Force Is King Max Schmarzo and Matt Van Dyke PDF

FORCE IS
KING
How To Apply Physics In Training
Max Schmarzo
Matt Van Dyke
Force is King
How to Apply Physics in Training
Max Schmarzo &

Matt Van Dyke
Table of Contents
Preface………………………………………………………………………………….………………i
About the Authors……………………………………………………………….………………iii
Section 1
Introduction - What is Force?...............................................…….……………1
Section 2
Force is Contextual…………………………………………………………………..………...13
Section 3
Dynamics of Movement…………………………….………………………….…………...30
Section 4
Force at Low Velocity..………………………………………………….……………………34
Section 5
Force at Moderate Velocity……………………………………………………………….49
Section 6
Force at High Velocity ….………………………………………………………………….…60
Section 7
Force and Injuries………………………………………………………………………….……82
Section 8
The Black Box Conundrum…………………………………………………………….……93
Preface
Before reading any book, we feel it is critical to have complete understanding as to why it has
been written. This book was pieced together to aid both the coach as well as the athlete to
better understand the common, relatively basic, principles of physics and how these principles
are important factors in every movement completed. The principles described throughout this
book cannot be ignored, as they help us (coaches and athletes) define and understand universal
motion of objects (not talking quantum mechanics). Ultimately, force is the driving factor in
every aspect of motion. The continued pursuit and comprehension of how force is created and
applied leads to the understanding of how motion is produced by an athlete. Therefore, the
understanding of this underlying aspect of all motion can aid coaches in integrating physics,
along with physiology, to create a more specific approach to training. No single science alone
can provide all of the answers to the complex nature of the human organism and its response
to training. However, through the combination of multiple fields of study, we are able to paint a
clearer picture of what some may deem as a universal truth of human and athletic
development. At this present moment, we are nowhere near such a level of comprehension,
and we likely will not be in ours, or even future generations. However, this fact should not
deter us from attempting to continue progressing forward and taking the necessary steps in
order to be “more right” and “less wrong” than we previously were. Coaches are naturally
curious about the effects of their training programs, by pairing this curiosity with an enhanced
knowledge of basic physics, particularly in regards to force, programming can be enhanced to
an even greater degree.
We hope that this book will be an effective tool in teaching and continuing to increase
understanding of why force, and the production of it, is of the utmost importance. We would
like to give a special shout out to Isaac Newton, as well as other great physics minds, for their
work in the improved understanding of force. Without some of the work completed by this
group, the ability to apply these methods in the sport performance world would not be
i
possible. On a more serious note, with the primary principles of this book being physics based,
we were uncertain of how to add citations at the completion of each section.
Isaac Newton was an astronomer, scientist, physicist, philosopher, and mathematician. He is

responsible for the development of the principles used in modern day physics.
Through conversations with others in the field, along with the published literature, it seems as
though there are times in which basic concepts, including the application of force, have been
lost or forgotten. With recent advances in understanding of the human body, there are times
we, as a field, get so caught up in the continued search for the understanding of the “black box”
of training we ignore the fact that force output can be improved in many, simple fashions.
These simple training methods are able to drastically improve performance and reduce the
likelihood of injury. None of the common aspects discussed in the coaching world, such as
velocity, impulse, acceleration, or jerk, are possible without the underlying requirement of
force itself. Thus, the foundation to all movement is force, and without it, we would be nothing
at all. It is what holds us back, and at the same time provides us freedom. Force not only leads
to broken bones, but it also gives us the ability to explore the earth. Force is the cause for home
runs and also why planes are able to fly. Force is king and this book intends to highlight this
concept in an easy to digest, applicable manner.
ii
About the Authors
Max Schmarzo
Max Schmarzo is the Director of Sports Science at Resilience Code in Englewood, CO, is an NSCA
Certified Strength and Conditioning Coach (CSCS) and NATA Certified Athletic Trainer (ATC). He received
his MS in Kinesiology from Iowa State University, where he led investigative research on relationship
between the force-velocity profile of the squat and vertical jump height.
Prior to entering graduate school, Max played four years of NCAA Division III basketball. As an
undergrad, he doubled majored in athletic training and strength and conditioning.
Throughout his undergraduate and graduate schooling, he was able to complete several internships,
including working under Chris Doyle at the University of Iowa, Josh Beauregard at Iowa State University
and Donald Chu at Athercare in Dublin, California.
Max also writes professionally for his website and social media (Instagram),
http://www.strongbyscience.net/ and @Strong_by_Science, respectively.
Matt Van Dyke

Matt Van Dyke is the Associate Director of Applied Sports Science at the University of Texas. With the
Longhorns, Matt serves as the direct oversight of the Football program in regards to sports science
aspects implemented across the team.
Prior to his position with Texas, Matt was the Associate Director of Sports Performance at the University
of Denver, overseeing multiple sports. Before moving to Denver, Matt was the Assistant Director of
Strength and Conditioning for Olympic Sports at the University of Minnesota. Matt completed his
Graduate Assistantship at St. Cloud State University, where he earned his Masters of Science in exercise
physiology and nutrition in 2015.
Matt completed internships with Iowa State and the University of Minnesota under Yancy McKnight and
Cal Dietz, respectively.
Matt most recently released the Triphasic Lacrosse Training Manual, presented at the 2015 CSCCa
National Conference on Advanced Triphasic Training Methods, while also writing for his professional
website vandykestrength.com.
iii
Matt is certified by the CSCCa (SCCC). He earned his Bachelor’s Degree in exercise science from Iowa
State University in 2012.
Max & Matt
This is now the third book produced by the combined efforts of both Max & Matt. Their first book,
Applied Principles of Optimal Power, provided insight to develop power within athletes in an efficient
science based manner. To see this manual, click here. Second came the Isometrics for Performance
book. This can be viewed by clicking here.
Acknowledgements
We would like to extend a special thanks to Josie White, Evan Schaller, Lance Brooks, Dr. David
Bacharach, Drake Berberet, and Alec Genter for their assistance in making this project possible.
iv
1. Introduction - What is Force?
Force by definition is equal to mass x acceleration (F=ma). But force as we apply it each day is
much simpler. Force is involved with every movement that occurs on our planet. Force is what
allows people to move and planes to fly. It is responsible for the falling hail that dents your car,
it is what causes a broken leg when someone jumps down too far from a tree, and it also leads
to the output of every single sporting movement. As Newton so famously described in his three
laws of motion, force is what makes things move and makes things stop (Newton was a little
more detailed than that, but the point remains the same). Whether you are trying to run fast,
reduce the likelihood of injury, jump high, or lift a weight, whether it be for maximal speed or a
load, you must be able to produce force.
The formula for force is quite simple and well understood by almost anyone who has taken an
entry level physics class. However, as that physics class may have been many years ago, or an
early morning class that no longer registers, let's complete a brief force refresher.
Formula for Force

𝐹 =𝑚∗𝑎
Force = Mass * Acceleration
Clearly this formula for force includes only two variables, mass and acceleration. In the majority
of movements, mass remains constant. Other than through the application of accommodating
resistance, it is rare the mass of the moved object changes during movement. A soccer player
running down the field does not alter her/his mass while completing the desired movement.
This understanding allows us, as coaches, to place a greater emphasis on the acceleration
aspect of the force equation.
1
Acceleration, or the change in speed, will be covered in greater detail shortly. However a simple
example of acceleration can be seen in a 100m dash. As competing athletes drive out of the
blocks, their velocity (which in this chapter will be the same as speed due to the direction not
being considered) drastically increases (0 m/s to a speed much greater than that), while their
mass remains constant. Since mass didn’t change, the only thing to cause this rapid increase in
velocity is muscle movement as they propel themselves down the track. This change in velocity
is due to a change in acceleration.
Greater acceleration = greater force output which will provide an athlete, when paired with
proper mechanics and technique, an increased likelihood of winning the race. An athlete
squatting is another simple example of a required force output. If the squatter accelerates the
bar (and their body) at higher rates, greater force is produced. In this example, unless
accommodating resistance is being utilized, the mass remains identical throughout the
movement. This leaves force production to be dictated by acceleration of the bar.
These examples serve as the most basic situations of increased force being applied to achieve
success in athletics. In reality, the resultant vector (direction of the force being produced) is
also of critical importance. If the sprinter produces force in only a vertical fashion, she/he will
not move down the track efficiently (the sprinter will actually just bob up in down in place if
only vertical force was applied) and will likely not win the race regardless of their ability to
produce force. The same applies to the squat. If force is not produced in an appropriate
direction, the lift is less likely to be completed successfully, let alone at a high velocity. Force is
not only king, but it is also contextual. This aspect will be expanded upon in section two.
As one can clearly see above, force is the product of mass and acceleration. Mass is easily
calculated; however, acceleration is somewhat misunderstood as it is determined by more than
one variable. The equation for acceleration is provided below.
2
Formula for Acceleration
∆𝑉
𝑎=
∆𝑇
Acceleration = Change in Velocity / Change in Time
Acceleration is the change in velocity over a change in time. In both examples above,
acceleration occurs in the early stages of the movement, but then becomes more difficult to
maintain. As the sprinter pushes out of the blocks, there is a large change in velocity from the
start in which they are not moving. This also applies to the athlete completing the squat. There
is a brief moment in which the athlete is not moving at the bottom position in order to reverse
the eccentric action of the squat. Immediately following this transition, acceleration, or change
in velocity over a period of time occurs.
In both of these movements, increased acceleration becomes difficult as the velocity of the
movement increases. Every runner hits a top speed, or the point in which she/he is no longer
able to accelerate, and all squats are constrained by the range of motion available to the
athlete. The concept of improving acceleration, or force production in the case of constant
mass, will be highlighted throughout this book and will become of particular importance as the
velocity of movements increase.
It is important to remember that a sprinter at a constant speed (zero acceleration), is still

moving fast (high velocity) and producing high amounts of force. However, the combination of
reduced ground contact time (less time to produce force) and added resistance from the
ground and air result in a point where the runner can no longer accelerate. Their only hope now
is to maintain that same high velocity for as long as possible due to the net forces being zero.
This example can also be applied in the weight room. By understanding the accelerational limits
of an exercise, coaches are able to implement training in a manner that fits the demands of the
athlete. Returning to the squat example, due to range of motion constraints, there comes a
3
time when an athlete must decelerate at the top of their movement. However, if this exercise is
altered to a squat jump version, an athlete is able to accelerate throughout the entire range of
motion as they leave the floor. This approach to programming requires planning and organizing
according to the contextual demands of the sport that is being trained for.
Taking a deeper look into the velocity portion of this equation, we realize that velocity, like
acceleration, is a composite variable. Velocity is the change in distance over the change in time.
It is for this reason velocity is typically measured in meters per second (m/s). With meters being
the distance and seconds being the time.
Formula for Velocity

∆𝐷
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
∆𝑇
Velocity = Change in Distance / Change in Time
Velocity is likely one of the better understood aspects of physics incorporated into athletics at a
high level. It is simply the displacement of an object (athlete, barbell, etc.) over the amount of
time of the completed action. The sprinter that covers more ground in less time is running at a
higher velocity than her/his competitors. The athlete moving the squat bar at higher speeds is
completing the distance of the movement in less time than others, provided the distance of the
movement is constant (e.g. athlete’s height/depth). Velocity is typically viewed as the ultimate
outcome due to its specificity to sport, but coaches must not get lost in the outcome and forget
each of the many variables required to achieve maximal velocities in competition.
It is important to note that velocity is directional. This is shown in the example of a gun and a
baseball. If the ball is dropped simultaneously with the firing of the gun (assuming the gun is
pointed perfectly parallel with the earth, curvature does not play a role and there is no air
resistance), the ball and bullet will still hit the ground at the same time, yet the bullet would
have covered a far greater horizontal distance. This is because the average downward velocity
4
of both objects would have been the same over the same distance, causing them to hit the
ground at the same time. Gravity is pulling them downward with the same force, from the same
height. However, the bullet had a horizontal velocity applied to it from the shooting of the gun,
while the baseball did not, which is why they did not travel the same distance horizontally.
This can be applied in the world of athletics in terms of the direction athlete’s desire to produce
force. Consider the different goals of a sprinter and a basketball player. The sprinter must
produce force in a horizontal fashion in order to produce velocity down the track. On the other
hand, the basketball player must produce force in a vertical fashion in order to jump over his
opponent’s outstretched arm. How each of these athletes go about completing this goal
effectively is dependent upon the muscles and the training principles that have been applied to
them.
What started as a simple force formula doesn’t seem so simple anymore does it? Let’s put it all
back together in its now deconstructed form.
Deconstructed Formula for Force

