ACUTE EFFECT OF PASSIVE STATIC STRETCHING
LOWER-BODY STRENGTH IN MODERATELY
TRAINED MEN
JEFFREY C. GERGLEY
Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Human Performance Laboratory, Stephen F. Austin State University,
Nacogdoches, Texas
ABSTRACT
Gergley, JC. Acute effect of passive static stretching on lower-
body strength in moderately trained men. J Strength Cond Res
27(4): 973–977, 2013—The purpose of this investigation was
conducted to determine the acute effect of passive static
stretching (PSS) of the lower-body musculature on lower-body
strength in a 1 repetition maximum (1RM) squat exercise in
young (18–24 years.) moderately trained men (n = 17). Two
supervised warm-up treatments were applied before each per-
formance testing session using a counterbalanced design on
nonconsecutive days. The first treatment consisted of an active
dynamic warm-up (AD) with resistance machines (i.e., leg
extension/leg flexion) and free weights (i.e., barbell squat),
whereas the second treatment added PSS of the lower body
plus the AD treatment. One repetition maximum was deter-
mined using the maximum barbell squat following a progressive
loading protocol. Subjects were also asked to subjectively
evaluate their lower-body stability during 1RM testing sessions
for both the AD and PSS treatments. A significant decrease in
1RM (8.36%) and lower-body stability (22.68%) was observed
after the PSS treatment. Plausible explanations for this obser-
vation may be related to a more compliant muscle tendon unit
and/or altered or impaired neurologic function in the active
musculature. It is also possible that strength was impaired by
the PSS because of joint instability. The findings of this study
suggest that intensive stretching such as lower-body PSS
should be avoided before training the lower body or performing
the 1RM in the squat exercise in favor of an AD dynamic warm-
up using resistance training equipment in the lower-body
musculature.
KEY WORDS muscle tendon unit (MTU), reflex sensitivity,
neural inhibition, range of motion (ROM)
Address correspondence to Jeffrey C. Gergley, jgergley@sfasu.edu.
27(4)/973–977
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2013 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
ON
INTRODUCTION
C
orrect biomechanical execution of lower-body
resistance training exercises in health, fitness,
and sport conditioning settings requires a high
level of joint flexibility (11,23). Adequate joint
flexibility not only permits proper form but also allows the
trainee the ability to work against resistance through a full
range of motion (ROM) (11,21). This type of training allows
strengthening of the trained musculature through a full ROM
while also contributing to the maintenance of existing joint
flexibility (11,21). The reported benefits of stretching also
include a reduced chance of injury (12,13,36,38,40). Therefore,
most health, fitness, and sport enthusiasts include some form
of flexibility training at a point in time (i.e., before, during, or
after) into their training regimens. The timing of performing
stretching exercises, however, remains speculative. It is
the author’s view that much of the controversy in the stretch-
ing literature can be attributed to the failure to differentiate
between warm-up stretching protocols that are typically
applied before performance or training, static in nature, and
held for shorter amounts of time compared with rehabilitative
stretching to improve ROM that is typically performed after
a performance or training session, may be static, passive, or
both active or passive (i.e. proprioneuromuscular facilitation),
and stretches are held for longer durations. This consideration
is imperative at making accurate interpretations from the lit-
erature concerning warm-up/stretching protocols.
Static stretching exercises are commonly used during the
warm-up phase before practice or competition in sport
activities (3,21). As referenced above, the general belief that
increased ROM will translate into reduced incidence of
injury (38,40,45). Interestingly, however, a recent investiga-
tion provided evidence that the acute effects of stretching
may be harmful because of joint instability (30), whereas
another study reported a higher incidence of injury in sub-
jects with very high or low levels of flexibility (9).
From a performance perspective, several contemporary
studies have examined the effects of various stretching
protocols and reported decreased maximal isometric
strength (2,4,15,31), decreased isometric peak torque (34),
decreased dynamic strength (25,31,32,34,47), decreased
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 Lower-Body Strength in Moderately Trained Males
muscle endurance (16), decreased eccentric torque (10),
decreased sprint performance (14,33,46), decreased golf
performance (17–20), decreased cycling sprint performance
(44), and decreased jump performance (6,8,32,35). Thus, it
may be detrimental to stretch before training, practice, or
competition. These findings have implication for closed
chain resistance training exercises such as the squat because
high levels of sequenced force production from the foot into
the legs, hips, and back are necessary to perform a maximal
lift (11,21,23). Any acute changes in these joints because of
passive static stretching (PSS) would impact movement and
therefore performance in the 1 repetition maximum
(1RM) squat.
The mechanisms responsible for the stretch-induced
decreased force production remain speculative (4,15). Plau-
sible explanations include a more compliant muscle tendon
unit (MTU) (8,25,32,34), decreased neuromuscular reflex
sensitivity (8,25,31,34), neural inhibition (1,4,15,43), and tis-
sue damage because of creatine kinase associated with PSS
(41). Localized impairment has also been explained because
of joint angle (31), contraction types (8,47), or contraction
velocities (34).
