TEXTBOOK SERIES

FROM EUROPA-LEHRMITTEL
for the metalworking trades

Roland Gomeringer Thomas Rapp

Max Heinzler Claudius Scholer
Roland Kilgus Andreas Stenzel
Volker Menges Andreas Stephan
Stefan Oesterle Falko Wieneke

Mechanical and
Metal Trades
Handbook
4th English edition

VERLAG EUROPA-LEHRMITTEL · Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG

Düsselberger Straße 23 · 42781 Haan-Gruiten · Germany

Europa-No.: 1910X
Original title:
Tabellenbuch Metall, 47th edition 2017, 3rd batch

Authors:
Roland Gomeringer Meßstetten, Germany
Max Heinzler Wangen im Allgäu, Germany
Roland Kilgus Neckartenzlingen, Germany
Volker Menges Lichtenstein, Germany
Stefan Oesterle Amtzell, Germany
Thomas Rapp Albstan, Germany
Claudius Scholer Metzingen, Germany
Andreas Stenzel Balingen, Germany
Andreas Stephan Marktoberdorf, Germany
Falko Wieneke Essen, Germany

Editor:
Roland Gomeringer, Meßstetten, Germany

Graphic design:
Design office of Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Ostfildern, Germany

The publisher and its affiliates have taken care to collect the information given in this book to the best of
their ability. However, no responsibility is accepted by the publisher or any of its affiliates regarding its con-
tent or any statement herein or omission there from which may result in any loss or damage to any party
using the data shown above. Warranty claims against the authors or the publisher are excluded.

Most recent editions of standards and other regulations govern their use.
They can be ordered from Beuth Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstr. 6, 10787 Berlin, Germany.

The content of the chapter “Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL“ (page 349 to 368)
complies with the publications of the PAL Prüfungs- und Lehrmittelentwicklungsstelle (Institute for the
development of training and testing material) of the IHK Region Stuttgart (Chamber of Commerce and Industry
of the Stuttgart region).

4th edition 2018, corrected reprint 2021

Batch 5 4 3
All batches of this edition may be used concurrently in the classroom since they are unchanged, except for
some corrections to typographical errors and slight changes in standards.

ISBN 978-3-8085-1915-8

All rights reserved. This publication is protected under copyright law. Any use other than those permitted
by law must be approved in writing by the publisher.

© 2018 by Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG, 42781 Haan-Gruiten,
Germany www.europa-lehrmittel.de

Translation and typesetting: A.C.T. Fachübersetzungen GmbH, 41061 Mönchengladbach, Germany

Typesetting and layout of the German edition: Satz+Layout Werkstatt Kluth GmbH, 50374 Erftstadt, Germany
Cover design: Grafische Produktionen Jürgen Neumann, 97222 Rimpar, Germany
Cover photo: Sauter Feinmechanik GmbH, 72555 Metzingen, Germany
Printed by: mediaprint solutions GmbH, 33100 Paderborn, Germany
 3

Preface
The Mechnical and Metal Trades Handbook is well-suited 1 Technical Mathematics
for shop reference, tooling, machine building, maintenance TM
and as a general book of knowledge. It is also useful for 9 … 28
educa- tional purposes, especially in practical work or
curricula and continuing education programs.

Target Groups
• Industrial and trade mechanics 2 Technical
• Technical product designers Physics
• Apprentices in above trade areas
TP
• Practitioners in trades and industry 29 … 56
• Mechanical engineering students
Notes for the user
The contents of this book include tables and formulas in
seven chapters as well as a table of contents, a subject 3 Technical Drawing
index, a standard index and an international material TD
comparison chart.
57 … 118
For a better overview, each of the seven chapters is
preceded by an additional one-page table of contents.
The tables contain the most important guidelines, designs,
types, dimensions and standard values for their respective
sub- ject areas.
Units are not specified in the legends for the formulas if 4 Material Science
sev- eral units are possible. However, the calculation MS
examples for each formula use those units normally applied 119 … 206
in practice.

Changes in the 4th edition

The standards in this edition are current as of January
2017. Due to new standards and technical developments, the
follow- ing contents have been updated, expanded or newly
added: 5 Machine Elements
ME
• Quality management and environmental management 207 … 276
according to the latest standard. Elimination of general
terms from quality management.
• Introduction to “Geometrical product specification
(GPS)” for technical communication principles.
• Additional tools and partially updated standard values for
machining operations.
6 Production Engineering
• Additions in cost accounting.
• Representation of structuring principles and reference des-
277 … 418 PE
ignation in schematic circuit diagrams according to ISO
1219 and DIN EN 81346.

Authors and publishers continue to be grateful to all users

of the table handbook for notes and suggestions for
improve- ment addressed to lektorat@europa- 7 Automation and Information Technolog
lehrmittel.de.
419 … 460 AT
Summer 2018 Authors and Publisher
4 Table of contents

Table of contents

1 Technical Mathematics (TM) 9

1.1 Units of measurement 1.5 Areas
SI base quantities and base units.... 10 Angular areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Derived quantities and their units . . . 10 Triangle, polygon, circle . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Non-SI units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Circular sector, circular segment,
1.2 Formulas circular ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Formula symbols, Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
mathematical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.6 Volume and surface area
Formulas, equations, graphs . . . . . . . 14 Cube, cylinder, pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Transformation of formulas . . . . . . . . 15 Cone, truncated cone, sphere . . . . . . . 26
Quantities and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Volumes of composite s o li d s .. . . . . . 27
Calculation with quantities . . . . . . . . . 17 1.7 Mass
Percentage and interest calculation .. 17 General calculati ons............... 27
1.3 Angles and triangle Linear mass density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Types of angles, Pythagoras´ theorem 18 Area mass density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Functions of triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.8 Centroids
1.4 Lengths Centroids of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Sub-dividing l e n g t h s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Centroids of plane areas . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Effective lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Rough l e n g t h s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2 Technical Physics (TP) 29

2.1 Motion Static s t r e n g t h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Uniform motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Modulus of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Accelerated motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Tensile and compressive stress,
Speeds on machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 surface pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 Forces Shear, torsion, bending . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Addition and resolution of forces.... 32 Bending stress on components . . . . . 45
Types of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Section modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Buckling, compound stress . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3 Work, power, efficiency Dynamic strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Mechanical work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Simple machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.7 Thermodynamics
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Temperatures, linear expansion..... 51
Power and efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4 Friction Quantity of heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Friction force, coefficients of friction . 38 Calorific values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Coefficients of rolling friction . . . . . . . 38 2.8 Electricity
2.5 Pressure in liquids and gases Quantities and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Pressure......................... 39 Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Buoyancy........................ 39 Conductor resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Hydraulic power transmission . . . . . . 39 Current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Pressure intensification . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Connection of resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Flow velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Types of current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Changes of state in gases . . . . . . . . . . 40 Electric work and power . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6 Strength of materials Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Load cases, stress limits . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3 Technical Drawing (TD) 57

