FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID Significant insight into the basic laws of fluid flow can be obtained from a study of the flow of a hypothetical ideal fluid. An ideal fluid is a fluid assumed to be inviscid, or devoid of viscosity.’ In such a fluid there are no frictional effects between moving fluid layers or ‘between these layers and boundary walls, and thus no cause for eddy formation or energy dissipation due to friction. The assumption that a fluid is ideal allows it to be treated as ‘an aggregation of small particles that will support pressure forces normal to their surfaces but will slide over one another without resistance, Thus the motion of these ideal fluid particles is analogous to the motion of a solid body on a frictionless plane, and the un- balanced forces existing on them cause the acceleration of these particles according to Newton's second law. Under the assumption of frictionless motion, equations are considerably simplified and more easily assimilated by the beginner in the field, In many cases these simplified equations allow solution of engineering problems to an accuracy entirely adequate for practical use. The beginner should not jump to the conclusion that the assumption of frictionless flow leads to a useless abstraction which is always far from reality. In those real situations, where the actual effects of friction are small, the frictionless assumption will give good results; where friction is large, it obviously will not. The identification of these situations is part of the art of fluid mechanics; for example, the lift on a wing can often be predicted accurately by an inviscid analysis while the drag rarely can, ‘The further assumption of an incompressible (i.e., constant-density) fluid restricts the "Compare with the definition of a perfect gas, Section I. 125126 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID present chapter to the flow of liquids and of gases that undergo negligibly small ct of pressure and temperature. The flow of gases with large density changes is discussed Chapter 13, but there are numerous practical engineering problems that involve fi ‘whoye densities may safely be considered constant; thus, this assumption proves to be only a practical one but also a useful simplification in the introduction to fluid flow, be it usually permits thermodynamic effects to be disregarded. This chapter introduces the important Bemoulli and work-energy equations, w permit us to relate and to predict pressures and velocities in a flowfield. The concepts introduced from several points of view. Thus, the presentation begins with a simple a dimensional analysis of an elemental fluid system moving along a streamline, then next to a work-energy relation that allows inclusion of pumps and turbines in the cot putations, and concludes with an introduction to two-dimensional flows. Signific While the simple analysis of a fluid system yields the important Bernoulli equat (Section 5.2), precisely the same equation is obtained as a simplification of the general result of a contro! volume analysis which employs the work-energy princi (Section 5.5), One-Dimensional Flow 5.1 EULER'S EQUATION In 1750, Leonhard Euler first applied Newton’s second law to the motion of fluid particles and thus laid the groundwork for an analytical approach to fluid dynamics. Consider a streamline and select a small cylindrical fluid system for analysis, as showa in Fig. 5.1. The forces tending to accelerate the cylindrical fluid system are: pressure forces on the ends of the system, p dA ~ (p + dp) dA = —dp dA (the pressures on the sides of the system have no effect on its acceleration), and the component of weight in the direction of motion, —pg,, ds dA(dz/ds) = —pg, dA de. The differential mass being ben pee we " dW pe dvd te, tu law t Wig S415.2. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION WITH ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES 5.2 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION WITH ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES / 127 accelerated by the action of these differential forces is dM = p ds dA. Applying Newton's second law dF = (dM)a along the streamline and using the one-dimensional expression for acceleration (equation 3.2) gives (recall only steady flow is being considered) w dp dA ~ pg, dA a (p ds dAW Dividing by p dA produces the one-dimensional Euler equation 4 2a vav + gd p For incompressible flow this equation is usually di 2 #a(E)+ ya N3e, a(to8os Y Bq 0 ided by g, and written or for uniform density flows For incompressible flow of uniform density fluid, the one-dimensional Euler equation can be easily integrated between any two points (because ¥ and g,, are both constant) to obtain ve Ot og, ¢ 2 = = Constant (1) applies to all points on the streamline and thus provides a useful relationship between pressure p, the magnitude V of the velocity, and the height z above datum, Equation 5.1 is known as the Bernoulli equation and the Bernoulli constant H is also termed the total head. Examination of the Bernoulli terms of Eq. 5.1 reveals that p/-y and z are, respectively, the pressure (either gage or absolute) and potential heads encountered in Section 2.1 and hence may be visualized as vertical distances. Pitot’s experiments (1732) showed that the sum of velocity head V?/2g, and pressure head p/ could be measured by placing a tiny ‘open tube (now known as a pitor tube) in the flow with its open end upstream, Thus, the Bemoulli equation may be visualized for liquids as, in Fig. 5.2, the sum of the terms (total head) being the constant distance between the horizontal datum plane and the total head line or energy line (EL). The piezometric head line or hydraulic grade line (HGL) drawn through the tops of the piezometer columns gives a picture of the pressure variation in the flow; evidently (1) its distance from the streamtube is a direct measure of the static pressure126 | FLOW OF AN INCOMPRE: IBLE IDEAL FLUID present chapter to the flow of liquids and of gases that undergo negligibly small cl of pressure and temperature, The flow of gases with large density changes is discussed Chapter 13, but there are numerous practical engineering problems that involve fh whose densities may safely be considered constant; thus, this assumption proves to be ‘only a practical one but also a useful simplification in the introduction to fluid flow, it usually permits thermodynamic effects to be disregarded. ‘This chapter introduces the important Bernoulli and work-energy equations, permit us to relate and to predict pressures and velocities in a flowfield. The concepts introduced from several points of view. Thus, the presentation begins with a simple dimensional analysis of an elemental fluid system moving along a streamline, then mo next 10 a work-energy relation that allows inclusion of pumps and turbines in the putations, and concludes with an introduction to two-dimensional flows. Significant while the simple analysis of a fluid system yields the important Bernoulli equati (Section 5.2), precisely the same equation is obtained as a simplification of the m general result of a control volume analysis which employs the work-energy prin (Section 5.5). One-Dimensional Flow JLER’S EQUATION In 1750, Leonhard Euler first applied Newton's second law to the motion of fluid particles and thus laid the groundwork for an analytical approach to fluid dynamics Consider a streamline and select a small cylindrical luid system for analysis, as shown in Fig. 5.1. The forces tending to accelerate the cylindrical fluid system are: pressure forces on the ends of the system, p dA — (p + dp) dA = —dp dA (the pressures on the sides of the system have no effect on its acceleration), and the component of weight in the direction of motion, — pg, ds dA(ds/ds) = pg, dA dz. The differential mass being Hovi. datum plane t Fig. $15.2 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION WITH ENEI 5.2 BERNOULLI anes / 127 yDRAULIC GRADE accelerated by the action of these differential forces is dM = p ds dA. Applying Newton's second law dF = (dM)q along the streamline and using the one-dimensional expression for acceleration (equation 3.2) gives (recall only steady flow is being considered) = dp dA ~ pg, dA de = (pds aa © Dividing by p dA produces the one-dimensional Euler equation ® y vav+ ade =0 Pp For incompressible flow this equation is usually divided by g,, and written Bea (£) + de Y 280, 0 or for uniform density flows EQUATION WITH ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES. For incompressible flow of uniform density fluid, the one-dimensional Euler equation can be easily integrated between any two points (because -yand g, are both constant) to obtain vi rn , VE Big Mb rg, Binge ME cerg y 2, YB, As points 1 and 2 are any two arbitrary points on the streamline, the quantity ve P+ 5 +2 =H = Constant (51) yy ms applies to all points on the streamline and thus provides a useful relationship between. pressure p, the magnitude V of the velocity, and the height z above datum, Equation 5.1 is known as the Bernoulli equation and the Bernoulli constant H is also termed the total head. Examination of the Bernoulli terms of Eq. 5.1 reveals that p/yand z are, respectively, the pressure (either gage or absolute) and potential heads encountered in Section 2.1 and hence may be visualized as vertical distances. Pitot’s experiments (1732) showed that the sum of velocity head V?/2g,, and pressure head p/'y could be measured by placing a tiny ‘open tube (now known as a pitor tube) in the flow with its open end upstream, Thus, the Bernoulli equation may be visualized for liquids as, in Fig. 5.2, the sum of the terms (total head) being the constant distance between the horizontal datum plane and the toral head line or energy line (EL). The piezometric head line ot hydraulic grade line (HGL) drawn through the tops of the piezometer columns gives a picture of the pressure variation in the flow; evidently (1) its distance from the streamtube is a direct measure of the static pressure128 / PLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDE: FLUID Energy line uD yan mi ‘Hoi datum plane _| i Fig. 5.2 in the flow, and (2) its distance below the energy line is proportional to the square of the yelocity. Complete familiarity with these lines is essential because of their wide use in engineering practice and thei great utility in problem solutions. 