PSG COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

COIMBATORE

ELECTRON DEVICES-19L204

REPORT TOPIC –AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

SUBMITTED TO:
DR MOHANDASS S

ELECTRON DEVICES – 19L204

DEPARTMENT OF ECE

SUBMITTED BY:
22l116- Hari Hara Sudan
22l142- Sanjay
22l156 - Vasanth
22l162- Sathriyan mani
DEPARTMENT OF ECE - 1ST YEAR
 ENGINE ELECTRONICS

One of the most demanding electronic parts of an automobile is the

Engine Control Unit (ECU). Engine controls demand one of the
highest real-time deadlines, as the engine itself is a very fast and
complex part of the automobile. Of all the electronics in any car, the
computing power of the engine control unit is the highest, typically a
32-bit processor.

A engine ECU controls such functions as:

In a diesel engine:

• Fuel injection rate

• Emission control, NOx control
• Regeneration of oxidation catalytic converter
• Turbocharger control
• Cooling system control
• Throttle control

In a gasoline engine:

• Lambda control
• OBD (Onboard Diagnostics)
• Cooling system control
• Ignition system control
• Lubrication system control (only a few have electronic control)
• Fuel injection rate control
• Throttle control

1. Engine Control Unit (ECU):

The ECU is the central control unit that manages the engine's
operation. It receives input from various sensors and uses that
information to calculate the optimal fuel injection timing,
ignition timing, and other parameters to ensure efficient engine
performance.
2. Sensors:

Engine sensors provide data to the ECU, allowing it to make

informed decisions about engine operation. Some common
sensors include:

o Mass Airflow Sensor (MAF): Measures the amount of air

entering the engine to determine the appropriate fuel-to-air
ratio.
o Oxygen (O2) Sensor: Monitors the oxygen level in the
exhaust gases, providing feedback to adjust the air-fuel
mixture for optimal combustion.
o Throttle Position Sensor (TPS): Detects the position of the
throttle valve, indicating how much the accelerator pedal is
depressed.
o Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT) Sensor: Measures the
temperature of the engine coolant to regulate fuel injection
and ignition timing.
o Crankshaft Position Sensor (CKP): Detects the rotational
position of the crankshaft, enabling precise timing of fuel
injection and ignition.
3. Fuel Injection System:

Modern engines typically use electronic fuel injection systems,

where the ECU controls the fuel injectors to deliver the correct
amount of fuel based on the engine's needs.

4. Ignition System:

Engine electronics manage the ignition system, which includes

components like ignition coils, spark plugs, and timing control.
The ECU determines the optimal ignition timing for each
cylinder based on input from various sensors.

5. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) System:

Engine electronics can control the EGR system, which

recirculates a portion of the exhaust gases back into the engine
to reduce emissions and improve fuel efficiency.
6. Variable Valve Timing (VVT):

Some engines employ variable valve timing systems, where the

engine electronics control the timing and duration of valve
opening and closing. This allows for optimized engine
performance and efficiency across different operating
conditions.
 PASSIVE SAFETY

Passive safety in automotive electronics refers to the measures and

systems designed to minimize the risk of injury to vehicle occupants
in the event of an accident or collision. Unlike active safety systems
that aim to prevent accidents, passive safety systems are designed to
mitigate the consequences of a crash. Here are some examples of
passive safety features in automotive electronics:

1. Airbags:

Airbags are one of the most well-known passive safety features.

Electronic sensors detect the severity of a collision, and upon
impact, the airbags are rapidly inflated to cushion the occupants
and prevent them from striking hard surfaces inside the vehicle.

2. Seatbelts:

Seatbelts are essential safety devices that restrain occupants

during a crash. In modern vehicles, seatbelt systems often
incorporate electronic components, such as pretensioners and
load limiters. Pretensioners retract the seatbelt slack in
milliseconds during a crash, keeping the occupants firmly
secured in their seats. Load limiters allow controlled release of
seatbelt tension to reduce the impact force on the occupants'
bodies.

3. Crash Sensors:

Crash sensors, also known as impact sensors, are electronic

devices that detect the forces experienced during a collision.
These sensors trigger the deployment of airbags and may also
activate other safety systems, such as seatbelt pretensioners or
fuel pump shut-off.
4. Occupant Detection Systems:

These systems use electronic sensors to detect the presence of

occupants in different seating positions. They can determine
whether an airbag deployment is necessary and adjust the
deployment strategy based on occupant size and weight,
reducing the risk of injury caused by excessive airbag
deployment force.

5. Structural Design and Materials:

While not strictly electronics, the structural design and

materials used in a vehicle's construction play a crucial role in
passive safety. Advanced high-strength materials and
engineering techniques are employed to create a strong safety
cage around the occupants, which helps to absorb and distribute
crash forces away from the occupants' space.

6. Crash Data Recorders:

Also known as "black boxes," crash data recorders capture and

store data related to vehicle dynamics and occupant behaviour
during a crash. This information can be vital in understanding
the sequence of events leading up to an accident, helping to
improve vehicle safety in the future.
 TRANSMISSION CONTROL UNIT:

A transmission control unit (TCU), also known as a transmission

control module (TCM), or a gearbox control unit (GCU), is a type of
automotive ECU that is used to control electronic automatic
transmissions. Similar systems are used in conjunction with various
semi-automatic transmissions, purely for clutch automation and
actuation. A TCU in a modern automatic transmission generally uses
sensors from the vehicle, as well as data provided by the engine
control unit (ECU), to calculate how and when to change gears in the
vehicle for optimum performance, fuel economy and shift quality.