3.1 Graphs 3.2 Basic geometrical constructions
Cartesian coordinate s y s t e m .. .. .. .. 58 Line segments,
Polar coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . 59 perpendiculars, angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Area g r a p h s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
 Table of contents 5

Tangents, circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Retaining rings, springs....................88

Inscribed circle, ellipse, spiral . . . . . . . 62 3.7 Object elements
Cycloid, involute curve, hyperbola . . . 63 Bosses, object edges.......................89
3.3 Elements of drawing Thread runouts, thread undercuts . . . 90
Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Threads, screw joints.......................91
Preferred numbers, radii, scales..... 65 Centre holes, knurls........................92
Drawing layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Undercuts.....................................93
Bills of materials, item numbers..... 67 3.8 Welding and soldering
Line types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Graphical symbols...........................94
3.4 Representation Dimensioning examples...................96
Projection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.9 Surfaces
Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Hardness specifications in drawings 98
Sectional v i e w s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Form deviations, roughness................99
Hatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Surface testing, surface indications . . 100
3.5 Dimensioning drawings Achievable roughness....................102
Dimension lines, dimension numbers 77 Tooth forming quality.....................103
Dimensioning rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.10 Tolerances, fits
Elements of drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Fundamentels...............................104
Tolerance specifications . . . . . . . . . . . 81 ISO fits......................................106
Types of dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 General tolerances.........................112
Simplified presentation in drawings . 84 Antifriction bearing fits...................112
3.6 Machine elements Fit recommendations, possible fits . . 113
Gear types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Geometrical product specification . . . 114
Antrifiction bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Geometrical tolerances...................116
Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

4 Materials Science (MS) 119

4.1 Materials Types of cast iron materials..............168
Material characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 120 4.7 Foundry technology.......................171
Periodic table of the elements...... 122
4.8 Light alloys
Chemicals used in metal technology 123
Overview of aluminium alloys...........173
4.2 Steels, designation system
Wrought aluminium alloys...............175
Definition and classification . . . . . . . 124
Aluminium casting alloys................177
Standardisation of steel products .. 125
Material n u m b e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Aluminium profiles........................178
Magnesium and titanium alloys........181
Designation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.3 Steel types 4.9 Heavy metals
Overview of steel products . . . . . . . . 131 Designation system......................183
Overview of steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Copper alloys...............................184
Structural steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 4.10 Other materials............................186
Case hardened s t e e l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 4.11 Plastics
Quenched and tempered steels . . . . 138 Overview....................................188
Tool steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Thermosets..................................191
Stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Thermoplastics.............................192
Spring steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Elastomers, foam materials..............195
Steels for bright steel products..... 144
Plastics processing.........................196
4.4 Steels, finished products
Polyblends, laminated materials........197
Sheet and strip metal, tubes . . . . . . . 146 Testing of plastics.........................198
Profiles......................... 150
4.12 Material testing
Linear and area mass density . . . . . . 159
Overview....................................199
4.5 Heat treatment
Tensile testing.............................201
Crystal lattices, alloy systems . . . . . . 160
Iron-carbon phase di ag r am . ... . . .. 161 Notched-bar impact test,
Heat treatment of steels . . . . . . . . . . 162 rotary bending test........................202
4.6 Cast iron materials Hardness test..............................203
Designation, material numbers . . . . 167 4.13 Corrosion, corrosion protection........206
6 Table of contents

5 Machine Elements (ME) 207

5.1 Threads Flat washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Types of threads, overview...............208 Other washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Thread standards of various countries 209 5.6 Pins and bolts
Metric ISO thread........................210 Designs, overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Other types of threads....................211 Dowel and spring p i n s . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Thread tolerances.........................213 Grooved pins, clevis pins . . . . . . . . . 244
5.2 Bolts and screws 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Types of bolts and screws, overview 214 Connection, overview . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Designation................................215 Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Property.....................................216 Parallel keys, woodruff keys . . . . . . . 247
Hexagon head bolts and screws........217 Tool t a p e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Cap screws................................220 5.8 Other machine elements
Other bolts and screws...................221 Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Calculation of screw joints...............226 Grub screws, thrust pads, ball knobs 252
Locking fasteners, overview..............228 Knobs, locating bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Bolt and screw drive systems...........229 Quick-release drilling fixture . . . . . . . 255
5.3 Countersinks 5.9 Drive elements
Countersinks for countersunk Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
head screws................................230 Spur gears, d i m e n s i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Counterbores for cap screws.............231 Bevel gears, worm drive, dimensions 262
5.4 Nuts Gear r a t i o s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Nut types, overview.......................232 5.10 Bearings
Designation................................233 Plain bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Property.....................................234 Antifriction bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Hexagon nuts.............................235 Lubricating oils and
Other nuts...................................236 lubricating g r e a s e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
5.5 Washers
Washers, overview........................239

6 Production Engineering (PE) 277

6.1 Measurement technology Cooling l u b r i c a t i o n . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 312
Measuring instruments.................278 Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Measurement result.......................279 Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
6.2 Quality management Drilling, countersinking, reaming . . . 337
Standards, terminology...................280 Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Quality planning, quality testing........282 Honing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Statistical analysis.........................283 CNC machining,
Quality capability..........................285 zero and reference point . . . . . . . . . . 349
Statistical process control................286 Tool offsets, path corrections . . . . . . 350
6.3 EU machinery directive..................289 CNC production according to DIN . . 351
6.4 Production organization CNC turning according to PAL . . . . . 354
Product breakdown structure............291 CNC milling according to P A L . . . . . . 360
Work planning..............................293 6.7
Material removal
Cost accounting............................297 Wire spark eroding, sink EDM . . . . . 369
6.5 Maintenance Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Maintenance, repair service..............300 6.8
Separation by cutting
Maintenance concepts....................301 Cutting force, presses . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
6.6 Machine processes Cutting tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Documentation system..................303 Tool and workpiece dimensions . . . . 374
Material removal rate.....................304 Strip stock utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9 375
Forces while machining...................305
Speed graph...............................306 Forming
Cutting materials...........................308 Bending: tool, procedure.......... 376
Indexable inserts..........................310 Bending radius, blank s i z e . . . . . . . . . 378
Tool holding fixtures......................311 Deep drawing: tool, procedure . . . . . 380
Blank diameter, drawing gap . . . . . . 382
 Table of contents 7