5.3 THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL ASSUMPTION FOR STREAMTUBES OF FINITE CROSS SECTION | The foregoing development of the Bernoulli equation has been carried out for a single streamline or infinitesimal streamtube across which the variation of p, V, and zis negligible because of the differential size of the cross section of the element. However, the engineer may apply this equation easily and fruitfully to large streamtubes such as pipes and canals ‘once its limitations are understood. Consider a cross section of a large flow (open or closed but not a free jet) through which all streamlines are precisely straight and parallel (Fig. 5.3). The forces, normal to the streamlines, on the element of fluid of unit width "eh <3 - ire ses ‘oo Hori. datum plan | Tig. 53§.3 THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL ASSUMPTION FOR STREAMTUBES OF FINITE CROSS SECTION / 129 are (p, — ps) ds and the component of the weight of the element, yh ds cos a, in which cos & = (2 — z,)/h. It is apparent that if (and only if) the streamlines are straight and parallel the acceleration toward the boundary is zero. ‘This means that the forces defined above are in equilibrium: (p, — pa) ds = eq - 2) ds yielding a result identical to that in Chapter 2, Bey a Be y - of and demonstrating that the quantity (z + p/y) is constant over the flow cross section normal to the streamlines when they are straight and parallel. This is often called a hy- drostatic pressure distribution because the relation between z and p/y is the same as that for a fluid at rest. This means that the Bernoulli equation of the single streamline may be extended to apply to two- and three-dimensional flows because at a given flow cross section t+ p/yis the same for all streamlines as it is for the central streamline; stated in another way, it means that a single hydraulic grade line applies to all the streamlines of a flow, provided these streamlines are straight and parallel. In practice the engineer seldom if ever encounters flows containing precisely straight and parallel streamlines; however, be- cause in pipes, ducts, and prismatic channels such lines are essentially straight and parallel, the approximation may be used for many practical calculations. In ideal fluid flows, because of the absence of friction, the distribution of velocity over a cross section of a flow containing straight and parallel streamlines is uniform; that is, all luid particles pass a given cross section at the same velocity, which is equal to the average velocity V. Accordingly, no adjustment of the V2/2g,, term of the Bernoulli equa- tion is to be expected in extending the equation from the infinitesimal to the finite stream- tube because V?/2g,, is constant across the streamtube and H is the same for every stream- line in the streamtube. Later when friction is considered it will be shown that there usually is a nonuniform profile of velocity across a finite streamtube even though the streamfines are straight and parallel. A correction must be applied then to the value of V2/2g, in the streamtube before the Bernoulli equation may be used to represent flow along a streamtube of finite cross section. 26) ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 5.1 Water is flowing through a section of cylindrical pipe. If the static pressure at point C is, 35 kPa, what are the static pressures at A and B, and where is the hydraulic grade line at this flow cross section?130 / LOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID. SOLUTION 5.4 APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION ‘This is obviously a situation where the streamlines of the flow are straight and parallel we know that the pressure varies hydrostatically in a direction normal to the streamli ‘The pressures at A and B will differ from that at C by an amount equivalent to t difference in elevation. That is, along the line A-C-B, p/y + zis a constant. So, we write the following equations For point B, Pa = Ye ~ %) + Pc = 98 X 1 N/m? X (0.6 m X cos 30") + 35 X 10° Pa Pp = 40.1 X 10° Pa or 40.1 KPa © For point A, Pa = Yee ~ 24) + Pe = 9.8 X 10° N/m? X (—0.6 m X cos 30°) + 35.0 X 10° P= 299% 107Pa or 29.9 KPa ® ‘The hydraulic grade Line is always positioned above the centerline of the pipe by an amount ‘equal to the pressure head at the center of the pipe. Hence, the hydraulic grade line is Pe _ 35 X 10° Pa y 98% 10° N/m 3.57 m vertically above C. @ Before proceeding to some engineering applications of Bernoulli’s equation, it should first be noted that this equation gives further aid in the interpretation of streamline pictures, Eq, 5.1 indicating that, when velocity increases, the sum (p/'y + 2) of pressure and potential head must decrease. In many flow problems, the potential head z varies little, allowing the approximate general statement: where velocity is high, pressure is low. Regions of closely spaced streamlines have been shown (Section 4.2) to indicate regions of relatively high velocity, and now from the Bernoulli equation these are seen also to be regions of relatively low pressure, Tn 1643, Torricelli showed that the velocity of efflux of an ideal fluid from a small orifice under a static head varies with the square root of the head, Today, Torricelli theorem is written V = Veh the velocity being (ideally) equal to that attained by a solid body falling from rest through. a height hk. Torricelli’s theorem is now recognized as a special case of the Bernoulli equi tion involving certain conditions appearing in many engineering problems. Torricelli equation can be easily derived by applying Bernoulli's equation from the reservoir to the tip of the nozzle in Fig. 5.4. The reservoir is assumed to be very large (compared to the nozzle). Thus, the small flow from the nozzle produces negligible velocities in the reservoirSA APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION / 131 HL tor central J sieaniine 2 Fig. 34 except near the nozzle. Taking the datum plane at the center of the nozzle and choosing. (arbitrarily) the center streamline give h = z + p/'y in the reservoir where velocities are negligible. Writing Bernoulli's equation for a streamline between the reservoir and the tip of the nozzle, 2 v2 =h=P+ to yee YB, Torricelli's equation results if p, = 0. From the validity of the Bernoulli and Torricelli equations it may be deduced that the pressure throughout the jet in the plane of the noz- zle must be zero; however, analytical proof of this from Newton's law may be more convincing, Consider the streamlines through section 2 of Fig. 5.4 to be essentially straight and parallel” The pressure surrounding the jet is zero (gage) and the vertical acceleration of an elemental fluid mass p dA dz is equal to g,,. The force causing the acceleration can result only from the pressure difference between top and bottom of the element, and the ‘weight of the element. By writing Newton's second law in the vertical direction, we obtain =(p + dp) dA + pdd ~ ydAdz = ~(pdAdzg, from which it may be concluded that dp = 0. Thus there can be no pressure gradient across the jet at section 2, and with the pressures zero at the jet boundaries it follows that the pressure throughout the jet must be zero. This also shows that V cannot be constant across the jet because p = 0 and z varies. Downstream from section 2 it is customary to assume that the pressures throughout the free jet are also zero; this is equivalent to assum- ing that each fluid element follows a free trajectory streamline unaffected by adjacent fluid elements. This is an adequate approximation in many engineering problems, but it is not exact because the curvature and convergence of streamlines and effects such as surface tension were neglected. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 5.2 Water flows in the pipeline shown below from the reservoir through the constriction, exiting from a nozzle at the downstream end. Calculate the pressures at sections 1, 2, 3, and 4 in the pipe and determine the elevation of the top of the free jet's trajectory, ® Actually, te streamlines are curved and convergent (recall the trajectory theory of particle dymamics), but such convergence and curvature may be neglected for large hand high jet velocity132, / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID SOLUTION First sketch the energy line; at all points in the reservoir where the velocity is negligible, (= + p/7) is the same, Thus, the energy line has the same elevation as the water surface. Next sketch the hydraulic grade line; this is coincident with the energy line in the reservoir where velocity is negligible but drops below the energy line over the pipe entrance where velocity is gained. The velocity in the 300 mm pipe is everywhere the same, so the hy- draulic grade line must be horizontal until the flow encounters the constriction upstream from section 2. Here, as velocity increases, the hydraulic grade line must fall (possibly to a level below the constriction). Downstream from the constriction, the hydraulic grade line ‘must rise to the original level over the 300 mm pipe and continue at this level to a point over the base of the nozzle at section 4. Over the nozzle, the hydraulic grade line must fall to the nozzle tip and after that follow the jet, because the pressure in the jet is everywhere 7et0. Since the vertical distance between the energy line and the hydraulic grade line at any section is the velocity head at that section, itis evident that 2 ie = 90m — 60m = 30m — and, therefore Vs = 24.3 m/s ‘The flowrate in the system can now be computed as Q= VA 24.3 m/s x F (0.125 my? = 0.298 m'/s © 44) We ean now find the velocity in the 300-mm pipe using the continuity equation, A 5 VA, = VsAs andso. VV, = 2 Vy & 3 3 5) = i 24.3 m/s = 4.22 m/s5.4 APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION / 133 So, the velocity heads in all the reaches of 300 mm pipe are 4.22 m/s)? 