Δ𝐷/Δ𝑇
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗
Δ𝑇
(Where change in distance is ΔD, and change in time is ΔT)
What is Impulse?
Now that we know the complete formula for determining force, we have the ability to begin
discussing “impulse”. Impulse is the amount of accumulated force throughout a movement
(force * change in time), often referred to as the sum of the area under a force-time curve.
With force and time, impulse can be calculated for a single instant in time or as a total (net)
force throughout an entire movement. For simplicity, the impulse produced during a basic
5
countermovement squat jump is the total force produced during the time the athlete is
completing the jump. Taking this a step further, an impulse can be calculated for any portion of
the jump as well. A very small portion of the total impulse, or instantaneous impulse as we have
labeled it, such as jump initiation could be determined and might be valuable in determining
starting strength, or even an athlete’s rate of force development (RFD). It is important coaches
understand that impulse is determined entirely by the coach and what aspect they wish to
consider/view in regards to their athlete(s).
In the figure below, the same athlete has completed a concentric back squat (blue) and
concentric jump (red). In this scenario, the back squat produces a greater impulse over the
course of the entire movement due to its increased time to completion. If the desired goal is to
maximize impulse, then the statement that the back squat is “more valuable” than the jump in
training due to its increased impulse is valid. However, coaches must also consider time
available in competition to produce force. As velocities increase in movement, the time to
produce force decreases. By understanding this, a coach can make an argument that the
concentric jump is “more valuable” in regards to training. Both of these coaches may be correct
based on the athlete group or time of year they are programming for. We must always consider
context when creating and implementing training programs. Figure 1.1 shows time in arbitrarily
units along the x-axis and force on the y-axis. For a sport action that requires 50 versus 100 au
of time, the concentric jump (red) has a larger impulse.
6
Jump
Squat
Time
Figure 1.1: Comparison of impulse between a concentric back squat (blue) and concentric jump
(red). Both provide valuable stimulus in training. Although greater force is produced through
the completion of the back squat movement, the greatest instantaneous impulse is seen during
the completion of the concentric jump (shown with the black bracket). Coaches must constantly
consider the desired outcomes of their implemented training programs.
By understanding the time available in a sport, coaches are able to complete “specific” training
in regards to force application. It must also be noted that the testing protocol (vertical force
production in this case) must correlate to the performance movement in order to be valid.
Impulse is responsible for making objects move, because as we will see, it's not just about how
much force an athlete can generate over a given period of time, but also the instantaneous
force an athlete can produce. This is demonstrated above when comparing the back squat to a
concentric jump.
7
Clearly impulse, and its understanding, has tremendous applications in athletics as coaches are
attempting to maximize force production in their athletes in both specific moments (ie. force
produced at the joint angle during the moment of foot strike in sprinting) as well as entire
movements (force produced over the course of a jump/squat).
Equation for Impulse

𝑱 = 𝑭 ∗ ∆𝑻
J = Force * Change in time
Impulse then has a relationship with momentum that we can use to help us understand
movement, including sport. Impulse ultimately dictates the change in momentum of an object.
Let’s take an object with momentum (mass * velocity), with a constant mass as there is typically
no change in this factor during sport. In this situation we are able to say impulse dictates the
change in velocity of an object.
Impulse-Momentum Relationship if Mass is Constant
𝑭 ∗ ∆𝑻 = 𝒎 ∗ ∆𝑽
“Impulse” “Change in Momentum”
Force * Time Applied = mass * (Velocity final - Velocity initial) (F * Δt = m * ΔV)
*Velocity final - is the final velocity of the object after acted upon by the impulse
*Velocity initial - is the initial velocity of the object before acted upon by the impulse
The bigger the object or the higher the velocity, the greater the momentum. Recalling Newton’s
First Law, this object will want to remain stationary or in this case in motion and will require
external force, or an impulse in a different direction, to alter its course. This force includes
8
gravity (always), but other forces such as those created in a muscular contraction. It is these
forces acting on our athletes that we are attempting to clearly depict for all coaches.
As previously mentioned, mass is typically constant in sport. This understanding allows us to

state force multiplied by the time over which it is applied (impulse, J = F * Δt) is equal to mass
multiplied by the change in velocity (change in momentum, m * ΔV), as demonstrated above.
At this point it may seem as though we have gone down the rabbit hole and many of you may
be asking, “Why does all of this matter?” Well, changing velocities is what sport is entirely
based upon. When broken down to the most basic components, athletes that are able to
rapidly and appropriately enhance or change (depending on the movement) the impulse
applied, will likely increase their success. Ultimately we want our athletes to be able to move
fast as well as change velocities quickly. This entire section has led us to the understanding that
in order for our athletes to produce these desired high velocities, we must first provide them
the opportunity to create a large impulse!
How this can be accomplished will be covered later in this book. However, based on the above
formula, if our goal outcome is to increase the velocity of an object, we must either increase
the time over which the force is applied or the amount of force produced in a given time. We
can take this one step further by both increase the amount of force produced, while doing so in
a smaller window of time.
With time commonly being the limiting factor in sport (When was the last time you heard a
coach ask a player to leave their foot on the ground for a greater duration of time while
running?), we don’t really have much of an option to take longer to apply force. Instead, time is
typically either constant or shorter in athletics. This brings into picture a more sport specific
training goal, increase the amount of force produced by your athlete over the given time period
of the competitive movement. Developing a larger impulse or generating greater force over a
set period of time improves RFD which can increase the likelihood of success
9
Returning our attention to the two athlete example of the concentric squat and jump. Both are
valuable movements for producing impulse and each can be used for different reasons. The
bottom line however is the athlete capable of producing the greater total impulse in the
desired direction within the available time will increase their acceleration to a greater extent.
This is an underlying principle of training for an athletic event.
Force Makes Us Move
As stated previously, it is force that makes us move! Whether we are attempting to jump high
or run fast, the amount of accumulated force over a given period of time (impulse) is what
leads to movement. It is important to note that force production is not constant. Instead, as
movement time increases we typically have the ability to generate more force. Thus, impulse
(area under the force-time curve) is typically calculated using integral physics. Summing each of
the instantaneous force outputs over the given period of time, gives us the impulse just like the
squat and jump example above.
For those not interested in that level of physics, the biggest takeaway is that force accumulated
over the period of time which we are producing force is what makes us move. The greater
impulse, the greater the velocity created. This understanding allows coaches to begin to
implement extremely specific, time constrained, force application training for their athletes
depending on their requirements of sport as well as individual deficiencies.
10
Force Time Curves
1400
1200
Arbitary Units of Force
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Arbitary Units of TIme
Figure 1.2: The area under each curve (Blue or Grey line) is the impulse. Both of these impulses
are of equal size, yet the time over which they are produced is quite different.
Force Makes us Break
The funny thing about force is that when we push on the earth, it pushes back (Newton’s third
law for those tracking at home). This is what gives us the ability to produce propulsive force. If
the earth didn’t push back we would merely sink deeper and deeper into the earth like
quicksand with every movement. We must also consider that we are not always the object
producing the force. A prime example of this is a boxer who takes a jab to the face. Whether
the fighter likes it or not, they are required to absorb that force. Just as the earth’s surface
pushes back on an athlete’s foot when completing a jump, the boxer’s face is producing force
back on the opponent’s hand. All of this being said, we must understand it is the nature of the
application of force that determines the impact. Sometimes we are the object producing force,
and other times we are merely withstanding, or absorbing a force that is applied to us.
11
Force is King
Force is king! By increasing an athlete’s ability to produce force over a given period of time, or
by increasing the impulse produced at each moment within a movement, she/he is able to
complete the appropriate task in a more powerful manner (power = force * velocity). However,
it must be realized that force is merely the end product of multiple complex systems within the
human body. Two identical impulses can be produced by two entirely different physiological
and biomechanical means. This is a critical consideration that must be well understood as force
is the output of the “black box” that is the human athlete. Through the comprehension of basic
principles of force, both coaches and athletes are better able to understand movement.
Although the optimal method has yet to be determined, coaches that know the force equation
are capable of working backwards through each component in order to improve their
understanding of one of the most complex and adaptable organisms possible, the human body.
12
2. Force is Contextual
Force is extremely contextual. Production of force, particularly at high levels, is in no way

general in nature. The ability to produce force is specific to the manner in which it has been
previously trained. It is important to note that “trained” in the previous sentence can refer to
something as simple as using a push lawnmower, all the way to the extreme of a 1RM squat.
Every action we complete as human beings is a learned skill, thus the production of force
follows suit and is specific to the context in which it has been “practiced” or “learned”. You
improve force production in the movements you focus on completing with high force
production. You improve what you practice.
For example, you may lose to someone in arm wrestling but beat them in a bench press
competition. The comparison of these two may seem silly at first, but it is a nice way of
highlighting the critical fact that force is contextual to the means/methods it is being expressed
in. If one athlete is highly skilled, or practiced, in the movement patterns and able to express
high levels of force in arm wrestling, obviously they would be the favorite. However, simply
because the bench press is an upper body movement does not mean this same athlete will be
highly efficient or able to produce high levels of force in the bench press.
Force production is entirely dependent upon the context in which it is trained. This returns to
the concept that not only is force production important, but the resultant vector, or direction,
along with the velocity the force is applied within, are all critical in performance of many sports.
Modality
The modality, or mode/method, used in training dictates the context to which force can be
produced. Similar to the example between arm wrestling and bench pressing above, force
13
output does not have universal carryover. Gearing this example toward something more
applicable to coaches, let’s compare an NBA basketball player to a professional powerlifter. The
impulse created by the basketball player as they complete an approach jump is likely higher
than that of the powerlifter, assuming body masses are equal. At the same time, the
powerlifter would far outperform the basketball player in a squat contest.
Figure 2.1: The difference between a back squat and even a loaded jump become quickly
realized in regards to impulse produced rapidly. Each of these exercises is beneficial in its own
right.
A back squat compared to a jump continue to demonstrate the differences in impulse

