ACTUATORS

Actuators
Hardware devices that convert a controller command
signal into a change in a physical parameter.

• The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or

velocity). Actuators are mechanical devices that convert
energy into motion.
• An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one
type of physical quantity into some alternative form.
• An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command
signal, so an amplifier may be required to provide
sufficient power to drive the actuator.
•Typically, actuators are key parts in industrial and
manufacturing operations where they activate valves,
pumps, motors and switches.

•No matter what end motion a mechanized system desires,

it would be impossible to achieve without actuator
assistance.

•Practically every industry uses actuators in some manner.

Operations in manufacturing equipment like presses,
material handling equipment oil and gas processing,
aviation and aerospace, military and defense, marine,
mining, forestry and road building require actuators.
 Actuators
Mechanism

Signal
Electric Hydraulic
Processing Final Actuation
Pneumatic
& Amplification Element
Logical
Signal

Actuator
Sensor
 Types of Actuators
Actuator types are characterized by what energy form the actuator
employs to convert the source from kinetic state into physical motion.

1. Electrical actuators
– Electric motors
• DC servomotors
• AC motors
• Stepper motors
– Solenoids
2. Hydraulic actuators
– Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller
command signal
3. Pneumatic actuators
– Use compressed air as the driving force
 Electric Actuators

•Electric actuators work on alternating current that

energizes an electric motor. Electric energy converts into
torque which drives the actuator.

•Electric actuators use mechanical components like lead

screws and gears to open and close their applications.

•The difference between pneumatic and electric actuators

is that the electric motor is part of the actuator assembly
rather than separate.
Advantages
•Fast: Electric actuators are directly driven. As such, they have
excellent response times that make them fast performers. For quick
and light work, electric systems are great.
•Precise: Electric actuators are precise devices. Whereas hydraulic
and pneumatic actuators have tolerances like slack, backlash and flex
inherent in their design, that’s not an issue with electrics.
•Clean: Electricity is a clean energy source, meaning, there is no
potential risk for leakage.

Disadvantages
•Weak: You can’t get the same amount of strength and power with
electrics that you can with hydraulics or pneumatics.
•Complicated: Electric actuators tend to be complicated designs.
Complications lead to a higher risk of breakdown and downtime.
•Costly: There is a significant cost attached to most electric actuation
devices. On a cost-per-strength basis, electrics are considerably
higher priced.
 Hydraulic Actuators
Hydraulic Power - Fluid (non-air)-powered cylinders
•Uncompressible fluid, most often oil.
•Requires a pump to generate the pressure and flow rate
needed.
•Complex and difficult to build effectively, and costly.

•Hydraulic actuators remain the most popular energy

conversion systems.
•They are common in heavy-duty work like large
construction machinery, marine propulsion and cargo
handling, military weapons and transportation systems.
•Hydraulic actuators work on fluid compression and
convert that pressure into motion under controlled
circumstances.
•In almost all hydraulic systems, that fluid is some form of
oil. Because oil is very difficult to compress, it easily
transfers large amounts of energy by volume.

•Hydraulic actuators use pressurized fluid energy to drive

the ram and operate the device or machine that the
actuator serves.

•Hydraulic actuators provide the greatest overall force and

power density you can get with any actuator design.

•They’re relatively simple mechanisms with two main parts

a control device like a throttle and an actuation
component such as a piston, slide or valve.
 When we use
liquid as the
fluid, we call it a
hydraulics system
Advantages
•Force: Hydraulic actuator motors have a high horsepower-to-weight
ratio. They are extremely forceful and produce a tremendous
amount of power for their size. This makes them economical as well
as highly efficient.
•Safety: Hydraulic power is easy to contain and control. Many
hydraulic controls are automated systems.
Mobility: They are self-contained and portable without needing a
cumbersome and complicated support system.
Disadvantages
•Initial investment: Because most hydraulic actuators are large and
powerful, they can be relatively expensive as initial investments.
•Maintenance: Hydraulic equipment requires maintenance, and that
can cost more time and money.
•Leakage: The biggest concern investors have about acquiring a
hydraulic actuator is leakage. Hydraulic oil can leak and can be
challenging to clean. It's also a serious contaminant.
 Pneumatic Actuators