28, ME at 28, 28 28 In the constriction, the velocity head may be computed by recognizing that velocity head varies as the ratio of the diameter to the fourth power. That is, v a," Vz _ (0.300. m\* ay) VEL 091 m = 461m 2 (3) 26 (an 3) ois ser Since the hydraulic grade line is above the pipe centerline by an amount equal to the pressure head, the pressures in the pipe and the constriction may be computed as follows: = 091m et (c0m - $8 — rm) = 18-991 = 1709 6.1) Y 28, py = 17.09 x 9.8 KN/m? = 167.5 kPa =2- = 461m = 161m G1) 28, 1.61 % 98 kN/m? = 15.8 kPa © va = oe 12 = 0.91 m = 11.09 m 6) 28y 11.09 x 9.8 KN/m* = 108.7 kPa © ~~ sm) =31 ~ 091 = 3009 6.) Py = 30.09 X 9.8 kN/m? = 294.9 kPa © ‘The velocity of the water jet at the top of its trajectory where there is no vertical component of velocity is calculated by treating the water as a collection of individual particles. In this case, classical mechanics tells us that, while the acceleration of gravity ‘causes the vertical component of the velocity to go to zero between points 5 and 6, the horizontal velocity is unchanged, Therefore, Vg = Vs cos 30° = 24,3 m/s x 0.867 = 21.0 m/s Because the pressure is zero in the jet, the hydraulic grade line lies in the jet as noted above. Accordingly, zis given by vi 21.0 m/s? 90 m — 2LOm/sy 90m at or = 615me With increasing velocity or potential head, the pressure within a flowing fluid drops, However, this pressure does not drop below the absolute zero of pressure as it has been found experimentally that fluids will not sustain the tension implied by pressures less than absolute zero. Thus, a practical physical restriction is placed on the Bernoulli equation. Such a restriction is, in fact, not appropriate for gases because they expand with reduction in pressure, but it frequently assumes great importance in the flow of liquids. Actually, in solute pressure can drop only to the vapor pressure of the liquid, whereupon134 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDI 1 FLUID spontaneous vaporization (boiling) takes place. This vaporization or formation of vapor cavities is called cavitation.’ The formation, translation with the fluid motion, and subse- quent rapid collapse of these cavities produces vibration, destructive pitting, and other deleterious effects on hydraulic machinery, hydrofoils, and ship propellers, for example ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 5.3 SOLUTION For the situation deseribed below, what diameter of constriction can be expected to produce incipient cavitation at the throat of the constriction? Water at 100°F is flowing and the barometric pressure is 14.0 psia First, we need to determine what gage pressure will produce cavitation, From Appendix 2, for water at 100°F, we find yy = 62.0 lb/ft and p,, = 0.95 psia. The atmospheric pressure head is Y 62.0 Ib/ft® ‘We can now compute the critical gage pressure head at the constriction, in? 144 in” 4 -(te = a) =- -(2se ee ) —303 te = 325 ft y YY 62.0 Ib/fe ‘The negative sign indicates that the pressure at the section is below atmospheri From the above sketch, it can be seen that the velocity head at the constriction (distance from the hydraulic grade line to the energy line) is equal to (35 ft ~ 10 ft) + 30.3 ft = 55.3 fi "For a description of cavitation phenomena, see Appendix 45.4 APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION / 135 eo = 553 so V, = 59.7 iY/s From the sketch, we can also see that the velocity head at the exit from the pipe is 35 ft This permits us to calculate the velocity at the exit and the flowrate. i 2, 35 80 Vag = 47.5 F/s and, 2 (6 . 2= ra = 7 (82) X 47,5 fi/s = 9.33 I0/s The flow rate at the constriction must be the same, so 9.33 ffs Tras 7 01561 O=AN. siving AL Solving for the diameter at the constriction, (o.156 fe 0. or ine EF - an 446 ft 535 Incipient cavitation must be assumed in ideal fluid flow problems of this nature in order for head losses to be considered negligible. Also, with litte cavitation there is more likelihood of the pipe flowing full at its exit. ‘The Bernoulli equation is frequently written in terms of pressure rather than head and ‘may be obtained in this form by multiplying Eq. 5.1 by y and substituting p for y/g,,; this results in Pit PVE + pouts = D2 + SVE + peyz2 6.2) Here the Bernoulli terms p, pV?/2, and pg,z are called static pressure, dynamic pressure, and potential pressure, respectively. The stagnation (or total) pressure, p, is defined by Pa = Po + bev (5.3) and from Fig. 5.5 it can be seen that this is the local pressure at the tip of a pitot tube or, Wat Poe136 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRI IDEAL FLUID more generally, the pressure at the zero-velocity point on the nose of any solid object in a flow. This point is called appropriately a stagnation point because here the flow mo: ‘mentarily stops, ot stagnates. The variation of pressure and velocity along the central streamline to the nose of a solid object is shown in Fig. 5.5. Note that the pressure rises rather abruptly (but not discontinuously) from p, to p, justin front of the object, while the velocity decreases from V,, to zero, With stagnation pressure at s easily measurable, and pressure p,, known or measurable, the velocity V, of the undisturbed stream can be com- puted from Eq. 5.3; this is the essence of the pitot tube principle which finds wide appli- min many velocity-measuring devices. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 5.4 SOLUTION The pitot-static tube is carefully aligned with an airstream of density 1.23 kg/m’. If the attached differential manometer shows a reading of 150 mm of water, what is the velocity of the airstream? ition | tube — 250 mim we “Saicwte7 Miter The stagnation pressure will be found at the tip of the pitot-static tube, Assuming that the holes in the barrel of the pitot-static tube will sense the static pressure p, in the undisturbed airstream, the manometer will measure (p, ~ p,). Applying Eq, 5. (5.3) Asa result, 2(0.150 m_X_9 810 N/m’) _ 48.9 m/s 1.23 kg/m? A constriction (Fig. 5.6) in a streamtube or pipeline is frequently used as a device for metering fluid flow. Simultancous application of the continuity and Bernoulli principles to such a constriction allows direct calculation of the flowrate When certain variables are measured ‘The equations are Q = AV, = Ave G.12) Py a 6) Y By simultaneous solution of these equations the flowrate through a constriction can be easily computed if cross-sectional areas of pipe and constriction are known and pressures and heights above datum are measured, either separately or in the combination indicated.54 APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION / 137 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 5.5 f Gasoline (6.2. = 0.82) flows through the pipeline shown below. Calculate the flow rate by two methods—first using the gage readings and then the differential manometer. : Mercury SOLUTION The problem is solved by use of the Bernoulli equation and, in the second case, the hydrostatic relationships in the manometer tube.138 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID Solution using the gages We go directly to the Bernoulli equation 5.1 ve otbeg H = Constant 6 ‘This equation can be written a, Vi Pr , V3 gt etn ne By y 2, 28, First calculating the p/'y terms, Py _ 20 Ib/in? x 144 in?/ft? y (0.82 x 62.4 Ib/f') 10 Ib/in® x 144 in?/f (O82 X 624 Ib/i) Now, substituting into the Bernoulli equation, = 56.3 ft of gasoline = 28.1 ft of gasoline atsein+ tog, 44m + 2818+ 2 : ° 28» a ” 28q Vi _ VE a7 Ae 28, 28y We know that the velocity heads in a situation like this vary as the diameter ratio tothe fourth power, so vam [eran = 408 Avs ‘The flow rate can now be found. Q = AW, = 2/4 X (6/12 x 40.8 = 8.01 ft/s © (44) Solution using manometer We first write a hydrostatic pressure equation through the manometer. Py + yh + (18.7/12)y ~ (18.7/120 13.57 Y%parer) — Yh - 4 = De Dividing through by the specific weight of the gasoline y, ay as2( — 13.57 ton) -4 2 Y PL _ 2g2 = Y Y5.4 APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION / 139 Now, substituting this into the Bernoulli equation, Te 1 V3 . attr Hewsgs (2-22) +H G1) yey ce 28m ‘Subtracting out identical terms leaves Vi _ V3 sr Es HAZ | 28m 28m This equation is identical to the one developed under the previous approach using the pressure gages; hence, this analysis will lead to the same value for the flowrate. © ‘The Bernoulli principle may be, of course, applied to problems of open flow such as the overfiow structure of Fig. 5.7. Such problems feature a moving liquid surface in contact with the atmosphere and flow pictures dominated by gravitational action. A short distance upstream from the structure, the streamlines will be straight and parallel and the velocity distribution will be uniform. In this region, the quantity 2 + p/'y will be constant, the pressure distribution hydrostatic, and the hydraulic grade line (for all streamtubes) located in the liquid surface; the energy line will be horizontal and located V3/2g,, above the liquid surface. With atmospheric pressure on the liquid surface the streamtube in the liquid sur face behaves as a free jet, allowing all surface velocities to be computed from the positions of liquid surface and energy line. The prediction of velocities elsewhere in the flowficld where streamtubes are severely convergent or curved is outside the province of one- dimensional flow; suffice it to say that all such velocities are interdependent and the whole flowfield must be established before any single velocity can be computed. At section 2, however (if the streamlines there are assumed straight and parallel), the pressures and velocities may be computed from the one-dimensional assumption. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 5.6 At section 2 in Fig, 5.7, the water surface is at elevation 30.5 m and the 60° spillway face is at elevation 30,0 m. The velocity at the water surface at section 2 is 6.11 m/s. Calculate the pressure and velocity on the spillway face at section 2140 | FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID Ifthe bottom of the approach channel is at elevation 29.0 m, calculate the depth velocity in the approach channel. SOLUTION . addressing the calculation of the pressure at section 2, we assume the streamlines are essentially straight and parallel at this section and the pressure varies hydrostaticall normal to the streamlines. As a consequence, the difference in pressure between the surface (p = 0) and the spillway face is determined by the difference in elevation of the 190 points, Since the elevation of the water surface is 30.5 m and that of the spillway face 30.0 m, the difference in pressure is Ap = ¥ Age = 9800 N/m? x 0.5 m = 4900 Pa or 4.90 kPa Because the pressure is zero on the water surface, the pressure at the spillway face is 4.90 kPa, © Now to calculate the velocity at the spillway face, we use the data at the water surface to establish the elevation of the energy line through use of Eq. 5.1 ve (6.11 m/s 4 Gal m/sy Elevation of energy line = z + 2 + — = 30.5m +0 = 224m y 28, 2 Now, for the flow at the spillway face, the three Bernoulli terms must add up to 32.4 m. Referring to the velocity at the spillway face as V,,, we get 4900 Pa V3, 324 = 300m + OO y 300m + J e00 N/m * 2a, V, = Vig24im — 05 m) = 6.11 m/s © a ‘The fact that the velocity is the same at both the surface and the bottom of the flow validates the one-dimensional assumption that in regions where the streamlines are straight and parallel, the velocity profile is uniform. Since the velocities at section 2 are all 6.11 m/s and since the depth of flow normal to the flow direction is 1.0 m, the flow rate per unit width is 4 = Voy, = 6.11 m/s X 1.0 m = 6.11 m°/s/m of width an To find the velocity at section 1 we note that itis also a section where the streamlines are straight and parallel, Hence, the velocity is uniform over section 1 and continuity shows, that Vy, = Vays. Writing the Bernoulli equation along the streamline which follows the bottom of the channel, ve 2 yte+Mi By y 28, y By vi 6.11 m/s)? 200m +y, +t = 30m +05 m+ Smee 28_ 28, Vi y+ = 340 2805.5 THE WORK. 5.5 THE WORK-ENERGY EQUATION / 141 From continuity, Vay 6.11 m?/s/m Solving this equation for V, and substituting into the Bernoulli equation gives, ye SAE 1 gayi This equation is cubic and has three roots, yy = 3.22 m, ») = 0.85 m, and yy = —0.69 m. ‘The third root is obviously invalid. The second root is also invalid because the depth at section 1 may not be less than that at section 2. That leaves us with the first root which gives the depth at section 1 as 3.22 m. # Returning to continuity, we can calculate the velocity at section | as @ _ 6AL miss/m fam 7 1 m/s = 3.40 IERGY EQUATION ‘The previous analysis of a fluid system yielded a useful and practical equation, the Ber- noulli equation §.1, which was applied to establish the relationships between elevation, pressure, velocity, and total head in a variety of fluid flows. However, many pipelines, for example, contain pumps or turbines which, respectively, add energy to or extract it from the fluid. There is no satisfactory method for incorporating these effects in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation, which was based on the application of Newton’s second law to an infinitesimal fluid system. On the other hand, a physically meaningful derivation and additional insight into the physical meanings of the various terms in the Bernoulli equation ‘can be obtained via a control volume analysis. This control volume analysis utilizes the mechanical work-energy principle and ap- plies it to fuid flow, resulting in a powerful relationship between fluid properties, work done, and energy transported. The Bernoulli equation is then seen to be equivalent to the work-energy equation for ideal fluid flow. To develop the work-energy equation, we will use a control volume which coincides with the walls of a streamtube or full-sized conduit (see Fig, 5.8). Fluid enters and leaves the control volume at locations where the streamlines are straight and parallel and, hence, the velocity is uniform over the cross section under these conditions, We will employ a statement of the mechanical work-energy principle specific to fiuid flow which states that the work done on a fluid system equals the change in the potential and kinetic energy of the system, Heat transfer and internal energy are neglected. If they were included, the result would be the First Law of Thermodynamics (see Section 7.11 and Chapter 13). The mechanical work-energy principle is expressed by the equation aw de where dW is the increment of work done and dé is the resulting incremental change in energy. If we now divide by dr we have the rate at which work is done and energy is142 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID / ee | t evict atarn Fig. 5.8 processes becomes dW de dt dt ‘The Reynolds Transport Theorem (Eq, 4.15) provides an equation for evaluating the rate of change of an extensive property (in this ease, energy) of a fluid system which occupies the control volume at a given instant (dE/df). The rate of net work done (dW/de) will be the result of pressure forces acting at the control surface on the fluid system in the control volume and any work done by flow machines such as pumps and turbines. To evaluate the rate of change of energy of the fluid system, we write the steady-state form of the Reynolds Transport Theorem (Eq. 4.15). of wean [Joe 7 J) veda + |] ipw ean (4.15) The energy per unit mass in the control volume is potential energy g,,2 and kinetic energy V2/2. For a constant density flow, the above equation becomes B= fl free themself ipo x Sheet‘HE WORK-ENERGY EQUATION / 143 where dE/dt is the rate of energy increase for the fluid system, Note that even in steady flow, the fluid system energy can change with time because the system moves through the control volume where both velocity and elevation can change. Because the velocity vector is normal to the area and because the velocity is constant over the two cross sections through which the flow enters and leaves the control volume, the above integration yields dE vi vi # = (e+ 2) vers ~ 0 (ee + 4) va 2) va + Yi) va ahs ~ ta (a + FE) vay Recognizing from conservation of mass that pg,V249 = pg,Vid) = Oy, ee Now, we proceed to evaluate the work done on the fluid system, The work done takes on three forms: 1, Flow work done by pressure forces via fluid entering or leaving the control volume. 2. Mackine work done by pumps and turbines 3. Shear work done by shearing forces acting on the system at the control surface, Because we are working with an ideal fluid, there will be no shear forces. Consequently, shear work will not be considered; the effects of shear will be dealt with in Chapter 7. First, addressing flow work, we note that all internal pressure forves between fluid particles cancel, hence we are left with only pressure forces at the control surfaces doing ‘work. Further, only the pressure forces acting at cross sections I and 2 will do work. Those pressure forces acting at the remainder of the control surfaces will do no work because they are normal to the fluid motion, Recognizing that the pressure variation is hydrostatic over sections | and 2, we calculate the pressure force as the product of the pressure at the centroid of the cross section and the area of the cross section. To get the rate at which work is being done, we multiply by the velocity. Thus, the rate of net flow work done by pressure forces on the fluid system within the control volume is Net flow work rate = p\A,V, — prAaV> Now, considering machine work, we will define the work done per unit weight of fluid flowing to be Ep if the machine is a pump and ~ Ey if itis a turbine, Then the rate of work done by the machine on the fluid system will be Net machine work rate = QyE, — OyE; In preparation for equating to Eq. 5.4, we multiply numerator and denominator of the flow work equation by y and rearrange to get Net flow work rate144 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID. Now, combining the two net-work-rate equations, Net work rate = Oy (@ - se, +) 6 YY Equating Eqs. 5.4 and 5.5, we get v3 vi 8) _ (4 ¥%)) 2 oy (m- Ba, - | ol g)-Gea)-oG-Fee-9) « Dividing both sides by Q-y and collecting terms with like subscripts, attete gates Bee, 69) where E» is the energy added by the pump per unit weight of fluid lowing and Eis the ‘energy extracted by the turbine per unit weight of fluid flowing. ‘The above equation will be referred to as the work-energy equation. Even though it “appears to be identical to the Bernoulli equation, there is a very important distinction. Each term in Eq, 5.7 represents energy per unit weight or work done per unit weight (ft-1b/lb or Nem/N = Joules/N). For example, this would permit us to add terms to the equation such as internal energy or heat transfer which would lead to the First Law of Thermody- namics (see Chapters 7 and 13). While the work-energy equation 5.7 without pumps and turbines and the Bernoulli equation 5.1 are identical and give similar results for ideal fluid flow, only the work-energy equation will be used in real fluid flow situations, ‘The addition or extraction of mechanical energy by a pump or turbine will appear as aan abrupt rise or fall of the energy line over the respective machines. Because the engineer is usually interested in the power of such machines, it is important to be able to evaluate the added or extracted power. Recalling that E,, and E,- were energy per unit weight, one need only multiply by the weight flow rate to obiain power. - felb Power = (Ep or Ey) FE X Oy = OylEp or Ey) ~ J Power = (por Ey) & a oy = Qy Ep ot Ex) ~ = Qy{Ep or Ep) watts However, power is generally expressed as horsepower in the U.S. Customary units and as kilowats in SI units. The corresponding equations are (S.8a) (5.80) Note that | hp = 0.746 kW. These equations may also be used to convert any unit energy, e.g., kinetic energy per unit weight V?