Lifespan Development Canadian 5th Edition Boyd Solutions Manual 1

Solutions Manual for Lifespan Development
Canadian 5th Edition Boyd Johnson Bee 0205911978

9780205911974
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CHAPTER 4
PHYSICAL, SENSORY, AND PERCETPUAL
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 4?
▪ Updated Canadian infant nutrition and immunization guidelines
▪ Effects of Visual Deprivation, Canadian researchers have studied the effects of early visual
deprivation caused by congenital cataracts (treated in infancy) on the development of face
processing and have reported several key findings.
▪ New Canadian research on intersensory integration in infants
Additional Material
▪ Canadian statistics and reports: Canadian nutrition guidelines for babies, immunization
schedules, infant mortality, SIDS, and not-to-term babies.
▪ Canadian theory and research: infant colic—Clifford, et al.; motor skill development—Eaton—
Zelazo; visual perception—Maurer & Lewis; speech perception and language development—
Werker—Holowka & Petitto—Nicoladis & Genesee—Bialystok.
▪ Neonatal intensive care nursing: applying developmental knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Special Features
▪ The Real World/Parenting: Nutrition from Birth to One Year
▪ Developmental Psychology in your Career: Neonatal Intensive Care Nurse
▪ Research Report: Babies Preferences for Attractive Faces
MyPsychLab
Visit www.mypsychlab.com to help you get the best grade! Test your knowledge and grasp difficult concepts through
• Custom study plans: See where you are strong and • Video and audio clips
where you go wrong • Raise your own Virtual Child—and much more!
• Interactive simulations
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LEARNING GOALS
After completing Chapter 4, students should be able to understand the following topics regarding
physical, sensory and perceptual development in infancy. Student should be able to do the following:
I. Physical Changes (page 100):

▪ Trace the development of the brain and the nervous system during the first two years.
▪ Describe the many changes that occur in infant’s bodies, and how their health can be
maintained.
▪ Describe the development of muscles, bones, lungs, and the heart, and their impact on motor
skills during infancy.
▪ Identify the health issues of infants.
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2 Lifespan Development, 5th Canadian Edition
Chapter 4: Physical, Sensory, and Perceptual Development in Infancy 2
▪ Summarize factors that influence breastfeeding in Canada..

▪ Discuss the developmental issues of infants who are preterm and low birth weight.
▪ Describe recent changes in post-term delivery in Canada
▪ Summarize the research on when preterm infants catch up with full-term infants.
▪ Identify the factors influencing infant mortality
▪ Summarize some of the factors associated with SIDS
▪ Summarize the role of the neonatal intensive care nurse along with the requisite
developmental knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
II. Sensory Skills (page 113):

▪ Describe the reflexes, sensory abilities, and behavioural states of an infant
▪ Trace the development of vision during infancy.
III. Perceptual Skills (page 116):

▪ Describe the perceptual skills of infants.
▪ Describe the “looking” behaviour of infants
▪ Summarize the research on babies’ preferences for attractive faces.
▪ Explain the importance of intersensory integration and cross-modal transfer.
TEACHING NOTES
Lecture Launcher:
Now that a few weeks of study have foucsed on the significant child development theories, it
might be motivating to introduce the class to the more global issues regarding child
development.
Visit the following weblinks:
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx
Identify and Discuss the The United Nations Declaration of the Rights of the Child
http://www.unicef.org/lac/spbarbados/Legal/global/General/declaration_child1959.pdf
I. PHYSICAL CHANGES
During infancy, babies grow 25 to 30cm and triple their body weight in the first year. At about age
two for girls and age two-and-a-half for boys, toddlers are half as tall as they will be as adults. A
person’s adult height can be reliably predicted by doubling his or her height at age two to two-and-a-
half. Two-year-olds have proportionately much larger heads than do adults—obviously needed to
hold their nearly full-sized brains.
Discussion Question: Predict the result if babies continued to grow throughout

childhood at the same rate they grow during the first year. (Think deeper than just size;
include what you know about the cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles of
development.)
A. The Brain and the Nervous System
Lecture Recap:
A Parent’s Guide to Early Brain Development
http://www.cich.ca/PDFFiles/FirstYearsEngWEB.pdf
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4.1 Learning Objective: Describe what important changes in the brain take place during
infancy. (pages 100-102)
At birth, the midbrain and the medulla are the most fully developed structures of the brain. These two
parts, both in the lower area of the skull and connected to the spinal cord, regulate vital functions such
as heartbeat and respiration as well as attention, sleeping, waking, elimination, and movement of the
head and neck—all tasks a newborn can perform at least moderately well. The least developed part of
the brain at birth is the cortex, the convoluted grey matter that wraps around the midbrain and is
involved in perception, body movement, thinking, and language.
Discussion Question: What do you think would happen if the cortex was well-
developed at birth and the midbrain and medulla were not well-developed?
ExploreMyPsychLab.com:
Watch the Brain and the Nervous System.
Synaptic Development: All these brain structures are composed of two basic types of cells, neurons
and glial cells. Virtually all of both types of cells are already present at birth. The developmental
process after birth primarily involves the creation of synapses, or connections between neurons.
Synapse development results from the growth of both dendrites and axons. Synaptogenesis, the
creation of synapses, occurs at a rapid rate in the cortex during the first two years after birth, resulting
in a tripling of the overall weight of the brain during those years.
Discussion Question: If a child is born with fewer neurons and glial cells than normal,
what might be the long-range prognosis?
Brain development is not entirely smooth and continuous. An initial burst of synapse formation in the
first year or so after birth is followed by synaptic pruning in each area of the brain, as redundant
pathways and connections are eliminated and the “wiring diagram” is cleaned up.
Some neurophysiologists have suggested that the initial surge of synapse formation follows a built-in
pattern. The organism seems to be programmed to create certain kinds of neural connections and does
so in abundance, creating redundant pathways. According to this argument, the pruning that then
takes place beginning at around 18 months is a response to experience, resulting in the selective
retention of the most efficient pathways. Some synapses, however, are formed entirely as a result of
experience, and synaptogenesis continues throughout our lives as we learn new skills. Basic motor
and sensory processes may initially follow built-in patterns, with pruning then based on experience.
Pruning does not occur at the same time in all parts of the brain; the combination of the early surge of
synaptic growth and then pruning means that the one-year-old actually has a denser set of dendrites
and synapses than an adult does. Pruning continues in this spurt-like pattern throughout childhood
and adolescence.
There are three important implications from information about neurological development.
▪ A kind of “programmed plasticity” is built into the human organism. Neuroplasticity refers to the
brain’s remarkable ability to reorganize itself, to make the wiring diagram more efficient, and to
find compensatory pathways following some injury. This plasticity is greater in infancy that it is
later. The period of greatest plasticity is also the period in which the child may be most
vulnerable to major deficits. A really inadequate diet or a serious lack of stimulation in the early
months may cause subtle but long-lasting effects on the child’s later cognitive progress.
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§ The brain changes significantly throughout the entire human lifespan. New information about the
continuation of the pruning process throughout childhood and adolescence and into adulthood has
forced developmental psychologists to change their ideas about the links between brain
development and behaviour.
Discussion Question: Someone might argue that programs like Head Start— designed to
alleviate the negative effects of poverty—begin too late. Perhaps we ought to aim any
supplementary stimulation programs at infants. What do you think?
Key Terms
▪ synapses
▪ synaptogenesis
▪ synaptic pruning
▪ neuroplasticity
Myelinization: Another crucial process in neuronal development is the creation of sheath, or

