Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook PDF

EUROPA-TECHNICAL BOOK SERIES
for the Metalworking Trades
Ulrich Fischer
Roland Gomeringer
Max Heinzler
Roland Kilgus
Friedrich Naher
Stefan Oesterle
Heinz Paetzold
Andreas Stephan
Mechanical and
Metal Trades
Handbook
2nd English edition
Europa-No.: 1910X
VERLAG EUROPA LEHRMITTEL Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG

Dusselberger StraBe 23 42781 Haan-Gruiten Germany
Original title:
Tabellenbuch Metal!, 44th edition, 2008
Authors:
Ulrich Fischer
Roland Gomeringer
Max Heinzler
Roland Kilgus
Friedrich Naher
Stefan Oesterle
Heinz Paetzold
Andreas Stephan
Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Dipi.-Gwl.
Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Dipi.-Gwl.
Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Dipl.-lng.
Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Reutlingen
Me13stetten
Wangen im Allgau
Neckartenzlingen
Balingen
Amtzell
Muhlacker
Kressbronn
Editor:
Ulrich Fischer, Reutlingen
Graphic design:
Design office of Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Germany
The publisher and its affiliates have taken care to colleclthe information given in this book to the best o f their ability.
However, no responsibility is acoepted by the publisher or any of its affiliates regarding its content or any sta tement
herein or omission there from which may result in any toss or damage to any party using the data shown above.
Warranty claims against the authors or the publisher are exduded.
Most recent editions of standards and other regulations govern their use.
They can be ordered from Beuth Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstr. 6, 10787 Berlin, Germany.
The content of the chapter "Program st.ructure of CNC machines according to PAL' (page 386 to 400) complies with
the publications of the PAL PrOiungs- und Lehrmittelentwicklungsstelle (Institute for the development of training and
testing material) of the IHK Region Stuttgart (Chamber of COmmerce and Industry of the Stuttgart region).
English edition: Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook

2nd edition. 2010
654321
All printings of this edition may be used concurrently in the classroom since they are unchanged, except for some
corrections to typographical errors and slight changes in standards.
ISBN 13 978-3-8085-19 13-4

Cover design includes a photograph from TESA/Brown & Sharpe, Renens, Switzerland
All rights reserved. This publication is protected under copyright taw. Any use other than those permitted by law
must be approved in writing by the publisher.
2010 by Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Noumey, Vollmer GmbH & CO. KG, 42781 Haan-Gruiten, Germany
http:Jiwww.europa-lehrmittel.de
Translation: Techni-Translate, 72667 Schlaitdorf, Germany; www.techni-translate.com
Eva Schwarz, 76879 Ottersheim, Germany; www.technische-uebersetzungen-eva-schwarz.de
Typesetting:YellowHand GbR, 73257 K6ngen, Germany; www.yellowhand.de
Printed by: Media Print lnforrnationstechnologie, D-33100, Paderbom, Germany
Preface
1 M athematics
The Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook is well-suited

for shop reference, tooling, machine building, maintenance
and as a general book of knowledge. It is also useful for educational purposes, especially in practical work or curricula
and continuing education programs.
9-32
12 Phys;.s
Target Groups
Industrial and trade mechanics
Tool & Die makers
Machinists
Millwrights
Draftspersons
Technical Instructors
Apprentices in above trade areas
Practitioners in trades and industry
Mechanical Engineering students
p
33- 56
3 Technical
drawing
TO
57-114
Notes for the user

The contents of this book include tables and formulae in
eight chapters, including Tables of Contents, Subject Index
and Standards Index.
The tables contain the most important guidelines, designs,
types, dimensions and standard values for their subject
areas.
Units are not specified in the legends for the formulae if several units are possible. However, the calculation examples
for each formula use those units normally applied in practice.
Designation examples, which are included fo r all standard
parts. materials and drawing designations, are highlighted
by a red arrow(= ).
The Table of Contents in the front of the book is expanded
further at the beginning of each chapter in form of a partial
Table of Contents.
The Subject Index at the end of the book (pages 417- 428) is
extensive.
The Standards Index (pages 407-416) lists all the current
standards and regulations cited in the book. In many cases
previous standards are also listed to ease the transition from
older, more familiar standards to new ones.
We have thoroughly revised the 2nd edition of the "Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook" in line with the 44th edition
of the German version "Tabellenbuch Metal!". The section
dealing with PAL programming of CNC machine tools was
updated (to the state of 2008) and considerably enhanced.
4 Material science
MS
115- 200
5 Machine
elements
ME
201-272
6 Production
Engineering
PE
273-344
7 Automation and
Information Technology
345- 406
8 International material
comparison chart,
Standards 407-416
Special thanks to the Magna Technical Training Centre for

their input into the English translation of this book. Their
assistance has been extremely valuable.
The authors and the publisher will be grateful for any suggestions and constructive comments.
Spring 2010
Authors and publisher
Table of Contents
1 Mathematics
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Numerical tables
Square root, Area of a circle ........ 10
Sine, Cosine ...................... 11
Tangent, Cotangent ............... 12
Trigonometric Functions
Definitions .................... 13
Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent .... 13
Laws of sines and cosines ........... 14
Angles, Theorem of intersecting
lines .............. ... ........ 14
Fundamentals of Mathematics
Using brackets, powers, roots ...... 15
Equations .. ........ .............. 16
Powers of ten. Interest calculation .. 17
Percentage and proportion
calculations ...... .. . ... .......... 18
Symbols, Units
Formula symbols, Mathematical
symbols . . ...... .. ................ 19
Sl quantities and units of
measurement .................. 20
Non-SI units ................. 22
1.5
1.6
1.7
Volume and Surfac. area

Cube, Cylinder, Pyramid .......... 29
Truncated pyramid, Cone.
Truncated cone, Sphere ............. 30
Composite solids ................ 31
1.8
Mass
General calculations .............. 31
Linear mass density ............. . 31
Area mass density ..... . .. .. .. .. . .. 31
Centroids
Centroids of lines ........... .. .... 32
Centroids of plane areas ...... ...... 32
1.9
2 Physics
2.1
Motion
Uniform and accelerated motion ..... 34
Speeds of machines ............... 35
2.2
Forces
Adding and resolving force vectors ... 36
Weight. Spring force .. ............. 36
Lever principle, Bearing forces ....... 37
Torques, Centrifugal force ........... 37
Work, Power, Efficiency
Mechanical work . _........ .. .. .. . . 38
Simple machines .... ......... 39
Power and Efficiency . . ___ . __ ... _... 40
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Fr iction
Friction force .... . __ .. _... _....... _41
Coefficients offriction . _........... 41
Friction in bearings .. ............. 41
Pressure in liquids and gases
Pressure, definition and types ....... 42
Buoyancy ... _. . ... ... . .. _........ . 42
Pressure changes in gases .......... 42
Strength of materials
Load cases. Load types __ . ___ ...... 43
Safety factors, Mechanical
strength properties _____ ............ 44
Tension, Compression,
Surface pressure ..... ............ 45
Shear, Buckling ...... .............. 46
lengths
Calculations in a right triangle ..... .. 23
Sub-dividing lengths, Arc length ..... 24
Flat lengths, Rough lengths ...... . .. 25
Areas
Angular areas ......... ....... 26
Equilateral triangle, Polygons,
Circle .......... .. ................ 27
Circular areas ................. 28
33
2.7
2.8
Bending, Torsion .......... .. ... 47

Shape factors in strength ..... . _... 48
Static moment, Section modulus,
Moment of inertia ........ ...... .. . . 49
Comparison of various
cross-sectional shapes .. ....... . .. 50
Thermodynamics
Temperatures. Linear
expansion, Shrinkage ........... .. 51
Quantity of heat ..... .. ...... .. . . 51
Heat flux, Heat of combustion ....... 52
Electricity
Ohm's Law, Conductor resistance .... 53
Resistor circuits .......... . ... .... _54
Types of current ............. ...... 55
Electrical work and power .. . ...... .. 56
Table of Contents
57
3 Technical drawing
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Basic geometric constructi ons