/2g,, to the corresponding power.55 THE WORK-ENERGY EQUATION / 145 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 5.7 SOLUTION The pump shown below detivers a flowrate of 0.15 m/s of water. How much power must the pump supply to the water to maintain gage readings of 250 mm of mercury vacuum oon the suction side of the pump and 275 kPa of pressure on the discharge side? Before implementing the work-energy equation, we will convert the two pressure readings to the proper units for substitution into the equation. Addressing the discharge pressure at 2 first, we need to convert this pressure to metres of water. Next, at section 1, we must convert millimetres of mercury to metres of water. We do this using the specific gravity of mercury from Appendix 2, Table 1. PL = ~250 mm x ——1___ x 13.5759. Hg = —3.4m 1-000 mm/m ‘To compute the velocity heads in the work-energy equation, we need to find the velocities at the two sections. Q 0.15 m/s Mia > G@/4y(0.200 my 2 2 wan tiqv (4) a7 Rm) = sa ars = 477 m/s Ay , 150 mm, We now substitute these values into the work-energy equation for lines with a pump. Dy Va ee a (37) . 2 ye, 5 i 8.48 m/s)? 04+ (34 m + C7 Sp 23m 4 281m + SS 2, 28, -34 + 116 + Ep = 3.0 + 28.1 + 367 Ep = 37.0)/N146 {FLOW OF AN INCOMPRE: ‘SIBLE IDEAL FLUID ‘The power imparted to the water can be computed from Eq, 5.8b as _ QyEy _ 0.15 m/s x 9.800 N/m? x 37.03/N Power = 099 og SRW 8 8 sicoameranien The rise in the energy line through the pump represents the energy supplied by pump to each newton of water passing through the pump. It should be noted that th hydraulic grade lines are for the pipes only and do not include the pump passages, wher flow is not one-dimensional. The positions of these HGLs give no assurance that the pun. will run cavitation-free, since local velocities in the pump passages will be considerably larger than the average velocities in the pipes. ner Two-Dimensional Flow -ososeoesnsteneeenoeeoseeeeeaeaeneeeee ‘The solution of flowield problems is much more complex than the solution of one dimensional flow. Partial differential equations are invariably required for a formal math. ematical approach to such problems. In many cases of two-dimensional ideal flow, the theory of complex variables provides exact solutions. In more general cases of real or ideal flow (see Sections 7.15 and 7.16), computer-based numerical solutions of the equations « motion enjoy wide success and engineering applicability. Many approximate techniques also exist for problem solution. The objective of the remainder of this chapter is to present an introduction to certain essentials and practical problems of importance to engineering students. To stress the similarities and differences of one- and two-dimensional flows, the subject is developed in parallel with the preceding treatment of one-dimensional flow. Coverage of advanced mathematical operations or broad generalizations is not attempted at this point; the emphasis is on giving the beginner some appreciation of the intricacies of flowield problems as compared to the relative simplicity of those of one- (ovdth of opening) for discharge at high velocityto be larger than zero. In engineering practice, this problem is usually treated by one- dimensional methods, which are entirely adequate at the vena contracta; applied to the flow cross section in the plane of the opening, they are quite meaningless and lead only to contradictions. 5.8 APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION / 161 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 5.13 SOLUTION ‘A two-dimensional flow of liquid discharges from a large reservoir through the sharp- edged opening. A pitot tube at the center of the vena contracta produces the reading indicated. Calculate the velocities at points A, B, C, and D and also find the flowrate. ‘The pitot tube reading determines the position of the energy line (and also that of the free surface in the reservoir). Since the pressures at points A, B, C, and D are all zero, the respective velocity heads are determined by the vertical distances between the points and ‘The results are as follows: the energy line. YE 25 Va 28, ve 28, a 28, 1.22 m — 0.230 m/2 1.22 m + 0.230 m/2 1.22 m = 0.140 m/2 1.22 m + 0.140 m/2 1m 134m 115m 1.29 m Ya vy, Ve Vo 4.66 m/s ® 5.12 m/s © 4.75 m/s © 5.03 m/s @162 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL LUID The flowrate may be found by integrating the product v dA over the flow cross set CD. The value of velocity over this section, assuming the pressure is zero over the e cross section of the jet, is =n Reh a or uv = V2, Recognizing that dA = dh for a two-dimensional flow, and noting that the limits integration are the vertical distances from the energy Tine to points C and D, respecti » 129 f vdA = Vig: x dh = VIg, [2/307 ];55 a de has 4g = 0.685 m'/s/m © " It is interesting to see the result if we consider the velocity at the jet centerline toh ) the mean velocity and compute the flowrate under this assumption. V~ V2g, X 122m = 4.89 m/s = VX width of jet = 4.89 x 0.140 m = 0,685 m/s While the two results are equal, it is true only when the head on the orifice is relative large compared with the orifice opening. Actually, the center velocity is greater than t ‘mean, but for large ratios of head to orifice opening. there isa negligible difference betwe them. For a small ratio of head to orifice opening, the flow field is greatly distorted by drooping of the jet, producing sharply curved streamlines and an ill-defined vena contract For such conditions, the foregoing methods of calculation may be used only as cn approximations, 5.9 STREAM FUNCTION AND VELOCITY POTENTIAL One of the features that limits the application of the Bernoulli equation in two-dimension flows is the need to formulate a complete set of differential equations and the relate boundary conditions which can be solved to yield flow fields and the resulting velociti and pressures at all points. One method for developing these equations for two-dimension flow relies on the concepts of the stream function and the velocity potential. Definition of the stream function, a concept based on the continuity principle and t properties of the streamline, provides a mathematical means of solving for, as well as th plotting and interpreting of, two-dimensional and steady flowfields. Consider the strean line A of Fig. 5.18. By definition, no flow crosses it and thus the flowrate across all lin OA is the same.® Accordingly, y is a constant of the streamline and, if ef can be found a function of x and y, the streamline can be plotted. Similarly, the flowrate between O an aclosely adjacent streamline (B) will be + dij, and the flowrate between the streamlin (ie., in the streamtube) will be dij. As the flowrates into and out of the elemental triang are equal from continuity considerations, | dy = -vdx + udy Point 0 need not be the origin of coordinates5,9 STREAM FUNCTION AND VELOCITY POTENTIAL / 163 i Fig, 5.18 Definition of the stream function. However, if Ww = ix, y), the total derivative is (see Appendix 6) a8 a 5 iy ie ax a dy (3.14) and comparison of these equations yields? (5.15) ‘Thus, if is a known function of x and y, the components of velocity at any point may be obtained by taking the appropriate partial derivative of i, Conversely, if w and v are known as functions of x and y, yr may be obtained by integration of Eq, 5.14, yielding of ‘The equation of continuity, au | aw 58,» SF ax! ay ccan be easily (and usefully) expressed in terms of y by substituting the relations of Eqs. 5.15; this leads to the identity a (mw) _ afm) be _ ew ax Vay) ~ ay Vax, ax ay dy ax which expresses the fact that if fr = yx, y) the derivatives taken in either order yield the same result and that a flow described by a stream function satisfies the continuity equation automatically. 1) Analogous relations for polar coordinates are = od ye = 98 a ‘ or |n which v, is postive radially outward from the oviin; v, and @ are positive counterclockwise.164 / ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 5.14 SOLUTION W OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID ‘The equation for vorticity, = all However, for irrotational flows, & = 0, and the elassie Laplace equation, ey, ey ar? ay’ vu results, This means that the stream functions of all irrotational flows must satisfy Laplace equation and that such flows may be identified in this manner; conversely, fla whose y does not satisfy the Laplace equation are rotational ones. Since both rotati and irrotational flowfields are physically possible, the satisfaction of the Laplace equaticn is no criterion of the physical existence of a flowtield. A flowfield is described by the equation = y — x2, Sketch the streamlines yf = 0, Ws = 1, = 2. Derive an expression for the velocity V at any point in the flowfield Calculate the vorticity of this flow. From the equation for dit appears the flowfield is a family of parabolas symmetrical about the y-axis with the streamline y = 0 passing through the origin of the coordinate system, A sketch of the flowfield is shown below. o=2 wel v=05.9 STREAM FUNCTION AND VELOCITY POTENTIAL / 165 ‘To compute the velocity at any point in the flow, we proceed to find the x~ and y-components of velocity and calculate the total velocity in the conventional manner. aw ay ay a ” = -#. -2y- 2 = -(-m= 5.15 fe 7 THO = WOW) = 2e 6.15) ‘These equations allow us to place the directional arrows on the streamlines depi ‘The magnitude of the velocity is calculated as Vea Vete = Vay t= Veale 10. 2g =1-0-1 (5.13) ay The vorticity of the flow is calculated from Eq. 3 a a - 5) ~ yD = 2-0=28 10) Since & ¥ 0, this flowfield is rotational. ‘Suppose now that another function ¢(x, y) is defined such that the negative of its derivative with respect to distance in any direction yields the velocity in that direction. For example, — fo. a v grad = [# e+ y Vo so in Cartesian coordinates w= 2% and u = (5.16) ‘or, in polar coordinates, ads and mo (5.1 " am rae Gin The function ¢ is known as the velocity potential, and it has some significant properties which may now be examined in general terms. ‘The continuity equation au, av ot, 4.11 ax ay a ay may be written in terms of # by substitution of the above definitions, to yield the Laplace differential equation, (5.18) ‘Thus all practical flows (which must conform to the continuity principle) must satisfy the Laplace equation in terms of ¢. Similarly, the equation for vorticity, (3.10)166 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FI may be put in terms of ¢ to give eo ~#)-2 ait) mw Eby Be w\ ay) ay am ‘axoy aya from which a valuable conclusion may be drawn: Since #°6/axay = &¢6/ayax, the vorticity ‘must be zero for the existence of a velocity potential. From this it may be deduced that only irrotational (E = 0) flowfields can be characterized by a velocity potential ¢: fortis reason irrotational flows are also known as potential flows ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 5.15 SOLUTION Calculate the velocity potential ¢ and sketch the equipotential lines of the flowfield pro- duced by a cylinder (often represented mathematically by a “‘doublet”) of radius R ina rectilinear flow (sce Fig. 5.16) For the flowfield under investigation, t can be shown that the expressions for velocity are as follows (see Sections 5.8 and 11.4): -u(i+8 ‘Velocity can be expressed in terms of the velocity potential as ob Lag = —2 17) ar 730 oan ‘Combining the above sets of equations gives ge os _® bee x From Appendix 6, the total differential of ¢ can be written 18 iy 5 yy yp 128, ab = art t= oe +00 do We can integrate this equation to obtain oJ S)ees[2(S) eave Substituting the expressions for a¢4/ar and (1/r}06/00 into the previous equation, b= [-u(1—S)enaars [u(t +) inera +c Expanding and rearra @=