coverings, around individual axons, which electrically insulate them from one another and improve
the conductivity of the nerve. These sheaths are made of a substance called myelin; the process of
developing the sheath is called myelinization.
The sequence of myelinization follows both cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns. For example,
nerves serving muscle cells in the hands are myelinized earlier than those serving the feet.
Myelinization is most rapid during the first two years after birth, but it continues at a slower pace
throughout childhood and adolescence. Other structures take even longer to become myelinized. For
example, the reticular formation is responsible for keeping your attention on what you’re doing and
for helping you sort out important and unimportant information. Myelinization of the reticular
formation begins in infancy, but continues in spurts across childhood and adolescence and is complete
in the mid-20s.
Discussion Question: What might happen if myelinization did not occur?
Key Terms
▪ myelinization
▪ reticular formation
Lecture Recap:
A Parent’s Guide to Early Brain Development
http://www.cich.ca/PDFFiles/FirstYearsEngWEB.pdf
B. Reflexes, and Behavioural States
4.2 Learning Objective: Describe how infants’ reflexes and behavioural states change.
(pages 102-104)
Changes in the brain result in predictable changes in babies’ reflexes, sensory capacities, and patterns
of waking and sleeping. Such changes, or the lack thereof, can be important indicators of nervous
system health.
Discussion Question: Why do you suppose that changes, or the lack of these changes,
may indicate nervous system health?
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Reflexes: Neonates have many adaptive reflexes that help them survive. Some, such as automatically
sucking any object that enters the mouth, disappear in infancy or childhood. Others protect us against
harmful stimuli over the whole lifespan, such as withdrawal from a painful stimulus. Weak or absent
adaptive reflexes in neonates suggest that the brain is not functioning properly and that the baby
requires additional assessment.
The term primitive reflexes — is used, because they are controlled by the more primitive parts of the
brain (the medulla and midbrain); but why this is so is less clear. For example, if you make a loud
noise or startle a baby in some way, you’ll see her throw her arms outward and arch her back, a
pattern that is part of the Moro or startle reflex. Stroke the bottom of her feet, and she will splay out
her toes and then curl them in, a reaction called the Babinski reflex. By about six months of age,
primitive reflexes disappear. When such reflexes persist past about six months, there may be some
kind of neurological problem.
Discussion Question: What would be different about development, and about adult-
baby interactions, if babies were born without any reflexes, but instead had to learn
every behaviour?
ExploreMyPsychLab.com:
Watch the video Period of the Newborn’s Reflexes
Explore the icon next to Reflexes and Behavioural States
Key Terms
▪ adaptive reflexes
▪ primitive reflexes
Behavioural States: Researchers have described five different states of sleep and wakefulness in
neonates, referred to as states of consciousness. Most infants move through these states in the same
sequence: from deep sleep to lighter sleep to fussing and hunger and then to alert wakefulness. After
they are fed, they become drowsy and drop back into deep sleep. The cycle repeats itself about every
two hours. Neonates sleep as much as 90 percent of the time. By six or eight weeks of age, the total
amount of sleep per day has dropped somewhat, and we see signs of day/night sleep rhythms, called
circadian rhythms. Babies this age begin to string two or three two-hour cycles together, at which
point we say that the baby can “sleep through the night.” By six months of age, babies are still
sleeping over 14 hours per day, but the regularity and predictability of the baby’s sleep is even more
noticeable. Of course, babies vary a lot around these averages.
Infants have a whole repertoire of cry sounds, with different cries for pain, anger, or hunger. The
basic cry, which often signals hunger, is usually a rhythmical pattern. An anger cry is typically louder
and more intense, and the pain cry normally has a very abrupt onset—unlike the more basic kinds of
cries, which usually begin with whimpering or moaning.
Cross-cultural studies suggest that crying increases in frequency over the first six weeks, and then
tapers off. Parents across a variety of cultures use very similar techniques to soothe crying infants.
Most babies stop crying when they are picked up, held, and talked or sung to. Parents sometimes
worry that picking up a crying baby will lead to even more crying. Research suggests that prompt
attention to a crying baby in the first three months actually leads to less crying later in infancy.
Critical Thinking Question: What advice would you give to parents who believe that
picking up a baby when she cries will “spoil” her?
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For the up to 20 percent of infants who develop colic, a pattern involving intense bouts of crying,
totalling three or more hours a day, nothing seems to help. Neither psychologists nor physicians know
why colic begins, or why it stops without any intervention. It is a difficult pattern to live with, but it
goes away at about three or four months of age.
To test the common belief that colic is related to a baby’s diet, University of Western Ontario medical
researchers tracked the feeding patterns of 856 mother-infant pairs of which almost one in four of the
infants were rated as colicky. They found that there was no significant difference in colic ratings
regardless of whether an infant was exclusively breastfed, bottle formula-fed or was fed by a
combination of breast milk and nonhuman milk. This study suggests that changing an infant’s diet or
early weaning is generally uncalled for.
Discussion Question: Speculate as to some of the implications of the baby’s sleep