6.10 Injection moulding Gas cylinders labelling....................398

Injection moulding tools . . . . . . . . . .
Shrinkage, cooling, batching . . . . . .
6.11 Joining
Welding processes, overview . . . . . .
Weld preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gas-shielded welding . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arc w e l d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beam c u t t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
384 S o l d e r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
387 Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
6.12 Workplace and environmental protection
389 Workplace hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
391 Ordinance on hazardous substances 406
392 Warning signs, safety signs..............414
394 Identification of pipe lines...............417
396 Sound and noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

7 Automation and Information Technology (AT) 419

7.1 Pneumatics, hydraulics 7.4 PLC controls
Circuit symbols, directional control valves 420 PLC programming languages . . . . . . 443
Proportional valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Binary logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Circuit diagrams, designation systems 425 Sequence controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Pneumatic control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 7.5 Control technology
Pneumatic c y l i n d e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 Basic terminology, code letters..... 450
Hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders, Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
hydraulic p u m p s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 C o n t r o l l e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
7.6 Handling and robot systems
7.2 Grafcet Coordinate systems, axes . . . . . . . . . 454
Basic structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 Robot d e s i g n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Steps, transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Grippers, job safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Actions......................... 434
Branching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 7.7 Motors and drives
Safety precautions, protection types 457
7.3 Electropneumatics, electrohydraulics Electric motors, connections,
Circuit s y m b o l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Circuit diagrams designation . . . . . . 439
Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Electro-pneumatic control . . . . . . . . . 442

International standards 461 … 465

List of standards 466 … 470

Subject index 471 … 482

8 Standards

Standards and other regulations

Standardization and standards terms
Standardization is the systematic achievement of uniformity of material and non-material objects, such as compo-
nents, calculation methods, process flows and services for the benefit of the general public.

Standards term Example Explanation

Standard DIN 509 A standard is the published result of the standardization work. Example: DIN 509
with shapes and dimensions of undercuts for turned parts and bores.
Part DIN 30910-2 Standards can comprise several parts associated with each other.
The part numbers are appended to the main standard number with hyphens.
DIN 30910-2 describes sintered materials for filters for example, whereas Part 3
and 4 deal with sintered materials for bearings and formed parts.
Supplement DIN 743 A supplement contains information for a standard, however no additional specifica-
Suppl. 1 tions.The supplement DIN 743 Suppl. 1, for example, contains application examples
of load capacity calculations for shafts and axles described in DIN 743.
Draft E DIN EN Draft standards are made available to the public for examination and commenting. The
10027-2 new version of DIN EN 10027-2 (2015-07) with material codes for steels was available to
(2013-09) the public as a draft for objections, for example, from September 2013 to February
2014.
Preliminary DIN V 45696- A preliminary standard contains the results of standardization, which have not
standard 1 (2006-02) been released as a standard because of certain provisos. For example, DIN V
45696-1 contains technical measures for the design of machines that transmit
whole-body vibrations to humans.
Output date DIN 76-1 Date of publication which is made public in the DIN publication guide; this is the
(2004-06) date at which time the standard becomes valid. DIN 76-1, which sets undercuts for
metric ISO threads has been valid since June 2004 for example.

Types of standards and regulations (selection)

Type Abbreviation Explanation Purpose and contents
International ISO International Organization for Stan- Simplifies the international exchange of
standards dardization, Geneva (O and S are goods and services as well as cooperation
(ISO standards) reversed in the abbreviation) in scientific, technical and economic
areas.
European EN European Committee for Technical harmonization and the associ-
standards Standardization (Comité Européen de ated reduction of trade barriers for the
(EN standards) Normalisation), Brussels advancement of the European market
and the coalescence of Europe.
German DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V., National standardization facilitates ratio-
standards Berlin (German Institute for Standard- nalization, quality assurance, environmen-
(DIN standards) ization) tal protection and common
DIN EN European standard for which the Ger- understanding in economics, technology,
man version has attained the status science, man- agement and public
of a German standard relations.
DIN ISO German standard for which an
inter- national standard has been
adopted without change.
DIN EN ISO European standard for which an
inter- national standard has been
adopted unchanged and the German
version has the status of a German
standard.
DIN VDE Printed publication of the VDE, which
has the status of a German
standard.
VDI guidelines VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure e.V., These guidelines give an account of the
Düsseldorf (Association of German current state of the art in specific
Engineers) subject areas and contain, for example,
VDE printed- VDE Verband der Elektrotechnik (German concrete procedural guidelines for the
publications Association of Electrical Engineering) performing calculations or designing
Elektronik Informationstechnik e.V., processes in mechanical or electrical
Frankfurt am Main (Association for engineering.
Electronics Information Technology)
DGQ DGQ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Qualität e.V., Recommendations in the area of quality
publications Frankfurt (German Society for Quality) technology.
 Table of contents
REFA sheets REFA Verband für Arbeitsstudien (Asso-
ciation for Work Design) REFA e.V.,
Darmstadt (Industrial Organization
and Corporate Development)
9
Recommendations in the area of produc-
tion and work planning.
 1 Standards
0
1 Technical Mathematics

1.1 Units of measurement

SI base quantities and units.............................10 T
Derived quantities and their units.....................10
Non-SI units................................................12

3
example: 1.2 Formulas
y = 0.5 x
+1
Formula symbols, mathematical symbols............13
2 Formulas, equations, graphs............................14
m= Transformation of formulas..............................15
y

1
0.5
Quantities and units.......................................16
b =1
–2 –1 Calculation with quantities..............................17
1 2 3
–1 x Percentage and interest calculation...................17

Adjacent side C Opposite side

to angle å to angle å 1.3 Angles and triangles
Types of angles, Pythagorean Theorem..............18
b a Theorem of intersecting lines...........................18
Functions of right triangles..............................19
A Functions of oblique triangles..........................19
c

B
Hypotenuse 1.4 Lengths
Sub-dividing lengths.....................................20
Arc length...................................................20
Effective lengths...........................................21
Spring wire length.........................................21
Rough lengths.............................................21

1.5 Areas
Angular areas..............................................22
Triangle, polygon, circle.................................23
Circular sector, circular segment, circular ring......24
Ellipse........................................................24

1.6 Volume and surface area

Cube, cylinder, pyramid..................................25
Cone, truncated cone, sphere...........................26
Volumes of composite solids............................27

1.7 Mass
General calculations.......................................27
kg Linear mass density.......................................27
m' in Area mass density.........................................27
m

1.8 Centroids
Centroids of lines..........................................28
y Centroids of plane areas.................................28
C C2
C1 x
y

XC
 10 1.1 Units of measurement

Units of measurement
SI1) base quantities and base units cf. DIN 1301-1 (2010-10), -2 (1978-02), -3 (1979-10)
TM
Thermo-
Base Electr Amount Luminous
Length Mass Tim dynamic
quantit ic of intensity
e temperatu
y curre substanc
re
nt e
Base
metre kilogramme second ampere kelvin mole candela
units
Unit
m kg s A K mol cd
symbol
1) The units for measurement are defined in the International System of Units SI (Système International d’Unités). It is
based on the seven basic units (SI units), from which other units are derived.