7 and 1%, 6—> + %, and, for @—> 0 and r—> », g — —%. For @ = 7/3 and r = R, 6 = —RU, and when plotted or sketched, the equipotential lines must appear as shown, b= be o=0 0 b= bs oe 2seu V3Ru RU “nu -V3eu -25Ru Aras fe to=0 r=2R Pre eR — — —, b= b= bs On0 6 = ase VaRu RU “Ru -Vieu -25RU A geometric relationship between streamlines and equipotential lines may be derived from the foregoing equations and restatement of certain mathematical definitions; the latter are (with definitions of 1 and v inserted) Hae Hay = , dy Ror udx +udy 8 i ay uae - db = Fe + dy = muds vdy However, along any streamline y is constant and dy = 0, so dy/dx = v/u along a streamline; also along any equipotential line & is constant and dé = 0, so dy/dx = —u/v along an equipotential line. The geometric significance of this is seen in Fig. 5.19 (and168 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID = Const, Fig. 5.19 hhas been suggested in the preceding Mlustrative Problem): The equipotential lines are normal to the streamlines. Thus, the streamlines and equipotential lines (for an isrotational flow)* form a net, called a flownet, of mutually perpendicular families of lines, a fact of great significance for the study of flowfields where formal mathematical expressions of 4 and are unobtainable. Another feature of the velocity potential which may be deduced from Fig. 5.19 and Eqs. 5.16 is that the value of # drops along the direction of the flow; that is, ds < $s < a nerereeeeeeemmereeeee eee REFERENCES Batchelor, G. K. 1967. An introduction to fluid dynamics. Milne-Thomson, L. M. 1968. Theoretical hydrodynamics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sth ed. New York: Macmillan, Karamcheti, K. 1966. Principles of ideal-fuid aerodynamics. Robertson, J. M. 1965. Hydrodynamics in theory and appli- ‘New York: Wiley, cation, Englewood Cliffs, N. I: Prentice Hall. Lamb, H. 1945, Hydrodynamics, 6th ed. New York: Dover Valentine, H. R. 1967. Applied hydrodynamics. 2nd ed, Publications. London: Butterworths Scientific Publications, ni FILMS Rouse, H. Mechanics of fluids: fluid motion in a gravitational Shapiro, A. H, Pressure fields and fluid acceleration. NCFMF? field. Film No, U45961, Media Library, Audiovisual Cen- EDC Film No. 21609, Encyclopaedia Britannica Edu, ter, Univ, of lowa. Com. "There can be no equipotentia lines for rotational lows because we showed tha the velocity potential does ot exist for roxational flows.1w analog to potential flows. Part I. Sources and Sinks ‘Uniform Flow, Loop No. S-FMO80. Hele-Shaw analog Integrate the one-dimensional Euler equation for a per- 28 al constant temperature, Integrate the one-dimensional Euler equation for an is- , gas Process. n an overflow structure of SO” slope the water depth sured normal to the surface of the structure) is 1.2 m (4 ft) the sreamlines are essentially straight and parallel. Cal- the pressure on the surface of the structure, {Water flows in a 1 m (3.3 49 diameter horizontal supply The flow is turbulent with a maximum centerline veloe~ ‘af 2 m/s (6.6 ft/s). What is the difference between the safes at the top and the bottom of the pipe? ‘Water flows in a pipeline, At a point in the line where mete is 7 in. the Velocity is 12 fps and the pressure is ps. Ata point 40 ft away the diameter reduces to 3 in lat the pressure here when the pipe is (a) horizontal, (6) vertical with flow downward. Ina pipe 0.3 m in diameter, 0.3 m°/s of water are purnped ‘hill. On the hilltop (elevation 48), the line reduces to ‘mdiamete. If the pump maintains a pressure of 690 kPa ideation 21, calculate the pressureiin the pipe on the hilltop. 1. In a 3in, horizontal pipeline containing a pressure of js. (00 gal/min of liquid hydrogen flow. If the pipeline to 1 in, diameter, calculate the pressure in the 1 in If enude oil flows through this pipeline and its velocity ‘Ais 24 m/s, where is the oil level in the open tube C? Problem 5.8 prosiems / 169 to potential flows. Part I. Sources and Sinks, Loop No. S-FMO81. Encyclopaedia Britannica Edue. Corp, 5.9. Air of specific weight 12.6 N/m’ flows through a 100 mm constriction in a 200 mm pipeline. When the flowrate is LLL N/s, the pressure in the constriction is 100 mum of mercury vacuum. Caleta the pressure inthe 200-mm see- tion, neglecting compressibility 5.10. A pump draws water from a reservoir through a 12 in pipe, When 12 cfs are being pumped, what isthe pressure in the pipe ata point 8 fe above the reservoir surface, in psi? In feet of water? S.11. IF the pressure in the 0.3 m pipe of problem 4.17 is 70 kPa, what pressures exist in the branches, assuming al pipes are in the same horizontal plane? Water is flowing. 5.12, Waters lowing. Caleulate H (1m) and ptkPa). Hg a3.sr) Peoblem 5.12 5.13. If each gage shows the same reading for @ flowrate of 1.00 cfs, what is the diameter of the constriction? Problem 5.13170 | LOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID 5.14, What pressure in psi is required atthe base of the nozzle (point 1) to produce a flow of 75 gpm of gasoline (sig. = 0.68)? Problem 5.14 5.15. Derive a relation between A, and A, so that for a flow- rate of 0.28 m*/s the static pressure will be the same at sec- tions 1 and 2. Also calculate the manometer reading for this condition, GA ism) 1 es Gasoline ose) Hg 03.57) Problem $.15 5.16, Water is flowing, Calculate the required pipe diameter, d, for the two gages to read the same, Problem 5.16 5.17. If the pipe of problem 5.16 is part of a waters system in a moon station, find d. Recall g,, ~ ,/6. 5.18, Fora flowrate of 75 ef of air (y = 0.076 3 lb/ft) w is the largest Az that will cause water to be dravn up to piezometer opening? Neglect compressibility effects. Woter — Problem 3.18) 5.19. A smooth nozzle of $0 mm (2 in.) diameters connected 1o-a water tank, Connected tothe tank atthe same elevation is an open U-tube manometer containing mercury and show ing a reading of 625 mm (25 in). The lower mercury surface is $00 rm (20 in.) below the tank connection. What flowrate will be obtained from the nozzle? Water fils the tube between tank and mercury 5.20, Water discharges from a tank through a nozzle of 50 mm (2 in.) diameter into an a tank where the pressure i 35 kPa (5 psi) If the nozzle is 4.5 m (14.8 ft below the wate surface, calculate the flowrate. 5.21. Water discharges through a nozzle of 25 mm (1 in) diameter under a 6 m (20 ft) head into tank of air in which 4 vacuum of 250 mm (10 in.) of mereury is roaintained. Cal- culate the rate of flow. 5.22. Air is pumped through the tank as shown, Neglecting effects of compressibility, compute the velocity of air in the 100 mm pipe. Atmosphere pressure is 91 KPa and the specific ‘weight of air LL N/m', oO 15 mm Hg vac. One An WM 7 100 mm a Problem 522‘A closed tank contains water with air above it. The air jatined at a pressure of 103 kPa (14.9 psi) and 3 m i) below the water surface a nozzle discharges into the ere. At What velocity will water emerge from the Waleris flowing. The flow picture is axisymmetric. Cal- the flowrate and manometer reading. Hg (13.57) Problem 524 ‘An airplane flies at altitude 30 000 ft where the air den- yi 0.000 9 slug/f? and the air pressure 4.37 psia. A pitot inside the entrance of its jet engine is connected (0 a jentional Bourdon pressure gage inside the aigplane reads 13,00 in, of mercury vacuum when the cabin is ‘pressurized 10 12.24 psia, If the streamline configuration is as “shown, bow much air (cfs) is passing through the engine? -Asuime the air is incompressible. 13.00" He ae (cabin 12.24 psia Problem 5.25 propieMs / 171 5.26. A section ofa freely falling waterjet is observed t0 taper from 1 300 mm? to 975 mm? in a vertical distance of 1.2 m. Calculate the flowrate in the jet. 5.27. Estimate the flowrate Q of water discharging from the nozzle. Ifthe fluid discharging were oil ats.g. = 0.90 and the pitot tube still registered & in, what would be the flowrate?” Problem $.27 5.28, Water jets upward through a3 in. diameter nozzle under ‘ahead of 10 ft. At what height /¢ will the liquid stand in the pitot tube? What is the cross-sectional area of the jet at sec- tion B? Nozze is 3"in ameter (20089 Tf) Problem 5.28 5.29, Calculate the rate of flow through this pipeline and the pressures at A, B, C, and D. Sketch the BL and HGL showing vertical distances,172 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE, IDEAL FLUID §.30, Calculate the pressure in the flow at A: (a) for the system, shown, and (6) for the pipe without the nozzle, For both cases, sketch the EL and HGL. 5.31. A siphon consisting of a 25 mm (I in.) hose is used to drain water from a tank. The outlet end of the hose is 2.4 m (7.9 ft) below the water surface, and the bend in the hose is 0.9:m G ft) above the water surface. Calculate the pressure in the bend and flowrate 5.32. A75 mm horizontal pipe is connected to a tank of water 1.5.m below the water surface. The pipe is gradually enlarged to 88 mm diameter and discharges freely into the atmosphere. Calculate the flowrate and the pressure in the 75 mm pipe. 5.33. Calculate the pressure head in the 20 mm seetion when h = 0.16 m, Caleulate the largest ht at which the divergent tube can be expected to flow full, Problem 5:33 5.34. The head of water on a 50 mm diameter smooth nozzle is 3 m. If the nozzle is directed upward at angles of (@) 30°, (0) 45°, c) 60%, and (d) 90°, how high above the nozzle wil, the jet rise, and how far from the nozzle will the jet pass through the horizontal plane i which the nozzle lies? What is the diameter of the jet atthe top of the trajectory? 