Input parameters
Vehicle Speed: The current speed of the vehicle, which is typically
measured using sensors or signals from the vehicle's speedometer.
Engine Speed: The rotational speed of the engine, measured in
revolutions per minute (RPM), often obtained from the engine control
module (ECM).
Brake Signal: A signal indicating whether the brakes are engaged or
not. This input is important for implementing features like
downshifting during braking or preventing upshifts while the brakes
are applied.

Gear Position: The current gear engaged in the transmission, typically

obtained from sensors within the transmission system.

vehicle acceleration in tcu : Vehicle acceleration can be calculated by

comparing the current vehicle speed with the previous speed value(s)
at different time intervals. The TCU continuously monitors the speed
of the vehicle and computes the acceleration value based on these
measurements.

By analyzing the vehicle acceleration, the TCU can make decisions

on when to upshift or downshift gears for optimal performance and
efficiency. For example, during aggressive acceleration, the TCU may
delay upshifts to allow the engine to reach higher RPMs and harness
more power. Conversely, during gentle acceleration or cruising, the
TCU may initiate early upshifts to improve fuel efficiency.

turbine speed in tcu : In a Transmission Control Unit (TCU), the

turbine speed refers to the rotational speed of the transmission's input
shaft, also known as the torque converter turbine. The turbine speed is
an important input parameter used by the TCU to monitor and control
the operation of the transmission.

Output parameters:

In a Transmission Control Unit (TCU), the output parameters can vary

depending on the specific system and its functionalities.

Shift Commands: The TCU generates shift commands to control the

actuators responsible for engaging or disengaging gears in the
transmission. These commands specify when and how the
transmission should shift gears based on various input parameters.

Torque Converter Lock-Up: The TCU controls the engagement and

disengagement of the torque converter lock-up clutch. The TCU may
provide an output parameter indicating the status of the lock-up
clutch, such as engaged or disengaged.

Vehicle Speed Signal: The TCU may provide an output parameter

representing the vehicle speed signal. This signal can be sent to other
vehicle systems or modules that rely on accurate speed information,
such as the instrument cluster or ABS system.

TCU Diagnostic Information: The TCU can output diagnostic

information regarding its own functionality and performance. This
may include status information, error logs, or self-test results to assist
in diagnosing potential TCU-related issues.
 DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEM:

Demand for advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS)—those

that help with monitoring, warning, braking, and steering tasks—is
expected to increase over the next decade, fueled largely by
regulatory and consumer interest in safety applications that protect
drivers and reduce accidents. For instance, both the European Union
and the United States are mandating that all vehicles be equipped with
autonomous emergency-braking systems and forward-collision
warning systems by 2020. A recent McKinsey survey also suggests
that car buyers are becoming even more interested in ADAS
applications that promote comfort and economy, such as those that
assist with parking or monitoring blind spots.

Although ADAS applications are still in their early days, original-

equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and their suppliers realize that they
could eventually become the main feature differentiating automotive
brands, as well as one of their most important revenue sources. And
the same technologies that enable today’s ADAS offerings could also
be used to create fully autonomous vehicles, which are now a major
focus of research and development, both at OEMs and at high-tech
players that have recently entered the automotive sector, including
Google. Any ADAS technology that gains early support could
therefore have an advantage if self-driving cars reach the market.

Many semiconductor companies—even some that have not

traditionally participated in the automotive sector—now offer ADAS
products or are developing them. As with any new technology,
however, much uncertainty persists about the market, including how
consumers will respond to more advanced applications in which a
computer controls or assists with steering and other critical driving
functions. In the first part of this article, we address some of the most
pressing questions about ADAS, touching on future demand,
technical challenges, and the evolving competitive landscape. The
second part of the article looks at ADAS from a semiconductor
perspective, describing how companies can capture more value by
expanding their offerings beyond hardware, collaborating directly
with OEMs, and differentiating their technologies based on safety and
security features.

Driver Assistance Systems

Advanced driver assistance systems are electronic aids designed to
offer the driver help in certain situations. They are mainly intended to
increase safety and comfort. Advanced driver assistance systems use
radar, video or ultrasonic sensors to monitor the surrounding area in
relation to vehicle data such as speed or acceleration. In critical
situations such systems warn the driver with a visual, acoustic or
haptic signal, provide specific assistance or intervene automatically if
necessary to avoid an accident or to minimise the consequences. The
following concepts come under the heading of advanced driver
assistance systems:

• Anti-lock braking system ABS

• Brake assist
• Vehicle dynamics control to prevent swerving and skidding (e.g.
ESP)
• Automatic speed control, cruise control
• Adaptive distance and speed control
• Automatic emergency braking system
• Lane keeping assist to warn drivers of critical lane changes
• Vision enhancement systems (e.g. headlights which swivel
when cornering or rain sensors for automatic windscreen wiper
actuation)
• Driver fatigue detection systems which provide a visual and/or
acoustic signal to warn of fatigue and the risk of microsleep