Lines and angles ................. 58
Tangents. Circular arcs, Polygons .. 59
Inscribed circles. Ellipses, Spirals ..... 60
Cycloids, Involute curves, Parabolas .. 61
Graphs
Cartesian coordinate system ... . . ... 62
Graph types ... . ....... . .. . ...... 63
Drawing elements
Fonts .. ... . . . .................. 64
Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales . . . 65
Drawing layout .... . .. . .... . . 66
Line types ..................... fil
Representation
Projection methods .............. 69
Views . ..... .. .. .. ........ . ..... 71
Sectional views . .. .. . ........ 73
Hatching . .. ... . . .. ... ..... . ...... 75
Entering dimensions
Dimensioning rules ... ........ . .... 76
Diameters, Radii, Spheres, Chamfers,
Inclines, Tapers, Arc dimensions ..... 78
Tolerance specifications .. ..... .. .. 80
Types of dimensioning ....... 81
Simplified presentation in drawings .. 83
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Materials
Mat erial characteristics of solids ... 116
M aterial characteristics of liquids
and gases ... .. . ...... .. . ....... 117
Periodic table of the elements ..... . 118
Designation system for steels
Definition and classification of steel . 120
Material codes, Designation ..... . .. 121
Steel types. Overview .. .. .... 126
Structural steels . ................. 128
Case hardened, quenched and tempered, nitrided, free cutting steels . . 132
Tool steels . . ... . ............... 135
Stainless st eels, Spring steels ..... 136
Finished st.eel products
Sheet, strip, pipes .... .. ... . . ... . .. 139
Profiles ......... .. .. .. ... . . ... . .. 143
Heat treatment
Iron-Carbon phase diagram . .. ..... 153
Processes ... . ........ ........... 154
Cast iron materials
Designation, Material codes .... . ... 158
Classification ... . ....... . ... ...... 159
Cast iron ...... . ... . ... .. ..... 160
Malleable cast iron, Cast steel . . .. 161
Surfaces
Hardness specifiCations in drawings .. 97

Form deviations, Roughness . . ... .. 98
Surface testing, Surface indications .. 99
3.10 ISO Tolerances and Fits
Fundamentals ......... . ... . . .... . 102
Basic hole and basic shaft systems . . 106
General Tolerances, Roller
bearing frts . .. . ... . . .. ... . ... .. . 110
Fit recommendations ... .. . . .. 111
Geometric tolerancing ...... . . .. . 112
GO & T (Geometric
Dimensioning & Tolerancing) ... .... 113
4 Materials science
4.1
Machine elements
Gear types .. ..... .. . 84
Roller bearings ....... . ......... 85
Seals . . ........... .. ...... . ... . . 86
Retaining rings, Springs .. . ...... .. 87
Workpiece elements
Bosses, Workpiece edges . .. . .. ... .. 88
Thread runouts, Thread undercuts ... 89
Threads, Screw joints . .. . . .... .. 90
Center holes, Knurls, Undercuts ... .. . 91
Welding and Soldering
Graphical symbols ......... ... . 93
Dimensioning examples .. . . .. .. ... . 95
115
4. 7
4.8
4.9
Foundry technology
Patterns, Pattern equipment .. .. ... . 162
Shrinkage allowances,
Dimensional tolerances .... .. .. .... 163
Light alloys, Overview of AI alloys .. 164
Wrought aluminum alloys . .. .. .. . . 166
Aluminum casting alloys . . ... . ... . . 168
Aluminum profiles . ... .. ... . ... . . 169
Magnesium and titani um alloys .. . . 172
Heavy non-ferrous metals,
Overview ........... .. .. .. .. . ... . 173
Designation system .. .. ..... . ... . 174
Copper alloys .... . ............... 175
4.10 Other metallic materials

Composite materials,
Ceramic materials ... . ...... ..... 177
Sintered met als . . ... . ....... ..... 178
4.11 Plastics, Overview . . ............ 179
Thermoplastics .... .. .. .. . . .... .. 182
Thermoset plastics, Elastomers . . .. 184
Plastics processing . ...... . .... . . .. 186
4.12 Material testing methods,
Overview .... .. . .. .. ..... .. 188
Tensile testing . . ... . . ........... 190
Hardness test ... . . . . .. . .. . . ... ... 192
4.13 Corrosion, Corrosion protection . . 196
4.14 Hazardous materials . . . . .... ... . 197
Table of Contents
201
5 Machine elements
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Threads (overview) . . . ... 202

Metric ISO threads ............. 204
Whitworth threads, Pipe threads .... 206
Trapezoidal and buttress threads . . .. 207
Thread tolerances .. .. ......... 208
Bolts and screws (overview) . ... . 209
Designations, strength . . ... .. ... 210
Hexagon head bolts & screws .. ... 212
Other bolts & screws .............. 215
Screw joint calculations .. . . ....... 221
Locking fasteners . ................ 222
Widths across flats, Bolt and
screw drive systems . .. ........ 223
Countersinks ... . .... .. . 224
Countersinks for countersunk
head screws . ..... ... . ... . ....... 224
Counterbores for cap screws .... 225
Nuts (overview) . .. . .. . ... . .. . . 226
Designations, Strength .. .. ... 227
Hexagon nuts ... .. . .. .. . ...... 228
Other nuts .. .. . ...... . .. ......... 231
Washers (overview) . ... . ..... 233
Flat washers .. .. .. ..... ....... . 234
HV, Clevis pin, Conical spring washers . 235
Pins and clevis pins (overview) ... 236
Dowel pins, Taper pins, Spring pins . 237
Grooved pins, Grooved drive studs,

Clevis pins ............ . .. . 238
5.7
5.8
5.9
Drive elements
Belts ....................... .. 253
Gears ............... . .... ... .. 256
Transmission ratios ............ . .. 259
Speed graph .............. ....... 260
5.10 Bearings
Plain bearings (overview) ... ...... 261
Plain bearing bushings ... .. . ..... . 262
Antifriction bearings (overview) ..... 263
Types of roller bearings . ... .. . .. ... 265
Retaining rings . . ... . . . ...... ... 269
Sealing elements ......... . ... . .. 270
Lubricating oils ............ .. 271
Lubricating greases ............ . . . 272
273
6 Production Engineering
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Quality management
Standards, Terminology .. ... . ..... 274
Quality planning, Quality testing .... 276
Statistical analysis . . . . ... .. .. .... 277
Statistical process control .......... 279
Process capability .... .... .. ...... . 281
Production planning
'Time accounting according to REFA . 282
Cost accounting .. . . .... . ......... 284
Machine hourly rates ............ 285
Machining processes
Productive time . .. . . .. ... . .... 287
Machining coolants .. . .. ..... .. .. 292
Cutting tool materials, Inserts,
Tool holders . . .. .. ... .. .. .. ...... 294
Forces and power . ...... . .. .... . .. 298
Cutting data: Drilling, Reaming,
Turning ........... . . ... .. .. .. .. . 301
Cutting data: Taper turning .. . ..... . 304
Cutting data: Milling .... . . . . ....... 305
Indexing .. . ............ .......... 307
Cutting data: Grinding and honing . 308
Material removal
Cutting data .... . .. . .. .. .. .... 313
Processes ... .. .. .. . .. ....... . ... 314
Separation by cutting
Cutting forces .. .. ......... .. ... .. 315
Shaft-hub connections
Tapered and feather keys ...... .. 239
Parallel and woodruff keys . .... .. . 240
Splined shafts, Blind rivets ........ 241
Tool tapers . . ... . .. ....... . . .. .. . . 242
Springs, components of jigs
and tools
Springs ............ .. . .. .. . 244
Drill bushings .... . .. .. ... . .. . ... . 247
Standard stamping parts .... .. 251
6.6
6.7
6.8
Shearing ............... . . .. .. ... 316