5.38. A fire hose nozzle which discharges water at 46 m/s (150 fe/s) isto throw a stream through a window 30 m (100 ft) above and 30 m (100 ft) horizontally from the nozzle. What is the minimum angle of elevation of the nozzle that will ac- ccomplish this? 5.36. ‘The jet passes through a point A, Calculate the f Problem 5.36 5.37. Calculate the minimum flowrate that will pass over wall. wal Problem 5.37 5.38. From Bernoulli's equation derive a relation between velocities at any two points on the trajectory of a free jetia terms of the vertical distance between the points ‘5.39. A jet of water falling vertically has a velocity of 24 m/s (79 ft/s) and a diameter of 50 mm (2 in.) at elevation 12.0 (20 f0); calculate its velocity at elevation 4.5 m (15 ft) 5.0. Applying fice trajectory theory to the centerline of fre jet discharging from a horizontal nozzle under a head k show that the radius of eurvature of the jet at the tip of te nozzle is 2h SAL, For the two orifices discharging as shown, prove tht Ay = tay. Problem 5.41prostems / 173 in200 mm (8 in.) pipe, zontal and flows full throughout, what is the vapor pressure e water ows from a second reservoir ina 150mm (Gin.) of the water? ‘The two pipes meetin a “tee” junction with a 300 mm in) pipe that discharges to the atmosphere at an elevation 1m (661). If the water surface in the reservoirs is at 30m elevation, what isthe total flowrate? ‘What size must one set for the pipe from the secon :sbiraf problem 5.42 so that the flowrate from the second eooirs twice that from the fist? What i the total flowrate this case? A constriction of 150 mm diameter occurs in a hori- Problem 58 mal 50 mm waterline. It is stated that the pressure in the mm pipe is 125 mm of mercury vacuum when the howrate 549. If cavitation is observed inthe $0 mm section, what is 170 1/5. Is this possible? Why or why not? the flowrate? Barometric pressure is 100 kPa. 48, Water flows through a | in. constriction in a horizontal ‘sain in pipeline. IF the water temperature is 150°F und the pres- ‘arin the line is maintained at 40 psi, what isthe maximum tle tat may occur? Barometric pressure is 14.7 pia. ‘346, The liquid has a specific gravity of 1.60 and negligible rap pressure, Calculate the lowrate for incipient cavitation ‘nthe 75 mm seetion, assuming tha the tube flows full, Bar- ie este A ee 5.50. Barometric pressure is 14. psia, What isthe maximum flowrate that can be obtained by opening the valve? Problem $49 100 mma Problem 5.46 Problem 5.50 547. Water flows between two open reservoirs. Barometric 5.81. A variety of combinations of d and it will allow maxi- pressure is 13.4 psia. Vapor pressure is 6.4 psia, Above what mun possible flowrate to occur through this system. Derive a ‘alue of h will cavitation be expected in the 2 in, constriction? _telationship between d and f that will always produce this. Barometric pressure is 101 kPa. _ | o3amd a jt Problem 8.7 Problem 5.81 4548, Barometric pressure is 101.3 kPa, For > 0.6m, cav- 5.82. Calculate the maximum A and the minimum d that ization is observed at the 50 mm section. Ifthe pipe is hori- fre flow through this frictionless pipe174 | FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID system, Atmospheric pressure = 14.5. psia; vapor 15 psia, Water is flowing, pressure Problem §.52 5.83. For a flowrate of 0.28 m'/s derive a relation between h ‘and d that will indicate incipient cavitation in the top of this siphon pipe. Over what range of fis this relation applicable? ‘n I ! Fat a Prien £53 5.84, At what h will cavitation be incipient in the 2 in. see- tion? Assume the same water in system and barometer. +t 305° Water barometer ° Problem 5.54 ‘5.55. The pressure in this closed tank is gradually increased bby pumping. Calculate the gage reading at which cavitation «will appear in the 25 mm constriction. The barometric pressure is 94 kPa, Problem 8.85 5.56, If cavitation anywhere in this pipe system is to avoided, what is the diameter of the largest nozzle may be used? Atmospheric pressure = 100 kPa; pressure = 10.3 kPa. Problem 5.56 ‘5.87. What is the smallest nozzle diameter (d) that will duce the maximum possible flowrate through this frit pipe system? Atmospheric pressure is 14.3 psi sure of the water is 13 psia. Problem 5.57 5.58. A convergent-divergent tube is connected toa lange tank 1s in problem S.46. Itis to be proportioned so thatthe negative pressure head at the throat is half the height of the water sur- face above the centerline of the tube. For no cavitation and assuming that the tube flows full, what ratio of exit diameter to throat diameter is required?$59. Cavitation occurs in this convergent—divergent tube as shown. The right-hand side of the manometer is connected to fie cavitation zone. ‘The water in the right-hand tube has all tvaporated leaving only vapor. Assuming an ideal fluid at WFC, calculate the gage reading if the local atmospheric pres sare is 750 mm of mercury. 878 mm . Water vepor Cavitation ‘50mm a Problem 8.59 $60, Water at 70°C (158°F) is being siphoned from a tank ‘rough a hose in which the velocity is 4.5 m/s (15 ft/s). What |s the maximum theoretical height of the high point (‘orown’”) of the siphon above the water surface that will tlow this flow to occur? Assume standard barometric pres- se, S61, Barometric pressure is 101.3 kPa and vapor pressure of the water is 32.4 kPa, Calculate the elevation of end B for ‘uaxinum flowrate through this pipeline. Sketch the EL, and GL for this situation Problem 8.61 62, The pressure in the test section of @ wind tunnel is =27 mm (— 1.1 in.) of water when the velocity is 97 km/h (Grph). Calculate the pressure on the nose of an object when ‘iced in the test section. Assume the specific weight for ait 120 N/m? (0.0763 Ib/ft). ‘$63, The pressure in a 100 mm pipeline carrying 4 500 1/min ‘fluid weighing 11 KN/m? is 138 kPa, Calculate the pressure ofthe upstream end of a small object placed in this pipeline. 64, A submarine moves at 46 km/h (25 knots) through salt- water (6g. = 1.025) ata depth of 15 m (50 f0), Calculate the pressure on the nose of the submarine. pRoBLeMs / 175 (65. Calculate the flowrate of water in this pipeline, Problem 5.65 ‘5.66, Three tenths of a cubic metre per second of water are flowing. Calculate the manometer reading (a) using the sketch tas shown, and (0) when the pitot tube is at section 2 and the static pressure connection is at section 1. 1 2 cl, Problem 5.66 ‘5.67. Calculate the flowrate through this pipeline. Problem 5.67 $68. Water is flowing. Calculate the flowrate. a6 cas] Problem 5.68 150 mm a176 | FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID 5.69. Gasoline (s.g. 0.85) is flowing, Calculate gage readings ‘and flowrate, Jo.6m a an Problem 5.69 5.70, Calculate the velocity head in the 3 in. constriction Problem 5:70 5.71. Water is flowing. Assume the flow between the disks to be radial and calculate the pressures at A, B, C, and D. The flow discharges to the atmosphere. 03m —> [eos Disks 2 2 Lemm Problem 5.71 5.72. Calculate the gage reading, Water Problem S72 5.73, Calculate the flowrate of water through this nozzle. au arf | | Mercury Problem 5:73 5174. A flowrate of 1.54 m'/s of water (specific weigh 9.81 kN/m’; vapor pressure 6.9 kPa) passes through this w tunnel, The cock is now closed, Calculate magnitude and d- rection of the manometer reading after the cock is opened Atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. Problem 5.74Water is flowing. Calculate the Howrate and gage ‘The tip ofthe pitot tube is atthe top of the jet. Calculate flowrate and the angle 6. 9m@or 50 mm (2°) emo ye Problem 5.76 Air discharges from a duct of 300 mm diameter through ‘mm nozzle into the atmosphere. The pressure in the is found by a draft gage to be 25 mm of water. Assuming. specific weight of air to be constant at 11,8 N/m? what he Howat? Hin problem 5.8 the vertical distance between the liquid aces ofthe piezometer tubes is 0.6 m, what isthe flowrate? 9, Water flows through a 7S mm constriction in a hori- 150 mm pipe. Ifthe pressure in the 150 mm section is kPa and that in the constriction 207 kPa, calculate the Jociy inthe constriction and the flowrate. feet per second of liquid of specific weight b/f are flowing, Calculate the manometer reading Problem 5:80 S81, In the preceding problem calculate the flowrate when tbe manometer reading is 10 in. pRoBLEMS / 177 5,82. Carbon tetrachloride flows downward through a $0 mm constriction in a 75 mm vertical pipeline. If a differential ma- nometer containing mercury is connected to the constriction ‘and to a point in the pipe 1.2 m above the constriction and this manometer reads 350 mm, calculate the flowrate. (Carbon. tetrachloride fills manometer tubes 10 the mercury surfaces.) 5.83. Calculate the flowrate, 1 Pipe 1 — fe) 25 rma aN let Problem 5.83 5.84, Ifa free jet of fluid strikes a circular disk and produces the flow picture shown, what is the flowrate? rae 3 Problem $38 5.85, Through a transition structure between two rectangular ‘open channels the width narrows from 2.4 m to 2.1m, the depth decreases from 1.5 m to 1.05 m, and the bottom rises 0.3 m, Caleulate the flowrate, 5.86. This “Venturi flume’” is installed in a horizontal fric- tionless open channel of 10 ft width and water depth 10 ft. In the “throat” of the flume where the width has been narrowed to 8 fi, the water depth is observed 10 be 8 ft, Calculate the flowrate in the channel. Problem 5.86178 =| ¥LOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID §.87. Through a transition structure between two rectangular open channels the widdh increases from 3 m to 3.6 m while the water surface remains horizontal. If the depth in the up- stream channel is 1.5 m, what is the depth in the downstream channel? 