Automatic distance control

Driving in heavy traffic and maintaining a safe distance from the

vehicle in front is a tiring process requiring a good deal of
concentration. Automatic distance control is an advanced driver
assistance...
Function
 Driving in heavy traffic and
maintaining a safe distance from the vehicle in front is a tiring process
requiring a good deal of concentration. Automatic distance control is
an advanced driver assistance system to actively help motorists
maintain a defined distance from the vehicle ahead. Often also
referred to as Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), the system builds on
the functionalities of the cruise control system, which is designed to
automatically maintain a specified vehicle speed.
EMERGENCY BRAKING SYSTEMS

So-called "emergency braking systems" are an even more

sophisticated form of automatic distance control. Such systems help
to avoid collisions by being able to detect critical closeness to moving
or stationary vehicles ahead and pedestrians and prepare the braking
system for possible emergency braking. This makes full braking
power available sooner. As soon as the driver presses the brake pedal,
the system provides braking assistance to bring the vehicle to a halt
before it reaches the obstacle if at all possible. If, on the other hand,
the driver shows no reaction whatsoever and the emergency braking
system considers a collision to be unavoidable, it triggers full braking
to keep the effects of the impact to a minimum. Emergency braking
systems designed for urban use generally operate up to 30 km/h. In
this speed range collisions can often be avoided by automatically
initiated full braking. Other systems provide motorists with assistance
in all speed ranges both during the day and at night.

FUNCTIONS OF AUTOMATIC DISTANCE CONTROL

Function The driver enters a desired speed and the distance to be
maintained from the vehicle in front. This can be set accordingly in
several stages to suit the driving situation and personal driving style.
Automatic distance control makes use of a sensor to detect vehicles
ahead and calculate their distance, direction and relative speed within
the system limits. The system also calculates the course of the driver's
own vehicle and can thus determine whether vehicles in front are of
relevance for automatic distance control. On the road, the automatic
distance control system maintains a speed specified by the driver or
can adapt this to changing traffic situations by automatically
decelerating, braking or accelerating. A Stop & Go version can also
automatically bring the vehicle to a standstill and then start up again
following release by the driver.
Parking assist system:
Active parking systems are also known as parking assist systems.
They represent a more sophisticated form of parking aid system and
perform the necessary parking manoeuvres either fully autonomously
or semi-autonomously.
Function:
A distinction is made between semi-autonomous and autonomous
parking assist systems.
SEMI-AUTONOMOUS PARKING ASSIST SYSTEM