pattern and crying behaviour on the parent-infant relationship.
Key Terms
▪ states of consciousness
▪ colic
C. Developing Body Systems and Motor Skills
4.3 Learning Objective: Outline how infants’ bodies change, and the typical pattern of
motor skill development in the first two years. (pages 104-106)
The acquisition of motor skills depends on brain development as well as the development of bones,
muscles, lungs, and the heart.
Discussion Question: Why do you suppose an infant’s bones are softer than an adult’s?
Bones: During infancy, bones change in size, number, and composition. Increases in the body’s long
bones, such as the legs, underlie increases in height. Changes in the number and density of bones in
particular parts of the body are responsible for improvements in coordinated movement, such as the
wrist. The process of bone hardening, called ossification, occurs steadily beginning in the last weeks
of prenatal development and continuing through puberty. Bones in different parts of the body harden
in a sequence that follows the typical proximodistal and cephalocaudal patterns. Motor development
depends on ossification to a large extent.
Explore MyPsychLab.com
Watch the video by Karen Adolph regarding the Period of Motor Development in
Infants and Toddlers.
Muscles: Muscle fibres are virtually all present at birth although they are initially small and watery
and contain a fairly high proportion of fat. Changes in muscle composition lead to increases in
strength that enable one-year-olds to walk, run, and climb, and so on.
Lungs and Heart: The lungs grow rapidly and become more efficient during the first two years.
Improvements in lung efficiency, together with the increasing strength of heart muscles, provide the
two-year-old with greater stamina, or ability to maintain activity, than that of the newborn. By the end
of infancy, children are capable of engaging in fairly long periods of sustained motor activity without
rest.
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Motor Skills: Changes in all of the body’s systems are responsible for the impressive array of motor
skills children acquire in the first two years. Developmentalists typically divide these skills into the
following three rough groups:
▪ locomotor patterns
▪ non-locomotor patterns
▪ actions involving receiving and moving objects
Canadian norms are currently being developed through Warren Eaton’s on-going Infant Milestone
Study. Although the timing of the first time a baby sits, crawls, and walks is variable, the researchers
have so far observed a seasonal trend whereby babies born in the spring reach crawling and walking
millstones at a younger age.
Explaining Motor Skills Development: The sequence of motor skills development is virtually the
same for all children, even those with serious physical or mental handicaps. Intellectually delayed
children move through the various motor milestones more slowly than normal children, but they
follow the same sequence. Motor skill development follows the two principles of development—
cephalocaudal and proximodistal. Whenever we find such consistencies, maturation of some kind
seems an obvious explanation.
Discussion Question: What are some other factors, beside mental retardation, that might
affect the rate of the development of motor skills?
Gender Differences: Just as they were prenatally, girls continue to be ahead in some aspects of
physical maturity during infancy. Boys are more likely to suffer from developmental delays, are less
healthy, and have higher mortality rates. Boys are more physically active, and are more likely to
display physical aggression.
D. Health Promotion and Wellness
4.4 Learning Objective: Discuss the health issues of infants. (pages 106-109)
Nutrition: Breast-feeding is substantially superior nutritionally to bottle-feeding. Breast milk

provides important antibodies for the infant against many kinds of diseases, especially gastrointestinal
and upper respiratory infections. It also promotes the growth of the nerves and intestinal tract,
contributes to more rapid weight and size gain, and possibly stimulates better immune system
function over the long term. On the down side, some viruses, including HIV, can be transmitted
through breast milk.
Canadian experts caution that breastfeeding is not recommended for all babies. Breastfeeding mothers
who are taking any medication should consult their primary care practitioner to determine if safer
alternatives are available or whether to stop breast-feeding altogether.
Discussion Question: What specific changes in policies or practices do you think would
increase the rate of breast-feeding in Canada?
Up until four to six months, babies need only breast milk or formula accompanied by appropriate
supplements. There is no evidence to support the belief that solid foods encourage babies to sleep
through the night. In fact, early introduction of solid foods can actually interfere with nutrition until
four to six months of age.
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Classroom Discussion: It is clear that nutrition in infancy is essential to the health and
development of children. Malnutrition, however, still exists even in industrialized
countries. In small groups, identify policies and procedures that could be implemented to
increase the nutrition of infants. What long-range economic benefits could result?
Malnutrition: Malnutrition in infancy can seriously impair an infant’s brain because the nervous
system is the most rapidly developing body system during the first two years.
▪ Macronutrient malnutrition results from a diet that contains too few calories. It is the leading
cause of death of children under the age of five.
▪ When the calorie deficit is severe, a disease called marasmus results. Infants with marasmus
weigh less than 60 percent of the weight expected for their age, and many suffer permanent
neurological damage from the disease. Most also suffer from parasitic damage from the disease
which makes it very difficult to treat marasmus by simply increasing an infant’s intake of
calories.
▪ Some infants’ diets contain almost enough calories, but not enough protein, which can lead to a
disease called kwashikor. It is common in countries where infants are weaned too early to low-
protein foods. Like marasmus, kwashikor can lead to a variety of health problems as well as
permanent brain damage.
▪ Most nutritional problems in industrialized societies involve micronutrient malnutrition. It is a
deficiency of certain vitamins and/or minerals, such as iron or calcium. Such deficiencies,
although more common among the poor, are found in children of all economic levels. Iron-
deficiency anaemia may impede both social and language development.
Development in the Real World