5.88. If the two-dimensional flowrate over this sharp crested weir is 10 cf3/ft, what is the thickness of the sheet of falling water at a point 3 ft below the weir crest? Problem 5388 5.89, Caleulate the two-dimensional flowrate tough this frictionless sluice gate when the depth his 1.5m. Also cal- culate the depth hs for a flowrate of 3.25 m'/s-m. Problem 5.89 5.90. The flow in an open drainage channel passes into a pipe that carries it through a highway embankment. Ifthe channel ‘ows full, what is the flowrate? Problem 5:90 5.91. The two-dimensional gate contains a two-dimen nozzle (slot) as shown, For a flowrate of 80 cfs/ftin the ek nel, predict the flowrates through the slot and under the o7" Problem 591 ‘5.92. Channel and gate are |_m wide (normal to the plane the paper). Caleulate gy, qa, and Qs. Problem 5.92 5.93. A pump having a 100 mm suction pipe and 75 mn discharge pipe pumps 321/s of water. Ata point on the suction pipe a vacuum gage reads 150 mm of mercury; on the is charge pipe 3.6 m above this point a pressure gage real 331 kPa, Calculate the power supplied by the pump. 5.94. A pump of what power is theoretically required to rit 900 1/mnin 240 gpm) of water from a reservoir of sua elevation 30 m (98 ft) to one of surface elevation 75 m (25010? 5.95, IF 340 1/s of water are pumped over bill through 450 mm pipeline, and the hilltop is 60 m above the surface of the reservoir fom which the water is being taken, calcul the pump power required to maintain & pressure of 175 kPL on the hilltop.Water is pumped from a large lake into an irrigation ml of rectangular cross section 3 m wide, producing the sitation shown. Calculate the required pump power as- ng deal flow. Problem 5.96 A pomp has 8 in. inlet and 6 in. outlet. I the hydraulic line rises 60 across the pump when the flowrate is cis of sodium at 1 000°F, how much horsepower is the delivering to the fluid? For the same rise in hydraulic line, what flowrate will be maintained by an expenditere Why? Water lowing, Caleulate the pump power fora low- of 28s, Draw the EL and HGL. 1. 60-| s Wey E130 Problem 5:98 98, One hundred and ewenty litres per second of jet fuel ((P-) are flowing. Calculate the pump power. 150 md pRoBLems / 179 5.100, If pitot tubes replace the static pressure connections of the preceding problem and give the same manometer reading, what is the flowrate if the pump is supplying 7.5 kW to the ‘uid? 5.101. A pump takes water from a tank and discharges it into the atmosphere through a horizontal 50 mm nozzle. The noz- ale is 4.5 m above the water surface and is connected to the pump's 100 mm discharge pipe. What power must the pump have to maintain a pressure of 276 kPa just upstream from the nozzle? 5.102. Calculate the pump power, assuming that the diverg- ing tube flows ful 250 mm Hg vee 25m 150 mma | 13m Mater Problem 5.102 5.103. Calculate the minimum pump horsepower that will send the jet over the wall 1 250- 345 -e1, 200 E1190 F100) ir Problem 5.103 5.104. Calculate the pump power. 150 mm emma Problem 5.104 { .180 | FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID 5.105. Compute the pump horsepower required to maintain a lowrate of 4.0 cfs and draw the EL and HGL ifthe barometric pressure is 14.3 psia and the vapor pressure is 1.0 psia. Cal ‘culate the maximum possible x for reliable operation, El 150 rd Problem 5.108 5.106. Referring to the sketch of problem 5.105 above, what owrate will be expected when $0 horsepower are supplied to the pump? 5.107. Two cubic feet per second of ethyl aleohol are flowing in a moon station supply system, Calculate the pump horse- power. eu eu 2a “| He Problem 5.107 5.108. Water is flowing in this moon station supply pipeline Calculate the pamp power for a flowrate of 3 1/s Problem 3.108 5.109. A pump is to be installed to increase the fh through this pipe and nozzle by 20%. Calculate the req power. Term Problem 5.109 5.110, Through a 4 in. pipe, 1.0 cfs of water enters a hydraulic motor and discharges through «6 in. pipe. The in pipe is lower than the discharge pipe, and at 4 point ox inlet pipe a pressure gage reads 70 psi: 14 fk above this one discharge pipe a pressure gage reads 40 psi. What horsepowe! is developed by the motor? For the same gage readings, win flowrate would be required to develop 10 hp? B.lL, A 7.5 kW pump is used to draw air from the aime sphere (pressure = 101.3 kPa) through a smooth bell-mouh nozzle with « 250 mm diameter throat and into a very lage tank where the absolute pressure is 1.5 bar. I the air densiy Js essentially constant at 1.25 kg/m’, what is the velocity in the nozzle throat? 5.112, Find the flowrate in the system below and draw te ‘energy line and the hydraulic grade line. I @ pump is instill at A to increase the flowrate 20%, find the horsepower thx ‘pump must add to the water. 5.113. For the fire pump installation shown, compute the horsepower added to the water necessary to give a nozzle ve-propiems / 181 € €1.4.2001 =2.4.190 A= 0.09 Problem 5.113 of 6 fi/s wo the exiting steam, Also draw the energy at A reads 24 psi vacuum, od the hydraulic grade line 2) find the flow velocity through the nozzle, I Water is being pumped from the lower reservoir ') find the horsepovser the pump must add to the water, a nozzle into the upper reservoir, IFthe vacuum gage ©, draw the energy line and the hydraulic grade line. £1.20" Problem S.114 .182 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID EL 100! (A=0196 19) Problem 5.115. In the pumping system shown, the velocity discharg- ing from the 1.50-inch diameter nozale must be 50 ft/s. If water i flowing, a) calculate Q, ») calculate the energy added by the pump to each pound of water, ©) calculate the horsepower the pump must add to the water, 4) draw the energy line and the hydraulic grade line ap- proximately to scale 8.116. A hydraulic turbine in a power plant takes 3 m'/s (106 f/s) of water from a reservoir of surface elevation 70 m (230 ft) and discharges it into a river of surface elevation 20m (66 11). What theoretical power is available in this flow’ 5.117. Calculate the h that will produce a flowrate of 85 /s and a turbine output of 15 kW. 5.118. Water flows from the rectangular channel into 42 diameter pipe where the turbine extracts 10 ft-lb of, from every pound of fluid. How far above the pipe outet vil the water surface be in the column connected to the pitt Problem 5.118 5.119. The turbine extracts from the flowing water half a ‘much energy as remains in the jet at the nozzle exit. Calculate the power of the turbine. Problem 5.119This turbine develops 100 horsepower when the flow- _$.122. Calculate the power output ofthis turbine. cfs, What flowrate may be expected if the turbine is EL 75m propiems / 183 | . | | Problem 5.122 Problem 5.120 The turbine extracts power from the water flowing 5.123. What is the maximum power the turbine can extract mthe reservoir. Find the horsepower extracted if the flow from the flow before cavitation will occur at some point in the the system is 1 000 cfs. Draw the energy line andthe system? Barometric pressure is 102 kPa, and vapor pressure lie grade line. of the water is 3.5 kPa. e478 Problem 5.121184 / FLOW OF AN INCOMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID Problem 5.123 5.124. A flowrate of 7 m'/s of water passes through this by- Graulic turbine, The static pressure at the sop of the inlet pipe is 345 kPa and across a 1.5 m diameter of the outlet pipe (draft tube") the stagnation pressure is 250 mm of mercury vacuum, How much power may be expected from the ma- chine? Problem 5.124 5.125. Assuming a very large tnk and density of air constant at 0,002 5 shug/?, calculate (a) pressure just upstream from the turbine, (6) the turbine horsepower, and (c) the jet velocity ‘when the turbine is removed. NI ae LE -bscom Problem 8.125 fir 5.126. Calculate the power available in the jet of waters ing from this nozzle. 5.127, Water flows in a 0.1 m (0.33 ft) wide gap between very lange fiat plates; assume the flow is two-dimensional. flow is laminar and so the velocity profile is parabolic with centerline velocity of 0.2 m/s (0.67 ft/s). Under the asu tion that the streamfines of the flow are straight and par find the change in the sum of the Bemoulli terms in Ea. 5i with distance from the flow centerline. Use two diffe methods, one of which uses the vorticity, Show that the methods are equivalent. ‘5.128. If the inrotational flow of problem 3.6/ is in aes zontal plane and the pressure head at the origin of coordina is 3 m (10 ft, what is the pressure head at point 2,2)? Wha is the pressure head when the flowfield is in a vertical pla! 5.129. If the irrotational flow ields of problems 3.67 and 3.6m are in a horizontal plane and the velocity and pressure bei ata radius of 0.6 m are 4.5 m/s and 3 m, respectively, wt pressure head exists at a radius of 0.9 m? When these fow- fields are in vertical planes and the pressure head at (9 = 9 r= 06) is 3m, what is the pressure head at (@ = 0 r= 09? 5.130, If the irotational flowfield of a free vortex is described by the equations v, = ¢/r and v, = 0, derive an equation for the profile of the liquid surface Horizontal |g Problem 5.130)131. A 180° circular bend occurs ina horizontal plane in a fissage I m (3) wide. The radius ofthe inner wall is 0.3 m {ft and that of the outer wall 1.3 m (4 fi). Ifthe velocity (of water) halfway around the bend on the outer wall is 3 m/s |J0(4/5) and the pressure there is 35 kPa (5 psi), what will be ‘is velocity and pressure at the corresponding point on the ‘ane wall (using the relation of Eq. 5.12)? Note that this equa {on is an approximation because the centers of curvature of ilstreamlines are not coincident with the center of curvature atthe bend, Also calculate the approximate flowrate in the posage 5112, If the bend of the preceding problem is the top of & silton, and chus in a vertical plane, wiat are the velocity and ssure? What is the approximate flowrate? 5113. Estimate the peripheral velocity 30 m from the center ofa tomado if the peripheral velocity 120 m from the center ‘580 km/h. If the barometer reads 710 mm of mercury atthe lnter point, what reading ean be expected at the former? As sume air density 1.23 kg/m, S13, Predict the flowrate through this two-dimensional out~ flow suucture for a water depth of 1.5 m in the canal. Also

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