Base quantities, derived quantities and their units

Unit Remarks
Quantity Symb Relationship Examples of
Name Symb
ol application
ol
Length, Area, Volume, Angle
Length Πmetre m 1m = 10 dm = 100 cm 1 inch = 25.4 mm
= 1000 mm In aviation and nautical applications
1 mm = 1000 µm the following applies:
1 km = 1000 m 1 international nautical mile = 1852 m

Area A, S square metre m2 1 m2 = 10 000 cm2 Symbol S only for cross-sectional

= 1 000 000 mm2 areas
are a 1a = 100 m2
hectare ha 1 ha = 100 a = 10 000 m2 Ar and hectare only for land
100 ha = 1 km2
Volume V cubic metre m3 1 m3 = 1000 dm3
= 1 000 000 cm3
litre —, L 1 — = 1 L = 1 dm3 = 10 d Mostly for fluids and gases
—
= 0.001 m3
1 m— = 1 cm 3

Plane a, b, g … radian rad 1 rad = 1 m/m = 57.2957… 1 rad is the angle formed by the
angle ° inter- section of a circle around the
(angle) = 180°/p centre of 1 m radius with an arc of 1
degrees ° p m length. In technical calculations
1° = rad = 60* instead of a = 33° 17* 27.6+ it is
180
minutes * better to use a = 33.291°.
seconds 1* = 1°/60 = 60+
+
1+ = 1*/60 = 1°/3600
Solid angle ≈ steradian sr 1 sr = 1 m2/m2 The solid angle of 1 sr encompasses
a sphere of r = 1 m on the surface,
which corresponds to the area of a
spherical segment of AO = 1 m2.

Mechanics
Mass m kilogramme kg 1 kg = 1000 g In everyday language, the mass of a
gram g 1g = 1000 mg solid is also referred to as weight.

megagram Mg
metric ton t 1t = 1000 kg = 1 Mg
0.2 g = 1 ct Mass for precious stones in carat (ct).
Linear m* kilogramme kg/m 1 kg/m = 1 g/mm For calculating the mass of bars,
mass per metre pro-files, pipes.
density
Area mass m+ kilogramme kg/m2 1 kg/m2 = 0.1 g/cm2 To calculate the mass of sheet metal.
density per square
metre
Density r kilogramme kg/m3 1000 kg/m3 = 1 metric t/m3 Density = Mass of a substance per
per cubic = 1 kg/dm3 volume unit
metre = 1 g/cm3
 1.1 Units of measurement 11

Units of measurement
Quantities and units (continued)
Uni Remarks TM
Quantity Symb t Relationship Examples of
ol Name Symb application
ol
Mechanics
Moment J kilogramme x kg · m2 The following applies to The moment of inertia indicates the
of inertia, square metre homogenous full cylinders resistance of a rigid homogenous solid
2nd moment with a mass m and radius against the change in its rotational
of mass r: 1 movement along the axis of rotation.
J = · m · r2
2
Force F newton N kg· m = 1 J The force 1 N effects a change in
1 N = 1 s2 m velocity of 1 m/s in 1 s in a 1 kg mass.
Weight FW, W 1 MN = 103 kN = 1 000 000
N
2
Torque M newton N · m 1 N · m = 1 kg · m 1 N · m is the moment that a force of
Bend. mom. Mb x metre s2 1 N effects with a lever arm of 1 m.
Tors. mom. MT,
T
Momentum p kilogramme kg· m/s 1 kg · m/s = 1 N · s The momentum is the product of the
x metre mass times velocity. It has the
per second direction of the velocity.
Pressure p pascal Pa 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 0.01 mbar Pressure refers to the force per unit
1 bar = 100 000 N/m2 area. For gage pressure, the symbol
Mechanical s, t newton N/mm2 = 10 N/cm2 = 105 Pa pg is used (DIN 1314).
stress per square 1 mbar = 1 hPa 1 bar = 14.5 psi (pounds per square
millimetre 1 N/mm2 = 10 bar = 1 MN/m2 inch
= 1 MPa
1 daN/cm2 = 0.1 N/mm2

Second I metre to the m4 1 m4 = 100 000 000 cm4 Previously: Geometrical moment of
moment fourth power inertia
of area centimetre to cm4
the fourth power

Energy, E, W joule J 1J =1N·m=1W· Joule for all forms of energy, kW·

Work, Quan- s h preferred for electrical energy.
tity of heat = 1 kg · m2/s2

Power, P watt W 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N · m/s Power describes the work which is

Heat flow G = 1 V · A = 1 m2 · kg/s3 achieved within a specific time.

Time
Time, t second s 3 h means a time span (3 hrs.),
Time s min 1 min = 60 s 3h means a point in time (3 o’clock).
span, minutes h 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s If points in time are written in mixed
Duration hours d 1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s form, e.g. 3h24m10s, the symbol min
day a can be shortened to m.
year
Frequency f, v hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1/s 1 Hz ‡ 1 cycle in 1 second.
Rotational n 1 per second 1/s 1/s = 60/min = 60 min-1 The number of revolutions per unit
speed, 1 of time gives the revolution
Rotational 1/min = 1 min-1 =
1 per minute 1/min 60 s frequency, also called rpm.
frequency
Velocity v metre per m/s 1 m/s= 60 m/min Speed for nautical journeys in knots
second = 3.6 km/h (kn):
1m
metre per m/min 1 m/min = 1 kn = 1.852 km/h
minute 60 s
kilometre per km/h 1m mile per hour = 1 mile/h = 1 mph
1 km/h =
hour 3.6 s 1 mph = 1.60934 km/h
Angular w 1 per second 1/s w=2p·n For a rpm of n = 2/s the angular
velocity radians per rad/s velocity w = 4 p/s.
second
Acceleration a, g metre per m/s2 1 m/s Symbol g only for acceleration due to
1 m/s2 =
 12 1.1 Units of measurement