Location of punch holder shank . . .. . 317
Forming
Bending ... . .. ...... .. .. .... .. . 318
Deep drawing .. . .. ............... 320
Joining
Welding processes . .. . .. .. .. . ..... 322
Weld preparation . .. .. ...... . ..... 323
Gas welding ..... . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 324
Gas shielded metal arc welding .... . 325
Arc welding .. . ............. ...... 327
Thermal cutting ...... . .. ......... 329
Identification of gas cylinders . . . .. .. 331
Soldering and brazing ... . ...... ... 333
Adhesive bonding ..... .. . ........ 336
Workplace safety and environmental
protection
Prohibitive signs .. ... .... .... .. ... 338
Warning signs .. ...... .. . .. . ..... 339
Mandatory signs,
Escape routes and rescue signs ..... 340
Information signs .. .. ...... . ...... 341
Danger symbols ..... . ... .. . ... . .. 342
Identification of pipe lines . ......... 343
Sound and noise ... . ... .......... 344
Table of Contents
7 Automation and lnfonnation Technology

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
Basic terminology for control

engineering
Basic terminology, Code letters,
Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Analog controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Discontinuous and digital controllers .. 349
Binary logic . .......... . .......... 350
Electrical circuits
Circuit symbols ... . ... . .. . ... ..... 351
Designations in circuit diagrams ... 353
Circuit diagrams ....... . ... . ...... 354
Sensors .. . ...... ... . ....... ..... 355
Protective precautions .... . . ..... . . 356
Function charts and function diagrams
Function charts .. . .......... .. . .. 358
Function diagrams . ... . .. ... ... . . . 361
Pneumatics and hydraulics
Circuit symbols ... . ... .. . . .. . ..... 363
Layout of circuit diagrams ... .. . ... 365
Controllers .... .. ...... . .. ... . .... 366
Hydraulic fluids .. . .. ..... ......... 368
Pneumatic cylinders ...... . .. .. . . .. 369
Forces,Speeds, Po~er .. ... . . ... .. 370
Precision steel tube ....... . ....... 372
Programmable logic control
PLC programming languages .. .... . 373
ladder diagram (LO) .... .. .. .. .... 374
Function block language (FBU . ... . . 374
8 Material chart, Standards

8.1
8.2
7.6
7. 7
7.8
345
Structured text (STI . .. ... .... ..... 374

Instruction list ... .. ... . .. . .... ... 375
Simple functions ... ..... .. .. .. . .. 376
Handling and robot systems
Coordinate systems and axes . ...... 378
Robot designs ... . ... .. .... ... .. .. 379
Grippers, job safety ....... . ... .. .. 380
Numerical Control INC) technology
Coordinate systems ... .. .. .. ...... 381
Program structure according to DIN .. 382
Tool offset and Cutter compensation . 383
Machining motions as per DIN . .. .... 384
Machining motions as per PAL
(German association) ......... .. ... 386
PAL programming system for turning . 388
PAL programming system for milling . 392
Information technology
Numbering systems . .. .... . ....... 401
ASCII code . ... . .. .. . ...... . .. . .. . 402
Program flo~ chart, Structograms . . 403
WORD- and EXEL commands . . ... . 405
407
International mat.erial
comparison chart .. . ........... 407
DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards .. 412
Subject index
411
Standards and other Regulations

Standardization and Standards terms
Standardization is the systematic achievement of uniformity of material and non-material objects, such as compo
nents. calculation methods, process flows and services for the benefit of the general public.
Stenderdl t8rm
Exempltl
Explanetlon
Standard
DIN7157
A standard is the published resutt of standardization, e.g. the selection of certain fits
in DIN 7157.
Part
DIN 30910.2
The part of a standard associated with other parts with the same main number. DIN
309102 for example describes sintered materials for filters, while Part 3 and 4
describe sintered materials for bearings and formed parts.
Supplement
DIN743
Suppl. 1
A supplement contains information for a standard, however no additional specifications. The supplement DIN 743 Suppl. 1. for example. contains application
examples of load capacity calculations for shafts and axles described In DIN 743.
Draft
E DIN 6316
(2007-02)
A draft standard contains the preliminary finished results of a standardization;

this version of the intended standard is made available to the public for com
ments. For example. the planned new version of DIN 6316 for goose-neck
clamps has been available to the public since February 2007 as Draft E
DIN 6316.
Preliminary
standard
DINV66304
(1991-12)
A preliminary standard contains the results of standardization which are not released
by DIN as a standard, because of certain provisos. DIN V 66304, for example, discusses a format for exchange of standard part data for compllter-aided design.
Issue date
DIN 7&-1
(2004-06)
Date of publication which is made public in the DIN publication guide; this is the
date at which time the standard becomes valid. DIN 761, which sets undercuts
for metric ISO threads has been valid since June 2004 for example.
Types of Standards and Regulations lselec:tionl

Type
Abbreviation
Explanation
Purpow end contents
International
Standards
(ISO standards)
ISO
International Organization for

Standardization, Geneva (0 and S
are reversed in the abbreviation)
Simplifies the international exchange of

goods and services. as well as cooperation
in scientific, technical and economic areas.
European
Standards
(EN standards)
EN
European Committee for Standard!zation (Comitll Europllen de

Normalisation), Brussels
DIN
DIN EN
German
Standards
(DIN standards)
DIN ISO
DIN EN ISO
DINVDE
Technical harmonization and the associated

reduction of trade barriers for the advance
ment of the European market and the coalescence of Eurooe.
Deutsehes lnstitut fUr Normung e.V., National standardization facilitates rationalBerlin (German Institute for
ization, quality assurance, environmental
Standardization)
protection and common understanding in
European standard for which the
economics, technology. science. manageGerman version has attained the sta- ment and public relations.
tus of a German standard.
German standard for which an international standard has been adopted

withollt change.
European standard for which an
international standard has been
adopted unchanged and the German
version has the status of a German
standard.
Printed publication of the VDE, which
has the status of a German standard.
Verein Deutscher lngenieure e.V.,
Dusseldorf (Society of German
Engineers)
Verband Delltseher Elektrotechniker
e.V., Frankfurt (Organization of Ger
man Electrical Engineers)
These guidelines give an account of the cur

rent state of the art in specific subject areas
and contain, for example, concrete procedu
ralguidelines for the performing calculations
or designing processes in mechanical or
electrical engineering.
VDI Guidelines
VDI
VDE printed
publications
VDE
DGO publications
DGQ
DeutSChe Gesellschaft fUr Oualitat e.V., Recommendations in the area of quality

technology.
Frankfurt (German Association for
Quality)
REFA sheets
REFA
Association for Work DesignNI/ork

Structure, Industrial Organization and
Corporate Development REFA e.V..
Darmstadt
Recommendations in the area of production and work planning.
Table o f Conten ts
1 Mathematics
(d"
d
1
2
3
1.0000
1.4142
1.7321
sine
cosine
tangent
cotangent
1.1 Numerical tables
A"tfl.
4
10
Square root, Area of a circle
11
Sine, Cosine
Tangent, Cotangent ..... .................... 12
0
0.7854
3.1416
7.0686
00
1.2 Trigonometric Functions
opposite aide
hypot~
Definitions .......... . . .................. . ..

Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent .... ..........
Laws of sines and cosines .... .. ...... ... ... . .
Angles, Theorem of intersecting lines . ..... .. ..
!!!-aide
hypotenuse
~ealde
c:li-alde
13
13
14
14
- ~iii'
aide
iidii
1.3 Fundamentals of Mathematics
Using brackets, powers, roots ..... .. ... .... ..