A special sensor located in the side

of the front bumper scans theside of the road as the vehicle drives
past. The parking assist system informs the driver if it detects a
suitable parallel or perpendicular parking space. When activated, the
system calculates the best way of approaching the gap, the steering
manoeuvres required and the number of moves involved. Whilst the
parking assist system guides the vehicle into the parking space, the
driver is merely responsible for speed control. In other words: The
driver controls the parking process by carefully accelerating and
braking. The parking assist system performs all the necessary steering
action with the help of the power steering. The driver can stop the
manoeuvre at any time. A semi-autonomous parking assist system
also provides help when moving out of a parking space by steering
the vehicle into the correct starting position so that the driver can
move out safely and quickly.
AUTONOMOUS PARKING ASSIST SYSTEM
In addition to steering action, autonomous parking assist systems also
take over speed control (acceleration, braking). In other words the
system guides the vehicle into and out of the selected parking space
fully automatically. With particularly advanced systems the driver can
decide whether he wishes to remain in the car whilst parking or get
out beforehand.
Vehicle dynamics control
The terms “vehicle dynamics control”, “electronic stability control” or
“Electronic Stability Program” refer to driver-assistance systems
which prevent skidding by performing targeted brake interventions in
individual wheels and interventions in the engine control system.
Function
Sudden driving manoeuvres – such as quick steering and counter-
steering, unexpected lane changes or swerving into the path of
obstacles – and wet, contaminated or slippery roads can cause the car
to become unstable and begin to skid. The ESP® program can prevent
the vehicle from skidding within the limits of what is physically
possible by performing targeted interventions in the brakes and in the
engine control system. Using sensors, the Electronic Stability
Program permanently compares whether the driver’s steering input
corresponds to the vehicle’s actual direction of travel. If the system
detects a situation where the values differ, ESP® intervenes – as soon
the vehicle threatens to become unstable.
UNDERSTEERING
If ESP® detects that the vehicle is understeering in a curve – i.e.
where the front axle continues to move straight ahead despite the
wheels being inclined – the system restricts the engine power and
brakes the rear wheel at the inside edge of the curve to stabilise the
vehicle.
OVERSTEERING
If there is a threat of oversteering – i.e. where the rear of the vehicle
swerves outwards – ESP® reduces the engine torque and brakes the
front wheel at the outside edge of the curve. This results in a counter-
torque, which counteracts the oversteering tendency and stabilises the
vehicle.
Electronic stability systems/ESP®
In 1995, a vehicle dynamics control system was installed as standard
for the first time: it took the form of the Electronic Stability Program
(ESP®) in the Mercedes S-Class coupé. The acronym ESP® is a
trademark of Daimler AG, which is why numerous other names are
also in use today. Terms such as DSC (Dynamic Stability Control) or
ESC (Electronic Stability Control) have become established, among
others.
Safety
Skidding is one of the main causes of serious road accidents. ESP®
systems are already able to detect an impending risk of skidding at an
early stage and stabilise the vehicle within the limits of what is
physically possible. According to estimates, ESP® is already
integrated into 64 per cent of all new vehicles worldwide. Numerous
international studies conducted by renowned vehicle manufacturers
and safety authorities have proven the increase in safety and
effectiveness of ESP®: up to 80% of all accidents caused by skidding
were prevented thanks to electronic stability control. In Europe alone,
the number of fatalities and injuries resulting from road accidents
each year could be reduced by 4,000 and 100,000 respectively by
equipping all vehicles with ESP®.
Ultrasonic sensor
Ultrasonic sensors are used in passenger cars to monitor the
immediate surroundings of the vehicle and to measure distance to
obstacles. They are often used in parking assist systems.
Function
Ultrasonic sensors are beam-based sensors: they send and receive
sound waves that have frequencies above the perception range of the
human ear (+20 / 40-50 kHz). These sound waves (usually sent by
piezo-actuators by means of a membrane), disperse themselves
throughout the air around the vehicle and are reflected off obstacles.
The echo signals are registered by the sensors and evaluated by a
central control unit. The crossing time, i.e. the time it takes for the
echo signal to reach the transmitter, is used to calculate the distance to
the obstacle.
Thus, ultrasonic sensors form the basis for driver assistance systems,
such as parking assist systems. In the case of parking assist systems,
ultrasonic sensors are integrated into the front and/or rear of the
vehicle. The calculated distance to an obstacle is relayed to the driver
either purely acoustically, or visually and acoustically, depending on
the manufacturer and the system.
Ultrasonic sensors are also needed for self-driving vehicles/automated
driving, especially for environment detection in the near range up to
six metres and for low speeds.
Ultrasonic sensors can be used for ranges of up to 5.5 metres from the
vehicle.
Due to the low frequency and a relatively long wave length,
ultrasound technology is less complex and, thus, relatively cost-
effective. The disadvantage is that the movement of the vehicle itself
and the dependency on the air as a carrier limit the distance
measurement capability to short routes and low driving speeds.
Safety
Many active and passive safety systems function on the basis of
sensor information. Thanks to significant progress in the development
of new sensors, there has been a constant increase in the capabilities
of safety and driver assistance systems in recent years. Sensors thus
have a key role to play in increasing safety on our roads.
Video sensor/camera sensor
The video sensor or camera sensor is used in passenger cars so that
the driver can see important visual information about the vehicle
surroundings.
Function
Video sensors, also referred to as camera sensors or image sensors,
are image-based sensors. They provide the driver with important
visual information about the vehicle surroundings.
Video sensors are different to standard cameras which show the driver
(e.g. when manoeuvring backwards into a parking space) a passive
image, but the driver has to assess and react to the situation
themselves. Video sensors, on the other hand are more intelligent and
make a fully automatic assessment of what can be seen on the image.
This includes measuring distance and making objective assessments.
As a result, assistance systems can recognise immanent collisions and
carry out braking and steering manoeuvres themselves in order to
prevent an accident. That is a crux of modern highly automated
Emergency Brake Assist systems.
As additional functions, video sensors can evaluate road signs and
recognise when the driver inadvertently veers out of lane, and perform
corrective steering manoeuvres. Video sensors have an integrated
computer to enable them to perform this complex form of image
evaluation.
A special variant are infrared cameras. They can display a road on a
screen and make it seem like broad daylight. They come in different
variants: ones that just display passive images, and ones that evaluate
images and recognise hazardous objects, so that the driver can be
actively alerted to them.
Video sensors come as stereo or mono cameras:
Stereo cameras consist of two lenses that fuse the content of the two
images together and evaluate it. Thanks to their angular misalignment,
they are particularly well-suited to detecting distance and obstacles.
For cost reasons, the cameras used in most modern vehicles are mono
cameras. The huge advancements in image evaluation have made it
possible for mono cameras to achieve the quality of detection level
that is required for fully automatic emergency braking and steering.
Safety
Many active and passive safety systems function on the basis of
sensor information. Thanks to significant progress in the development
of new sensors, there has been a constant increase in the capabilities
of safety and driver assistance systems in recent years. Sensors thus
have a key role to play in increasing safety on our roads.
Wheel sensors
Today, the anti-lock brake system (ABS) is a standard feature of all
new vehicles in Europe. ESP® is not far behind. To function reliably,
electronic driving safety systems need information about the speed...
Function
Today, the anti-lock brake system (ABS) is a standard feature of all
new vehicles in Europe. ESP® is not far behind. To function reliably,
electronic driving safety systems need information about
the speed of the wheels,
the dynamic behaviour of the vehicle and
the forces that are acting on the car.

Wheel speed sensors (also known as wheel

sensors) must detect the speed of the wheels and supply this
information to the ABS or ESP control unit in the form of an electrical
signal. The latest wheel sensors are also able to detect the direction of
rotation of the wheels. The ABS control unit uses this data to detect
individual wheels locking during emergency braking and take
countervailing measures to stabilise the vehicle. The EPS does the
same thing as soon as it detects a critical situation on the basis of the
wheel speed data and other sensor information.
PASSIVE WHEEL SENSORS
The very first ABS systems featured the use of what are known as
passive wheel sensors. Working on the basis of the principle of
induction, they supply an analogue signal in the form of an alternating
voltage to the electronic control unit. The passive sensor is
characterised by the fact that it picks up its signal from a sensor
toothed wheel which is usually pressed onto the brake disc or drum,
the axle or the wheel hub. Passive wheel sensors are able to supply
useful signals at and above approx. 7 km/h.