Nevertheless, the performance of stretching exercises
before bouts of training or competition continues despite
the lack of evidence supporting the relationship between
prestretching warm-up regimens on 1RM squat. Therefore,
this study was designed to answer the question of whether
intensive PSS before performing a 1RM in the squat exercise
is detrimental to performance.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
Two different warm-up treatments were applied before each
performance testing session using a counterbalanced design
on nonconsecutive days. The first treatment consisted of an
active dynamic warm-up (AD) with variable resistance
training machines (i.e., leg extension/leg flexion) and free
weights (i.e., barbell squat), whereas the second treatment
added PSS of the lower-body musculature before the AD
warm-up treatment. The addition of the PSS treatment was
different from the subjects’ normal warm-up procedure,
which more closely modeled the AD warm-up. One repeti-
tion maximum was determined using the maximum barbell
TABLE 1. Subject demographics—mean and (SD).
Body
Age (y) Height (cm) mass (kg)
Subjects 20.47 (1.87) 179.59 (7.33) 87.77 (12.56)
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974 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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TABLE 2. Active dynamic warm-up progression
with machines and free weights.
1 Leg extension (2 sets 3 10 repetitions)
2 Leg flexion (2 sets 3 10 repetitions)
3 Parallel squat (2 sets 3 10 repetitions)
squat after a progressive loading protocol. Subjects were also
asked to subjectively rate their lower-body stability/balance
during the performance of the 1RM squat exercise by
responding to the question, “How stable and balanced did
you feel during that lift?” This measurement, although not
empirical, is appropriate for moderately trained fitness train-
ees. Any impairment attributable to PSS would manifest
itself in this measure.
Subjects
The study subjects (n = 17) were young moderately trained
men who regularly participate in resistance training for the
lower-body musculature. This type of training incorporates
multiple sets at submaximal loads in the 10RM repetition
range with the goal of gaining both strength and skeletal
muscle hypertrophy. Before testing, the subjects were pro-
vided with a complete written and oral explanation of the
study. After the explanation, each subject was asked to sign
an informed consent document that was approved by the
Stephen F. Austin State University’s Institutional Review
Board. Table 1 outlines subject demographics.
Procedures
The application of warm-up treatments to the study subjects
incorporated a counterbalanced design. Subjects were nor-
mally hydrated and rested (i.e., 48 hours since last bout of
exercise) before testing. The AD warm-up treatment con-
sisted of 2 sets of 10 submaximal repetitions in the leg
extension, leg flexion, and squat exercises. Table 2 outlines
AD warm-up regimen. The PSS warm-up treatment
included PSS of the lower body using 3 sets of 10-second
stretches for the quadriceps, hamstring, calf, abdominal,
TABLE 3. Passive static stretching warm-up
exercises.
1 Calf stretch
2 Hamstring stretch
3 Quadriceps stretch

TABLE 4. Comparison of warm-up treatments on 1RM squat and balance/stability.*
AD
Measure Mean SD
1RM squat (kg) 124.81 26.69
Balance/stability (scale of 1–10) 8.82 0.95
*AD = active dynamic warm-up; PSS = passive static stretching; 1RM = 1 repetition maximum.
†A significant (p , 0.05) difference was observed between warm-up treatment means.
and lower-back musculature. Table 3 outlines the stretching
routine applied.
Immediately after either the AD or PSS treatments, each
subject performed multiple trials of the squat exercise
following a progressive resistance protocol until the 1RM
was established. The 1RM squat was used as the dependent
measure because it is widely acknowledged as the best
measure of lower-body strength. In order for a maximal lift
to be included in the data set, subjects’ were required to
achieve a parallel femur while using a pelvic width stance.
Furthermore, subjects were required to rest 3 minutes in
between each progressive trial for the purpose of regenera-
tion of high-energy phosphate bonds and lactate clearance.
Also, after the final 1RM lift, subjects were asked the ques-
tion, “On a scale of 1–10, how would you rate your balance
and stability during your maximum lift?” Subjective questions
of this nature, although not empirical, could help to explain
differences in 1RM across treatments because of attenuated
proprioception (5,29) and joint stability (30).
Statistical Analyses
To determine the effects that the 2 different warm-up
treatments had on 1RM in the squat exercise, a paired t-test
for 2 sample mean values was used. This method provides
a statistical measure of actual mean differences between
treatment applications. Statistical significance was set at
p # 0.05.
RESULTS
The subjects in this study were tested for 1RM in the squat
exercise and subjective joint stability after AD and PSS
warm-up treatments. Results of paired t-tests revealed signif-
icant (p , 0.05) decreases in both 1RM squat (8.36%) and
lower-body stability/balance (22.68%) measures after the
PSS treatment (Table 4).