Units of measurement
Quantities and units (continued)
TM Uni Remarks
Quantity Symb Relationship
Namet
ol Symb Examples of
ol application
Electricity and magnetism
Electric I ampere A A moving electrical charge is called
current elec- tricity. The electromotive force
Electro- U 1 V = 1 W/1 A = 1 J/C
volt V is equal to the potential difference
motive force between two points in an electric field.
Elect. 1 O = 1 V/1 A
R ohm O The reciprocal of the electrical
resistance 1 S = 1 A/1 V = 1/O resistance is called the electrical
Elect. G siemens S
conductance conductivity.
Specific 1  · mm2
r ohm x O·m 10–6 O · m = 1 O · mm2/m r  k in
resistance m
metre 1 m
siemens k  in
Conductivity g, k S/m r  · mm2
per metre
Frequency f hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1/s Frequency of public electric utility:
1000 Hz = 1 kHz EU 50 Hz, USA/Canada 60 Hz
Elect. Work W joule J 1J = 1 W · s = 1 N · m In atomic and nuclear physics the unit
1 kW · h = 3.6 MJ eV (electron volt) is used.
1 W · h = 3.6 kJ
Phase j – – for alternating current: The angle between current and voltage
difference P in an inductive or capacitive load.
cos j =
U·I
Elect. field strength E volts per metre V/m F Q
Elect. charge Q coulomb C 1 C = 1 A · 1 s; 1 A · h = 3.6 E = , C = , Q = I · t
Elect. capacity F kC Q U
C farad
Inductance L henry H 1 F = 1 C/V
1 H = 1 V · s/A
Power Effec- P watt W 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N · m/s In electrical power
tive power =1V·A engineering: Apparent power S
in V · A
Thermodynamics and heat transfer

Symb Uni Remarks

Quantity Relationship
ol Namet Symb Examples of
ol application
Thermo- T, Q kelvin K 0 K = – 273.15 °C Kelvin (K) and degrees Celsius (°C) are
dynamic used for temperatures and tempera-
temperature 0 °C = 273.15 K ture differences.
t, h degrees °C 0 °C = 32 °F
Celsius t = T – T0; T0 = 273.15 K
temperature Celsius 0 °F = – 17.77 °C Conversion in °F: page 51
Quantity of Q joule J 1J =1W·s=1N·m 1 kcal ‡ 4.1868 kJ
heat 1 kW · h = 3 600 000 J = 3,6 MJ
Net Hu joule per J/kg 1 MJ/kg = 1 000 000 J/kg Thermal energy released per kg fuel
calorific kilogramme (or for each m3) minus the heat of
value joule per J/m3 1 MJ/m3 = 1 000 000 J/m3 vaporisation of the water vapour con-
cubic metre tained in the exhaust gases.

Non-SI units
Length Area Volume Mass Energy, power
1 inch (in) = 25.4 mm 1 sq.in = 6.452 cm2 1 cu.in = 16.39 cm3 1 oz = 28.35 g 1 PSh = 0.735 kWh

1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 m 1 sq.ft = 9.29 dm2 1 cu.ft = 28.32 dm3 1 lb = 453.6 g 1 PS = 0.7355 kW
1 sq.yd = 0.8361 m2 1 cu.yd = 764.6 dm3 1t = 1000 kg 1 kcal = 4186.8 Ws
1 yard
(yd) = 0.9144 m 1 acre = 4046.873 1 gallon 1 short 1 kcal = 1.166 Wh
m2 (US) = 3.785 — ton = 907.2 kg
1 nautical = 1.852 km 1 kpm/s = 9.807 W
mile Pressure, force 1 gallon 1 Karat = 0.2 g
1 Btu = 1055 Ws
1 land = 1.6093 km 1 bar (UK) = 4.546 —
= 14.5 1 pound/in3 = 27.68
mile pound/in2 1 barrel (US) = 158.9 l g/cm3 1 bhp = 745.7 W

1 N/mm2 = 145.038 1 barrel (UK) = 159.1 l

pound/in2
 1.2 Formulas 13

Formula symbols, mathematical symbols

Formula symbols cf. DIN 1304-1 (1994-03)
Formu Formu Formu
TM
Meanin Meanin Meanin
la la la
g g g
symb symb symb
ol ol ol
Length, Area, Volume, Angle
ΠLength r, R Radius a, b, g Planar angle
w Width d, D Diameter ≈ Solid angle
h Height A, S Area, Cross-sectional area l Wave length
s Linear distance V Volume
Mechanics
m Mass F Force G Shear modulus
m* Linear mass density FW, W Gravitational force, Weight µ, f Coefficient of friction
m+ Area mass density T Torque W Section modulus
r Density MT, T Torsional moment I 2nd moment of mass
J Moment of inertia Mb Bending moment W, E Work, Energy
p Pressure s Normal stress Wp, Ep Potential energy
pabs Absolute pressure t Shear stress Wk, Ek Kinetic energy
pamb Ambient pressure e Strain P Power
pg Gage pressure E Modulus of elasticity n Efficiency
Time
t Time, Duration f, v Frequency a Acceleration
T Cycle duration v, u Velocity g Local gravitational acceleration
n Revolution frequency, w Angular velocity a. Angular acceleration
Speed Q, V, qv Volumetric flow rate
Electricity
Q Electric charge, Quantity L Inductance X Reactance
of electricity R Resistance Z Impedance
E Electromotive force
C Capacitance r Specific resistance j Phase difference
I Electric current g, k Electrical conductivity N Number of turns
Heat
T, Q Thermodynamic .
Q Heat, Quantity of heat G, Q Heat flow
temperature
l Thermal conductivity a Thermal diffusivity
DT, Dt, Dh Temperature difference
a Heat transition coefficient c Specific heat capacity
t, h Celsius temperature
k Heat transmission Hnet Net calorific value
a—, a Coefficient of linear
coefficient
expansion
Light, Electromagnetic radiation
Ev Illuminance f Focal length Ie Luminous intensity
n Refractive index Qe, W Radiant energy
Acoustics
p Acoustic pressure LP Acoustic pressure level N Loudness
c Acoustic velocity I Sound intensity LN Loudness level

Mathematical symbols cf. DIN 1302 (1999-12)