ACTIVE WHEEL SENSORS

Due to the expansion of the ABS

with the addition of sensors such as ESP® or anti-slip control (ASC),
sensor systems that are able to emit a useful signal at very low speeds
(virtually as low as standstill) are now the order of the day. Active
sensors are able to meet this requirement:
They work in accordance with the magneto-resistive principle,
are supplied with voltage and
pick up their signal from what is known as an encoder wheel
(magnetic pulse sensor).
As well as being able to detect wheel speed up to vehicle standstill,
active wheel sensors are also able to detect the direction of rotation.
Also, from a mechanical point of view, they are much less sensitive
than passive sensors. This is evident for example in their corrosion
resistance, as well as in the fact that the sensor signal is not affected
by varying sensor distances (caused by a "tilting" brake disc, for
example). Furthermore, the ability of active wheel sensors to function
can also be relied upon in a temperature range from -40 to +150°C.
Another of their advantages is that they supply a digital output signal;
this does not require downstream conversion and can thus be
evaluated directly by the control unit. Thanks to the far greater
precision of the available speed information, the signals of active
wheel sensors can even be used by other vehicle systems such as
engine and transmission control, or even the navigation system.
Safety
The combination of vehicle stability systems, engine management and
transmission control are making a direct contribution to increased
• safety on the road,
• much better driving dynamics,
• improved ride comfort,
• lower fuel consumption and
• reduced emission values.
Wheel speed sensors supply these systems with the basic information
they require to function correctly. As such, they play a key role in
driving safety systems.
Depreciation
Due to their location, wheel speed sensors are the components
subjected to the greatest amount of mechanical stress within the
electronic brake regulating system. Unfavourable conditions and the
grit used in winter can lead to corrosion and dirt deposits on the wheel
sensors and pulse wheels. In the case of passive wheel sensors, this
also affects the signal quality. It may even be necessary to replace the
components of the sensor system.
 Single sensor: Sensor with caple