Equations ...................... .... .... ....
Powers of ten, Interest calculation ...... .......
Percentage and proportion calculations .. ......
1 -3 + -5 = -1 (3 +5)
X
1.4 Symbols, Units
1 kW h =3.6 106 W s
Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols

Sl quantities and units of measurement
Non-SI units
1.5
1.6
1.7
....~
+ - --
:::
~
19
20
22
Mass
General calculations ......... . .. ... ..... ..... 31
Linear mass density ....... . .... ... .......... 31
A rea mass density .. .... .................... 31
1.9 Centroids
~ ~~~
I ~"-V
i x,
1.8
Volume and Surface area

Cube. Cylinder. Pyramid ... ....... ......... .. 29
Truncated pyramid, Cone, Truncated cone, Sphere 30
31
Composite solids
1"'-.
Areas
Angular areas
26
Equilateral triangle, Polygons, Circle ..... .... .. 27
Circular areas
28
.
~
r!
Lengths
Calculations in a right triangle
23
Sub-dividing lengths, Arc length .............. 24
Flat lengths, Rough lengths ......... ... .... ... 25
10 -
I \
~
m
......
15
16
17
18
Centroids of lines .. ...... .. ... ..... ... ...... 32

Centroids of plane areas ..... ... .... ... . 32
10
Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables
Square root, Area of a circle

7<-d~
A 4-
1.0000
1.4142
1.732 1
2.0000
2.2361
0.7854
3.1416
7.0686
12.5664
19.6350
51
52
53
54
55
7.1414
7.2111
7.2801
7.3485
7.4162
2042.82
2123.72
2206.18
2290.22
2375.83
101
102
103
104
105
10.0499
10.0995
10.1489
10.1980
10.2470
6
7
8
9
10
2.4495
2.6458
2.8284
3.0000
3.1623
28.2743
38.4845
50.2655
63.6173
78.5398
56
57
58
59
60
7.4833
7.5498
7.6158
7.6811
7.7460
2463.01
2551 .76
2642.08
2733.97
2827.43
106
107
108
109
110
11
12
13
14
15
3.3166
3.4641
3.6056
3.7417
3.8730
95.0332
113.097
132.732
153.938
176.715
61
62
63
64
65
7.8102
7.8740
7.9373
8.0000
8 .0623
2922.47
3019.07
3117.25
3216.99
3318.31
16
17
18
19
20
4.0000
4.1231
4.2426
4.3589
4.4721
201.062
226.980
254.469
283.529
314.159
66
67
68
69
70
8.1240
8.1854
8.2462
8.3066
8 .3666
21
22
23
24
25
4.5826
4.6904
4.7958
4.8990
5.0000
346.361
380.133
415.476
452.389
490.874
71
72
73
74
75
26
27
28
29
30
5.0990
5.1962
5.2915
5.3852
5.4772
530.929
572.555
6 15.752
660.520
706.858
31
32
33
34
35
5.567 8
5.6569
5.7446
5.8310
5.9161
754.768
804.248
855.299
907.920
962.113
36
37
38
39
40
6.0000
6.0828
6.1644
6.2450
6.3246
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
1
2
3
4
8011.85
8171 .28
8332.29
8494.87
8659.01
151
152
153
154
155
12.2882
12.3288
12.3693
12.4097
12.4499
17907.9
18145.8
18385.4
18626.5
18869.2
10.2956
10.3441
10.3923
10.4403
10.4881
8824.73
8992.02
9160.88
9331 .32
9503.32
156
157
158
159
160
12.4900
12.5300
12.5698
12.6095
12.6491
19 113.4
19359.3
19606.7
19855.7
20106.2
11 1
112
113
114
115
10.5357
10.5830
10.6301
10.6771
10.7238
9676.89
9852.03
10028.7
10207.0
10386.9
161
162
163
164
165
12.6886
12.7279
12.7671
12.8062
12.8452
20358.3
20612.0
20867.2
21124.1
21382.5
3421.19
3525.65
3631.68
3739.28
3848.45
116
117
118
119
120
10.7703
10.8 167
10.8628
10.9087
10.9545
10568.3
10751.3
10935.9
11122.0
11309.7
166
167
168
169
170
12.884 1
12.9228
12.9615
13.0000
13.0384
21642.4
21904.0
22167.1
22431.8
22698.0
8.4261
8.4853
8.5440
8.6023
8.6603
3959.19
4071.50
4185.39
4300.84
4417.86
121
122
123
124
125
11.0000
11.0454
11.0905
11.1355
11.1803
11499.0
11689.9
11882.3
12076.3
12271.8
171
172
173
174
175
13. 0767
13.1149
13.1529
13.1909
13.2288
22965.8
23235.2
23506.2
23778.7
24052.8
76
77
78
79
80
8.7178
8.7750
8.8318
8.8882
8.9443
4536.46
4656.63
4778.36
4901.67
5026.55
126
127
128
129
130
11.2250
11.2694
11.3137
11.3578
11.4018
12469.0
12667.7
12868.0
13069.8
13273.2
176
177
178
179
180
13.2665
13.304 1
13.3417
13.379 1
13.4164
24328.5
24605.7
24884.6
25164.9
25446.9
81
82
83
84
85
9.0000
9.0554
9.1104
9.1652
9.2195
5153.00
5281.02
5410.61
5541.77
5674.50
131
132
133
134
11.4455
11.4891
11.5326
, .5758
11.6190
13478.2
13684.8
13892.9
14102.6
14313.9
181
182
183
184
185
13.4536
13.4907
13.5277
13.5647
13.6015
25730.4
26015.5
26302.2
26590.4
26880.3
1017.88
1075.21
1134.11
1194.59
1256.64
86
87
88
89
90
9.2736
9.3274
9.3808
9.4340
9.4868
5808.80
5944.68
6082.12
6221.14
6361.73
140
11.6619
11.7047
11.7473
11.7898
11.8322
14526.7
14741.1
14957.1
15174.7
15393.8
186
187
188
189
190
13.6382
13.6748
13.7113
13.7477
13.7840
27171.6
27464.6
27759.1
28055.2
28352.9
6.4031
6.4807
6.557 4
6.6332
6.7082
1320.25
1385.44
1452.20
1520.53
1590.43
91
92
93
94
95
9.5394
9.5917
9.6437
9.6954
9.7468
6503.88
6647.61
6792.91
6939.78
7088.22
141
142
143
144
145
11.8743
11.9164
11.9583
12.0000
12.0416
15614.5
15836.8
16060.6
16286.0
16513.0
19 1
192
193
194
195
13.8203
13.8564
13.8924
13.9284
13.9642
28652.1
28952.9
29255.3
29559.2
29864.8
6.7823
6.855 7
6.928 2
7.0000
7.071 1
1661.90
1734.94
1809.56
1885.74
1963.50
96
97
98
99
100
9.7980
9.8489
9.8995
9.9499
10.0000
7238.23
7389.81
7542.96
7697.69
7853.98
146
147
148
149
150
12.0830
12.1244
12.1655
12.2066
12.2474
16741.5
16971.7
17203.4
17436.6
17671.5
196
197
198
199
200
14.0000
14.0357
14.0712
14.1067
14.1421
30171.9
30480.5
30790.7
31102.6
31415.9
135
136
137
138
139
11

~~-llll ;;r. l
sine o to 45
1:-ees
t
.."'
,.
'1 5'
45'
30'
60'
0.0000
0.0175
2" 0.0349
3" 0.0523
4" 0.0698
0.0044
0.0218
0.0393
0.0567
0.0741
0.0087 0.0131
0.0262 0.0305
0.0436 0.0480
0.0610 0.0654
0.0785 0.0828
0.0175
0.0349
0.0523
0.0698
0.0872
5"
6"
7"
9"
0.0872
0.1045
0.1219
0.1392
0.1564
0.0915
0.1089
0.1262
0.1435
0.1607
0.0958
0.1132
0.1305
0.1478
0.1650
0.1002
0.1175
0.1349
0.1521
0.1693
10
11"
12
13
14
0.1736
0.1908
0.2079
0.2250
0.2419
0.1779
0.1951
0.2122
0.2292
0.2462
0.1822
0.1994
0.2164
0.2334
0.2504
0.1865
0.2036
0.2207
0.2377
0.2546
0.1908
0.2079
0.2250
0.2419
0.2588
15
16
18
19
0.2588
0.2756
0.2924
0.3090
0.3256
0.2630
0.2798
0.2965
0.3132
0.3297
0.2672
0.2840
0.3007
0.3173
0.3338
0.2714
0.2882
0.3049
0.3214
0.3379
0.2756
0.2924
0.3090
0.3256
0.3420
200
21
22"
23"
24
0.3420
0.3584
0.3746
0.3907
0.4067
0.3461
0.3624
0.3786
0.3947
0.4107
0.3502
0.3665
0.3827
0.3987
0.4147
0.3543
0.3706
0.3867
0.4027
0.4187
25"
26
27"
28"
29"
0.4226
0.4384
0.4540
0.4695
0,4848
0.4266
0.4423
0.4579
0.4733
0.4886
0.4305
0.4462
0.4617
0.4772
0.4924
:.Hnt~~ilm
rtl fl
sine 45 to go
1:-
minutes
Ill
'-"1 111:a1UII
minutes
0'
15'
45'
30'
60'
45 0.7071
0.7133 10.7163
46 0.7193
0.7254 0.7284
47 0.7314 0.7343 0.7373 0.7402
48" 0.7431
0.7490 0.7518
0.7604 10.7632
49" 0.7547
0.7193
0.7314
0.7431
0.7547
0.7660
44"
0.1045 84.
0.1219 ~
0.1392 82"
0.1564 81"
0.1736
so
79"
76
75
55"
56"
57"
58"
59"
74
so
73"
72"
71"
70
61
62"
63"
64
0.3584
0.3746
0.3907
0.4067
0.4226
69"
68"
67"
66"
65"
65 0.9063
66" 0.9135
67 0.9205
68" 0.9272
69" 0.9336
0.4344
0.4501
0.4656
0.4810
0.4962
0.4384
0.4540
0.4695
0.4848
0.5000
64
30" 0.5000 0.5038 0.5075