Math. Math. Math.
symbo Spoken symbo Spoken symbo Spoken
l l l
fi approximately the same , proportional log logarithm (general)
‡ corresponds to ax a high x, xth of power of lg common logarithm
… and so forth 03 a square root of ln natural logarithm
6 infinity n
03 nth root of e Euler number (e = 2.718281…)
= equal to æxæ amount of x sin sine
Ï not equal to o vertical to cos cosine
d ef is the same by definition ø is parallel to tan tangent
= <= less than ΩΩ parallel in same direction cot cotangent
‰ less than or equal Ωº parallel in opposite direction (), [], { } parentheses, brackets
> to greater than @ angle open and closed
› greater than or equal to ™ triangle p pi (circle constant =
+ plus 9 congruent to 3.14159 …)
– minus Dx delta x (difference between AB line segment AB
· times, multiplied by two values) A£B arc AB
%
 14 1.2 Formulas

Formulas, equations, graphs

Formulas
TM In most cases, the calculation of physical quantities is done with the help of formulas. They consist of:
• Formula symbols, e. g. vc for cutting velocity, d for diameter, n for speed
• Operators (calculation rules), e. g. · for multiplication, + for addition,
– for subtraction and –– (fraction line) for division Formula for cutting velocity
• Constants, e. g. p (pi) = 3.14159 …
• Numbers, e. g. 10, 15 … vc = p · d · n
The formula symbols (page 13) are wildcards for quantities. When solving
mathematical problems, the known quantities with their units are filled in the formulas.
Before or during the calculation process, the units are converted in a way that
• the calculation becomes feasible or
• the result comprises the required unit.
Most quantities and units are standardised (page 10).
The result is always a numerical value accompanied by a unit, e. g. 4.5 m, 15 s

Example:

What is the cutting velocity vc in m/min for d = 200 mm and n = 630/min?

vc = p · d · n = p · 200 mm · 630 1 = p · 200 mm · 1m · 630 1 = 395.84 m
min 1000 mmmin min Numerical value
equation for torque
Numerical value equations
Numerical value equations or numerical equations are formulas in which the typical
conversions of units have already been integrated. The following should be noted
when using equations:
The numerical values of the individual quantities may only be used in combination Designated unit
with the designated unit. T = 9550 · P
Designation Unit
• The units are not carried along in the calculation. n
T Torque N·m
• The unit of the quantity to be obtained is predetermined.
P Power kW
Example:
n Speed 1/min

What is the torque T of an electrical motor with a driving power of

P = 15 kW and a speed of n = 750/min?
T = 9550 · P = 9550 · 15 N · m = 191 N · m Assigned function
n 750
Equations and graphs y = f(x)
In functional equations, y is the function of x, with x as an independent and y as a
dependent variable. The number pairs (x, y ) of a value table form a graph in the x-
y system of coordinates.

1st example:
3 example: y = 0.5 x + 1
y = 0.5 x + 1 Linear function
2 x –2 0 2 3
1
m = 0.5 y 0 1 2 2.5 y=m·x+
y

b=1 2nd example:

Cost function and revenue
–2 –1 12 3 function
–1 x Examples:
Ct= 60 €/piece · Q + 200 000 €
R = 110 €/piece · Q Cost
800 000 function
€ break-even pointrevenue
(BEP) Q 0 4 000 6 000
600 000 Ct 200 000 440 000 560 000 Ct = CV · Q +
400 000 total costs R 0 440 000 660 000
200 000 variable costs fixed costs
Ct total costs ∫ dependent Revenue function
00 4000 pieces 6000
variable Q quantity ∫
costs or

independent variable Cf fixed

costs ∫ y coordinate section Cv R = R/piece ·
2000
variable costs ∫ gradient of the
quantity
function
R revenue ∫ dependent variable
 1.2 Formulas 15

Transformation of formulas
Transformation of formulas
TM
Formulas and numerical equations are transformed so that the quantity to be obtained Formula
stands alone on the left side of the equation. The value of the left side and right side of
the formula must not change during the transformation. The following rule applies to all F·s
steps of the formula transformation: P=
t side
left side right
Changes applied to the Changes applied to the of the = of the
left formula side = right formula side
formula formula

To be able to trace each step of the transformation, it is useful to mark it to the right
next to the formula:
æ· t ∫ both sides of the formula are multiplied by t.
æ: F ∫ both sides of the formula are divided by F.

Transformations of sums

Example: Formula L = Œ1 + Œ2, transformation to find Œ2

1 L = Œ1 + Œ 2 æ– Œ1 subtract Œ1 3 L – Œ1 = Œ2 invert both sides

2 L – Œ 1 = Œ1 + Œ 2 – Œ 1 perform 4 Œ2 = L – Œ1 transformed
subtraction formula

Transformations of products
Example: Formula A = Œ · b, transformation to find Œ

A
1 A =Œ·b æ: b divide by b 3 =Œ invert both sides
b
A
2 Ab =b Πb
· cancel b 4 Œ= transformed
b formula

Transformations of fractions
Œ
Example: Formula n = , transformation to find s
Œ1 + s
Πmultiply subtract
1 n= æ· (Œ + s) 4 n · Œ1 – n · Œ1 + n · s = Œ – n · æ: n
Œ1 + s 1 with (Œ1 + divide by n
s) Œ1
Œ · (Œ1 + s) reduce right-side of
2 n · (Œ + s) = formula 5 s · n = Œ – n · Œ1 cancel n
1
(Œ1 + s) n n
solve the term
in brackets

3 n · Œ1 + n · s = Œ æ– n · Œ1 subtract – n · Œ1 6 s = Œ–n
n · Œ1 transformed
formula

Transformations of roots
Example: Formula c = 1a2222+2b222, transformation to find a

square the
1 c = 1a222+22b22 æ( )2 formula
4 a2 = c2 – b2 æ12 square equation

2 c2 = a2 + b2 simplify the
æ– b2 subtract b2 5 1a222= 1c222–2b2222 expression

subtract,
3 c2 – b2 = a2 + b2 – b2 6 a = 1c222–2b2222 transformed
invert both sides formula
 16 1.2 Formulas

Quantities and units

Numerical values and units
TM
Physical quantities, e. g. 125 mm, consist of a
Physical quantity
• Numerical value, which is determined by measurement or calculation, and a
• Unit, e. g. m, kg
10 mm Units are standardised in accordance with DIN 1301-1 (page 10).
Numerical Unit value Very large or very small numerical values can be represented in a simplified way
as decimal multiples or factors with the help of prefixes, e. g. 0.004 mm = 4 µm.