production. Each of these modalities (Figure 2.1 above), serve a specific population, which
should always be considered in all aspects of a training program. Although both exercises are
beneficial in their own right, the back squat will continue to allow enhancements for a power
lifter, while a jump is likely to be more beneficial for an elite jumping athlete, such as the NBA
player.
14
Why? Simply put, the modality. The mode of completion of a task can dictate the neurological
response of motor recruitment and synchronization, which improve with practice/skill learning.
The squat is a slow, closed-chain movement performed against a high external mass, while the
jump is performed with an open-chain, pre-load (airtime before the plant leg begins producing
force) at a much higher velocity in a more dynamic environment.
Clearly these two movements are completely different and thus require different neurological
sequencing. These are just a few of the aspects of movement that create context. These aspects
are in some way responsible for the carryover between strength exercises (i.e. board press to
floor press) and at the same time there is much less carryover to dynamic movements such as a
defensive slide in basketball.
Before going further, the above example is one of the primary arguments against strength
training. However, we feel this argument is misguided and based with an absolutist mindset. If
the NBA player was required to select a sole method of training between squatting or dunking,
of course they would select the dunking option. Luckily for all coaches and athletes, we have
the ability to address force producing capabilities from multiple angles. Training is able to
include squatting in conjunction with jumping/dunking/other explosive basketball movements/
practice in order to develop a complementary program that enhances both the contractile
strength (squatting) and the neurological context of impulse application (dunking).
When combined appropriately, these two seemingly contradictory modalities can have a
symbiotic relationship. This is the exact reason coaches must avoid becoming “married” to a
single exercise, or even type of exercise. Rather, we must all continue to understand concepts
and apply appropriate means (exercises/movements) in order to achieve the desired
outcome(s).
Simply put, any person improves at the skill they repeatedly practice. However, this does not
mean the athlete must always train in the most specific manner available. By taking into
15
account the movement dynamics of a sport, coaches are able to increase the transfer of force
from training into the desired competitive movement.
Joints in action
The joints required in a movement are another aspect of context that must be understood and
considered in regards to force production. The manner in which joints function synergistically
plays a large role in how impulse is applied. The human body works as a kinetic chain. Energy is
transmitted throughout the entire chain required in a movement, the ability of the chain to
produce and transmit force plays a direct role in both how much and the direction of the
impulse. Thus, the way in which the joints interact with each other in a movement is critical.
Supertraining provides a classic example of this. In the sample sections, the book points out
that a joint action in one region of the body during a closed chain action can cause a joint action
in a distal region to move. For example, think about how knee extension and hip flexion work
together. When in a squatted position, extending the knees will force the hips to extend in
order to maintain balance.
Getting out of a chair is a simple example (Figures 2.2 and 2.3). When standing up, your hips
first move into flexion, shins translate anteriorly and then your torso moves over your center of
mass. From there, your shins move posteriorly as your knees and hips move into extension. One
cannot simply perform these joint actions in any arbitrary order. One joint angle must occur
first in order to shift your center of mass forward. If these actions do not occur in their
appropriate sequence, the body must compensate and find an inefficient method to complete
the same act of getting up from a chair.
16
Figure 2.2: Appropriate joint sequencing while standing.
Figure 2.3: Inappropriate joint sequencing while standing.
This appropriate joint sequencing gives birth to the idea of “specialized” exercises. As coaches
we know the position we want our athletes to finish (for the most part). It is then up to us to
17
apply exercises/movements in a manner that elicits improved force production in the
competitive movement. Coaches able to critically view exercises and then apply them based in
their context, or know how the exercises will transfer to the desired/required competitive
movement will be capable of implementing much more specific training programs. This
understanding adds value to every exercise and training program completed, as each serve a
specific purpose to the athlete preparing for competition. Ultimately allowing coaches and
athletes to overload muscles and joints in the weight room in similar positions required in their
sport.
A classic example of this comes from Zatsiorsky’s work while looking at the biomechanics of
sprinting. He was one of the first to point out the requirements of the hip flexors to produce
force at length at the termination of the push off phase. Understanding the context of the hip
flexors (produce force from a lengthened position) allows coaches to apply specific modalities
based on the joint/muscle length requirements. By training the hip flexors in a shortened
position, the athlete will experience less transfer to sprinting than one who completes
strengthening of this muscle group in a lengthened position. This becomes even more
important as the training age and experience of the athlete increases, as more specific means
are required to improve performance.
This can be seen in the three pictures below. In the first two, greater stress is applied to the hip
flexors in a lengthened position. In the third picture, the band causes the greatest tension to be
experienced at a more hip flexed position. Although this third movement does match the
biomechanical requirements of running, this does not mean there is no place in training for this
exercise. By understanding the contextual requirements of a muscle group in sport, training can
be enhanced even further by adding the appropriate muscle action at the specific joint angle.
This is demonstrated in Figure 2.4 below.
18
Figure 2.4: Although each of these exercises are training the hip flexor musculature, each
applies a different training stimulus. Understanding the movement requirements of sport along
with that of the exercise allows appropriate contextual application for increased transfer of
training.
19
This understanding must be continuously applied to all movements utilized in athletics and will
ultimately allow coaches to create programming according to the exact needs of their athletes
in a weight room setting. By overloading and thus improving the context in which force is
applied, athletes are better able to transfer these earned forces into practice and competition.
This requires the understanding of not only the joints and muscles along the kinetic chain
required in movement, but also the forces and velocities at each segment throughout the
movement. These aspects will be covered in greater detail throughout this section.
Motor Pattern
It is vital to note the motor pattern of a training exercise will never mimic the exact motor
pattern of that utilized in sport. However, as demonstrated above, we are able to break down
the movement into what is referred to as “kinetic pairs” in Supertraining. By breaking down the
pieces of the movement so the exercise kinetic pairs match that of their action in sport, context
of force production is matched. As shown in the figures below, the extensors of the hip and
knee are acting as kinetic pairs to produce double extension (Figure 2.5). This sequence is
commonly seen in sport, explaining why these pairs are often of major emphasis in training.
Simply put, the expression of force during such movements is best transferred when the kinetic
pair matches the motor pattern of the pair in sport.
20
Figure 2.5: The use of a kinetic pair (hip and knee extensors in this case) working together to
perform a step-up. Hip extension and knee extension are commonly seen together in sporting
actions making them a valuable addition in training.
Speed of Movement
Thus far we have covered the specificity of force production to the modality and joints utilized
in the movement. Speed, or the velocity, of movement is another contextual aspect of force
production. This will be introduced briefly here due to its required attention, will also have an
entire section devoted to it later in this book. The force production is specific to the speed in
which the force is being produced. This is somewhat ironic, because if an athlete were to
produce more force (increased acceleration when mass is constant) the movement would be
21
completed more rapidly, or at a higher velocity. With this movement now completed in a more
rapid fashion, the athlete must then learn to produce force, or create acceleration, at this new,
increased speed. If this goal is able to be accomplished due to increased specificity of training
(easier said than done with elite level athletes), the athlete will encounter the same problem
again. They will produce higher levels of force leading to the completion of the movement in an
even more rapid manner. For this reason, the coach must repeatedly search for methods that
lead to increased contextual force application in the required movements in the competitive
event.
Specific Increased
Training Contextual
Applied Force
Production
Enhanced
Velocity of
Movement
This relates back to the importance of understanding the dynamic nature of a movement and
the fact that the velocity of a movement is rarely (actually never) constant. The ever needing
demand on force at different velocities is critical. Using a squat jump for example in Figure 2.6,
when the jumper begins the movement, the initial velocity is zero (they start from a down
position and are not moving).
22
Figure 2.6: Athlete loaded through a weighted squat jump, where the center of mass’s velocity
is reaching higher speeds than when heavier loads are applied.
As force is applied into the ground, both velocity and acceleration increases. Their speed and
rate of speed change have both increased in the upward direction due to the applied force. At
this point (Figure 2.7), the athlete is partially through their jump and has greatly increased their
velocity from 0.0 m/s to 1.4 m/s.
23
Figure 2.7: Athlete nearing takeoff, where velocities are highest.
At this point the athlete must continue to produce force at faster and faster velocities as the
movement is continued. The reduction in ability to produce force at high velocities is
highlighted by the initial large increase in acceleration that then tapers off as velocity increases.
With acceleration being the change in velocity due to change in force, the athlete is unable to
produce forces required to continuously increase, or change, velocities as velocity increases.
Simply put, the athlete is now at a point that they cannot produce force at a high enough rate
to keep up with the velocity of the movement. This could become a point of emphasis for
coaches to maximize contextual training in this athlete and is shown above in Figure 2.7.
24
Figure 2.8: As the athlete is no longer in contact with the ground, they are no longer able to
produce force that would increase the height of their jump. This again demonstrates the limited
time an athlete has to produce force in higher velocity movements and the need for contextual
force production training.
As the athlete leaves the ground (Figure 2.8), they are no longer able to produce force to propel
themselves upward. It is due to this reason time is limited to produce force, especially as the
velocity of the movement continues to increase. Again, you never hear a coach to tell an athlete
to move slower, so the athlete must be trained to apply their force at even higher velocities.
25
Figure 2.6-2.8 provide a brief look into the requirement of producing high force at a wide
variety of velocities during a simple jump. Assuming this athlete is a good jumper, they may
leave the ground with a velocity of 4.2 m/s, which would require a large impulse to be created
across each moment of this concentric based movement.
If the athlete’s force application is not able to be continued as velocity increases, the athlete
will simply not jump as high. This increased force production at higher speeds is the difference
between leaving the ground at 4.2 m/s and 1.4 m/s. Clearly leaving the ground with a higher
velocity allows greater flight time to be experienced.
This concept fits nicely with the original example in this chapter comparing the NBA player to a
powerlifter. The athlete capable of jumping higher (the NBA player typically), has practiced the
production of force at high velocities countless times. On the other hand, the power lifter may
not be capable of producing high forces at high velocities.
Again this example, along with Figure 2.9, can be used to explain the contextual factors that
must be considered in force production. The NBA player can produce force rapidly, as it is a skill
they practice every day likely, while the powerlifter is not capable of producing these forces at
high speeds, even though in a slow movement like the squat they produce much higher levels
of force.
26
Figure 2.9: Although higher net forces (the total impulse produced) are realized in the squat
(blue), they are not specific contextually to the requirements of many sports as the time
required to achieve them is long in duration. The rapid increase in force and velocity of the
jump begins to bridge this gap in many contextual aspects (red).
Put simply, if you want athletes to be capable of transferring their enhanced force production
to competition, they must train to produce force near the velocities of their sport. Based on the
above example, it should be clear these velocities differ greatly even during a single movement.
Force production and application is contextual. This applies to everyday tasks such as getting up
out of a chair to the extremes such as sprinting and powerlifting. Coaches must constantly
consider these factors and also the athlete’s needs in order to optimize performance.
When these aspects are considered and training is applied appropriately, we see four major
adaptations or changes in an athlete’s ability to produce force.
27
1. Increased production of force throughout the entire movement
2. Increased maximal force production
3. Decrease the amount of time to complete the movement
4. Increased force production early in the movement and further decrease the amount of
time to complete the movement
Figure 2.10: Verkoshansky provided these stages in his book “Special Strength Training: Manual
for Coaches”. These stages can be viewed as an athlete progresses from the earliest stages of
training all the way through elite status achievement.
An example of this can be seen below the force plate example of a countermovement jump
(Figure 2.11). Initially, the athlete produces a relatively low grade force increase. This is
indicated by the red line. This athlete is either weak or lacks the ability to produce force in the
tested manner. After training was applied, the athlete has progressed and is now able to rapidly
produce force in a more rapid fashion, indicated by the orange line. If the test completed is
strongly correlated to performance, the athlete is now better prepared to perform in their
respective competitive event.
28
Force Time Curves
1400
1200
Arbitary Units of Force
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Arbitrary Units of TIme
Figure 2.11: Before training (grey curve) demonstrates a relatively low rate of force
development (slow increase to peak force). After training (blue curve), shows an athlete who
has enhanced their rate of force development.
The value of understanding these changes realized due to training allows coaches to progress
athletes in an appropriate manner in regards to force production. Initially, the athlete simply
needs to improve their force production capabilities. Although we now understand the
contextual requirements of force, the athlete in this stage will likely see benefits from multiple
aspects of improving their force. As the athlete progresses, the requirement to more force in
less time becomes of greater importance. It is at this point the contextual nature of force
production must be considered to a great extent.
29
3. Dynamics of Movement
Force Makes Velocity
Impulse is responsible for the changes in velocity that we consistently see in sport. This change
in velocity can be seen in sprinting. Although by the middle of the 100m dash the athlete has
likely reached their “top speed”, their velocity is constantly being altered.
This can be seen in the simplest manner simply based on ground contact vs. flight time (when
neither feet touch the ground). During the time in which the foot is in contact with the ground,
the athlete is able to produce force and propel themselves forward. However, no force is
applied by the athlete during the flight phase (gravity constant and air resistance negligent),
leading to a constant deceleration. This becomes even more complicated when considering if
an athlete has poor mechanics or positioning, they will produce increased “braking forces”
upon the initiation of ground contact, ultimately creating deceleration. This returns to the
concept of context and the direction and magnitude force is applied.
Clearly even at “max velocities” there is constant undulation in force production, leading to
changes in speed of what appears to be a consistent movement. It is important to note that as
the velocity of the movement increases, the amount of time available to produce high levels of
force decreases. This returns to the 4 stages of enhanced movement demonstrated in the
previous section.
30
1. Increased production of force throughout the entire movement
2. Increased maximal force production
3. Decrease the amount of time to complete the movement
4. Increased force production early in the movement and further decrease the amount of
time to complete the movement
Regardless of the action or movement completed, force makes velocity, increased velocity
means the movement speed will be completed at a higher rate. As this rate increases, the
velocity is specific to the context of force itself, allowing one to be able to say the ability to
express force is velocity specific. However, we must remain cautious and recall that
acceleration and velocity are not synonymous, which can be a common mistake made.
As increased force applications occur due to large changes in acceleration, large changes in
velocity are also viewed. This is because acceleration is the result of a change in velocity over a
period of time. An athlete coming out of the hole during a back squat creates massive changes
in acceleration as they begin at a velocity of 0 m/s. However, simply because there are large
accelerative forces does not mean there is a large end velocity. High end velocities only typically
occur through continued acceleration due to increased force application at higher velocities.
The increase in mass is what hinders large changes in motion. Thus, the ability to apply force
over time is dictated by one’s ability to express force (continue to accelerate) over the course of
changes in velocity.
Again this returns to the idea that this is a never ending circle. As an athlete is able to produce
more accelerative forces at the speed of the movement, the movement will be completed in a
more rapid fashion. As the movement is completed at this higher rate, the athlete must then
learn to produce force (or acceleration) at these higher speeds. As this goal is accomplished in
training the athlete will now complete the movement at an even higher rate. For this reason,
coaches must continuously and relentlessly search for increased contextual application in
regards to force production, especially as the training age of the athlete increases.
31
The upcoming sections will now dive into the specifics of force expression at different
velocities. The application of force in specific sporting movements will be generally avoided as
each of these movements are unique. However, the concepts provided throughout this book
can be easily applied to fit the needs of an individual sport/movement when the nature of that
sport/movement is well understood. Instead, the following sections will simplify these specifics
into different velocities of movement.
As previously discussed, the only manner in which increased movement velocity is possible is
through the continued expression of force. This expression of force is ultimately manifested in
the form of acceleration, or changes in velocity. Thus, we aim to provide a few of the concepts
of force expression at different velocities. These include the best suited modalities available in
training at different velocities, which allow context of training to be amplified significantly.
Training programs will also be provided based on the concepts provided in earlier section, but it
should be noted that these are by no means attempts to be “all encompassing”. This being said,
we hope to provide enough principles from each section to allow a conceptual foundation to be
laid, from which new ideas can be formed upon.
Regarding the specifics of velocity, the authors decided to break up this next section into low,
moderate and high velocities during which force is expressed. The distinction between
velocities was for the sake of categorization based on the generalization of previous literature.
Using aspects of the force velocity curve and specific categorizations made by previous
researchers, the grouping of maximal strength (low velocity), accelerative strength (speed-
strength and strength-speed) and high velocity strength (high-speed strength) was
implemented. This categorization was also based upon the momentum curve that is seen
during a ballistic movement completed from a static position, such as a jump.
We hope that these distinctions are simple and aid in the better understanding of the context
required for specific improvements in force application, and are not taken as the final word. At
32
this current point in time, to our knowledge, the literature provides no specific velocities to
draw exact distinctions in regards to the corresponding demands they place on an individual to
express force.