31" 0.5150 0.5188 0.5225
32" 0.5299 0.5336 0.5373
33" 0.5446 0.5463 0.5519
34" 0.5592 0.5628 0.5664
0.51 13
0.5262
0.5410
0.5556
0.5700
0.5150
0.5299
0.5446
0.5592
0.5736
35"
36"
37
38"
39"
0.5736
0.5878
0.6018
0.6157
0.6293
0.5771
0.5913
0.6053
0.6191
0.6327
0.5807
0.5948
0.6088
0.6225
0.6361
0.5842
0.5983
0.6122
0.6259
0.6394
0.5878
0.6018
0.6157
0.6293
0.6428
40"
41
42
43"
44"
0.6428
0.6561
0.6691
0.6820
0.6947
0.6461
0.6593
0.6724
0.6852
0.6978
0.6494
0.6626
0.6756
0.6884
0.7009
0.6528
0.6659
0.6788
0.6915
0.7040
0.6561
0.6691
0.6820
0.6947
0.7071
49
45'
30'
15'
17"
minutes
.,.,
fJ70
88"
85"
...
cosine 45" to go
Table values ofthe
89"
88"
78"
77"
~:;~!
~:;:~~
~:~99
43"
42"
4 1
40"
0.7660
51 o.m1
52" 0.7880 0.7907
53" 0.7986
54" 0.8090
0.7716
0.7826
0.7934
0.8039
0.8141
0.7744
0.7853
0.7960
0.8064
0.8166
0.7771
0.7880
0.7986
0.8090
0.8192
39"
0.8192
0.8290
0.8387
0.8480
0.8572 0.8594
~:~~:
~:~~
0.8241
0.8339
0.8434
0.8526
0.8616
0.8266
0.8363
0.8457
0.8549
0.8638
0.8290
0.8387
0.8480
0.8572
0.8660
34"
33"
32"
31
0.8660 0.8682
0.8746 0.8767
0.8829 0.8850
0.8910
0.8988
~~::Soo~
0.8704
0.8788
0.8870
0.8949
0.9026
0.8725
0.8809
0.8890
0.8969
0.9045
0.8746
0.8829
0.8910
0.8988
0.9063
29"
28"
27
26"
25"
0.9081
0.9153
0.9222
0.9288
0.9351
0.9100
0.9171
0.9239
0.9304
0.9367
0.9118 0.9135
0.9188 0.9205
0.9255 0.9272
0.9320 0.9336
0.9382 0.9397
24"
23
22"
21
20"
~:~~!
36"
35"
30"
60"
70
71"
72"
73"
74
0.9455
0.9511
0.9563
0.9613
0.9659
19
18
17
16
15
59"
58"
57"
56"
55"
75 0.9659 0.9670
0.9692
76" 0.9703 0.9713
0.9734
77" 0.9744 0.9753 0.9763 0.9772 0.9781
78" 0.9781 0.9790
0.9808
79" 0.9816 0.9825
0.9840
14
13"
12
110
10
54"
80" 0.9848
53"
81"
82"
83"
84"
63"
62"
61"
52"
51
so
48"
47"
46"
45"
0.9397 0.9412
0.9455 0.9469
0.9511 0.9524
0.9563 0.9576
0.9613 0.9625
aso
'Sl"
0.9426 0.9441
0.9483 0.9497
0.9537 0.9550
0.9588 0.9600
0.9636 0.9648
~::~:
0.9877
0.9903
0.9925
0.9945
~:::
~::sa:
0.9856
0.9884
0.9909
0.9931
0.9950 0.9954
~:=~
85" 0.9962 0.9966 0.!

88"
0.9979 0.9981
0.9988
fJ70
88" 0.9994 0.9995
89" 0.99985 0.99991 0.99996
~:=
60'
45'
~:::
~::~~
~::!~
0.9870
0.9897
0.9920
0.9941
0.9958 0.9962
,.
8"
60
5o
~:=
0.9976
0.9986
0.9994
0.99985
1.0000
30'
15'
minutes
co8le 0" to .es
: functions are rounded off to four decimal places.
0.9973
0.9984
0.9992
0.9998
0.99999
de-
grees
~::;~
4"
3"
2"
1"
de9'"S
12
Values of Tangent and Cotangent Trigonometric Functions

tangent 0" to 45
de-
tano-nt 45 to 90"
degr- -==-minutes
grees = m inutes
15'
30'
45'
0.0000
0.0175
0.0349
0.0524
0.0699
0.0044
0.0218
0.0393
0.0568
0.0743
0.0087
0.0262
0.0437
0.0612
0.0787
0.0131
0.0306
0.0480
0.0655
0.0831
0.0175 l r
0.0349
0.0524 fr1"
0.0699 88"
0.0875 86"
45
46"
47"
48"
49"
1.0000
1.0355
1.0724
1.1106
1.1504
1.0088
1.0446
1.0818
1.1204
1.1606
1.0176
1.0538
1.0913
1.1303
1.1708
1.0265
1.0630
1.1009
1.1403
1.1812
1.0355
1.0724
1.1 106
1.1504
1.1918
5" 0.0875 0.0919 0.0963

6" 0.1051 0.1095 0.1139
7" 0.1228 0.1272 0.1317
a 0.1405 0.1450 0.1495
9" 0.1584 0.1629 0.1673
0.1007
0.1184
0.1361
0.1539
0.1718
0.1051
0. 1228
0.1405
0.1584
0.1763
84"
so
1.2024
1.2460
1..2915
1.3392
1.3891
1.2131
1.2572
1.3032
1.3514
1.4019
1.2239
1.2685
1.3151
1.3638
1.41SO
1.2349
1.2799
1.3270
1.3764
1.4281
39"
82" 52"
81" 53"
80" 54"
1.1918
1.2349
1..2799
1.3270
1.3764
10 0.1763 0.1808 0.1853

1 , . 0.1944 0.1989 0.2035
12" 0.2126 0.2171 0.2217
13" 0.2309 0.2355 0.2401
14 0.2493 0.2540 0.2586
0.1899
0.2080
0.2263
0.2447
0.2633
0.1944
0.2126
0 ..2309
0.2493
0.2679
79"
78"
77"
76"
75"
55"
56"
57"
58"
59"
1.4281
1.4826
1.5399
1.6003
1.6643
1.4415
1.4966
1.5547
1.6160
1.6808
1.45SO
1.5108
1.5697
1.6319
1.6977
1.4687
1.5253
1.5849
1.6479
1.7147
1.4826
1.5399
1.6003
1.6643
1.7321
34"
33"
32"
31
30"
0.2679 0.2726 0.2773 0.2820