Pneumatic Power - Air-powered cylinders

•Compressed air
•Either stored on board or injected by a pump
•Produces linear motion through activation of cylinders
•Pneumatic actuators are popular choices in many industries.
Compressed gas has considerable energy to be harnessed and
most pneumatic actuator system just capture air.
•However, the low pressure rating makes them less powerful
than higher capacity hydraulic actuators.
•Pneumatic actuator systems have five main parts — a primary
motor, a compressor unit, a storage tank, a delivery hose
network and the actuator device. In the right situation, such as
lighter duty applications, pneumatic systems are good choices.
Advantages
•Fast: Pneumatic actuators are the fastest in the market and that
allows for high cycle times. Increased duty cycling allows for greater
productivity.
•Economical: On average, pneumatic actuators are less expensive to
purchase than hydraulic or electric devices.
Simple: Although there are five main components in pneumatic
actuator systems, they’re quite basic in design.
Disadvantages
•Limited power: This is only a negative if your application is big and
bulky.
•Shorter life cycle: Hydraulics have a better reputation for longevity
than pneumatics
•Temperature: Pneumatic actuators are susceptible to water effects
and have performance problems when the temperature is too high
or too low.
SENSORS
•Measurement is an important subsystem of a
mechatronics subsystem.

•Its main function is to collect information on

system status and to feed it to microprocessor (s)
for controlling the whole system.

•Measurement system comprises of sensors,

transducers and signal processing devices.
 Definitions - Sensors
• Also called: transducer, probe, gauge, detector, etc.
• A device that responds to a physical stimulus and
transmits a resulting impulse. (New Collegiate
Dictionary)
• A device, such as a photoelectric cell, that receives and
responds torda signal or stimulus. (American Heritage
Dictionary, 3 ed., 1996)
• A device that responds to a physical stimulus (as heat,
light, sound, pressure, magnetism, or a particular
motion) and transmits a resulting impulse (as rd
for
measurement or operating a control) . (Webster, 3 ed.,
1999)
• According to the Instrument Society of America, sensor
can be defined as “ A device which provides a useable
output in response to measurand.”
Stimulus
• The quantity that is sensed.

• Sometimes called the measurand.

Sensor
• A device that responds to a physical stimulus.

Transducer
• A device that converts energy of one form into energy of
another form.

Actuator
• A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical
action
 Classification of Sensors

1. Active and Passive sensors

2. Contact and non-contact sensors
3. Absolute and relative sensors
 1. Active and passive sensors

Active sensor: a sensor that requires external power to

operate. Examples: the carbon microphone, thermistors,
strain gauges, capacitive and inductive sensors, etc.

Passive sensor: generates its own electric signal and does

not require a power source. Examples: thermocouples,
magnetic microphones, piezoelectric sensors.
 2. Contact and noncontact sensors

Contact sensor: a sensor that requires physical

contact with the stimulus. Examples: strain
gauges, most temperature sensors

Non-contact sensor: requires no physical contact.

Examples: most optical and magnetic sensors,
infrared thermometers, etc.
 3. Absolute and relative sensors

Absolute sensor: a sensor that reacts to a stimulus on an

absolute scale: Thermistors, strain gauges, etc.,
(thermistor will always read the absolute temperature)

Relative scale: The stimulus is sensed relative to a fixed or

variable reference. Thermocouple measures the
temperature difference, pressure is often measured
relative to atmospheric pressure.
 Connection of sensors/actuators

• The processor should be viewed as a general block

– Microprocessor
– Amplifier
– Driver
– Etc.
• Matching: between sensor/processor and
processor/actuator
 Sensors for Displacement and Pressure

❖Sensors have the task of measuring information and

passing this on to the signal processing part in a form
that can easily be processed.
❖In electropneumatic controllers, sensors are primarily
used for the following purposes:
▪ To detect the advanced and retracted end position
of the piston rod in cylinder drives
▪ To detect the presence and position of
workpieces.
▪ To measure and monitor pressure.

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 Sensors for Displacement and Pressure
❖ Electronic Sensors
❖ Inductive, optical and capacitive proximity switches are
electronic sensors. They normally have three electrical
contacts.
▪ Contact for supply voltage
▪ Contact for ground
▪ Contact for output signal
❖ In these sensors, no movable contact is switched. Instead, the
output is either electrically connected to the supply voltage or to
ground (= output voltage 0 V).

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 Sensors for Displacement and Pressure

❖ Positive and negative switching sensors

❖ There are two types of electronic sensor with regard to
the polarity of the output voltage.
▪ In positive switching sensors, the output voltage is zero if
no part is detected in the proximity. The approach of a
workpiece or machine part leads to switchover of the
output, applying the supply voltage.
▪ In negative switching sensors, the supply voltage is
applied to the output if no part is detected in the
proximity. The approach of a workpiece or machine
part leads to switchover of the output, switching the
output voltage to 0 V.

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 Inductive Proximity Sensor
❖ An inductive proximity sensor consists of:
▪ an electrical oscillator (1),
▪ a flip-flop (2) and
▪ an amplifier (3).
❖ When a voltage is applied, the oscillator generates a high-
frequency alternating magnetic field that is emitted from the
front of the sensor. If an conducting substance is introduced into
this field, the oscillator is attenuated.
❖ The downstream circuitry, consisting of a flip-flop and an
amplifier, evaluates the behavior of the oscillator and actuates
the output.
❖ Inductive proximity sensors can be used for the detection of all
good electrical conductors (materials). In addition to metals, these
include, for example, graphite.