DISCUSSION
This investigation was conducted to determine the acute
effects of PSS of the lower-body musculature on lower-body
strength in a 1RM squat. Subjective perceptual measures of
balance/stability were also documented.
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The present investiga-
tion supports previous
findings reporting dec-
PSS reased force production
or performance following
Mean SD t various stretching modal-
112.95 26.16 23.40† ities. The nature of this
6.82 1.07 28.81† performance decrement
after stretching may be
related to the MTU
(8,25,32,34). Rosenbaum
and Hennig (37) and
Kubo et al. (26) suggest
that this decrease in force
production is a result of slack in the tendon after stretching
exercises. Therefore, less force can be applied to the bone,
which results in a correspondingly lower force production
for movement and attenuated athletic performance. Corn-
well et al. (8) report that observed decreases in performance
are a result of the inability of MTU to store elastic energy.
Interestingly, the amount of elastic energy that can be stored
in the MTU is a function of the units’ stiffness (22,27,39).
Other authors have demonstrated that tendon compliance
and muscle contraction can occur simultaneously in both
animals (42) and humans (7). Collectively, these investiga-
tions support the theory that a more compliant MTU results
in a greater time interval until external force is expressed in
powerful kinesthetic movements.
There may also be a neuromuscular explanation for
decreased performance after stretching. Avela et al. (2) mea-
sured reflex sensitivity of skeletal muscles after repeated PSS.
The results showed a significant decrease in reflex activity
and force production. Kokkonen et al. (25) attributed these
observations to a reduction in the sensitivity of the muscle
spindles and theorized that repeated stretching also reduced
the number of motor units available because of autogenic
inhibition. Knudson et al. (24) hypothesized that a decrease
in vertical jump performance was associated with decrease in
neural transmission because they found no change in the
kinematics of the movement. Additional investigations pro-
vided evidence that reduced force production and perfor-
mance were attributable to acute neural inhibition from
passive stretching and consequently reduced the neural drive
to the muscle (1,2,25,28).
In the present study, significant decrease was observed in
both the 1RM squat and the subjects’ perception of balance/
stability during this exercise. There are several explanations
that apply to these performance observations. First, it is
plausible that the skeletal muscles were normally and suffi-
ciently innervated by the central nervous system, but less
muscular torque was applied to the skeleton because of
a more compliant MTU. Second, altered neurologic activity
may have caused the skeletal muscles to fire without syn-
chronization or adequate action potential, thus reducing
force production. Moreover, altered neurologic activity
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 Lower-Body Strength in Moderately Trained Males
may have also impacted proprioception evidenced by the
observed decrease in perception of balance/stability. A final
explanation is that both (i.e., dual effect) the transfer of force
from the skeletal muscles to the skeleton and the neurologic
system were temporarily impaired because of the PSS treat-
ment. The author supports the later explanation because both
force production and neuromuscular coordination are neces-
sary for the 1RM squat exercise (11,21,23). That is, decreased
force production and neuromuscular coordination are a result
of a dual effect caused by temporary slack in the MTU and an
altered neurologic state. Nevertheless, the question of whether
these reductions in performance are attributable primarily or
collectively to a more compliant MTU, reduced neurologic
sensitivity of the muscle spindles, or neural inhibition remains
speculative and requires further study.
This inquiry was specific to performance in the 1RM squat
exercise. The squat exercise is a closed kinetic chain exercise
moving in a vertical plane that categorizes it a unique skill.
Thus, other resistance exercises may not be comparable to the
squat exercise. Adequate ROM in the legs, hips, and back are
paramount for the squat to be learned, improved, and
performed (11,21,23). Other resistance exercises also require
specific expressions of flexibility. Therefore, each exercise
should be evaluated for its specific ROM requirements for
optimal performance and the consideration of preventing injury.
The scientific literature addressing warm-up and stretch-
ing routines for specific resistance training or sport move-
ments is scarce at best. Fowles et al. (15) reported impaired
isometric force for up to 1 hour after passive stretching.
Rosenbaum and Hennig (37) found a decrease in the rate
of force development after static stretching yet force devel-
opment returned to pretest values after a 10-minute run.
Gergley (17–20) reported impaired golf performance in both
acute and latent phases after PSS that included a recovery
period. In the present study, it is possible that the effect of
the PSS treatment would “wear off” at some point after PSS,
but this to the author’s knowledge has not been studied
using the 1RM squat exercise and should be studied in future
investigations.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The design of warm-up routines for resistance training
movements involving high-intensity power output, biome-
chanical efficiency, and coordination such as the squat
exercise should minimize the amount of stretching before
training or attempts at maximal lifts. It is recommended that
trainees employ an AD consisting of submaximal sets of
resistance exercises activating the skeletal muscles involved
in the maximum lift. Therefore, coaches and strength and
conditioning professionals should continue to use static
stretching for short durations and move progressively
toward an AD. If the trainee has poor form because of lack
of flexibility, intensive flexibility training should be per-
formed after a conditioning session or final maximal lift
attempt.
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