0.2867 0.2915 0.2962 0.3010
0.3057 0.3105 0.3153 0.3201
0.3249 0.329a 0.3346 0.3395
0.3443 0.3492 0.3541 0.3590
0.2867
0.3057
0.3249
0.3443
0.3640
74"
73"
72"
71
70"
so
1.7321 1.7496
1.8040 1.822a
1.8807 1.9007
1.9626 1.9840
2.0503 2.0732
1.7675
1.841a
1.9210
2.0057
2.0965
1.7856
1.a611
1.9416
2.027a
2.1203
1.8040
1.8807
1.9626
2.0503
2. 1445
29"
28"
27
26"
25"
2.1445 2.1692
2.2460 2.2727
2.3559 2.3847
2.4751 2.5065
2.6051 2.6395
2.1943
2.2998
2.4142
2.5386
2.6746
2.2199
2.3276
2.4443
2.5715
2.7106
2.2460
2.3559
2.4751
2.6051
2.7475
24"
23"
22"
21"
20"
73"
74"
2.7475
2.9042
3.0777
3.2709
3.4874
2.7852
2.9459
3.1240
3.3226
3.5457
2.8239
2.9887
3.1716
3.3759
3.6059
2.a636
3.0326
3.2205
3.4308
3.6680
2.9042
3.0777
3.2709
3,4874
3.7321
19"
18"
17
16"
15"
59" 75"
76"
57 77"
56" 78"
ss 79"
3.7321
4.0108
4.3315
4.7046
5 .1446
3.7983
4.0876
4.4194
4.8077
5.2672
3.8667
4.1653
4.5107
4.9152
5.3955
3.9375
4.2468
4.6057
5.0273
5.5301
4.0108
4.3315
4.7046
5.1446
5.6713
14"
13"
12"
11"
10
5.6713
6.3138
7.1154
a.1443
9.5144
5.8197 5.9758 6.1402

6.4971
6.6912 6.8969
7.3479 7.5958 7.8606
a.4490 a.7769 9.1309
9.9310 10.3854 10.8829
6.3138
7.1154
a.1443
9.5144
11.4301
9"
a
7"
6"
11.4301
14.3007
19.0a11
28.6363
57.2900
12.0346
15.2571
20.8188
32.7303
76.3900
12.7062
16.3499
22.9038
38.1885
114.5887
13.4566
17.6106
25.4517
45.8294
229.1a17
14.3007
19.0a11
2a.6363
57.2900
4"
3"
2"
1"
00
60'
45'
30'
15'
0'
o
1"
2"
3"
4"
15"
16
17"
1a
19
60'
as-
83" 51"
61 "
62"
63"
64"
20" 0.3640 0.3689 0.3739 0.3789 0.3839 69" 65"

21"
22"
23"
24"
0.3839
0.4040
0.4245
0.4452
0.3889
0.4091
0.4296
0.4505
0.3939
0.4142
0.4348
0.4557
0.3990 0.4040 68" 66"

0.4193 0.4245 67" 67"
0.4400 0.4452 66" 68"
0.4610 0.4663 65" 69"
25"
26"
27"
28"
29"
0.4663
0.4877
0.5095
0.5317
0.5543
0.4716
0.4931
0.5150
0.5373
0.5600
0.4770
0.4986
0.5206
0.5430
0.5658
0.4823
0.5040
0.5261
0.5486
0.5715
0.4877
0.5095
0.5317
0.5543
0.5774
0.5774
0.6009
0.6249
0.6494
34" 0.6745
0.5832
0.6068
0.6310
0.6556
0.6809
0.5890
0.6128
0.6371
0.6619
0.6873
0.5949
0.6188
0.6432
0.6682
0.6937
0.6009
0.6249
0.6494
0.6745
0.7002
35"
36"
37"
38"
39"
0.7002
0.7265
0.7536
0.7813
0.8098
0.7067
0.7332
0.7604
0.7883
0.8170
0.7133
0.7400
0.7673
0.7954
0.8243
0.7199
0.7467
0.7743
0.8026
0.8317
0.7265
0.7536
0.7a13
0.8098
0.8391
so
80"
a1"
a2"
83"
84"
40"
41"
42"
43"
44"
0.8391
o.a693
0.9004
0.9325
0.9657
0.8466
o.a770
0.9083
0.9407
0.9742
o.a541
0.8847
0.9163
0.9490
0.9a27
o.a617
0.8925
0.9244
0.9573
0.9913
0.8693
0.9004
0.9325
0.9657
1.0000
49"
48"
47"
46"
45
as
86"
a7
88"
89"
60'
45'
30'
15'
0'
30"
31
32"
33"
minutes
cotangent 45 to so
64"
63"
62"
61 "
oo
70
71"
72"
sa
54"
53"
52"
51"
0'
15'
minutes
de-
grees
45'
30'
cot engent o t o 45"
Table values of the trigonometric functions are rounded off to four decimal places.
60'
44"
43"
42"
41
40"
38"
37"
36"
35"
t
de-
grees
13
Mathematics: 1.2 Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions of right triangles

Definitions
Appllc:etlon
~Ions in
right triangle
for .0: a
c hypotenuse
opposite
side of
b adjacent s1de of a
.!.
E.
sin a
sin{J
line
liYPOtenuse
c
c
t-------- -----l--------1-------- -1
8
cosine
!!d!!C!f!t ~
cos a E.
cos{J
hypotenuse
c hypotenusyQ\_ a adjacent
side of {J
<r. {J
for
opposite~
8
b
~
tan a
tan fJ 8
b
t-----------+-------~1--------l
b opposite side of {J
tangent
o:!:Zt! :Q
cotangent
cot
cot {J
1i
Graph of the trigonometric functions between ooand 3W

Graph of the trigonometric functions
Representation on a unit circle
II
180
col fJH
col a(l
Itt\ ~ l oa
z S<
Ill
210
'
~
1
01
.3
ro
360
>
c:
IV
~ ~ f\ /
'l'i'TT.
oo
~, ,
c:
.!!
IV
The values of the trigonometric functions of angles> 90" can be derived from the values of the angles between
o and
90" and then read from the tables (pages 11 and 12). Refer ro the graphed curves of the trigonometric functions for
the correct sign. Calculators with trigonometric functions display both the value and sign for the desired angle.
Example: Relationships for Quadrant II
Relationships
Example: Function values for the angle 120" (a 30" in the formulae)
sin (90" + a) = +cos a
sin (90" + 30"1 =sin 120" = +0.8660
cos (90" + al - sin a
COS (90" + 30") e COS
120" = -0.5000
- sin 30" =- 0.5000
tan (90" + a) = - cot a
tan (90" + 3()0) =tan 120" - 1.7321
-cot 30" - 1.7321
cos 30" + 0.8660
Function v alues for selected angles

Function
90.
1800
270"
360"
Function
sin
+1
- 1
tan
""
cos
+1
- 1
+1
cot
""
()()
180"
270"
0
0
Relationships between the functions of an angle

tan a cot a = 1
tan a = sin a
cos a
360"
cot a = cos a
sin a
cos (1
Example: Calculation of tan a from sin a and cos a for a= 30:
tan a= sina/ cosa = 0.5000/ 0.8660 = 0.5n4
""
14
Mathematics: 1.2 Trigonometric Functio ns
Trigonometric functions of oblique triangles, Angles, Theorem of intersecting lines