33
4. Force at a Low Velocity
Low velocity force, also known as maximal strength is the foundational aspect of all
movements. As a matter of fact, strength at zero velocity, or isometric strength, is the
foundation of maximal strength in all movement. Using an example from our previous book
(Isometrics for Performance), whenever an object is lifted, whether a fork or a 1RM deadlift, it is
a requirement to generate enough force from a static position to overcome the external
demands (lifting a fork or heavy deadlift). Clearly the amount of force to overcome inertia (as
the object at rest tends to remain at rest) is dependent upon the mass of the object. Greater
amounts of force are required to lift the barbell from the floor than simply picking up a fork, but
none the less, force must still be developed from zero velocity. This book is not designed to
cover the intricacies of isometrics, but it should be understood that isometrics may be the most
contextually specific contraction there is, due to its unique nature.
Figure 4.1: Force at Low Velocity Functions and Training.
In order to initiate movement of an object with a large amount of inertia, one must apply
enough force to accelerate the object in the desired direction. This direction is typically
34
perpendicular to the earth when lifting weights, or upwards. When the object is initially
accelerated, the initial movement velocities are quite slow.
For example, when looking at a squat or a countermovement jump, the lowest velocities occur
at the initiation of the concentric phase. It is also these moments that are typically associated
with the largest amounts of acceleration. Recall that velocity typically occurs due to a mass (the
human body or an external load) being accelerated by an applied force. Thus, maximal strength,
or the ability to produce high levels of force, has a foundational role in any form of acceleration.
However, as the load (or mass in our case) decreases relative to one’s maximal strength (force
production), the amount of time spent at low velocities continuously decreases. This reduces,
but does not remove, the role of maximal strength, which opens up the door for other force
based qualities to play a larger role in the production of increased impulse production. This
brings light to the concept of an athlete being “strong enough”. Returning to the four
adaptations realized with improved force production, and the required context to see maximal
changes, once an athlete has learned to produce high levels of force other aspects must be
trained. These will be covered in later sections of this book.
Before going any further, it is important to note that many of these examples in this book are
considering single effort movements. Thus, the ability of conditioning is rarely touched upon,
yet should not be ignored. In order to be a successful athlete, being conditioned to repeat these
specific strength qualities within the context of the given sport is what allows for optimal
results. Thus, despite not being intentionally written about, the ability to develop the required
energetic pathways to perform said qualities over the duration of a game should not be
underplayed.
In regards to the context of force expression, maximum strength at low velocities is not
universal and too falls under the constraints of specificity. Thus, maximal force production at
low velocities is typically expressed in a systemic fashion. By no means can any form of force
35
expression be isolated to a single fiber, muscle or joint action. Instead, maximal force is a
summation of each of the working parts in a movement. Thus, factors such as connective
tissues (fasica, tendons, ligaments, titin, etc), the regime they are being expressed in (eccentric,
static, concentric, dynamic) and the neurological properties of the movement (pre-stretch,
length-tension relationship, etc.) dictate the expression of force itself.
We have all seen this as coaches, when an athlete demonstrates extreme levels of force
production in one exercise, yet struggles in another. This can be seen with some athletes when
comparing lower body exercises such as the deadlift and squat. Even though some of the same
muscle fibers are potentially recruited in these two exercises, the skill of one exercise is likely
better coordinated across the many structures required to complete the movement. This
understanding is critical and plays a role into the specific context of athletic development. This
is why an athlete may be stronger in one exercise at a low velocity, but struggle in another
exercise at the same velocity.
Low velocity training, with maximal effort (heavy strength training), has unique requirements
specific to context of the movement. When performing a heavy lift, or quasi-isometric
contraction, the muscle is under tension throughout the entire duration of the lift. Unlike a
ballistic exercise, where the majority of force is expressed at the initiation of the movement
and tension eventually lessens, a maximal strength, low velocity movement requires constant
amounts of acceleration. If this constant accelerative force is not applied, the athlete will come
crashing down and ultimately not complete the repetition. This is due to the minimal amount of
momentum utilized throughout a movement of low velocity. In these slow, high force
movements, the muscle fascicle changes length while the tendon remains taught, similar to
that of an isometric contraction.
Aside from a few of the unique adaptations that occur with low velocity, maximal strength
training, the context in which this force aspect is trained plays a significant role. Although
similar joints, or kinematic pairs, can be utilized in this method of training, the context in
36
regards to the desired dynamic movement is limited at best due to the low velocities these
methods occur at. This simply will not translate at a high level due to these foundational
changes.
Take the maximal squat strength (low velocity) and jumping (high velocity) example we have
provided. Although there is a correlation between improving the strength in squatting and
jumping due to similar kinetic pairs, or specific sequences, the velocities of heavy training will
not elicit the highest transfer due to limited context in velocity. Simply put, the maximal squat
strength is not completed at the same velocity as the jump. This ultimately limits the transfer of
the exercise due to lacking a key context component.
Although low velocity training modalities will never match the velocities occurring in athletic
competitions, thus limiting their transfer of training, they should still be implemented within a
training program. This also does not mean coaches cannot implement appropriate strength
training exercises according to the demands of the sport. This can be accomplished by
considering the muscle sequences, joint angles, and other movement variables.
This small amount of transfer realized is likely due to a heavy squat requiring large amounts of
acceleration and force application out of the bottom of the squat, when the ankle, hip and knee
are flexed. This is similar to what is required out of the bottom position of a jump. Thus, a squat
at a low velocity would train the muscles in a sequential pattern that is much more transferable
to a jump than say that of a leg press, which will utilize different kinetic pairs and joint
sequencing.
Specific range of motion training can further enhanced the context of low velocity force
training. Although tension is constantly applied in low velocity, high force movements, that
amount of tension will vary based on the current position of each joint throughout a load. This
is due to the high loads on the bar being relative to the current position. This becomes clear
when comparing two different, yet similar, movements such as the full squat and a half squat.
37
It is clear that someone squatting with half depth is able to lift much more weight than if they
were to complete a full squat (Figure 4.2). All coaches have seen the “bro lifts” in which
someone attempts a load far too heavy for them to achieve a full range squat and we are not
advocating this repetition represents a true max of a squat. However, these do allow us to see a
training window that could be otherwise potentially missed. If that “average Joe” can move
that load for that distance, what would your well trained athletes be capable of completing in
that range of motion? And then the more practical question for coaches, “Are they being
trained to maximize force production in that range currently?”
Based on the dynamic nature of the movement, the squatter produces different levels of force
at different joint angles. This is why the idea of accommodating resistance is applied in training,
to address these changes in force production throughout a movement.
Figure 4.2: Comparison of a maximal half squat (left) versus a parallel squat (right). The half
Squat allows for more specific joint angles and greater loads over these joint angles.
38
Taking this idea of specific joint angle training one step further, coaches are also able to apply
isometric exercises at the weakest point of an athlete’s movement to further enhance force
production. With a velocity of zero, isometric training is clearly not contextual in regards to
velocity experienced in sport. However, when the impulse curve of an athlete is understood
(concentric jump example in first section), a coach is able to apply this training method to
enhance force production at specific points within that movement. This is completed through
the utilization of the other contextual aspects, specifically the joints involved as well as their
specific positioning in the isometric movement.
The most basic example of this is an athlete struggling to get out of the bottom position while
completing a countermovement jump. As the velocity is zero at this point of the movement,
isometrics are able to be applied in this position with the most specific context possible. A more
complex example is that of an athlete “leaking power” or force production during movement.
This can be seen as either reduction in the impulse applied either relative to the individual
athlete in that movement, or simply a reduced output when compared to others.
A high functioning athlete vs one “leaking power” can be seen below in Figures 4.3 and 4.4,
respectively. In the first picture (Figure 4.3), the line of force development is smooth, signaling
no “hiccups” within their kinetic chain as the movement is completed. The second picture
(Figure 4.4) depicts an athlete that may be struggling at certain positions to transfer force
effectively throughout their kinetic chain during the movement.
39
Figure 4.3: High functioning athlete that has a smooth force curve during all phases of the
executed movement.
Figure 4.4: Athlete experiencing “hiccups” or “weak links” in their chain that cannot keep up
with the force or the velocity in which the force is being produced. This can be seen by the
alterations between force production and the lack thereof throughout the movement.
40
This second athlete, for whatever reason, is struggling to produce a high impulse at a specific
body position. Now, as this is a book revolving around physics, we will not enter the realm of
discussing potential underlying dysfunctions or compensation patterns that may be leading to
this drop in impulse. Rather, we will address this insufficient impulse by attempting to increase
the force production capability. When well tested and understood, this can be executed with
multiple training aspects, including but not limited to, isometric force production around that
joint angle.
Although these impulse deficiencies typically become more apparent with testing at high
velocities, we cannot remove force production at low velocities as a potential part of the
problem. Recall this strength quality serves as the foundation for all other force production
capabilities. If an athlete is weak and trains speed, they will simply produce that weakness
faster. It is important to note this application requires a high-level understanding of the
movement dynamics in regards to the exercise being tested.
Again, these aspects have been covered in much greater detail in our previous book Isometrics
for Performance. However, we feel it is important to at the very least mention their use in the
enhancement of force production.
By either altering the joint angles of the movement or adding accommodating resistance,
coaches are able to increase the contextual specificity of a low velocity strength exercise. When
the half squat exercise is implemented, the athlete must now apply higher levels of force in a
more specific joint angle, similar to that required in many sporting movements. This high force
production would not be possible when a full squat is utilized in training, as the athlete would
not be capable of using the same training load due to them being weaker when moving through
the larger range of motion.
It is important to realize a 1RM changes quickly when the context of an exercise is altered. This
becomes clear with the understanding that a 1RM is merely the production of force specific to
41
the movement being tested and is only the force produced at the weakest point. Again this
becomes more understood when the depth a squat is completed at is reduced. Coaches must
apply this understanding of context in order to maximize the adaptations realized when training
high force at low velocities.
By understanding where the weakest areas or “sticking points” of an exercise are located,
coaches can increase the specific locations of high force production. Who is to say either of
these squat examples is right or wrong? It depends entirely upon the context in which they are
applied and the needs of the athlete they are being applied to.
Even when the context of an exercise is increased via the mode, joints utilized, and motor
pattern, there is simply no manner to increase the velocity of these high load/high force
movements. This brings into play the importance of intent. This aspect was covered as a section
in our first book (Applied Principles of Optimal Power Development), but we feel it is important
enough to be at least mentioned.
Intent serves as the underlying lynchpin for all force based training and adaptation. If an athlete
is moving the bar at a sub-optimal velocity then adaptations realized will not be to the highest
extent. This remains true regardless of the load being implemented during the exercise. The
implement or athlete should always be attempting to complete the repetition with the highest
possible velocity. Ultimately, the intended velocity of each repetition is just as important as the
actual velocity it is executed at. For this reason, it is essential coaches teach their athlete’s why
their effort level with every completed repetition is important. This should also serve as a
reminder to focus on the quality of training, rather than the sheer quantity or volume. Again,
these topics are covered extensively in our previous book, but are still necessary to recall even
in low velocity training.
High force output at low velocities serves ultimately as the foundation for all other force
producing capabilities. Although this method of training is furthest from sport in regards to
42
velocity, the context of modality, joints used, and motor pattern can be implemented in a
systematic fashion to improve each athlete in a specific fashion. These methods can be applied
in multiple different manners and exercises, including both isometric and dynamic movements.
The remainder of this section will include different examples and programs to specifically
improve this aspect of force production.
43
Force is King
Force at Low Velocity Training - Exercises
Total/Lower/Upper Body Exercises* (Loading typically > 80%)
Hands Assist Safety Bar Squat Eccentric RDL DB Lateral Lunge Bench Press
Hands Assist Safety Bar Split Squat Isometric Landmine SL RDL DB Rotational Lunge SA DB Bench Press
Back Squat DB SL RDL DB Common Lunge Matrix Bent Over Row
Split Stance Isometric Pin Pull Isometric Hip Flex Prone (Partner) Valslide DB Cross-Under Lunge DB Bent Over Row OC
Hex Bar Deadlift Eccentric Bench Groin (Partner) SE SL Glute Bar Lift DB Alternating Incline Press
Hex Bar Deadlift - Reactive Eccentric Bench Glute (Partner) Glute Ham Bar Lift Eccentric Pull Up (Partner)
Split Squat Eccentric KB Hip Flexor Eccentric SL Glute Ham Bar Raise 3 Pos. Isometric Pull Up
DB Split Squat Step Up Nordic Ham DB Shoulder Press
*Many More Exercises and Variations Possible, Simply Examples
Training Considerations
Supramaximal Slow Eccentrics and the Safety Bar Split Squat - Maximal training of Supramaximal Isometric Training and the Safety Bar Split Squat - Maximal training of
the eccentric component of dynamic movement is discussed and implementation is the isometric component of dynamic movement is discussed and implementation is
demonstrated demonstrated
Oscillatory and Partial Training For Strength - Improve force producing capabilities in Alter Tempos of Training to Address Time Under Tesnsion in Specific Positions
specific "weak points" through these training applications
Eccentric Hex Isometric Hex Reactive (No Touch) Hex
Resources/Training Programs
Triphasic Team Training Manual - View an entire annual plan along with every Isometrics For Performance - See the implementation of isometric training protocols
training session explained and fully hyperlinked. to address multiple aspects of phyical performance.
Excerpts from Triphasic Team Training Manual
Eccentric Training Block - 2 Week Training Program Isometric Training Block - 2 Week Training Program
Powerhouse Squat Cycle - 8 Week Training Program Volume Strength Training Block - 4 Week Training Block
Strength Training Block - 3 Week Training Program Elite Training System - 25-28 Week Full Off-Season Training Program
Force is King
Force at Low Velocity Training - Day 1
Pre Pre-Training, Multi-Dimensional Warm-Up
Block 1 Lower Body Warm-up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Back Squat 1,1,1 x 5,3,3 50-80% Warm-Up
Perform A as a Warm-Up for Heavier Sets
1:00 Minute Rest Between Sets
Block 2 Lower Body Strength
5 sets @ 82.5%, 2 sets @ 85%,
A Back Squat 10 x 2 82.5-87.5%
2 sets @ 87.5%
B Ankle Wipers 5 x 15 EA Max ROM, No Knee Mvmt
C Downhill Hip Flexor Stretch 5 x 6 EA 3 Sec Iso, 6 EA Leg
Perform A-C Simultaneously for 10 Sets, Alternating Between A,B & A,C
25 Seconds Rest Between Exercises; 1:15 minutes between Rounds
Block 3 Lower Dynamic Strength
A Staggered Stance RDL 10 x 3 EA 55% 3 Sec Iso, Max Speed
B Glute Wind-Up to Jump 5 x 4 EA Wind-Up Around Glute, SL Land
Perform A-B Simultaneously for 10 Sets
25 Seconds Rest Between Exercises; 0:45 seconds between Rounds
Block 4 Lower Auxiliary Strength
A DB Lateral Lunge 4 x 6 EA 65% 3 Sec Ecc, 6 EA Leg
B Bench Glute 4 x 8 EA Add Wt.
25 Seconds Rest Between Exercises
A SE Glute Bar Lift 3 x 6 70%
B Hip Flex Prone 3 x 6 EA 3 Sec Ecc, 6 EA Leg
C Glute Ham Raise 3 x 6 3 Sec Iso @ Mid-Position
Perform A-C Simultaneously for 3 Sets
Force is King
Block 1 Upper Body Warm-up
A Bench Press 1,1,1 x 5,3,3 50-80% Warm-Up
Block 2 Upper Body Strength
5 sets @ 82.5%, 2 sets @ 85%,
Bench Press 10 x 2 82.5-87.5%
A 2 sets @ 87.5%
B Plate T Raise 5 x 8 5 LB Plate, Thumbs Down
Block 3 Upper Dynamic Strength
A DB Bent Over Row 10 x 3 EA 55% 3 Sec Iso, Max Speed
B DB Reverse Fly 5 x 6 3 Sec Iso
Block 4 Upper Auxiliary Strength
A SA DB Shoulder Press 4 x 6 EA 65%
B Swiss Ball Roll-Out 4 x 6 3 Sec Iso
A Chin-Up 3 x 6 3 Sec Ecc, Add Wt. If Possible
B Palloff Rotational Press 3 x 6 EA 3 Sec Ecc, 6 EA
C JM DB Press 3 x 6 70%
Force is King
A Hex Bar Deadlift 1,1,1 x 5,3,3 50-80% Warm-Up
Block 2 Lower Body Strength
5 sets @ 82.5%, 2 sets @ 85%,
Hex Bar Deadlift 10 x 2 82.5-87.5%
A 2 sets @ 87.5%
B Toes Up-SL Squat 5 x 10 EA Drive Knee FWD, Keep Foot Tripod
C JOP Matrix 5 x 3 EA Stick EA Rep, 3-FWD,3-LAT,3-ROT
Perform A-C Simultaneously for 10 Sets, Alternating Between A,B & A,C
Block 3 Lower Dynamic Strength
A DB Rear Foot Elevated Split Squat 10 x 3 EA 55% 3 Sec Iso, Max Speed
B Standing Hip Flexor 5 x 8 EA 3 Sec Iso w/ Arm Press-8 EA Leg
A Goblet Rotational Lunge 4 x 6 EA 65% 3 Sec Ecc, 6 EA Leg
B Bench Groin 4 x 8 EA Add Wt.
A Glute Ham Bar Lift 3 x 6 65% 3 Sec Ecc
B SA/SL Plank Matrix 3 x 1:30 R. Arm-L. Arm-R. Leg-L. Leg, 15s EA
C Cable Rotational Pull to Press 3 x 6 EA Low to High, Violent Hip Drive
Force is King
A Pull-Up 1,1,1 x 5,3,3 Warm-Up
Block 2 Upper Body Strength
A Pull-Up 10 x 3 Add Wt.
B TRX Y Raise 5 x 8
Block 3 Upper Dynamic Strength
A DB Incline Press 10 x 3 55% 3 Sec Iso, Max Speed
B Cable Face Pull 5 x 6 3 Sec Ecc
A TRX Inverted Row 4 x 6 Rotate Wrists, Add Wt. If Possible
B Band Pull Apart 4 x 10 Thumbs Out
A DB Bench Press 3 x 6 EA 70% Single Arm
B Cable Walkout 3 x 4 EA Athletic Stance, 3 Steps Out, 4 EA
C DB SA Shrug 3 x 6 65% 3 Sec Iso
5. Force at a Moderate Velocity
The relationship between force at moderate velocity and force at low velocity is similar to that
of force at low velocity and force at zero velocity (isometric). In order to produce a movement
of even moderate velocity, the implement must first be accelerated from a low velocity. Thus,
the relationship and requirement of force at a low velocity and force at a moderate velocity
becomes quite evident. Again, high amounts of force at low velocities serve as the foundation
of all increased speed availability.
Figure 5.1: Force at Moderate Velocity Functions and Training.
As noted time and time again, force expression is highest at low velocities. This becomes
important to recall as velocity is the limiting aspect in regards to our force expression
capabilities. Because of this, as velocity begins to increase, the ability to apply force and
accelerate an object will be reduced.
Moderate velocity force expression typically occurs within the range of 40-80% of one’s 1RM.
This percentage range covers both speed-strength, as well as strength-speed training loads. The
differences between these two qualities can be best understood by looking at their relative
49
power outputs. The power output of speed-strength are typically influenced to a greater extent
by velocity. Strength-speed on the other hand is more related to the load of the object and the
force being applied.
Depending upon the nomenclature you may follow, accelerative strength may also fall into this
loading range. Despite the fact it is not referenced as a direct strength quality in Supertraining
(which we use as our Russian “gold standard” text), it essentially falls into the same category
and is highlighted by the point at which the barbell is continued to be accelerated.
Exercises implemented to train at moderate velocities are typically completed in a ballistic or