Decimal multiples or factors of units cf. DIN 1301-2 (1978-02)

Prefix Power Mathematical
Examples
Symbol Name of ten designation
T tera 10 12 trillion 12 000 000 000 000 N = 12 · 1012 N = 12 TN (teranewtons)
G giga 109 billion 45 000 000 000 W = 45 · 109 W = 45 GW (gigawatts)
M mega 106 million 8 500 000 V = 8.5 · 106 V = 8.5 MV (megavolts)
k kilo 103 thousand 12 600 W = 12.6 · 103 W = 12.6 kW (kilowatts)
h hecto 102 hundred 500 — = 5 · 102 — = 5 h— (hectolitres)
da deca 101 ten 32 m = 3.2 ·101 m = 3.2 dam (decametres)
– – 100 one 1.5 m = 1.5 · 100 m
d deci 10-1 tenth 0.5 — = 5 · 10–1 — = 5 d— (decilitres)
c centi 10-2 hundredth 0.25 m = 25 · 10–2 m = 25 cm (centimetres)
m milli 10-3 thousandth 0.375 A = 375 · 10–3 A = 375 mA (milliamperes)
µ micro 10 -6 millionth 0.000 052 m = 52 · 10–6 m = 52 µm (micrometres)
n nano 10-9 billionth 0.000 000 075 m = 75 · 10–9 m = 75 nm (nanometres)
p pico 10 -12 trillionth 0.000 000 000 006 F = 6 · 10–12 F = 6 pF (picofarads)

Conversion of units
Calculations with physical units are only possible if these units refer to the same base in this calculation. When
solving mathematical problems, units often must be converted to basic units, e.g. mm in m, h in s, mm2 in m2.
This is done with the help of conversion factors that represent the value 1 (coherent units).

Conversion factors for units (excerpt)

Quantity Conversion factors, e. g. Quantity Conversion factors, e. g.

Length 1 = 10 mm 1000 mm =
1 cm = 1 m
1m 1 km
1000 mm =1000 m Time 1 = 60min
min = 3600 s = 60 s = 1
1h 1h 1 min 60 s

1 = 100 mm = 100 cm = 1 cm 2 = 1 dm2 1 = 60’ = 60’’ = 3600’’ = 1°

2 2 2 2
Areas 1 cm2 1 dm2 100 mm 100 cm Angle 1° 1’ 1° 60 s

1
1 = 1000 mm = 1000 cm = 1 cm 3 = 1 dm 3
3 3 3 3
Volume Inch 1 inch = 25.4 mm; 1 mm = inch
1 cm3 1 dm3 1000 mm 1000 cm 25.4

1st example:
Convert volume V = 3416 mm3 to cm3.
Volume V is multiplied by a conversion factor. Its numerator has the unit cm3 and its denominator the unit mm3.
3 3 3416 cm3
V = 3416 mm3 = 1 cm · 3416 mm = = 3.416 cm3
1000 mm3 1000

2nd example:
The angle size specification a = 42° 16’ is to be expressed in degrees (°).
The partial angle 16’ must be converted to degrees (°). The value is multiplied by a conversion factor, the
numerator of which has the unit degree (°) and the denominator the unit minute (’).
1° 16 · 1°
(X = 42° + 16’ · = 42° + = 42° + 0.267° = 42.267°
60’ 60
 1.2 Formulas 17

Calculation with quantities, percentage and interest

calculation
Calculation with quantities
Physical quantities are mathematically treated as products. Rules for raising
• Adding and subtracting
to powers TM
a base
Numerical values that have the same unit are added or subtracted and the unit is
carried over to the result. m, n … exponents

Example:
Multiplying
L = Π+ ΠРΠwhere Π= 124 mm, Π= 18 mm, Π= 44 mm; L = ?
1 2 3 1 2 3 powers
L = 124 mm + 18 mm – 44 mm = (124 + 18 – 44) mm = 98 mm
a2 · a3 = a2+3
• Multiplying and dividing am · an = am+n

The numerical values and the units correspond to the factors of

products. Dividing
Example: powers

F1 · Œ1 = F2 · Œ2 where F1 = 180 N, Œ1 = 75 mm, Œ2 = 105 mm; F2 = ? a23

180 N · 75 mm N · mm
a = a2–3
F ·Œ
F2 = 1 1 = = 128.57 = 128.57 N
105 mm mm am
Œ2
= am–n
an
• Multiplying and dividing powers
Powers that have the same base are multiplied or divided by Special cases
adding or subtracting their exponents.
a –2 = 12
Example: a
A · a2 1
W= with A = 15 cm2, a = 7.5 cm, e = 2.4 cm; W = ? a–m =
e am
15 cm2 · (7.5 cm)2 15 · 56.25 cm2+2
W= 2.4 cm = = 351.56 cm4–1 = 351.56 cm3 a1 = a a0 = 1
2.4 cm1

Percentage calculation
The percentage rate indicates the part of the base value in hundredths. Percent value
The base value is the value from which the percentage is to be calculated.
Bv · P r
The percent value is the amount representing the percentage of the base value. Pv =
Pr percentage rate, in percent Pv percent value Bv base value
100%
Example:
Weight of raw part: 250 kg (base value); material loss of 2 % (percentage
rate); material loss in kg = ? (percent value)
Bv · Pr 250 kg · 2%
Pv = 100% = 100% = 5 kg

Interest calculation
P principle I interest t period in days, Interest
A amount accumulated r interest rate per year interest period
I= P·r·t
1st example: 100% · 360
%
P = 2800.00 €; r = 6 ; t = ½ a; I = ?
a
% 1 interest year (1 a) = 360 days (360 d)
€ · 6 a · 0.5 a = 84.00 €
I = 2800.00100% 360 d = 12 months
1 interest month = 30 days
2nd example:
%
P = 4800.00 €; r = 5.1 ; t = 50 d; I = ?
a
%
4800.00 € · 5.1 a · 50 d
I= d = 34.00 €
100% · 360
a
 18 1.3 Angles and triangles

Types of angles, theorem of intersecting lines, angles in a triangle, pythagorean

theorem
Types of angles
TM g straight line Corresponding angles
g1, g2 parallel straight lines
a, b corresponding angles a=
g2 b, d opposite angles Opposite angles

a, d alternate angles b=
a, g adjacent angles Alternate angles

g1 If two parallels are intersected by a straight line, a=

there are geometrical interrelationships between the
Adjacent angles
resulting
g angles.
a + g = 180°

Theorem of intersecting lines

tto outer torsional Theorem of
stress If two intersecting lines are intercepted by a pair of
intersecting lines
parallels, the resulting segments form equal ratios.
tti inner torsional stress
d
a2 a1  b 1  2
a a2 b2D
†to 2
†ti
a1 = a2
xam b1 b2
D
d

b1 b2
=
d D

Sum of angles in a triangle

a, b, c sides of the triangle
a, b, g angles in the triangle Sum of
angles in a
triangle
©
b a
Exampl a+b+g=
e: In every triangle, the
c a = 21°, b = 95°, g = ? sum of the interior
-y = 180° – a – b = 180° – 21° – 95° = 64° angles equals 180°.