Wheel sensors

Cars with Autopilot in 2023

The term ‘autopilot’ has been used for decades within the aircraft
industry, enabling pilots to reduce their cognitive load by allowing an
aircraft to practically fly itself during “cruising” portions of the trip.
The same is now happening as cars with autopilot are rapidly turning
into more autonomous, self-driving vehicles, allowing drivers to let
the cars drive themselves on certain portions of the trip, like freeways.
Tesla most famously branded its self-driving features as “Autopilot”,
but many other automakers are now including similar self-driving and
autonomous vehicle features as part of their driving assistance option
packages.
This article provides a breakdown of cars with autopilot and who
offers what, but first, we’ll go through a bit of background and
explanation of terms.
Self-Driving Car Levels: A Brief Overview
First, let’s define exactly what constitutes ‘autopilot’-like features.
Autonomous systems in cars and self-driving vehicles can take many
different forms, from basic driver assistance features, like cruise
control, to semi-autonomous, all the way to full self-driving
capabilities. The industry even has a set of levels to help classify this
automation.
Level 0 No automation
Level 1 Semi-automated systems, like cruise control.
Level 2 Semi-automated systems, like steering, speed and braking.
Level 3 Automated driving in some conditions, driver available to take over
Level 4 Automated driving in most conditions
Level 5 Automated driving in all conditions
Learn more about this by reading our article on SAE self-driving
levels for cars and autonomous vehicles.
AutoPilot Definition
Autopilot is a generic term used in multiple industries, particularly
aircraft, and generally means that something can guide itself without
human intervention. In relation to cars in 2023, most mainstream
carmakers are focused on, Level 2 autonomy. This level allows the
vehicle to take over most steering, acceleration and braking functions,
but still requires that the driver remain fully attentive to the driving
situation and be able to intervene at any moment. It is not driverless,
fully autonomous driving, like robotaxis from Waymo or Cruise (that
are now testing in California).
That means, today, autopilot really means ‘assisted driving’ and not
‘self-driving’ since the driver still has to be alert and attentive at all
times. It won’t be until Level 4 or Level 5 fully autonomous cars hit
the roads that the true promise of full self-driving will be a reality.
Currently, that’s not expected to happen until later in 2024 (although
the team at Tesla is pushing hard to do so as soon as possible, as
announced at Tesla Autonomy Day, since all new cars sold
with Hardware 4 are much more powerful).
However, Mercedes Benz has released a Level 3 system for their 2024
S-Class and EQS Sedan models that will be available for use in
certain states like California and Nevada on limited roads, certain
stretches, and under certain conditions. Read more in the Mercedes
Benz Drive Pilot Level 3 press release. Note this is a different strategy
from Tesla, which is trying to make Autopilot and Full Self Driving
available on all roads.
Learn more about autonomous Full Self-Driving capabilities that
Tesla currently includes today.
Core AutoPilot Features
At a minimum, we define autopilot (Level 2) to include the following
features for use on freeways and highways with “controlled access”
(i.e., they have on-ramps and off-ramps and no-cross traffic
intersections):
Stop-and-Go Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
Like traditional cruise control from the past, you set your speed and
the car maintains that speed. However, with Adaptive Cruise Control
(ACC), the car uses radar and/or cameras to maintain a following
distance from the car in front of you, automatically slowing down or
speeding up, as needed.
In addition, newer ACC systems are now able to slow down all the
way to a stop and then automatically resume as traffic gets moving
again. This is crucial for drivers who commute in heavy traffic urban
environments.
Automated, Lane-Centering (ALC)
There are many systems that have what’s called “Lane Keeping
Assist” (LKA), but these systems usually just help nudge a car back
towards the center of the lane if a driver drifts. For ‘autopilot’ the
vehicle should be able to keep itself centered in a lane and follow a
freeway or highway lane, as long as the turns and curves are generally
fairly mild (i.e. no sharp curves).
Other autopilot features that are useful, but not critical for the
‘autopilot’ designation, are:
Automated Lane Changes
Automated Lane Changing allows a vehicle to automatically change
lanes (on freeways) after the driver has initiated or approved a lane-
change maneuver. It will only change lanes once it’s safe to do so
(using built-in sensors to detect nearby cars).
Autopilot on All Roads
Currently, most autopilot systems are designed to primarily handle
freeways and highways that are “controlled access roads”, meaning
that they have on-ramps and off-ramps, so there’s no possibility of
cross-traffic, at an intersection, for example. Some systems allow
Level 2 autopilot features to work on any road where the markings are
clear, however, the driver must be fully engaged to watch for cross-
traffic, stop signs and traffic lights.
Follow Navigation Route (freeways only)
This system requires allows the vehicle to automatically follow a
navigation route on freeways only (“on-ramp to off-ramp”), change
lanes (automatically, without needing to activate the turn signal) as
needed, even handle freeway interchanges. Once the vehicle is off the
freeway, the driver takes over again.
Presently only Tesla is able to achieve the additional three mentioned
above with their Full Self-Driving and Enhanced Autopilot options
on ‘Hardware 2’ vehicles.
Isn’t This Just Automated Cruise Control with Lane Centering?
If you step back and look at the core of what’s being provided, we’re
really talking about automated cruise control with the ability to steer
itself (keep the vehicle centered in the lane). However, the second part
(steering) is critical and one of the most difficult tasks, which we’ll
explain below.
Lane Keeping Assist vs Automated Lane Centering (steering)
One of the most confusing aspects of choosing a good autopilot
system is understanding the difference between what’s often called
“Lane Keeping Assist” (LKA) and automated steering where the
system is actually keeping the car centered at all times with no driver
input (other than hands on the wheel, if the system requires it).
Almost all major car companies have some sort of LKA functionality,
however, that usually means helping to move the vehicle back to the
center of the lane if it drifts. Some systems are robust enough where
you could keep your hands off the wheel for a short period of time so
it feels like automated steering to a certain degree.
In reality, the future systems will be ones that can accurately identify
the road and combine that with map data to ensure the car can steer
itself on the road as good or better than a human driver. So far, only
Tesla and GM’s Super Cruise are able to do that, but only in certain
conditions (e.g. the road only has mild curves).
The bottom line is, if you see “Lane Keeping Assist”, be sure to dig
into that feature and test drive it on the freeway to understand whether
it automatically keeps the system centered in the lane automatically,
and how well it does it. The last thing you want is a false sense of
security and have the car drift into another lane or off the road.
What About Basic Safety Features?
Most all cars that have autopilot-like features, also have fairly
common automated safety systems included, called Advanced Driver
Assistance Systems (ADAS) within the industry. These core safety
features include:
Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) to avoid a front-end
collision if a large object is detected ahead, in addition to collision
warnings
Blind Spot Monitoring to alert a driver if another car is in the blind
spot
Lane Departure Warning to alert the driver if they are drifting out of
the lane
All these features are “must-have” today and you should double-
check to ensure they are included with your vehicle and package
options.
AutoPilot Technology Suppliers
Historically, most auto manufacturers have relied on Original
Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), like Mobileye, Delphi and Bosch,
etc. to provide autopilot parts and technologies for their cars,
including things like navigation systems. This allows the auto
manufacturers to concentrate on developing and marketing the core
cars themselves while other companies focus on specialized parts and
technology.
Mobileye, which was purchased by Intel, is arguably the leading
OEM in providing autopilot technology, via their EyeQ line of visual
perception chips, to auto manufacturers. They famously provided
Autopilot technology for the first-generation Tesla Model S vehicles
that came with Enhanced Autopilot. Later, Tesla began to develop its
own technology as Elon Musk wanted to push autonomous driving
technology faster. Mobileye previously focused on perception
technology (i.e. identifying objects) with its EyeQ chips and it was up
to the manufacturers to integrate driving control hardware and
software but now Mobileye is also beginning to offer “full-stack”
autopilot solutions. Today Mobileye is providing autopilot-like
technology to manufacturers such as Audi, BMW and Nissan via their
EyeQ 4 and EyeQ 5 chipsets.
NVIDIA is close behind Mobileye in developing autopilot features. In
fact, their latest ADAS system is termed “Autopilot” (see this article).
NVIDIA comes from a gaming / AI chipset development background
and rightfully believes that more powerful AI-like system will be
required in cars to achieve reliable full-self driving. They are
supplying solutions to Volvo and Mercedes for their future vehicles.
Other startups and companies, like Cruise (GM), Aurora, Argo and
Zoox (now Amazon) are also gaining momentum, but are primarily
focused on robo-taxis and are in testing phases rather than large-scale
rollouts.
That said, many car manufacturers are developing their own
technology as they feel it’s critical as a future differentiator. Tesla is
most famous in this regard, having created a sophisticated Autopilot
system using a neural network based on cameras. Toyota, Honda and
Subaru have also created their own systems.
Why does it matter? Generally speaking, dedicated OEMs like
Mobileye can innovate faster than auto manufacturers. However,
some auto manufacturers like Tesla are innovating so quickly that
they push over-the-air software updates to their cars, just like your
smartphone. Most traditional auto manufacturers don’t update
software, requiring you to purchase a new model year instead.
Regardless, all manufacturers are beholden to regulatory approval
before bringing new autonomous driving technology to the market.
1. Background
With the gradual maturing of automated driving technology, various types of
autonomous vehicles are being used more and more. The original intention of
intelligent driving technology was to improve traffic efficiency and reduce
accidents. In recent years, the comfort of intelligent vehicles has become a
standard for evaluating their quality and has been paid more and more
attention. When choosing an intelligent vehicle, safety and comfort are the first
factors to be considered which directly affect the acceptance and purchase
degree of consumers. There is a close relationship between the comfort of
intelligent vehicles and passengers’ trust and acceptance of them. In other
words, improving comfort contributes to the popularity of intelligent vehicles.
The comfort of the vehicle includes driving comfort and riding comfort. Driving
comfort mainly exists in manual driving scenarios. As the level of automated
driving is further improved from the L3 level, the vehicle cockpit will become
more intelligent. The driving task will be automatically taken over by the vehicle,
and the driver’s driving status will be transformed into that of a normal
passenger. Therefore, the vehicle cockpit will become the third space for work,
play, and social interaction. The comfort evaluation of the vehicle’s intelligent
cockpit will also be transformed into the comfort evaluation of passengers. With
the application of intelligent driving technology and the transformation of the
driver’s identity, the interior of the vehicle cockpit will be redesigned, and
comfort research based on the passengers’ riding experience will be particularly
important. Therefore, it is necessary to establish intelligent vehicle comfort
evaluation standards and models.