Law of sines and Law of cosines
Law of siMs
LawofcosiNa
a: b: c sin a : sinfJ: siny
a2 . 1)2 + cl - 2 b C cosa
t? . a2 + c2 - 2 . a. c. cosfJ
a
b
c
sin a sin/J sin
c2 . 8 2 + 1)2 - 2 . 8 b cosy
Application in calculating sides and angles

c.lc:ullltion of sides
using the law of sines
using the Law of cosines
8 =- - =- -
bsina
sinfJ
c-sina
sinr
aa
~1)2 +c2 -2bc cosa
b = a-sinfJ =c-sin/J
sina
siny
b=
~a2 +c2 -2 8 CCOSfJ
c . 8siny . bsiny
sina
sin{J
C =~a2 +b2- 28 bCOSy
Calcua.tion of ngles
using the Law of sines
using the law of cosines
sina~ a-sinfj . a-siny

b
c
sinfJ = bsina =b siny
8
c
siny = c sina = c-sinfJ
a
b
coso =
cos{J =
cosr
1)2 + c2 -
a2
2b c
a2+c2-b2
28C
a2+b2-c2
2-a-b
Types of angles
Corr8$p()nding angles
91
nF
/.
If two parallels g 1 and gz are intersected

by a Straight line g. there are geometrical
interrelationships between the corresponding. opposite, alternate and adjaoent angles.
I
I
I
a =f3
Opposite angles
{3=6
Alternate angles
a =o
Adjacent angles
a+ r =180
Sum of angles in a triangle
Sum of angles
in a triangle
In every triangle the sum of the interior
angles equals 1110'.
I a+ {3
y = 180
Theorem of intersecting lines
~ \-t!
lb
b,
81
If two lines extending from Point A are

intersect.ed by two parallel lines BC and
B 1C1, the segments of the parallel lines
and the corresponding ray segments of
the lines extending from A form equal
ratios.
Theorem of intersecting
lines
b c
-= -
I = I
I ~= ~ I I ~=~ I
-
b,
c,
15
Mathematics: 1.3 Fundamentals
Using brackets, powers and roots

Celcul.tions with brackets
Type
Elcpl8nMion
Eumple
F8Ctorlng out
Common l ectors (divisors) in addition and subtraction are

placed before 8 bracket.
3X + 5X " X(3 + 5) = 8 X
~+~ - 2..(3+5)
X
A fraction bar combines terms in the same manner as

brackets.
a+b h = ta + bl!!.
2
2
A bracketed term is multiplied by 8 value (number. variable, another bracketed rerml, by multiplying each term
inside the brackets by this value.
5. tb + cl - 5b + 5c
(a+ bl te-d) ac - ad+ be - bd
A bracketed term is divided by a value (number. variable,

another bracketed term), by dividing each term inside the
bracket by this value.
ta+b):c = a:c+b:c
a- b a b
Binomial
formulae
A binomial formula is a formula in which the term Ia + b)

or (a - b) is multiplied by itself.
(a+ bl 2 a2 -+ 2ab -+ ~
Multlpli.,.tion/divt
llonnd
edclition/subtrect>on celc:ullltiona
In mixed equations. the bracketed terms must be solved

first. Then multiplication and division calculations are per
formed. and finally addition and subtraction.
a . (3x- 5x) - b (12y - 2yl
Exp.nding
br~~eketed tenns
- 5- : 5 - 5
(a-b)2 a2-2ab+~
(a+b) (a-b)=a2 - ~
a. (-2J<j- b. 10y
-2ax-10by
Powers
a base; x exponent; y exponential value
Product of identical lectors
Definitions
a"= y
a-a-a.a - a4
4 . 4 . 4 . 4 - 4 4 - 256
Addition
Subtrec:tion
Powers with the same base and the same exponents are
treated like equal numbers.
Multlpli~on
Powers with the same base are multiplied (divided) by

adding (subtracting) the exponents and keeping the base.
Numbers with negative exponents can also be wrinen as

fractions. The base is then given a positive exponent and
is placed in the denominator.
m ' = ..2.. = ..!_

m' m
Division
Negative
exponent
3al+ Sal- 4al
al . (3 -+ 5- 4) 4 al
4
t1- a a a a a a ;/J
2' . 22 214+21 26 64
32 + J3 = Jl2-31 = ~1 - 1/3
a-3
=..!.
a3
Frections In
exponents
Powers with fractional exponents can also be wrinen as

roots.
a3 = ~
Zero in
lllq)Onents
Every power with a zero exponent has the value of one.
(m+nl0 =1
a + a" = al- = ;/' = 1
Roots
2'l = 1
a radicand;
y root value
Definitions
x roors exponent;
Signs
Even number exponents of the root give positive and

negative values. if the radicand is positive. A negative radicand results in an imaginary number.
lf/i =Y or aV"= y
~=3
rl-9=-+:fl
Odd number exponents of the root give positive values if

the radicand is positive and negative values if the radicand
is negative.
rs = 2
Addition
Subtraction
Identical root expressions can be added and subtracted.
.la+J./a - 2./a =2../8
Multiplication
Division
Roots with the same exponents are multiplied (divided) by

taking the root of the product (quotient) of the radicands.
ora .ib = rJ8b
~= -2
~~
;,=;:;
16
Mat hematics: 1.3 Fundamentals
Types of equations. Rules of transformation

Equations
Type
Explenetlon
Eumple
Variable
equation
Equivalent terms (formula terms of equal value I form rei a

tionships between variables (see also, Rules of transfor
mation).
v n d n
Compatible u nits
equation
Immediate conversion of units and constants to an Sl unit

in the result.
Only used in special cases. e.g. if engineering parameters
are specified or for simplification.
p M n ; p onkW , if
Sing le variable
equation
Calculation of the value of a variable.
X+3 8
X B- 3 5
Function
equatio n
Assigned function equation: y is a function of x with K as

the independent variable; y as the dependent variable.
The number pair (K,yl of a value table form the graph of
the function in the (x,y) coordinate system.
'
9550
n in 1/min and M in Nm
y - f(Jt)
91- real numbers
y f (X) b
Proportional function
Y=f(KI=mx
y a 2K
Unear function
The graph is a straight line with slope m and y intercept b
(example below).
y f(K) mK+b
y 0.5K + 1
Quadratic function
y f (K) x2
Every quadratic
(example below).
linear
function
Y=mx+b
a2 + 28b+ til
Constant function
The graph is a line parallel to the x-axis.
The graph is a straight line through the origin.
(8+ b)2 .
function
example:
y=0.5x+1
t: ~
2 I
,_
_,
.....-:. 2 - 1
graphs
as
parabola
quadnruc
function
y: x 2
m=O.S
b =1
1 2 3
x ---
y a a2xl + 81X+ Bo
example:
\!] '7
-2 -1
-1
1 2 3
x ---
Rules of transfonnation
Equations are usually transformed to obtain an equat.ion in which the unknown variable stands alone on the left side
of the equation.
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
The same number can be added or subtracted from both

sides.
In the equations X+ 5 15 and X+ 5 - 5 15- 5, x has the
same value, i.e. the equations are equivalent.
X+5
= 15
X+5 -5 : 15-5
x = 10
: d
y -c
y -c+ c = d +c
y = d+C
l-5
It is possible to multiply o r divide each side of the equation

by the same number.
a-x = b
a-x b
--=-
l+ a
l +c
b
X =-
Powers
The expressions on both sides of the equations can be

ra ised to the same exponential power.
JX = a +b
X:
Roots
The root of the expressions on both sides of the equation

can be taken using the same root expOnent.
j()2
cJX)2 = (a +bJ2
a2 +2ab+tr
x 2 =B+b
c.JX)2 = J8+b
X :JS+b
if
17
Decimal multiples and factors of units. Interest calculation

Decimal multiples and fac:ton of units
cf. DIN 1301-1 (2002-101
Mett!ematlc:a
Power o f
ten
Name
1018
1015
10 12
109
106
103
102
101
Sl units
Prefix
Name
Character
M ultiplication factor
1 000 000 000 000 000 000