Nutrition from Birth to One Year
Some of the socio-cultural factors that are associated with the prevalence of breastfeeding include
one’s home province, the subculture one belongs to, immigration status, and socio-economic status.
Discussion Question: Why do you think that women from different provinces and
different cultural and socio-economic backgrounds have differing attitudes toward
breastfeeding?
Key Terms
▪ Eating Well with Canada’s Food Guide
§ macronutrients
▪ micronutrients
Health Care and Immunizations: Infants need frequent medical check-ups. While much of well baby
care may seem routine, it is extremely important to babies’ development. For example, during routine
visits to the doctor’s office or health clinic, babies’ motor skills are usually assessed. An infant whose
motor development is less advanced than expected for his age may require additional screening for
developmental problems such as mental retardation.
Discussion Question: Why is slow motor development a possible indicator of mental

retardation?
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One of the most important features of well baby care is the opportunity it provides for the vaccination
of the infant against a variety of diseases. Although immunizations later in childhood provide good
protection against these diseases, the evidence suggests that immunization is most effective when it
begins in the 2nd month of life and continues across childhood and adolescence.
A full set of immunizations includes vaccines for: diphtheria/tetanus/pertussis, influenza,
pneumococcal disease, meningococcal disease, polio, measles/mumps/rubella, hepatitis, and chicken
pox. Recent history suggests that the public can easily become complacent about immunizations; it is
important to remember that diseases like measles will remain rare only as long as parents are diligent
in obtaining immunizations for their children.
Classroom Activity: Play the role of health-care worker. In small groups, list reasons
why parents might not obtain immunizations for infants. Then list ideas to overcome the
reason.
Illnesses in the First 2 Years: The average baby has seven respiratory illnesses in the first year of
life. Babies in day-care centres have about twice as many infections as those reared entirely at home.
In general, the more people a baby is exposed to, the more often she is likely to get sick.
Neuropsychologists have suggested that the timing of respiratory illnesses that can lead to ear
infections is important. Infants who have chronic ear infections are more likely to have learning
disabilities and language deficits during the school years than their peers. The reason may be because
ear infections temporarily impair hearing, thus compromising the development of brain areas that are
essential for language learning. As a result, most paediatricians emphasize the need for effective
hygiene practices in day-care centres, such as the periodic disinfection of all toys, as well as prompt
treatment of infants’ respiratory infections.
Discussion Question: Formulate an idea about how an infant’s suffering a series of ear
infections might affect the social environment that supports language development. Do
you think it’s possible for ear infections in infancy to affect language development for
social as well as neurological reasons?
E. Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants

4.5 Learning Objective: Discuss the developmental issues of preterm and low birth
weight infants. (pages 109-110)
Infants born before 32 weeks gestation may not have adaptive reflexes, such as sucking and
swallowing that are sufficiently developed to enable them to survive. Consequently, many preterm
infants must be fed intravenously or through a tube inserted into the esophagus or stomach. Infants
born preterm or with low birth weight move more slowly through all the developmental milestones
mentioned earlier. This should be expected when we remember that preterm babies are, in fact,
maturationally younger than the full-term baby. They are about ten to 15 weeks behind their full-term
peers on most physical skills. By age two or three, the physically normal preterm baby will catch up
with his peers.
F. Post-Term Infants
4.6 Learning Objective: Identify the general outcomes of post-term infants. (page 110)
Infants born 42 weeks or more after conception are post-term. The incidence of high-risk post-term
deliveries has dropped dramatically to about 1.2% in Canada; in part because of a change in delivery
protocols.
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10 Lifespan Development, 5th CanadianChapter
Edition 4: Physical, Sensory, and Perceptual Development in Infancy 10
G. Infant Mortality in Canada

4.7 Learning Objective: Discuss the issue of infant mortality in Canada. (pages 110-
113)
About half of infant deaths in Canada occur in the neonate. Over the past century Canada’s rate of infant
mortality has shown a dramatic rate of decline and is now from 134 per 1000 live births in 1901 to 27
in the 1960s to just 5 in 2006 (Conference Board of Canada [CBofC], 2010; Health Canada,
1998a, 2003b; Wilkens, Houle, Berthelot, & Ross, 2000). Still, despite Canada's high calibre of health
care, it has made less progress in reducing infant deaths than many other nations--of 17 peer
countires, Canada is now tied with the UK for the second highest infant mortality rate--only the US
performs worse (CBofC, 2010).
Moreover, infant mortality rates for First Nations and Inuit are two and four times higher,
respectively, than the general Canadian population (McShane, Smylie & Adomako, 2009). Although
living closer to an urban setting is associated with lower infant mortality rates for non-First Nations,
there was no such difference for First Nations (Luo, et al. 2010). The rates of infant mortality for First
Nations were the same in rural and urban environments, suggesting there is a need for improved
urban First Nations' infant care in light of increasing urban migration.
Key Term
▪ infant mortality
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): in which an apparently healthy infant dies suddenly and
unexpectedly, is the leading cause of death between one month and one year of age. Researchers have
not yet uncovered the underlying cause(s) of SIDS, but some factors have been shown to reduce risk.
Parents and caregivers can provide a safe sleep environment that reduces the risk of SIDS by
▪ placing the baby on his back when he sleeps (CPS, 2009; Carpenter et al., 2003; Trifunov,2009)
▪ eliminating quilts, duvets, pillows, soft toys, and crib bumpers that may cover the infant’s head; a
fitted sheet on a crib mattress that meets current Canadian safety regulations is best (CPS, 2009)
▪ avoid laying the baby on soft surfaces or on loose bedding (such as bunched-up blankets or
cushions) to sleep or nap, either alone or with someone else (CPS, 2009)
▪ having the baby sleep in a crib or a cot near to the parent’s bed for the first 6 months (CPS,2009;
McIntosh, Tonkin, & Gunn, 2009)
▪ avoiding bed sharing or otherwise sleeping or napping with the baby on a sofa, especially if the
parents smoke, are more tired than usual, or have consumed alcohol or other substances that
promote fatigue (CPS, 2009; Carpenter et al., 2004;Trifunov, 2009
▪ providing a smoke-free environment during pregnancy and in the home after the infant’s
birth(CPS, 2009;Trifunov, 2009)
Key Term
▪ sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
Developmental Psychology in your Career:

Neonatal Intensive Care Nurse
The neonatal intensive care nurse plans and provides care to critically ill neonates from birth to
transfer and/or discharge. They also provide care and information to families of high-risk neonates.
The neonatal intensive care nurse uses developmental knowledge about:
▪ perinatal risk factors
▪ disorders of growth and development
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▪ diagnostic and screening tests

▪ the impact of a sick newborn on family dynamics and functioning
Discussion Question: What are some of the choices a neonatal intensive care nurse
would discuss with the family of a high-risk neonate?
II. Sensory Skills
A. Vision
4.8 Learning Objective: Describe how infants’ visual abilities change across the first
months of life. (pages 113-114)
Visual Acuity: Visual acuity, the ability to see details from various distances, is fairly poor in newborns
compared to that of adults. If objects are positioned within eight to ten inches of their eyes, however,
they can focus on them. Newborns can also track slowly moving objects with their eyes, and they
learn to recognize their mothers’ faces soon after birth. Researchers have recently discovered that
measures of visual development in early infancy, like changes in reflexes, are correlated with mental
development at age 18 months. Babies’ senses of hearing, taste, touch, and smell are well- developed.
Key Term
▪ visual acuity
Tracking Objects in the Visual Field: The process of following a moving object with your eyes is
called tracking, and you do it every day in a variety of situations. Because a newborn can’t yet move
independently, a lot of her experiences with objects are with things that move toward her or away
from her. If she is to have any success in recognizing objects, she has to be able to keep her eyes on
them as they move—she has to be able to track. Infants younger than two months show some tracking
for brief periods if the target is moving very slowly, but somewhere around six to ten weeks a shift
occurs, and babies’ tracking becomes skilful rather quickly.
Key Term
▪ tracking
Colour Vision: Infants can and do see and discriminate among various colours. Infants’ ability to
sense colour, even in the earliest weeks of life, is almost identical to that of adults.
B. Hearing and Other Senses
4.9 Learning Objective: Describe how infants’ senses of hearing, smell, taste, touch,
and motion compare to those of older children and adults. (pages 114-116)
Auditory Acuity: Although children’s hearing improves up to adolescence, newborns’ auditory

acuity is actually better than their visual acuity. Within the general range of pitch and
loudness of the human voice, newborns hear nearly as well as adults do. Only with high-
pitched sounds is their auditory skills less than that of an adult.
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Detecting Locations: Another basic auditory skill that exists at birth but improves with age is the
ability to determine the location of a sound. Newborns can judge at least the general direction from
which a sound has come because they will turn their heads in roughly the right direction toward the
sound. Finer-grained location of sounds, however, is not well developed at birth, but by 18 months, it
is nearly at the level seen in adults.
Smelling and Tasting: Smelling and tasting are intricately related.

▪ Taste is detected by the taste buds on the tongue, which register four basic tastes: sweet, sour,
bitter, and salty. Newborns appear to respond differently to all four of the basic flavors.
▪ Smell is registered in the mucous membranes of the nose and has nearly unlimited variations.
Breast-fed babies as young as one week old can discriminate between their mother’s and other
women’s smells.
Senses of Touch and Motion: The infant’s senses of touch and motion may well be the best
developed of all. Reflexes, such as rooting and sucking, rely on the sense of touch. Babies appear to
be especially sensitive to touches on the mouth, the face, the hands, the soles of the feet, and the
abdomen. They are less sensitive in other parts of the body.
Key Term
▪ auditory acuity
III. Perceptual Skills
Perceptual skills focus on what the individual does with the sensory information—how it is
interpreted or combined.
A. Explaining Perceptual Development
4.10 Learning Objective: Describe how researchers study perceptual development in

infants. (pages 116-117)
Researchers use three basic methods that allow us to “ask” a baby about what he experiences.
▪ In the preference technique, the baby is simply shown two pictures or two objects, and the
researcher keeps track of how long the baby looks at each one.
Habituation: is the process of getting used to a stimulus. Its opposite is dishabituation, learning to
respond to a familiar stimulus as if it is new. Researchers present the baby with a particular sight or
sound over and over until she habituates (she stops looking at it or showing interest in it). Then
experimenters present another sight or sound or an object that is slightly different for the original one
and watch to see if the baby shows renewed interest (dishabituation). If so, you know that she
perceives the slightly changed sight or sound as “different” in some way from the original.
Classroom Activity: List examples of how we “habituate” information on a daily basis.
Discussion Question: Try to imagine a baby who is unable to habituate. What might be the
consequences of such a lack?
Discussion Question: Why is it important to researchers that habituation and dishabituation