semi-ballistic fashion. For this reason, these movements are typically related to the
development of muscular power. Returning to the Applied Principles of Optimal Power
Development book, a ballistic movement is one in which the object being moved is
continuously accelerated until it becomes a projectile. Semi-ballistic movements resemble the
ballistic acceleration profile as they are attempted to be accelerated through the entire range
of motion. Both of these are preferred methods of training as there is no, or reduced,
deceleration phase of the object in ballistic and semi-ballistic movements, as long as safety is
considered.
This is compared to a non-ballistic movement, which has both a starting and ending velocity of
zero. Ultimately meaning there is considerable deceleration, either in the form of actively
slowing the weight down or by reducing the amount of force applied, that occurs at some point
throughout the completion of the exercise. This can be seen as an athlete nears the end of their
range of motion in a back squat, they must decelerate the load rather than continuing to
accelerate through the movement.
Although a semi-ballistic exercise also begins and ends at a zero velocity, it attempts to
minimize or reduce the deceleration phase completely. This can be completed through the use
of bands and chains for accommodating resistance. This addition changes the acceleration
50
profile of a movement, making it much closer to a ballistic rather than non-ballistic exercise.
The use of ballistic and semi-ballistic exercises clearly increase the context of the movement as
this matches the majority of sport movements completed in competition.
Figures 5.2-5.4 below highlight how different changing loads and modalities of the same
movement pattern can be used to manipulate the manner in which force is expressed. The first
two pictures (Figure 5.2) demonstrate a traditional bench press exercise. This movement is
excellent for high loads, but when used with lighter loads, the ability to apply force through a
large range of motion (to maintain or increase velocity) is limited by the modality itself.
The second set of images (Figure 5.3) is of a banded bench press. The banded bench press adds
accommodating resistance, allowing the athlete to continually apply force is a way that the
traditional bench press would not otherwise allow. These bands allow the completion of this
exercise in a semi-ballistic manner; meaning the profile is in between a true ballistic movement
and a non-ballistic movement.
The third set of images (Figure 5.4) is of a medicine ball bench throw. This movement allows for
a higher velocity to be expressed compared to the previous two exercises. Unlike the bench
press and banded bench press, the final velocity of the movement does not have to be 0 m/s.
Instead, the medicine ball becomes a projectile (making this a ballistic movement), allowing the
athlete to apply a propulsive force throughout the entire movement.
51
Figure 5.2: A traditional bench press exercise, superior for high force production at low
velocities.
52
Figure 5.3: The band bench press exercise. This alteration allows increased velocity throughout
the movement and creates an opportunity for a semi-ballistic exercise, when maximal intent is
applied.
53
Figure 5.4: The medicine ball chest pass requires similar movement patterns to that of the
bench press, but now allows force to be produced in a high-velocity, ballistic manner. This
creates the opportunity for an athlete to accelerate through the entire range of motion.
54
With the understanding of the force-velocity curve, target velocity of a movement is ultimately
dictated by the load and relative percentage of 1RM of the athlete. If this athlete lacks an
adequate strength base, the discrepancies between strength-qualities will be less defined. This
is because the improvement of maximal force production at low velocities (most general and
least contextual in regards to velocity) will still bring about development of nearly all qualities
at higher velocities.
For example, when working with a young athlete who may weigh 135 lbs and only squat 95 lbs,
the distinction between different strength qualities is minimal, if any. This is due to the fact that
low velocity is their only available force production method, simply due to their inability to
produce enough force to create higher velocities. In this case the athlete struggles to overcome
the inertia of their own body weight in a vertical squatting movement.
As the athlete enhances their force production abilities, the context of moderate velocity
movements is able to be improved. This can be seen in the simplest manner as the ability to
produce increased force at higher velocities. With velocity being one of the components of
context, as an athlete increases the velocity of the movement, the specificity, or context, is also
increased. It is continuously up to the coach and their determination of the requirements of an
athlete, based on individual and sport needs, to enhance the context of exercises in regards to
the modality, joints utilized, and motor pattern.
55
Force is King
Force at Moderate Velocity Training - Exercises
Total/Lower/Upper Body Exercises* (Loading typically 55% - 80%)
Band Hands Assist Safety Bar Squat RDL DB Lateral Lunge Band Bench Press
Band Hands Assist Safety Bar Split Squat DB RDL OC DB Rotational Lunge Band DB Bench Press
Sport Specific Back Squat Hip Flex Prone OC DB Common Lunge Matrix Split Stance Cable Rotary Row
Band Resisted Weighted Jump Bench Groin SE Glute Bar Lift DB Bent Over Row OC
Chain Front Squat Bench Glute Glute Ham Bar Lift Cable Rotary Press
Band Hex Bar Deadlift - Reactive Sport Step Up Band Reverse Hyper DB Shoulder Press OC
Peaking the Back Squat for Track and Field - This article demonstrates loading schemes to Balance of Power - View how power training is implemented within an off-season program.
maximize performance for track and field athletes of different training levels.
Applying Triphasic Training with Olympic Lifts - Continue to utilize muscle action training while Oscillatory and Partial Training For Strength - Improve force producing capabilities in specific
utilizing Olympic training methods. "weak points" through these training applications
Applied Principles of Optimal Power Development - This book aims to increase the understanding Isometrics For Performance - See the implementation of isometric training protocols to address
of power aspects and specific methods to improve this quality. multiple aspects of phyical performance.
Power Training Block (with PAP) - 2 Week Training Program Elite Training System - 25-28 Week Full Off-Season Training Program
Force is King
Force at Moderate Velocity Training - Day 1
A Safety Bar Split Squat 1,1,1 x 5,3,3 50-80% Warm-Up
B Ankle Wipers 3 x 12 EA Max ROM, No Knee Mvmt
Perform A & B Series Simultaneously for 3 Sets
Block 2 Lower Body Power
A Safety Bar Split Squat 4 x 7s,7s-Clu 65-70% Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B Hurdle Hop 4 x 4 Jump High, Continuous
C Wt. Squat Jump 4 x 4 Pull-In, Explode Out Immediately
D Swissball 4-Way Neck 4 x 7s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
E Bench Glute 4 x 7s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
F Ant. Tib Band 4 x 7s 1" Band Reactive-AMAP-EA
Perform A-F Simultaneously for 4 Sets
B Band Pull-Aparts 3 x 10 1/2" Band
Block 4 Upper Body Power
A Bench Press 4 x 7s,7s-Clu 65-70% Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B Speed Bench Press 4 x 5 30-35% Push-Pull, Full ROM
C Rack Band Push-Up 4 x 5 Pull-In, Explode Out Immediately
D Mini Band Scap Press 4 x 10 Green
Perform A-D Simultaneously for 4 Sets
Block 5 Lower Auxiliary Power
A Staggered Stance RDL 5 x 7s 65-70% Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B DB Common Lunge Matrix 5 x 3 EA 65-70% 3-FWD,3-LAT,3-ROT-EA
C Bench Groin 5 x 7s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
Block 6 Upper Auxiliary Power
A Pull-Up 4 x 7s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull
B Split Stance Cable Rotational Row 4 x 7s EA Moderate Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
C SA Farmers Carry 4 x 25Y
Force is King
A Hex Bar Deadlift 1,1,1 x 5,3,3 50-80% Warm-Up
A Hex Bar Deadlift 8 x 5s 75-80% Max Reps, No Floor Touch
B Common Lunge Matrix Plyo + Return 8 x 3 EA Continuous, 3 EA Way, EA Leg
B Mini-Band Scap Wall Walks 3 x 10 EA Green
A Bench Press 4 x 5s 75-80% Max Reps
B One Arm Med Ball Pass 4 x 5 EA Use Hips
C Delt Bent Over OH Rebound Drop 4 x 5 EA
A DB Step Up 3 x 5s 75-80% Bottom 1/2, EA
B Glute Ham Hyper 3 x 5s OC-D+1
C Bench Groin 3 x 5s OC-D+1, EA
D Bench Glute 3 x 5s OC-D+1, EA
Block 6 Upper Auxiliary Power
A DB Incline Press 3 x 5s 75-80% OC-D+1
B DB Bent Over Row 3 x 5s 75-80% OC-D+1, EA
C DB Shoulder Press 3 x 5s 75-80% OC-D+1
D Chin-Up 3 x 5s OC-D+1
Force is King
B Ankle Rocker Hops 3 x 6 Drive Knee FWD, Vertical Femur
A Safety Bar Split Squat 4 x 10s,10s-Clu 55-60% Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B Lateral Hurdle Hop 4 x 3 EA Jump High, Continuous
C Resisted Speed Skater Jumps 4 x 3 EA Pull-In, Explode Out Immediately
D Swissball 4-Way Neck 4 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
E Bench Groin 4 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
F Hip Flex Prone 4 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
A Chin-Up 4 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull
B SA Band St. Arm Lat Pull-Down 4 x 4 EA Speed
C MB OH Slams 4 x 5
D Banded Cuban Press 4 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
A Staggered Stance RDL 3 x 10s 55-60% Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B Bench Glute 3 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
C SWB Twist Down 3 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
6. Force at a High Velocity
At this point it should be well understood that the relationship between velocity and time to
accelerate an object is inverse. As velocity increases, the time available to apply higher levels of
force throughout a movement decreases. This ability to apply high levels of force in minimal
time is the icing on the cake. These increased velocities experienced create the opportunity for
high-levels of context when applied correctly in training. With this section being the most
specific contextually for force production, many aspects must be considered simultaneously.
Thus, making it the longest section of this book. However, the importance of the previous two
sections cannot be overstated, as they serve as the foundation of force production at high
velocities. Again, if a weak athlete trains for speed, they will simply produce that weakness
faster. As a coach you must ensure your athlete has the foundation, or cake, before applying
the icing.
Prior to an athlete producing force at a higher velocity, they must first be capable of producing
that force at both low and moderate velocities.
60
Figure 6.1: Force at High Velocity Functions and Training
Take a bench press repetition for example, as the load on the bar decreases, velocity will
increase leading to the completion of the repetition in a shorter amount of time. However, the
athlete completing this movement on the field, say a lineman executing a block, will occur at
high velocities until contact is made with the opposition. This athlete must rapidly accelerate
their arm, which is relatively light compared to their likely high bench press 1RM.
This statement is not to neglect the requirement of the lineman once contact is made with the
opposing team member. The high impulse and rapid arm shoot is one component, but once
contact is made, the time available to produce force is increased dramatically compared to
many other movements in sport and can nearly represent a maximal isometric force at times.
The skills in regards to force production leading to the success of a lineman clearly rely on
multiple aspects that cannot be overlooked in training.
The heavier bench press takes much longer to complete and thus allows greater total force to
be produced over that increased time, as covered in previous sections. However, when looking
at specific moments in the movement, the accelerative force which occurs in the lighter bench
press is much higher and is more specific to many of the requirements in sport. Although force
61
production is reduced at greater velocities, as there is less time available to produce said force,
it is within these brief times and high velocities many athletes compete. There is simply not
enough time available during these high velocity movements to produce maximal force. Again,
this high velocity training continues to improve a coach’s ability to apply force in the most
specific context to the requirements of an athlete.
As an athlete progresses in their training and increases the specificity of their context, their
ability to produce force at higher velocities is continuously realized. This can be seen in the
increased force abilities in the minimal times available in sport. At this point in this book, this
should not be a new concept.
Figure 6.2: The rate at which force is produced due to different training means applied
62
Throughout the course of this book it has been discussed that the amount of time available for
athletic movements is extremely brief. This is due to the high velocities in which competition
activities occur. There is no award for being the slowest athlete in a race at the elite level.
Those races are determined by which athletes are able to produce the highest levels of force
through their foot with appropriate mechanics and technique, in the minimal amount of time
their foot is in contact with the ground.
The sprinters force production during the brief ground contact time is merely a single example
available in the world of athletics. Regardless of the movement being executed, sports are
ultimately based on the ability to produce force in the available time of the competitive
movement. A major component that separates elite level athletes from others is their ability to
rapidly accelerate the desired object, whether that be a portion of their body or an implement
of the sport, to produce high velocities in a brief amount of time. Although all physiological
aspects of RFD will not be covered in this book, it is important for coaches to acknowledge the
multi-faceted aspects all working together in order to create changes in force production at
high velocities.
This returns to the changes in force production provided at the end of section 2. At this point
the goal outcome of training is to increase the force early in the movement as well as shorten
the time to complete that desired movement. The athlete in this phase has a solid foundation
in regards to force production and must now learn to apply extreme levels of impulse and
accelerative force in brief moments of time. This becomes even more complicated when
considering the repetitive, or cyclical, nature of athletic movements.
This is typically completed with the use of ballistic exercises, as the goal of training is to
maximize the accelerative force produced. By completing the prescribed exercises in this
fashion, deceleration realized through the movement is decreased to the greatest extent,
allowing the highest impulse to be achieved. Low loading schemes, below 40% of 1RM, are
required as high velocities are the desired outcome. Velocity is the name of the game here,
63
meaning loading must take a back seat if performance in regards to high impulse production is
to be maximized.
Taking performance in athletics one step further, it is not enough to merely produce extreme
levels of force in the amount of time available. Athletes must also be capable of absorbing high
levels of force in a rapid fashion. This becomes apparent in the realization that the majority of