Pythagorean
theorem
In a right triangle the square on the hypotenuse is Length of the
equal to the sum of the squares on the sides meeting hypotenuse
the right angle.
a2 a side c2 = a 2 + b 2
b 2
b side
bc a
c hypotenuse
1st example:
Square on the hypotenuse
c2 c  35 mm; a = 21 mm; b = ?
b = c2 – a2  (35 mm)2 – (21 mm)2  28 mm
c = a2 + b2
2nd example:

P2 CNC program where R = 50 mm and I = 25 mm. Length of the sides

K=?
c2  a2  b2 a  c 2 – b2
 P1 X
K I Z
1.2 Formulas 19
b  c2 – a2

D = 40 mm, d = 30 mm,
tto = 135 N/mm2; tti = ?
E tti = d π tti = tto · d
tto D D
= 135 N/mm2 · 30 mm = 101.25 N/mm2
40 mm
 1.3 Angles and triangles 19
Functions of triangles
Functions of right triangles (trigonometric
functions)
Trigonometric functions TM
c hypotenuse (longest side)
c hypotenuse a a, b sides:
opposite – b is the adjacent side of a sine =
opposite
å side of side
– a is the opposite side of a hypotenuse
å
b adjacent side of å a, b, g angles in the triangle, g = adjacent
90° sin notation of sine cosine = side
hypotenuse
c hypotenuse ¿ a cos notation of cosine
adjacent tan notation of tangent opposite
= side
side of tangent sina sine of adjacent side
¿
angle a cotangent adjacent
= side
b opposite side of ¿
1st
Relations applying to angle a:
L3 = 140 mm example
a b a
sin a = cos a = tan a =
c c b

Relations applying to angle b:

sin b = cos b = tan b =
L1 = 150

b a b
c c a

2nd example
The calculation of an angle in
ß degrees (°) or as a circular
L2= 30

mea- sure (rad) is done with

F the help of inverse
trigonometric func- tions, e. g.
arc sine.

Functions of oblique triangles (law of sines, law of cosines)

According to the law of sines, the ratios of
© the sides correspond to the sine of their Law of sines
b a opposite angles in the triangle. If one side a : b : c = sin a : sin b : sin g
and two angles are known, the other val-
ues can be calculated with the help of a b c
= =
c this function. sin a sin b sin g
Side a ∫ opposite angle
a Side b ∫ opposite
There are many transformation
angle b Side c ∫ options:
opposite angle g
Example

Fd
Fz

F
 b · sin a c · sin
a = a sin b = sin g

a · sin b c · sin
b = b sin a = sin g

a · sin g b · sin
c = g sin a = sin b

Law of cosines
Diagram of forces
a = b2 + c2 – 2 · b · c · cos
2

F a b2 = a2 + c2 – 2 · a · c ·
cos b c2 = a2 + b2 – 2 · a ·
b · cos g

Transformation, e. g.
The calculation of an angle in degrees (°)
cos a = b + c – a
2 2 2
or as a circular measure (rad) is done with
Fd the help of inverse trigonometric 2· b · c
functions,
Fz e.g. arc cos.

L1 = 150 mm, L2 = 30 mm, L3 = 140 mm;

angle a = ?

tan a = L1 + L2 = 180 mm = 1.286

L3140 mm
Angle O'. = 52°

L1 = 150 mm, L2 = 30 mm, a = 52°;

Length of the shock absorber L = ?
L = L1 + L2 = 180 mm = 228.42 mm
sin asin 52°

F = 800 N, a = 40°, b = 38°; Fz = ?, Fd = ?

The forces are calculated with the help of the forces diagram.

F = Fz π Fz = F · sin b
sin a sin b sin a
F = 800 N · sin 38° = 766.24 N
z
sin 40 °

F F F · sin j sin a
=π Fd = d
sin a sin j

Fd = 800 N · sin 102° = 1217.38 N

sin 40°
 20 1.4 Lengths

Division of lengths, arc length, composite length

Sub-dividing length
TM Edge distance = Πtotal length n number of holes Pitch
spacing p division p= Œ
p p p p n+1
Example:
Π= 2 m; n = 24 holes; p = ?
Π= 2000 mm = 80 mm
p=
n + 124 + 1
l

Πtotal length n number of holes Pitch

Edge distance Íspacing p spacing a, b edge distances
p = ΠР(a + b)
p p p p n–1
Example:
Π= 1950 mm; a = 100 mm; b = 50 mm;
a n = 25 holes; p = ?
l b
p = ΠР(a + b) = 1950 mm Р150 mm = 75 mm
n–1 25 – 1

Subdividing into
pieces Πbar length s saw cutting width Number of pieces
z number of pieces Œr remaining length z= Œ
l Œs piece length Œs + s
lr
Example:
Œ = 6 m; Œs = 230 mm; s = 1.2 mm; z = ?; Œr = ?
z = Π= 6000 mm = 25.95 = 25 pieces Remaining length
Œs + s 230 mm + 1.2 mm
ls s s œr = Œ – z · (Œs + s) = 6000 mm – 25 · (230 mm + 1.2 mm)
= 220 mm Œr = Œ – z · (Œs +

Arc length
Example: Torsion spring Œa arc length a angle at centre
r radius d diameter Arc length

Œa = p · r · a
Example: 180°
r = 36 mm; a = 120°; Œa = ? Œa = p · d · a
œa = p · r · a = p · 36 mm · 120° = 75.36 mm 360°
180° 180°

Composite
length
D outside diameter d inside diameter
dm mean diameter t thickness
Œ1, Œ2 section lengths L composite
l2 a angle at centre length

Example (composite length, picture left): Compos

D = 360 mm; t = 5 mm; a = 270°; Œ2 = 70 mm; ite
dm = ?; L = ? length
D

dm = D – t = 360 mm – 5 mm = 355 mm
m
d

L = Œ1 + Œ2 + …
pm·d ·a
L =Œ1 +2 Œ = +Œ2
360°
l1 = p · 355 mm · 270° + 70 mm = 906.45 mm
360°