indicate “the same” or “different?”
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▪ The principles of operant conditioning are the third option. An infant may be trained to turn her
head when she hears a particular sound. After the learned response is well established, the
experimenter can vary the sound in some systematic way to see whether or not the baby still turns
her head.
Explore MyPsychLab.com
Watch the video Period of Infancy: Habituation
Key Terms
▪ preference technique
▪ habituation
▪ dishabituation
B. Looking
4.11 Learning Objective: Detail how depth perception and patterns of looking change
over the first two years. (pages 117-121)
Developmentalists believe that infants’ patterns of looking at objects tell us a great deal about what they
are trying to gain from visual information.
Early Visual Stimulation: Appropriate visual stimulation in infancy is vital to the later development
of visual perception. Research supporting this was undertaken by McMaster University psychologists
Daphne Maurer, Terri Lewis, and their colleagues who were studying infants born with cataracts on
their eyes (infants who have cataracts have clouded vision and can see only light and dark). In a
longitudinal study, the researchers examined people aged 9 through 21, who, when they were between
2 and 6 months of age, had had cataracts removed and were then fitted with corrective lenses that
gave them normal vision. When these individuals were examined years later, they were found to have
subtle visual abnormalities. For example, they did not develop the ability to distinguish the relative
position of facial features in the same way that normally-sighted people do.
Although early deprivation of visual stimulation does not affect all visual processes, there are critical
periods of time in early infancy and beyond when an infant or child needs a specific quality of visual
stimulation to develop normal visual perception.
Depth Perception: One of the perceptual skills that has been most studied is depth perception. It is
possible to judge depth using any (or all) of three different kinds of information.
▪ Binocular cues involve both eyes, each of which receives a slightly different visual image of an
object. The closer the object is, the more different these two views. Information from the muscles
of the eyes also tells you something about how far away an object may be.
▪ Pictorial information, sometimes called monocular cues, requires input from only one eye. When
one object is partially in front of another one, you know that the partially hidden object is further
away—a cue called interposition. The relative size of two similar objects may also indicate that
the smaller-appearing one is further away. Linear perspective (like railroad lines that seem to get
closer together as they are further away) is another monocular cue.
▪ Kinetic cues come from either your own motion or the motion of some object. If you move your
head, objects near you seem to move more than objects further away, a phenomenon called
motion parallax. If you see some object moving, closer objects appear to move over larger
distances in a space of time.
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Infants seem to use kinetic information first, perhaps by about three months of age. Binocular
cures are used beginning at about four months. Linear perspective and pictorial cues are used
last, perhaps art five to seven months.
Key Terms
▪ depth perception
What Babies Look At: Although extremely nearsighted, babies scan the world around them from the
first days after birth. They keep moving their eyes until they come to a sharp light/dark contrast,
which typically signals the edge of some object. Having found an edge, the baby stops searching and
moves his eyes back and forth across and around the edge. At around two months of age, babies shift
their attention from where an object is to what an object is.
Several studies on infant perception suggest that many abilities and preferences are inborn. For
example, infants appear to discriminate between attractive and unattractive faces in the same way as
adults. Additionally, babies as young as three or four months old attend to relationships among
objects, or among features of objects. After seeing a series of pictures, babies will habituate, or
decrease attention because the stimulus has become familiar. Once habituation is established, you can
present a picture that illustrates the opposite pattern. Babies show renewed interest in the different
pattern; this tells us that the baby’s original habituation had not been to the specific stimuli but to a
pattern.
Classroom Activity: Ask the class to list examples of how we “habituate” information on
a daily basis.
Discussion Question: Try to imagine a baby who is unable to habituate. What might be
the consequences of such a lack?
Depth perception: the ability to judge how far away an object is, develops slowly across the first year.
It requires that the baby integrate visual information from both eyes at the same time. One reason this
skill takes a while to develop is that the baby’s movements provide her with experimental information
about distance and depth as she moves towards and away from objects. Thus, babies improve in depth
perception as they gain motor skills.
Faces: An Example of Responding to a Complex Pattern: Researchers have been especially

interested in babies’ perception of faces, not only because of the obvious relevance for parent-infant
relationships, but because of the possibility that there might be a built-in preference for faces or face-
like arrangements. There is, however, little indication that faces are uniquely interesting to infants.
Babies do not systematically choose to look at faces rather than at other complex pictures. On the
other hand, among faces, babies clearly prefer some to others. They prefer attractive faces, and they
prefer the mother’s face from the earliest hours after birth. When they scan a face, babies seem to
look mostly at the edges before about two months of age. At about two to three months, they focus on
the internal features of a face, particularly the eyes.
Research Report: Babies’ Preferences for Attractive Faces
Babies as young as two to three months old consistently preferred to look longer at faces that were rated
as attractive than faces that were rated as unattractive. There seems to be some inborn template for the
“correct” or “most desired” shape and configuration for members of our species, and we simple
prefer those who match this template better.
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Discussion Question: Speculate as to the implications of babies looking at their “attractive”

or “unattractive” caregivers.
Effects of Visual Stimulation: Visual stimulation in infancy is crucial to the later development of
visual perception. For instance, Daphne Maurer and her colleagues at McMaster University have
conducted longitudinal studies of infants who are born with cataracts on their eyes, but later had the
cataracts removed and were then fitted with corrective lenses which that gave them normal vision.
When these individuals were examined years later, they were found to have subtle visual perception
abnormalities. It seems that there is a critical period of time in early infancy when an infant needs a
specific quality of visual stimulation in order to develop normal human perception.
C. Listening
4.12 Learning Objective: Detail how infants perceive human speech, recognize voices,
and recognize sound patterns other than speech. (pages 121-122)
Discriminating Speech Sounds: One of the central questions has to do with how early a baby can
make discriminations among different speech sounds.
▪ As early as one month, babies can discriminate between speech sounds like pa and ba.
▪ It doesn’t seem to matter what voice quality the sound is said in. By two or three months of age,
babies respond to individual sounds as the same whether they are spoken by male of female or by
a child’s voice.
▪ Infants can rapidly learn to discriminate between words and non-words in artificial languages.
Babies are better at discriminating some kinds of speech sounds than adults are. Up to six months of
age, babies can accurately discriminate all sound contrasts that appear in any language, including sounds
they do not hear in the language spoken to them. At about six months of age, they begin to lose the
ability to distinguish pairs of vowels that do not occur in the language they are hearing. By age one,
the ability to discriminate non-heard consonant contrasts begins to fade. These findings are consistent
with what we know about the pattern of rapid, apparently programmed, growth of synapses in the learn
months after birth, followed by synaptic pruning. Many connections are initially created; permitting
discriminations along all possible sound continua, but only those pathways that are actually used
in the language the child hears are strengthened or retained.
Discriminating Individual Voices: Newborns seem to be able to discriminate between individual

voices. They can tell the mother’s voice from another female voice, but not the father’s voice from
another male voice. They prefer the mother’s voice. Premature infants are less likely to recognize
their mother’s voices than babies born at term, suggesting that in utero learning may be responsible
for newborn’s preference for the maternal voice.
Critical-thinking Question: What would you say to a mother who believes that her
premature infant is unresponsive to her because the baby doesn’t appear to recognize her voice?
Discriminating Other Sound Patterns: As is true with patterns of looking, infants pay attention to
patterns or sequences of sounds from the very beginning.
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D. Combining Information from Several Senses