movements completed in the world of athletics are in some manner cyclical. Understanding this
cyclical requirement forces coaches to not only train maximal impulse production throughout a
movement, but also the ability to absorb and decelerate these high forces at an extremely high
rate.
Returning to the concept that force production at low velocities is a staple requirement, every
time an athlete completes one of these cyclical movements, a zero velocity is realized during
transition. Before an athlete is able to produce high velocities, they must produce enough force
to overcome this isometric phase of movement.
This idea of overcoming inertia was introduced in the force at low velocity section, and also in
our previous book (Isometrics for Performance). As the velocity of any object increases, the
inertia of that object increases as well. Take a simple rotation of your torso for example.
Start slowly rotating back and forth and gradually increase the speed each repetition is
completed at. As this movement is completed at greater speeds continue to focus on
transitioning to the next repetition as rapidly as possible. As these speeds increase, you should
begin to notice greater muscular effort to overcome the inertia produced by your rotating
body. Ultimately, as the velocity increases, the greater the amount of force required to not only
decelerate, but then reverse that action and move in the opposite direction.
Taking this concept of inertia one step further, extend your arms out from your side and
complete the same movement (Make sure you have enough space around you).
64
Again, gradually increase the speed in which these rotations are completed. Notice the
increased difficulty to reverse the movement at high velocities, especially if you continue to
move as one unit from your trunk through your fingertips. This increased force output is due to
the increased lever length caused by straightening the arms.
This is a simple example of the forces athletes must produce and overcome throughout the
majority of the movements they complete. Producing high levels of force is one thing, but being
capable of decelerating them and then reversing that action is an entirely new ball game. As an
athlete produces rapid, high-velocity movements, they must be capable of rapidly reversing the
direction of those required movements in order to maintain control. An athlete that is capable
of executing this to a high level is able to repeatedly execute these movements at higher
velocities.
This is demonstrated in Figure 6.3 below, in which two athletes’ impulses are compared while
completing the same cyclical movement. The more advanced athlete (blue line) is able to
produce and overcome the forces produced (peaks and valleys of impulse) at a higher rate than
the athlete (black line). By being able to produce greater amounts of force in less time, a
greater impulse is achieved by the advanced athlete. This allows the completion of the
movement at a higher velocity and ultimately in less time. This may not be as noticeable after
the first repetition, but by the third rep it is clear the advanced athlete is able to complete the
same movement in much less time while producing a greater impulse consistently.
65
Figure 6.3: Simple example of two athletes completing a cyclical movement. The advanced
athlete (blue line) is able to transition more rapidly and ultimately completes the repetitions in
a more rapid and powerful manner than the less advanced athlete (black line).
It should become clear that all aspects of force production (low, moderate, and high velocities)
are required in these cyclical actions. As the athlete transitions and reverses the direction of the
movement, high levels of force at low velocities are applied. It is at this moment isometric
strength becomes imperative. From there the athlete progresses from zero, to low, then
moderate, and finally high velocities all in the minimal time allowed in the movement. This
reversal, or overcoming inertia, skill can be trained through the use of specific ballistic exercises
including oscillatory, or quasi-isometrics, as well as a push-pull method. Each of these will be
covered to a greater extent at the end of this section.
Again, this topic is covered in greater detail in Isometrics for Performance, for this reason only
the basic concept is mentioned here. Again it is not enough for an athlete to merely produce
force in a single effort. This is important, but it is also not the most contextually specific method
of training. By training athletes to rapidly reverse the high levels of force they have created,
particularly at high velocities, performance can be enhanced to the greatest extent.
66
Where Do Plyometrics Fit In?
Plyometric exercises elicit a unique neuromuscular response, based on their total impulse and
rate of force expression (mean force/time). However, prior to diving into this aspect, we must
first define “plyometrics”. Plyometrics, or quasi-plyometrics, are highlighted by a few different
factors. It should be noted this exact definition may differ a little from traditional texts. This
modification was added to provide the coverage of semi-plyometric exercises.
Plyometric - Any exercise that consists of an overload dictated by the velocity factor of
momentum, resulting in a subsequent transition into the concentric phase, with total time of
movement lasting no longer than 0.250 - 0.300 seconds, thus utilizing the fast MTU stretch-
shortening cycle. This transition phase is highlighted by a quasi-isometric contraction of the
muscle and a change in tendinous fascicle length. This does not include residual force
enhancement, which is typically highlighted by stored energy in the myosin actin portion the
cross-bridge and is not reliant on stored tendinous energy, with a larger time frame of stored
energy decay.
This definition allows us to look at all types of movements, not just the “shock method”, as
referenced in many of Verkhoshansky’s works. A plyometric movement is highlighted by a large
change in force over a very short period of time, ultimately creating a massive impulse. Due to
the limited time of force allowed in this type of movement, it is stimulated via neurological
reflexes and specific motor pathways.
A simple example is the difference between a depth drop jump or hurdle hop compared to a
standard countermovement jump. Although maximal jump height may be equal in each of
these three movements, the impulse produced (which accounts for both force and time) is
much greater in the depth drop jump and hurdle hop. This increased plyometric impulse in the
depth drop jump and hurdle hop compared to the countermovement jump is due to the force
being applied in these movements in a much shorter amount of time.
67
Assuming that mass is the same and so is the final velocity of the movement (as jump heights
were equal), we can mathematically conclude the force aspect is much larger in the depth drop
and hurdle hop (force * time = change in momentum). The difference in available time is
demonstrated below when the same athlete completes each of these types of movements.
CMJ & Depth Jump
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
Force
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Arbitrary TIme Units
Figure 6.4: The first curve is of a CMJ (left) and the second is of a depth jump (right). The biggest
difference in shape during a CMJ there is a loading and shifting of center of mass (causes two
“humps”) as well as the time interval over which the movement is performed (longer than a
depth jump). A depth jump can give the shape of a smooth curve, almost looking like what you
would imagine a bouncy ball looking like when hitting the ground. The smoothness is from the
body utilizing elastic energies from the initial fall.
These above force curves depict the exact reason plyometric exercises are labeled as extremely
fatiguing, or intense, when compared to other exercises. The difference in time under tension
between a depth drop jump and a countermovement jump is shown, now imagine the
difference between the depth drop jump and a back squat, deadlift, or any other traditional
weight room exercise. Even when these methods are completed in a semi-ballistic, or even
68
ballistic manner, they simply do not come close to matching the rate at which force is produced
in these movements.
At the same time, due to the rapid expression of force, passive tissues are under much greater
amounts of strain. Thus, a preparatory stage focusing on lower level plyometric movements
(less demands on force) and tissue specific work is advisable before engaging in more
demanding plyometric drills. These drills allow appropriate progressions in impulse absorption
and production in athletes.
1600
1400
1200
Arbitrary Units of Force
1000
800
Low Level
600 High level
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Arbitary Units of Time
Figure 6.5: Differences in low vs high level plyometrics. The impulse curve may be similar in
nature, but the overall size is the differentiating factor.
Velocity as an Overload
Russian research has shown that increasing the eccentric velocity of an object can be used as a
form of overload. A great example of this is the depth jump and shock method developed by
69
the famous Russia researcher Yuri Verkhoshansky. These methods utilized the “sharp” loading
of a falling object (your body for a depth jump) to help stimulate different neuromuscular
reflexes. The studies do an excellent job of highlighting the unique aspect of velocity based
loading, but does not fully demonstrate the possible benefits of lightly loaded, high velocity
movement which may elicit similar high tension braking and transitioning forces similar to that
of a depth jump. It is quite possible that weighted drop catch exercises as well as banded drop-
catch exercise bring about similar adaptations to that of traditional depth jumps.
Figure 6.6: Force-Time curve comparison from the same athlete with an additional load of
95lbs. Drop-Catch Force-Time Curve (Left). Note lack of ramping to reach high forces (Jump
height of 22.6cm). Regular barbell CMJ Force-Time Curve (Right). Note ramping to reach high
forces (Jump height 18.9cm). Images are not of equal zoom, but loads are the same.
What about Power?
In terms of physics, power can be expressed as force multiplied by velocity. In other words,
power is the product of the amount of force one can express at a given movement velocity. As
70
coaches, we understand that sport movements are completed at high velocities. Thus, the
concept of producing high levels of force at these velocities (i.e power) has taken the strength
and conditioning world by storm. However, we feel there are still times in which the basic
concepts of power are slightly misunderstood.
Equation for power
Power = Force * Velocity
Every time the word gets brought up it seems as though it becomes a primary discussion topic,
this makes it easy to get caught up in the idea or appeal of power and forget how we train to
actually develop this quality. We know based on the equation above that power is the product
of force and velocity. However, based on the first section of this book, we also understand that
velocity is not just a random, independent variable. As covered previously, velocity of a mass is
dictated by the impulse momentum relationship. Because of this, the given velocity at which
force is being produced must stem from force itself. One cannot simply have velocity without
there being some backbone of force first being able to act on a mass in order to produce that
velocity. Again, as mentioned throughout this book and even hinted at by the title, Force is
King.
It is this basic, underlying requirement of force production ability (slow speed muscular
strength) that lays the foundation for high power outputs. Anyone must first have the ability to
produce force at zero or low velocities in order to apply that force at higher velocities and
therefore increase power production. Returning to the consistently revolving relationship
between force and velocity, we often overlook the fact that the power we are producing can
only be produced at high velocities if we first have the ability to produce the required force.
71
Force precedes velocity, it is for that reason this book’s sections are ordered in the manner they
are. An athlete must first be able to produce high levels of force at low velocities (aka be
strong). From that point on the goal becomes to maximize the force produced at moderate and
high velocities, which become more specific to the requirements of sport. Regardless of the
activity being completed though, if an underlying ability to produce high levels of force is not
present, high power output will never be achieved.
The above paragraphs may seem somewhat confusing at first, for that reason a simple example
is provided below to simplify this concept.
Object A is at rest with a velocity of 0 m/s and will have a constant mass throughout this
example.
Object A is then acted upon by a force over a given time period (Impulse). This impulse creates
a new, higher movement velocity (as it started sitting still at zero). Now that the object is
moving, we must continuously apply force to further increase its movement velocity. Thus, the
force produced at this velocity is deemed power (power = force * velocity). As increased force is
continuously applied to the object, the velocity of movement will increase as well. However,
the object will eventually reach a velocity so great that we do not have enough time to produce
increased force. This leads to the loss of acceleration of the object (as increased force is not
applied to increase velocity) and the velocity becoming constant, along with the power.
However, a lack of acceleration does not mean there is no force acting upon the object. If there
were no force acting on the object, it would begin to rapidly decelerate due to friction.
Pushing a boulder is a simple, real-life, example of this. As you generate increased levels of
force from pushing, the boulder begins to move. Now the rolling boulder is much easier to
continue to accelerate through inertia. There will be a point however that the boulder will be
rolling so rapidly that you will not be capable of applying the increased force necessary to allow
72
continued acceleration. It is at this point force is still being applied at a high level to maintain
velocity, but increased speeds will not be realized.
It is this process that occurs to some extent during sprinting. As the athlete increases their force
produced (push-off from the blocks), acceleration and velocity rapidly increases. However,
there comes a time at which the velocity is so high that the athlete simply cannot produce
increased force levels in the ground contact time available. This athlete achieves a “force
output max” in the time available, which is determined by velocity. Ultimately allowing for
velocity to maintained, but not to be increased. Simply put, the athlete cannot generate a high
enough impulse to cause further acceleration. Eventually, the athlete will fatigue and become
unable to sustain their power output (force output at that velocity) and will begin to slow
down.
Although the exact mechanics of this in sprinting are not understood in their entirety, the point
remains the same nonetheless. The athlete is moving at such a high velocity that the required
force to accelerate further is not available.
73
Figure 6.7: The ability to produce power (both high force at high velocity) relies on multiple
factors that have been demonstrated throughout this book.
Based on the above example, it becomes easy to understand why many state that force is the
base from which power is developed. Without force, there would be no velocity, and without
velocity there would be no power. Again, the ability to produce power has its foundations
