promote this clumping are sometimes
called agglutinogens and the antibodies
that bind them together are called agglutinins

The ABO blood groups are based on which

of two antigens, type A or type B, a person inherits

The Rh blood groups are so named because

one of the eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D) was
originally identified in Rhesus monkeys.

-Hemolysis (rupture of RBCs) does not occur

in an Rh− person with the first transfusion of Rh+
blood because it takes time for the body to react
and start making antibodies

Composition and Functions of Blood (pp. 337–347)

1. Blood is composed of a nonliving fluid matrix

(plasma) and formed elements. It is scarlet to dull
red, depending on the amount of oxygen carried.
Normal adult blood volume is 5 to 6 liters.

2. Dissolved in plasma (primarily water) are nutrients,

gases, hormones, wastes, proteins, salts, and so on.
Plasma composition changes as body cells remove
or add substances to it, but homeostatic mechanisms
act to keep it relatively constant. Plasma
makes up 55 percent of whole blood.
3. Formed elements, the living blood cells that make
up about 45 percent of whole blood, include the
following:
a. Erythrocytes, or RBCs—disc-shaped, anucleate
cells that transport oxygen bound to their hemoglobin
molecules. Their life span is 100 to
120 days.
b. Leukocytes, or WBCs—amoeboid cells involved
in protecting the body.
c. Platelets—cell fragments that act in blood clotting.
4. Anemia is a decrease in oxygen-carrying ability of
blood. Possible causes are bleeding, a decrease in
the number of functional RBCs, or a decrease in the
amount of hemoglobin they contain. Polycythemia
is an excessive number of RBCs that may result. from bone
marrow cancer or a move to a location
where less oxygen is available in the air (at high
altitude, for example).
5. Leukocytes are nucleated cells, classed into two groups:
a. Granulocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils,
and basophils.
b. Agranulocytes include monocytes and lymphocytes.
the bloodstream is an embolus.
4. Abnormal bleeding may reflect a deficit of platelets
(thrombocytopenia), genetic factors (hemophilia),
or inability of the liver to make clotting factors.
Blood Groups and Transfusions (pp. 349–352)
1. Blood groups are classified on the basis of proteins
(antigens) on RBC membranes. Complementary
antibodies may or may not be present in blood.
Antibodies act to agglutinate (clump) and mark foreign
RBCs for lysis.
2. The blood group most commonly typed for is ABO.
Type O is most common; least common is AB. ABO
antigens are accompanied by preformed antibodies,
which act against RBCs that have “foreign” antigens.
3. Rh factor is found in most Americans. Rh− people
do not have preformed antibodies to Rh+ RBCs but
form them once exposed (sensitized) to Rh+ blood.
Developmental Aspects of Blood (pp. 352–353)
1. Congenital blood defects include various types of
hemolytic anemias and hemophilia. Incompatibility
between maternal and fetal blood can lead to fetal
cyanosis, resulting from destruction of fetal blood cells.
2. Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) binds more readily with
oxygen than does HbA.

6. When bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances
invade the body, WBCs increase in number (leukocytosis)
and fight them in various ways.
7. An abnormal decrease in number of WBCs is leukopenia.
An abnormal increase in WBCs is seen in
infectious mononucleosis and leukemia (cancer of
blood-forming bone marrow).
3. Physiologic jaundice in a newborn reflects immaturity
of the infant’s liver.
4. Leukemias are most common in the very young
and very old. Older adults are also at risk for anemia
and clotting disorders

8. All formed elements arise in red bone marrow from

a common stem cell, the hemocytoblast. However,
their developmental pathways differ. The stimulus
for hematopoiesis is hormonal (erythropoietin, in
the case of RBCs).

Hemostasis (pp. 347–349)

1. Stoppage of blood loss from an injured blood vessel,
or hemostasis, involves three steps: vascular
spasms, platelet plug formation, and blood clot formation.

2. Hemostasis is started by a tear or interruption in

the blood vessel lining. Vascular spasms and accumulation
of platelets at the site temporarily stop or
slow blood loss. Platelet PF3 and tissue factor initiate
the clotting cascade, leading to formation of
fibrin threads. Fibrin traps RBCs as they flow past,
forming a clot.

3. Clots are digested once a vessel has been repaired.

An attached clot that forms or persists in an unbroken
blood vessel is a thrombus; a clot traveling in