4.13 Learning Objective: Explain the importance of intermodal perception. (pages 122-
123)
Ordinarily, we perceive complex combinations of sound, sight, touch, and smell. Psychologists are
interested in knowing how early an infant can integrate information from several senses, such as
which mouth movements go with which sounds, a skill called intersensory integration. Research
suggests that it is not completely inborn. Some studies indicate that infants younger than four months
have some ability to coordinate sensory information. In most investigations, however, younger infants
do not consistently demonstrate this skill. By contrast, intersensory integration is common in older
babies. Moreover, intersensory integration appears to be important in infant learning. One group of
researchers found that babies who habituated to a combined auditory-visual stimulus were better able
to recognize a new stimulus alone.
Evidence suggests that cross-modal (intermodal) transfer, the ability to perceive something via one
sense and transfer the information to another sense, is probably inborn. For example, if you attach a
nubby sphere to a pacifier and let a baby suck on it, you can test for cross-modal transfer by showing
the baby pictures of a nubby sphere and a smooth sphere. If the baby looks longer at the nubby
sphere, that would suggest cross-modal transfer.
Classroom Activity: Ask the class to list examples of a baby's cross-modal transfer.
Key Terms
▪ intersensory integration
▪ cross-modal transfer
E. Explaining Perceptual Development
4.14 Learning Objective: Summarize what arguments nativists and empiricists offer in
support of their theories of perceptual development. (pages 123-124)
The study of perceptual development was one of the historic battlegrounds for the dispute about the
significance of nature versus nurture in development. The Nativists claimed that most perceptual
abilities were inborn, while the empiricists argued that these skills were learned. Developmentalists are
now rethinking the relationship that exists between nature and nurture and how they interact with each
other to determine development.
Key Terms
▪ nativists
▪ empiricists
FOR HYBRID COURSES

Any of the content, lecture material, learning activities or assignments can be adapted to an online
format to create a blended or hybrid combination of in- person and online teaching delivery. A simple
but effective online delivery method is the use of voice-over added to PowerPoint to deliver lecture
material, discussion topics, assignment information, etc. On campus IT departments likely offer
assistance to set-up the voice-over format. Several free online sources offer set-up instructions and
tips. An example is http://www.emergingedtech.com/2012/12/add-voice-over-to-powerpoint-
presentations-in-5-easy-steps/.
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The text supplies multiple resources for use in online delivery. Features like Class Prep provide a
plethora of videos, articles, activities, and assignments about specific chapter content that are readily
adaptable for online use.
Online discussion board set-up instructions are available within the manual features, through servers
such as Blackboard and through online sources, for example, the University of Waterloo
https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-tips/developing-
assignments/blended-learning/online-discussions-tips-instructors.
One idea is: would involve using the following weblink as an introduction to the new content. An on-
line Lecture Launcher: Post the Canada’s Food Guide: It could be used as a platform to Identify and
discuss nutrition, see Web link: http://www.has.uwo.ca/hospitality/nutrition/pdf/foodguide.pdf, to
stimulate black board discussion.
LECTURE ENHANCEMENT
The Competent Newborn
Many individuals (especially those who do not have children of their own or who do not work closely
with children) have the impression that the newborn is at the mercy of its environment. Although
certainly the newborn cannot survive well on its own, it is ideally suited to respond to her
environment. From the moment the baby is born, she is ready to respond to the world, to make his or
her needs known, and to gather information from the environment to maximize survival. That is a
pretty impressive list of abilities for an infant brand new to the world. As developmental
psychologists have learned more about newborns and infants, they have come to understand how
competent babies truly are.
Even the poor visual acuity of the newborn is ideally suited to its immediate needs. Newborns can see
most clearly those objects that are about eight inches away from their face. Given the way that
newborns are held, clothed, and fed, this distance is ideal. As the newborn gains more experience
with focussing on the environment, and especially as he or she develops the strength necessary for
becoming mobile, visual acuity will strengthen at an amazing pace. Vision is primarily a muscular
sense. The eyes can focus on distant objects only with practice. How much visual practice can one
accomplish in the womb? This statement is not meant to be funny. Think about how much
development needs to take place before the infant is born. The infant needs to be able to breathe, have
a heart rate, and have blood pressure, etc., if she is going to survive after birth. A simple way of
thinking about this, then, is to imagine that only so much development can take place prior to birth.
The systems necessary for survival, therefore, will be the most highly developed at birth. Although
vision will help the infant, it is not essential for immediate survival. Again, this illustrates the
competency of the newborn. Since the infant has not seen his mother or father prior to birth, he
cannot rely on that sense to recognize the parent.
Hearing, however, is a different story. The unborn child can hear very well about eight months after
conception. For at least a month prior to birth, then, he or she can have experiences with the voices of
individuals. It further illustrates the point that the child is born ideally suited to respond to the
environment.
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The level of brain maturity of the infant is also ideally suited to its development. In many ways, the
brain of the newborn infant is immature. Considering the alternative, this immaturity makes sense. If
the infant is born with all neural wiring completed, how will that pre-wired brain allow for flexibility
in adapting to the environment? For example, what would happen if a baby were pre-wired to speak
Swahili, yet is born into an English-speaking household? The newborn brain is ready to form new
neural connections at an amazing pace as the child has experiences with the environment. This
increasing maturity allows the infant maximum flexibility to respond to the demands of the particular
environment into which it is born.
A Word About Approximate Ages
(pages 102-104)
Many parents get concerned when their children do not do a certain task by the “right age.” What
defines the right age for a child to acquire or demonstrate a particular ability? These ages are based on
norms. This means that, on average, children tend to acquire a certain ability at a certain age. On
average, for example, children will utter their first complete words around 12 months of age. The
parent who has a 14-month-old who is not yet talking probably has no cause for concern. If the
average age of onset for first words is 12 months then, by definition that means that some children
will start speaking at a younger age than that, and others will start speaking at an older age.
There are many developmental factors that will influence the age at which children will acquire or
demonstrate such abilities. One of these, of course, is simple maturation. Some children will
physically mature at a faster pace than others. In addition, environmental circumstances may speed up
or slow down development. Sometimes having older siblings will initiate earlier speaking in infants,
and other times it may slow speaking down. If the older sibling, for example, always does the talking
for the infant or always fetches whatever the infant points to without encouraging the child to ask for
it, we might expect that infant to start speaking at a later age. No amount of requiring an infant to ask
for things, however will dramatically speed up the process. A four-month-old, for example, simply
does not have the physical maturity necessary for advanced speaking. Maturation sets limits beyond
which development cannot progress. This statement provides insight into the development of the
newborn. The maturational limits are in place when the child is born. The interactions that child has
with the environment (including nutrition, levels of nurturance from others, amount of intellectual
stimulation, etc.) will determine where within those limits that child will progress.
Why Do Primitive Reflexes Disappear?