deeply rooted in one’s ability to produce force first at a slow velocity and then at a
progressively higher velocities.
74
Maximal Intent and Force
In order to get the highest level of force production from any movement (which may not always
be advisable), intent must be at its peak. It is not only the exercise that creates the desired
training result (based on the context of desired force output), but also in the manner it is
completed. The falling short of transferability, or the improvement of the competitive
movement via specific training implemented, can typically be tied back to one of two issues:
1) The athlete does not understand the context of the movement and cannot make the
motor connection between the training movement and how it applies to their sport. The
stronger the connection is, the more specific the exercise becomes and the less distinct
and foreign it becomes to the actual sporting movement.
2) The movement was performed, but not in a manner that resembles the sporting effort
desired.
Someone performing a movement with maximal intent does not guarantee transfer. However,
by not performing the maximal required intent, movement transferability can be nearly
guaranteed to fall short. By looking at force-time curves of a movement at a given load and
understanding the variability between maximal intent and simply “going through the motions”,
one can quickly understand how and why transferability may be lost. Below is a picture of a
push-press, with corresponding force-time curves.
It should be noted that the load was the same for both efforts, but the nature of the force-time
curves differed greatly. The left image depicts an athlete giving less than maximal intent. The
exercise was still completed “successfully” in the fact that the lift was executed through the
entire range of motion, but the rate of force production as well as peak forces were much less
than the maximal intent push press (on the right). This is noted by a slower rise in force during
75
the pushing phase and the smaller peak in purposive curve (first highlighted circle on force-time
curve) compared the maximal intent push jerk (second highlighted circle on force-time curve).
Figure 6.8: Forces produced with sub-maximal intent (left) and maximal intent (right) are
applied by an athlete in training. Maximal intent, regardless of the actual velocity achieved,
serves as the lynchpin to all training adaptations in regards to high force output.
Figure 6.9: The force curve differences when sub-maximal intent (left) and maximal intent
(right) are utilized in training. These rapid increases in force production will lead to increased
likelihood of transfer to the competitive field when appropriate exercises are applied.
76
From the above example, we can see that in order to perform a movement with the greatest
amount of force and rate of force development, intent must be maximal. When intent is not
maximal, the neuromuscular dynamics are not the same. Again, this is highlighted by the
ground reaction force being produced in the above example. In order to produce the greatest
amounts of force in as short as time possible, the nervous system must rapidly increase firing
rates to the muscle, thus leading to the subsequent increase in muscular rate of force
development. Similar to an aggressive change of direction or a jump for a rebound, intent is
maximal and thus the neurodynamics follow a similar pattern to that of the maximal intent
push-press.
The production of force at high velocities is consistently one of the most sought after aspect in
training, as it should be. The ability of an athlete to produce these high levels of force at the
velocities sport requires is what commonly separates the average from the great. It is within
this phase of training that context of movement is able to be most matched via exercise
training options. Coaches are able to implement exercises to maximize impulse in a similar
fashion to the movements required in sport, thus both preparing their athletes for those
requirements while enhancing performance.
Although the importance of this ability cannot be argued in the majority of competitive
movements, it is also critical for coaches to recall and address the methods necessary in order
for power outputs to be enhanced at increased velocities. These include the ability to produce
force (specific to movement context) at both low and moderate velocities, while continuously
coaching maximal intent in all movements.
77
Force is King
Force at High Velocity Training - Exercises
Total/Lower/Upper Body Exercises* (Loading typically < 55%, Body Weight, or Accelerated)
Lunge OC Hops Banded Paw Back Resisted Speed Skater Jumps Speed Bench Press
Drop Jump DB Split Squat Band Supine DL Hamstring JOP Plyo Matrix Band DB Bench Press
Accelerated Band Jump Banded Hip Flexor Pulls Rotational Plyo OC Rack Band Press
Hurdle Hop Band Prone DL Psoas Switch Cycle Lunge DB Bent Over Row OC
Lateral Hurdle Hop Banded Speed Groin Glute Ham Bar Lift OC OC Chin-Up
Step Up Jumps Banded Speed Glute Wt. Squat Jump Rack Band Push-Up
Implementation of Running Technique Training into the Triphasic Training Model - Maximal Speed Development vs. Conditioning, A Systematic Approach - See how to
This article demonstrates how speed training and technique work can be placed appropriately apply maximal speed training in every training session.
appropriately within a weekly training model.
Hip Stability - The Precursor to Deceleration and Reactive Agility Training - This Oscillatory and Partial Training For Strength - Improve force producing capabilities in
article demonstrates training concepts that can be applied to improve body control specific "weak points" through these training applications
and rapid rate of force absorption.
Triphasic Team Training Manual - View the specific adaptations responsibel for Applied Principles of Optimal Power Development - This book aims to increase the
increasing rate of force development, along with an entire annual plan along with understanding of power aspects and specific methods to improve this quality.
every training session explained and fully hyperlinked.
High Velocity Training Block - 2 Week Training Program Elite Training System - 25-28 Week Full Off-Season Training Program
Force is King
Force at High Velocity Training - Day 1
B Ankle Band Work 3 x 7s 1" Band Max ROM, Speed
Block 2 Lower Body Speed
A Lunge OC Hops 4 x 7s,7s-Clu Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B Hurdle Hop 4 x 4 Jump for Distance, Continuous
D Accel. Band Jump 4 x 4 Pull-In, Explode Out Immediately
E Banded Speed Glute 4 x 7s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
F Banded Hip Flexor Pulls 4 x 7s 1" Band Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B Band Pull-Aparts 3 x 10 1/2" Band
Block 4 Upper Body Speed
A Bench Press 3 x 7s 35-40% Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B One Arm Med Ball Pass 3 x 5 EA Use Hips
C OC Rack Band Press 3 x 7s OC-D+1
D Pull-Up 3 x 7s Bottom 1/2, Reactive-AMAP
E Banded Cuban Press 3 x 7s
Perform A-E Simultaneously for 3 Sets
Block 5 Lower Auxiliary Speed
A Switch Cycle Lunge 3 x 3 EA Switch Legs in Air to Land in Start Pos.
B Banded Speed Groin 3 x 7s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
C Glute Ham Bar Lift 3 x 7s 35-40% OC-D+1
D Banded Paw Back 3 x 7s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
Force is King
A Drop Jump DB Split Squat 6 x 2 EA 45-55% Drop into Position and Explode Out
B Kneel. 3-Way Hip Flex 6 x 5 EA 5-FWD,5-LT,5-RT, EA Leg
A Chin-Up 3 x 5s OC-D+1
B MB OH Slams 3 x 5
C Delt Bent Over OH Rebound Drop 3 x 5 EA
A Speed Switch Cycle Lunge 3 x 5s OC-D+1
B DB SL RDL 3 x 5s 45-55% OC-D+1, EA
C Bench Glute 3 x 5s OC-D+1, EA
Block 5 Upper Auxiliary Speed
A Split Stance Cable Rotational Row 3 x 5s EA Speed Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull
B DB Shoulder Press 3 x 5s 45-55% OC-D+1
C Cable Rotational Pull to Press 3 x 4 EA Low to High, Violent Hip Drive
A Banded Hip Flexor Pulls 3 x 5s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B Glute Ham Bar Lift 3 x 5s 45-55% OC-D+1
C Bench Groin 3 x 5s OC-D+1, EA
Force is King
B Ankle Rocker Hops 3 x 6 Drive Knee FWD, Vertical Femur
A Lunge OC Hops 4 x 10s,10s-Clu Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B Hurdle Hop 4 x 4 Jump for Distance, Continuous
D Accel. Band Jump 4 x 4 Pull-In, Explode Out Immediately
E Ball Groin Squeeze 4 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull
F Glute Wind-Up 4 x 4 EA Wind-Up Around Glute
A Chin-Up 3 x 10s 35-40% Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B MB OH Slams 3 x 5
C Banded Cuban Press 3 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
A Switch Cycle Lunge 3 x 4 EA Switch Legs in Air to Land in Start Pos.
B Banded Speed Glute 3 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
A Banded Paw Back 3 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
B Banded Hip Flexor Pulls 3 x 10s Reactive-AMAP/Push-Pull-EA
7. Force and Injuries
Force is the driving factor behind any contact or noncontact injury. Force plays a role in injury
whether it is sustained when a wide receiver breaks off his route with no contact, or it is due to
an athlete on the opposite team tackling him (contact). Due to the complex nature of non-
contact injuries, we feel they are out of the scope of this book. However, it should still be
understood that in these injuries, force is applied at a magnitude and manner in which the
athlete was not capable of tolerating. The remainder of this section will focus on contact based
injuries.
Beginning with a simple contact injury example, have you ever had someone knock the wind
out of you? For the majority of us the answer is yes, and the odds are it occurred when you
were least expecting it. You were not braced, or prepared to absorb the force applied, or
someone just happened to catch you in the perfect spot (solar plexus). It is likely that if you had
been prepared for this contact force applied, you would have tensed up your core musculature
to absorb that force more appropriately. Ultimately decreasing the likelihood of having the
wind knocked out of you. But why does this occur?
When dealing with any type of contact injury, there are three aspects that must be taken into
consideration.
1) Did the person apply a bracing force, or attempt to create tension to absorb the force?
Imagine being pushed when ready versus not ready. You are much more likely to come
toppling over when you are not prepared.
2) When hit, did the person reposition themselves to absorb their fall in a more efficient
force absorbing manner? Consider falling on an outstretched hand versus a safer roll or
tumble
82
3) Did the person who got hit not have the ability to absorb the forces due to their raw
force producing abilities? Consider an older sibling versus a younger sibling growing up.
The younger, typically smaller sibling simply cannot produce enough force to safely
absorb the force applied from the older sibling.
When considering these points, the important takeaway is that force both breaks us and
prevents us from being broken. It sounds like an oxymoron, but it remains true. However, there
is a caveat in how we go about handing these forces.
Returning to the impulse momentum relationship, one can quickly see the amount of force
required can be drastically reduced if the amount of time it is applied within increases. This can
be viewed in the comparison between the depth drop jump and the back squat (Figure 7.1).
Both create large amounts of force, but the impulse (singular moments of force) in the depth
drop jump are significantly higher as the time the movement is completed in is drastically
smaller. It is for this reason it is suggested to begin with lower intensity plyometric exercises, so
an athlete is prepared to handle the more demanding impulses placed on them when
completing a depth drop jump.
83
Figure 7.1: Although large impulses are displayed in both exercises, the forces of the depth drop
are realized in a much more rapid fashion. For this reason, an athlete must be progressed to
these high level exercises appropriately.
84
The same formula and understanding can play a large role in injuries. Consider this in terms of
an egg toss competition. During this game, the competitors will want to gently guide the egg
downward. By slowly reducing its momentum, there is never a large enough impulse applied to
crack the egg shell. As the game continues and the players are required to take steps backward,
they must now find a way to safely decelerate the increased momentum of the egg (greater
distance covered means greater incoming force). Meaning the time over which a deceleration
force is applied must be increased as to not ramp up the peak force applied, which will lead to
breaking of the egg. If one were to simply try and stop the egg’s momentum immediately upon
contact, the impulse will cause the egg to crack. This is precisely what occurs in sport, but just in
a much more complex and uncontrollable manner.
At this point it should be well understood that in athletic movements the time available to
complete movements is minimal. The ability to decrease impulse via increasing the amount of
time to decelerate is simply not a luxury available in the sports world. If an athlete were to do
this they would consistently be behind the play and be a non-factor in the game. Imagine a
basketball player landing from a jump shot slowly to make sure they reduced the force aspect
of impulse in a safe and controlled manner. They would likely not be very successful in the
sport. Thus, a primary aspect of athletic development is preparing the tissues in a way that
allows them to handle abrupt, high forces.
The concept of extensive to intensive training, as seen in Russian plyometric training, can be
applied in order to achieve this tissue preparation. This approach allows the body to be slowly
exposed, or introduced, to greater and greater forces and challenges in an appropriate
progression. Ultimately leading to the body being able to reduce these increased forces without
increasing the amount of time required to reduce the momentum. Just as the loading of a back
squat is progressed from light to heavy (or less intense to more intense), the impulse placed
upon an athlete must also be progressed. For the same reason we don’t just throw athletes into
a 1RM test of their squat, we should not apply extremely high impulses in training when our
athletes are not prepared to handle them.
85
Thus, coaches are able to use physics as a cornerstone in the training applied to reduce injury
likelihood. With force being what breaks our athletes, but also what prevents them from being
broken, train them to produce and tolerate these high impulses required, but do so in a manner
that is safe and appropriate. Simply put, a stronger athlete, or one that can produce high levels
of force, is much less likely to break down than a weaker one. By understanding the forces
expressed in sport as well as the training means necessary in order to develop tissues that are
more resilient to these forces, one can better prepare an athlete for a season of force
production and absorption.
Returning to the depth drop jump example, the practical application of force absorption and
transition in regards to both performance and injury can be seen. While performing this
exercise eccentric velocities and ground reaction forces will vary greatly based upon the height
of the box (or distance of the drop). Recalling the egg toss example provided above, there will
become a drop height when the impulse required to reverse the momentum will become quite
high. When performed correctly, the landing and takeoff of a depth drop jump will be smooth,
as demonstrated in Figure 7.2 below.
Force - Time Curve