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Inductive Proximity Sensor

A flip flop is a memory element

which is capable of storing one bit
of information and it is used I
sequential circuits.) 28
 Capacitive Proximity Sensor
❖ A capacitive proximity sensor consists of a capacitor and an
electrical resistance that together form an RC oscillator, and a
circuit for evaluation of the frequency.
❖ An electrostatic field is generated between the anode and the
cathode of the capacitor. A stray field forms at the front of the
sensor.
❖ If an object is introduced into this stray field, the capacitance
of the capacitor changes. The oscillator is attenuated. The
circuitry switches the output.
❖ Capacitive proximity sensors not only react to highly
conductive materials (such as metals) but also to insulators
of high dielectric strength (such as plastics, glass, ceramics,
fluids and wood).

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Capacitive Proximity Sensor

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 Optical Proximity Sensors

❖Optical proximity sensors use optical and electronic

means for object detection. Red or infrared light is
used.
❖Semiconductor light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are
particularly reliable sources of red or infrared light. They
are small and rugged, have a long service life and can be
simply modulated.
❖Photodiodes or phototransistors are used as a receiver.
❖Red light has the advantage that the light beam can be
seen during adjustment of the optical axes of the
proximity switch.
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 Optical Proximity Sensors

❖Three different types of optical proximity switch

are differentiated:

▪ One-way light barrier

▪ Reflective light barrier

▪ Diffuse reflective optical sensor

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 Optical Proximity Sensors

❖ One-way light barrier

▪ The one-way light barrier has spatially separate transmitter
and receiver units. The parts are mounted in such a way that
the transmitter beam is directed at the receiver. The output is
switched if the beam is interrupted.

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 Optical Proximity Sensors
❖ Reflective Light barrier
▪ In the reflective light barrier, the transmitter and receiver
are mounted together in one housing.
▪ The reflector is mounted in such a way that the light beam
transmitted by the transmitter is practically completely reflected
to the receiver. The output is switched if the beam is
interrupted.

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 Optical Proximity Sensors
❖ Diffuse Reflective Optical Sensor
▪ In the diffuse reflective optical sensor, the transmitter and
receiver are mounted together in one unit.
▪ If the light hits a reflective object, it is redirected to the receiver
and causes the output of the sensor to switch.
▪ The diffuse reflective sensor optical sensor can only be used if
the material or machine part to be detected is highly reflective (
polished metal surface, bright paint)

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 Pressure Sensors

❖There are various types of pressure - sensitive sensors:

▪ Pressure switch with mechanical contact (binary
output signal).
▪ Pressure switch with electronic switching (binary
output signal).
▪ Electronic pressure sensor with analogue output
signal.

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 Pressure Sensors
❖Mechanical Pressure Switch:
▪ In the mechanically actuated pressure switch, the
pressure acts on a cylinder surface.
▪ If the pressure exerted exceeds the spring force of the
return spring, the piston moves and operates the
contact set.

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Advantages of proximity sensors are

1.They are widely used because of their ability to react with wide
range of materials.
2.They are suitable for detecting non metallic objects.
3.They can be used to sense and monitor level in storage containers

Disadvantages of proximity sensors are.

1. They are sensitive especially in humid environment
2. Without the compensator ring, the sensor would be very
sensitive to dirt, oil and other contaminants that might stick to
the sensor.

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Applications of proximity sensors

The proximity sensors can be used for various applications, These

include:

• Sensing of end position of linear actuators like cylinders and

semi rotary actuators.
• They are used to detect metallic pieces on conveyor. That is
presence or absence of work piece on conveyor.
• They are used in press to detect the end position.
• They are used to monitor drill breakage while drilling.
• They are also used as feed back devices in speed measuring
devices.
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 Strain Gauge : Force sensors

• Piezoelectric crystal: produces a voltage that is

proportional to the force applied
• Strain gauge: cemented on a rod. One end of the rod
is fixed, force is applied to the other end. The
resistance of the gauge will change with the force.

Sensors (v.5e) 40
CONTROLLER
 Computer-Process Interface
• To implement process control, the computer must
collect data from and transmit signals to the production
process
• Components required to implement the interface:
– Sensors to measure continuous and discrete process
variables
– Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process
parameters
– Devices for ADC and DAC
– I/O devices for discrete data
Computer Process Control System

Transformation Process

Continuous and Discrete Continuous and Discrete

Parameters Variables
Actuators Sensors

DAC ADC
Computer
Controller
Output Devices Input Devices