(pages 102-104)
Reflexes exist to aid in the survival of the infant but the primitive reflexes begin to disappear at about
six months of age. An important question to consider is why would these primitive reflexes disappear
if they aid in the survival of the child? The answer probably centres on their necessity. As the infant's
brain begins to mature and becomes more complex, primitive reflexes begin to disappear. Many
researchers even believe if they do not disappear that there may be some neurological problem. If the
child is truly going to adopt maximally to her environment, it will require more than reflexive
responding. As the infant is able to do more for herself, it will rely less and less on these primitive
reflexes.
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A Sensorimotor View of the World
4.8 Learning Objective: Describe how infants’ visual abilities change across the first
months of life. (pages 113-114)
4.9 Learning Objective: Describe how infants’ senses of hearing, smell, taste, touch,
and motion compare to those of older children and adults. (pages 114-116)
What was Piaget suggesting about an infant's cognitive abilities when he labelled those fledgling
abilities sensorimotor? It is obvious to most any observer that the newborn and young infant are
extremely limited in how they can approach and respond to the environment. At first, the infant is
forced to adopt a sort of, “wait for the environment to come to me technique.” If she wants or needs
something, she can cry, and her parent will respond. She cannot, however, tell the parent what her
needs are, ask questions, make requests, or register complaints in the strictest sense. The differences
between a baby's various forms of cries may suggest an attempt to communicate different needs.
The young infant is able to experience the world and begin to categorize it (to begin developing
schemas). Almost any person older than a child himself knows that the first thing a young infant will
do upon encountering a new object is to place it in his mouth. The question, of course, is “why?” The
answer comes from the developmental stage the child is in. Since the child cannot utilize language to
ask questions, or form sophisticated mental schemas to categorize objects, he is forced to rely on what
limited information gathering techniques are available—the senses. Much like a dog that may
recognize people more from their smell than from the way they look, the sensorimotor child is forced
to rely on sensory and motor information to begin differentiating the world.
As this child gains the ability to navigate the world (which they will do with abandon from the
moment of crawling on), she will begin to develop ever more sophisticated schemas. A schema is
defined as organizations of experiences, built up over many exposures to particular experiences that
help the baby to distinguish between the familiar and the unfamiliar. As the child matures cognitively,
she will develop increasingly sophisticated schemas about the world.
The concept of sensorimotor development also helps us to understand why the young child tends to
live only in the “here and now.” The text suggests that the infant is tied to the immediate present,
which means the child cannot contemplate the future or, necessarily, remember past experiences.
Thus, the world that exists is the current world that the child is experiencing through his or her senses.
As the child becomes mobile, he will begin to explore the environment. In this fashion, the totality of
the infant’s “here and now” expands as he is able to engage in motor activity.
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I. Physical Changes (page 100):

▪ Summarize factors that influence breastfeeding in Canada..

II. Sensory Skills (page 113):

III. Perceptual Skills (page 116):

Discussion Question: Predict the result if babies continued to grow throughout

A. The Brain and the Nervous System

Myelinization: Another crucial process in neuronal development is the creation of sheath, or

Discussion Question: What might happen if myelinization did not occur?

B. Reflexes, and Behavioural States

Discussion Question: Speculate as to some of the implications of the baby’s sleep

C. Developing Body Systems and Motor Skills

D. Health Promotion and Wellness

Nutrition: Breast-feeding is substantially superior nutritionally to bottle-feeding. Breast milk

Development in the Real World

Discussion Question: Why is slow motor development a possible indicator of mental

E. Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants

G. Infant Mortality in Canada

Developmental Psychology in your Career:

▪ diagnostic and screening tests

II. Sensory Skills

B. Hearing and Other Senses

Auditory Acuity: Although children’s hearing improves up to adolescence, newborns’ auditory

Smelling and Tasting: Smelling and tasting are intricately related.

III. Perceptual Skills

A. Explaining Perceptual Development

4.10 Learning Objective: Describe how researchers study perceptual development in

Classroom Activity: List examples of how we “habituate” information on a daily basis.

Discussion Question: Why is it important to researchers that habituation and dishabituation

Faces: An Example of Responding to a Complex Pattern: Researchers have been especially

Research Report: Babies’ Preferences for Attractive Faces

Discussion Question: Speculate as to the implications of babies looking at their “attractive”

Discriminating Individual Voices: Newborns seem to be able to discriminate between individual

D. Combining Information from Several Senses

FOR HYBRID COURSES

The Competent Newborn

A Word About Approximate Ages

Why Do Primitive Reflexes Disappear?

A Sensorimotor View of the World

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