2. Passenger Comfort
The research on vehicle comfort has a long history, but there is no unified and
clear definition of comfort in academia. Comfort is considered a state
of relaxation, pleasure, and subjective feeling, according to The Merriam-
Webster Dictionary. Richards pointed out that comfort is a subjective state in
which people respond to the environment or a situation [11]. Slater defines
comfort as a state of physical, psychological, and physiological harmony
between a person and the environment [12].
The debate around comfort has largely centered on the understanding of the
difference between comfort and discomfort. Overall, there are two
interpretations of comfort. One view holds that comfort is two discrete states:
comfort and discomfort. Typically, comfort is defined as the absence of
discomfort. Branton also considered comfort to be a state of lack of negativity
that does not necessarily indicate positivity. Summala also noted that comfort is
pleasant and not experienced in the face of high arousal. From this point of view,
as long as the passengers in the vehicle do not feel uncomfortable, it can be
considered comfortable. Therefore, passengers in a comfortable state may
ignore the fact that they are in a car. Another view of comfort argues that
comfort and discomfort are not one-dimensional assumptions on the same
continuous scale. Multiple ones have shown that comfort and discomfort are
affected by different variables; therefore, Zhang et al. pointed out that the main
goal of focus on comfort is to distinguish variables related to comfort and
discomfort. Although there is no agreement on a definition of comfort, scholars
generally agree that most definitions have in common: (1) comfort is subjective;
(2) comfort is influenced by both internal and external factors; (3) comfort is a
feeling for something or reaction in the environment.
In summary, although scholars have different views on the definition of comfort,
they all agree that comfort is generally associated with positivity, relaxation, and
pleasure. At the same time, comfort is also associated with the absence of
discomfort and restlessness, according to perceptions of comfort. Therefore,
passenger comfort in an automated vehicle can be considered as the passenger
not feeling discomfort in the vehicle cockpit or is being a state of physical and
psychological relaxation and pleasure.