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Arbitrary Units of Time
Figure 7.2: Smooth Force-Time Curve experienced during a depth drop jump.
86
Figure 7.3: Vertical stacking of the torso, hip and knee during a depth drop jump.
As illustrated by the smooth force-time curve above, as well as the minimal changes in vertical
stiffness (stacked torso, hip, and knee in Figure 7.3), this athlete is completing this exercise
correctly and is potentially prepared to progress this movement. We will know the athlete is
not prepared for an impulse (the drop is too high) if this smooth transition decreases, and the
phases of this exercise drastically change. This will lead to the smooth dome-like shape of the
force-time curve being lost, along with the vertical stiffness (joint stacking) being reduced while
ground contact time increases. This is demonstrated in both Figures 7.4 and 7.5 below.
87
Force - Time Curve
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Arbitrary Units of Time
Figure 7.4: Force-Time Curve: Distinct phases of movement (Braking then propulsive).
Figure 7.5: Athlete improperly stacked to execute a depth drop jump.
88
Stiffness:
The aspect of stiffness is demonstrated above in the depth drop jump example, but can be
applied in all other dynamic movements as well. In the jump example, a better vertical stiffness
results in being able to handle larger forces while experiencing only a small change in length or
displacement in center of mass. This can be seen indirectly via the changes in joint angles.
Stiffness equation
Stiffness (K) = force(F) / Change in length (ΔL)
The above pictures and force-time curves allow coaches to quickly view how momentum and
required impulses alter the dynamics of movement.
This does not mean an athlete does not need to learn how to fall properly in order to increase
the time aspect of impulse and train to put themselves in better body positions when
experiencing impact. Consider a falling athlete that extends their arm to attempt to break their
fall. This can commonly lead to bone fractures due to the high impulse experienced and the
body position selected as ground contact is made. In order to reduce the likelihood of such
injuries, learning how to roll and absorb a fall is critical.
By no means should any athlete attempt to break their fall with a high application of force to
stop their momentum, particularly in a completely extended position. It is this moment wrist
and hand injuries are sustained as these bones are not designed to be large force absorbers and
thus cannot handle these impact forces.
This again returns to the concept of peak force compared to the total impulse experienced in a
movement. The peak force, or the highest impulse experienced in a single moment in time is
entirely different than the total impulse (or net force) realized. Peak force is instantaneous,
89
while the total impulse experienced is the total amount of force realized over the duration of
the movement. Consider being slapped versus being shoved. The slap occurs over a short
period of time and elicits a high peak force, but very little total impulse. One the other hand, a
shove does not occur as quickly, with a potentially smaller peak force, but the impulse applied
over the longer period of time produces a greater sum of forces. This is the same concept
applied when comparing the depth drop jump and the back squat.
Injuries can be sustained from both high peak forces or large net impulses, or a combination of
the two. For example, in boxing the high peak forces experienced are typically associated with
the breaking of the skin, while high total impulses are what cause bones to break. However, this
is not to say if a peak force is high enough, that both skin and bone cannot break.
The reduction of injury likelihood deals with the tolerance of many different kinds of forces, in
different positions, from different directions. Thus, the importance of performing movements
at different velocities, which lead to different impulses, should begin to make a lot of sense.
However, the manner in which these exercises influence our structural properties depend on
the velocity at which they are performed and the amount of momentum the athlete is required
to overcome.
For example, isometrics and heavy squats affect the tendon in one manner (constant tension),
while plyometrics effect it in another manner (changes length, acting like a spring). Both
situations pose their own obstacles and benefits, which is why it is critical coaches have a
foundational understanding of how force and velocity of force expression play a role in athletic
development and injury prevention.
90
If it Bends it Breaks
The old saying, “if it bends it breaks”, actually makes a lot of sense in regards to the human
body. The body is made of passive and active tissues. Typically, these tissues are broken down
into the contractile element (CE) and series elastic component (SEC), as well as the passive
elastic element (PEC). This is quite useful from a conceptual understanding of the muscle-
tendon unit (MTU), but by no means does the MTU act in isolation. One aspect that we have
not frequently mentioned in regards to force, and unfortunately so, is the non-elastic
component (NEC).
The NEC consists of the bony structures responsible for force absorption, but not necessarily
production.
It is often overlooked that the muscle and its encompassing tissues transition into the tendon,
which eventually become the bony attachment. This tissue continuum requires the
comprehension that whenever force is transmitted through the muscle and tendon complex, it
is also applied to the bone itself. In conjunction with the actual muscle pulling on the bone, the
bone also deals with impact forces transmitted up from the feet upon landing or axially down
from a barbell squat. This is exactly why weight training stimulates bone strengthening and is
often used to help fight against osteopenia. At the same time, weight training and exercise
when progressed improperly (too high of load, volume, or velocity) can lead to both stress and
avulsion fractures.
If the NEC is not taken into account in regards to training demands and forces being transmitted
through the body, it is quite easy to program yourself into an injury that could have been
avoided. This becomes particularly true in regards to high repetition of impacts (i.e distance
training).
91
Loading is not just dictated by the amount of weight being used, but is also influenced the
speed and direction of the load itself. This allows coaches to further implement training in a
manner that addresses impulse, peak force, as well as velocity that is specific to the
requirement of the sport being completed. By programming in this manner, the specific
qualities of the structural and contractile properties of the athlete are able to be developed,
leading to a more resilient athlete.
92
8. The black box conundrum
The black box conundrum is what has, and will, continue to push the scientific community in
regards to athletic performance. This world works in funny ways to say the least. An athlete’s
organism is similar to a black box of mystery. As coaches we know exactly what we put into it
(training) and we know exactly what we get out of it (testing results/performance), but we still
do not understand how that mysterious black box functions internally to turn our inputs into an
output.
We know that the final product of human movement is always related to force. If you want to
run fast, lift something heavy, pick up a fork, or catch a touchdown pass, we can utilize physics
to calculate exactly how you did that. However, the application of force is only the output. As
coaches, we must not only understand the output, but understand what causes these outputs
and how we can modify what is happening inside the black box.
The biggest question all coaches attempt to tackle is “how do we create force?” If someone had
the exact answer to this and could demonstrate it in a repeatable manner with athletes of all
sports, we would sadly all be out of a job and confronted with a universal truth of athletic
development. Obviously this truth does not exist and thus gives us (coaches) the hope that one
day we may merely gain proximity to it, let alone uncover it.
One of the primary issues in the comprehension of force production is the fact that the human
body is made up of several complex systems all interacting with one another to produce this
Newtonian output.
When we jump, run, and move in sport there are numerous neuromechanical sequencings
taking place simultaneously, which are being driven by physiological processes within the body.
93
The way one person runs a 100 meter dash may look externally similar, but the
neuromechanical sequencing and physiological processes underneath the skin of these two
runners may differ dramatically. The classic example of this is by looking at someone who is
“contractile dominant” like Ben Johnson, or another runner who relies more on top speed, say
Usain Bolt. Both run extremely fast, but the manner in which they complete their sprinting is
unique to them. This becomes even more interesting when the realization is made that
sprinting is a quite controlled sport when compared to the majority of other athletic
competitions. Consider team sports such as basketball, football, and/or baseball and you will
see there is no universal definition of success. Each athlete has a unique way of being successful
in their respective sport.
However, just because every athlete may be their own complex system does not mean
Newtonian physics does not apply to each of them. Granted, the need for force production may
vary based on the sport, position, as well as the individual skill level each athlete currently
possess. Yet, regardless of how you view it, those athletes who are the fastest, quickest, and
strongest are those who produce the most force relative to their body weight in the time
available to complete their sporting movement. By continuing to improve one’s understanding
of the contextual aspects of force production, coaches are able to further enhance their
athlete’s ability to produce force in the specifics of their sport. This becomes critical as the
lowest common denominator in raw physical abilities is ultimately force production.
Remember, force is king!
94

Force Is King Max Schmarzo and Matt Van Dyke PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Force Is King Max Schmarzo and Matt Van Dyke PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FORCE IS

Max Schmarzo &

Isaac Newton was an astronomer, scientist, physicist, philosopher, and mathematician. He is

Matt Van Dyke

Formula for Force

It is important to remember that a sprinter at a constant speed (zero acceleration), is still

Formula for Velocity

Deconstructed Formula for Force

Equation for Impulse

Impulse-Momentum Relationship if Mass is Constant

As previously mentioned, mass is typically constant in sport. This understanding allows us to

Force Makes Us Move

Force Makes us Break

Force is extremely contextual. Production of force, particularly at high levels, is in no way

A back squat compared to a jump continue to demonstrate the differences in impulse

Figure 2.3: Inappropriate joint sequencing while standing.

Force Makes Velocity

Figure 4.1: Force at Low Velocity Functions and Training.

Figure 5.1: Force at Moderate Velocity Functions and Training.

Exercises implemented to train at moderate velocities are typically completed in a ballistic or

CMJ & Depth Jump

What about Power?

Equation for power

Power = Force * Velocity

Force - Time Curve

Figure 7.5: Athlete improperly stacked to execute a depth drop jump.

Remember, force is king!

You might also like