3. Evaluation Criteria and Models for Passenger

Comfort in Automated Vehicles
In an intelligent vehicle cockpit, the comfort of passengers will be affected by
the internal and external environment. When evaluating passenger comfort in a
vehicle cockpit, the occupant, vehicle, and cockpit should be considered as a
system. Vibration and noise caused by the vehicle itself and the road, air
movement, temperature in the cockpit, lighting conditions,
seat ergonomics and so on, will affect the comfort of the passengers in the
cockpit. In addition, individual passenger characteristics and sitting posture can
also lead to differences in comfort or discomfort.
In traditional automobiles, the most common practice is to use the car seat as
the object to measure the vehicle vibration, acceleration, and other indicators
to determine comfort. After the vertical vibration of the vehicle and the shifting
shock are transmitted to the passengers, the discomfort felt by adults and
children is also different. Through dummy experiments and data statistics, the
noise level in the vehicle can be obtained, which can then be used to establish
the relationship between noise and comfort. In addition, different road
conditions and engine-induced noises have different effects on passenger
comfort. The vehicle acoustic comfort index can be used to build an optimization
model. Therefore, the relationship between engine noise and vibration can be
paid attention, and the rules of acoustic comfort in passenger vehicle cockpits
can also be obtained. Cockpit temperature is also one of the main factors
affecting passenger comfort. It was found that the flow field and temperature
field of the passenger compartment can affect the thermal comfort of the
occupants. Vehicles’ thermal comfort is affected by solar radiation, body heat
insulation effects, average radiation temperature, and exposure time. The
infrared reflection treatment of vehicle glass can reduce the air temperature in
the vehicle cockpit, which is also beneficial to improving passenger comfort and
vehicle economy. In addition, economical sensors can be used to monitor the
temperature distribution in the cockpit, thereby improving thermal comfort. At
the same time, the lighting function in the cockpit cannot be ignored, which can
improve the driver’s driving comfort and occupant reading. The lighting in the
cockpit is also affected by the instrumentation in the cockpit. If there is glare and
so on, driving fatigue can easily result, which will lead to improper operation and
traffic accidents. With the development of automated driving technology, the
ergonomic intelligent cockpit has been redesigned and rearranged with regard
to ISO standards. There are more and more human–computer interaction
functions in the intelligent cockpit. In addition to the traditional physical
interface of the cockpit, the individual characteristics of the passengers, sitting
posture and so on, all have an impact on comfort.
A combination of subjective and objective evaluation is generally used for
vehicle comfort evaluation. Using data measurement and passenger scoring, a
passenger evaluation model for the ride comfort of a vehicle can be obtained.
From the above, it can be seen that there is a lack of models for comprehensive
evaluation of the comfort of vehicle cockpits. With the development of
intelligent vehicles, the intelligent cockpit has been redesigned and rearranged,
and the passenger experience has been further improved, so it is more and more
necessary to comprehensively evaluate the comfort of the intelligent cockpit.
 High-Resolution Touch Screen Display Monitors

The ‘Control System Dashboard’ is the head unit of any automotive infotainment
system. The touchscreen presents a compact display with large buttons and
icons for safety and ease of operation during driving. The menu consists of
multimedia icons to control and use various features such as radio, map,
Bluetooth hands-free facility, music streaming, voice control, weather change,
etc.

Voice Recognition

Voice recognition allows the driver to operate a car’s functions via voice
command. By speaking directions, the driver can run features such as
navigation, radio, phone media, call, and even air condition temperature,
instead of using the physical buttons on the dashboard. In order to enhance
comfort and safety for the driver and passengers, Voice recognition in cars is
being gradually used. With voice commands, the driver will spend less time
fiddling with buttons or touchscreens, and instead, both hands can be kept on
the wheel and eyes kept on the road. Most the automotive cars have the
capability to learn the driver’s voice over time and understand phrases and
words that make it easier to use, while others are being developed to be able to
respond to requests such as ‘I want to refuel – it’ll then give you your options as
to where you’ll be able to find one nearby fuel station.
 Seatback Display

The car seat-back display also known as the rear-seat display is designed to
entertain passengers sitting in the rear. The smart display screens offer an easy
way for passengers to connect to AV devices without any hassle. The seat-back
display unit allows passengers to enjoy music, shows, games, and even movies
in high resolution via external memory devices or real-time streaming. In
addition, to offer audio and video entertainment, rear-seat entertainment
displays are now offering email and Internet connectivity. It can also provide
information regarding the vehicle, its navigation, and its connectivity.
 Smartphone Integration

Integrating smartphones into cars or any other vehicle via the Infotainment
system provides a safe, smart, and convenient way for drivers to use their
smartphones on the go without any distraction. Pairing your smartphone with
the vehicle infotainment system, either using hand-free Bluetooth connectivity,
USB or Wi-Fi enables you to easily and conveniently access various features of
the phone via the dashboard of the car. It allows the driver to make or receive
calls, send a voice message, read texts, play music, and radio, stream data for
navigation, play podcasts, and much more. One of the key features of a
smartphone integrated solution is that it provides hands-free operations
typically through voice recognition and text-to-speech interfaces of the
smartphone. The Bluetooth paired smartphone with the infotainment system
displays the phone’s contact list, messages, appointments, notifications, music
details, and other information on the dashboard screen for easy access and a
seamless user experience.
 Aftermarket to In-built Infotainment Systems

The biggest factor that separates the cars of today from previous cars is the
integration of electronics, infotainment systems, and connectivity in almost
every aspect. Over time, the car cockpit has evolved from integrating an after-
market, pluggable audio system as an option to advanced in-built infotainment
systems providing an enhanced experience to the driver. Large analog tuners
and buttons have been replaced by touch screens and elegant soft-touch pads.
The audio and video controls are elegantly integrated on steering wheels to
provide a superior user experience and minimize safety-related issues.

Automotive Navigation System

The navigation system in automobiles uses GPS data to inform or alert the driver
about traffic, congestion, collision, etc. Combining the use of interactive
onboard maps and GPS data, the vehicle can plot the best routes to a given
destination. The navigation system is also capable of accurately tracking the
present place or live position of the vehicle to provide the information to the
driver on-screen, without any distractions. This navigation system feature
enhances the safety of the driver and passengers, and eventually reduces the
stress level while driving.
 Embedded Processors

The Driver Drowsiness Monitoring System uses automotive-grade image sensors

that capture infrared images of the driver’s eyes, using patented pupil
identification technology and a high-speed digital signal processor to analyze &
identify if the driver is either drowsy or distracted. The contactless setup and a
sophisticated algorithm give the device the ability to understand the state of
drivers even in tricky conditions like in presence of strong lighting during noon
hours, drivers wearing sunglasses, etc.