1 000 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000
1000000000
1000000
1000
100
10
1
peta
tera
gig a
mega
kilo
hecto
dec a
100
quintillion
quadrillion
trillion
billion
million
thousand
hundred
ten
one
10"'
10"2
10"3
10"6
1<r9
1Q-12
1Q-15
1o-' e
tenth
hundredth
thousandth
millionth
billionth
trillionth
quadrillionth
quintillionth
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000001
0.000 000 001
0.000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 000 001
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto
1
1
1000 100
values
<1
f
-101 1
>1
10 100 1000
TV
GW
MW
kN
hi
dam
m
M
k
h
da
c
m
10 18
10 15
10 12
109
106
103
102
101
Em
Pm
100
10"1 meters
102 m eters
10-3 volts
10"6 ampere
1o9 meters
10"12 farad
10 15 farads
1o l8 meters
dm
em
mV
J.L
.,A
n
p
f
a
nm
pf
meters
meters
volts
watts
watts
newtons
liters
meters
meter
IF
am
Numbers greater than 1 are expressed with positive exponents and num
bers less than 1 are expressed with negative exponents.
Examples: 4300:4.3 . 1000: 4.3 . 1o3
14638 - 1.4638. 104
E
p
8)(8
Examples
M eaning
Unit
10- 3 t o- 2 10- 1 10 101 102 103
0.07:
1~:7 .
10"2
Simple interest
p
A
principle
amount accumulated
interest
r interest rate per year
time in days,
interest period
Interest
I=
1st example:
P = $2800.00; r = 6 ~; 1: 112 a; I : 1
;
100%
2nd example:
1 interest year (1 al 360 days (360 d)

360 d 12 months
1 interest month 30 days
$2800.00-6 .... 0.58

I
p., . t
100% 360
$84.00
P : $4800.00;r : 5.1!!'; 1 : 50d; I - 1

I =
$4800.005.1"' 50d
100% 360~
- $34.00
Compound interest calculation for one-time payment

p
A
principle
amount aocumulated
interest
interest rate per year
Example:
n
q
time
compounding factor
Amount IICQJmulated
A= p. qn
P : $8000.00; n : 7 years; r = 6.5'*> A = 1
Compounding factor
q = 1 + 6. 5 % = 1.065
100%
A = P q" = $8000.00- 1.0657 = $8000.00- 1.553986
= s 12431.89
q=1 + ' 100%
18
Percentage calculation, Proportion calculations

Percentage calculation
Percent value
The peentage rate gives the frBCtion of the base value in hundredths.
The base value is the value from which the percentage is to be calculated.
The percent value is the amount representing the percentage of the base value.
P, percentage rate, in peroent
Pv percent value
I
I
8, base value.
1st example:
= BvP,
100%
Percentage rate
Workpiece rough part weight 250 kg (base value); material loss 2%

(percentage rate); material loss in kg ? (percent value)
P. - ~ - 250kg - 2% 5k
100%
P.
100'Yo
2nd example:
Rough weight of a casting 150 kg; weight after machining 126 kg;
weight percent rate(%) of material loss?
150kg-126kg
P. =!:s_ . 100% =
. 100%= 16%
, Bv
150kg
P, = .&_ 100%
Bv
Proportion calculations
11vee steps for calculating clrect proportional ratios
Example:
60 elbow pipes weigh 330 kg . What is the weight of
35 elbow pipes?
80
60
~1.0
c:
"'20
0
~200l kg 300
I
I Known data 160 elbow pipes weigh 330 kg.

2nd step: I
Calculate the unit weight by dividing
I
......
1st step:
1 elbow pipe weighs

I
100
3rd step;
weight-
330kg
60
Calculate the total by multiplying
35 elbow pipes weigh
330
~ . 35
- 192.5 kg
Three steps for calculating inverse proportional ratios

Example:
t200
h 1-------'
150
~ 100
.c. 50
0
0 2 I.
I
6 8 10 12 14
workers -
It takes 3 workers 170 hoors to process one order. How many

hours do 12 workers need to process the same order?
I Known data Itt takes 3 workers 170 hours

Calculate the unit time by multiplying
2nd step: I
I
It takes 1 worker 3 170 hrs
Calculate the total by d ividing
3rd step: I
I
It takes1 2 workers
3 170 hrs. 42.5 h rs

12
Using the ttvee steps for calculating dinct end inverse proportions
Example:
660 workpieces are manufactured by 5 machines in 24 days.
1st application of 3 steps:

5 machines produce 660 workpieces in 24 days
1 machine produces 660 work pieces in 24 - 5 days
9 machines produce 660 workpieces in 24.5 days
9
How much time does it take for

9 machines to produce
31 2 wo rkplaces of the same
type?
2nd application of 3 steps:

9 machines produce 660 workpieces in 24.5 days
9
24
9 machines produce 1 workpiece in
d ays
9
24.5. 31 2
9 machines produce 312 workplaces in
= 6 .3days
9 660
S:0
19
Mathemat ics: 1.4 Symbols, Units
Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols

Formula symbols
Fonnulll
aymbol
MNnlng
cf. DIN 1304-1 (1994-03)

formula
symbol
MMning
Fonnulll
MNnlng
symbol
'-9th, AIM. Volume, 1U9e

I
w
h
Length
Width
Height
Unear distance
r,R
d, D
A.S
Radius
Diameter
Area, Cross-sec1ional area
Volume
a,p,y
{}
Planar angle
Solid angle
Wavelength
MecMnlcs
m
m'
rrf
(!
J
p
Ptbo
Pamb
Prl
Mass
Unear mass density
Area mass density
Density
Moment of inenia
Pressure
Absolute pressure
Ambient pressure
Gage pressure
(1
Force
Gravitalional force, Weight
Torque
Torsional moment
Bending momem
Normal suass
w
I
W.E
w.,. Ep
Shear stress
~E,
t
E
Nonnal strain
Modulus of elasticity
f'w, W
M
T
Mb
p.f
'1
Shear modulus
Coefficient of friction
Section modulus
Second moment of an area
Work. Energy
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Power
Efficiency
Time
I
r
n
Tlme. Duration
Cycle duration
Revolution frequency,
Speed
f. v
v.u
(lJ
Frequency
Velocity
Angular velocity
o.V.~~v
Acceleration
Gravitational acceleration
Angular acceleration
Volumetric flow rate
Electricity
Q
c
I
Electric charge, Quantity of

electricity
Electromotive force
Capacitance
Electric current
y, K
lnduaance
Resistance
SpecifiC resistaooe
Electrical conduaivity
rp
Reactance
Impedance
Phase difference
Number of turns
Heat
r.e
Thermodynamic
temperature
l!.T.lltMI Temperature differer!C8

I, ~
Celsius temperatura
a1, u
Coefficient of linear
expansion
Q
).
a
k
Heat, Quantity of heat

Thermal conductivity
Heat transition coefficiem
Heat tTansmission
coefficient
<P,b
Focal length
Refractive index
I
o.w
Hr...
Heat flow
Thermal diffuslvity
Specific heat
Net calorific value
Light. E*tromagnetic: ndi8tlon
Illuminance
luminous intensity
Radiant energy
Acoustica
p
Acouslic pressure
Acoustic velocity
4>
I
Aoouslic pressure level

Sound intensity
Lt.
Mathematical symbols
Math.
aymbol
...."
.
*
~
<
$
>
"+
- .I. :.+
!
Spoken
approx. equals, around,
about
equivalent to
and so on, etc.

infinity
Loudness
Loudness level
cf. DIN 1302 (1999-121
M1tth.
symbol
an
ft.,y
equal to
not equal to
is equal to by definition
less than
lxl
_L
less than or equal to

greater than
greater than or equal to
plus
tl
minus
times, multiplied by
over, divided by. per, to
sigma (summation)
6X
I
II
~
"'
""
Spoken
Math.
Spoken
symbol
proponiooal
a to the oHh power, the n-Ih
power of a
square 1001 of
n-th mot of
log
lg
In
e
logarithm (general)
common logarithm
natural logarithm
Euler number (e 2.718281... )
absolute value of x
perpendicular to
is parallel to
parallel in the same direction
sin
cos
tan
COL
sine
cosine
parallel in the opposite direction

angle
triangle
congruent to
o. n. o
delta x (difference between

two values)
percent. of a hundned
per m il, of a thousand
AB
A8
It, a
a,."<<
tangent
cotangent
parentheses, bracl<ets
open and dosed
pi (circle constant =
3.14159 ... )
line segment AB
areAS
a prime, a double prime
a sub 1, a sub 2
20
Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units

SJ1l
Base quantities and bMe units
a...
quantity
Base
units
cf. DIN 130111200210), 211978-02), 3 11979- 10)
EJectric
Mau
length
nme
Thefmo.
dyNmic
ClWI'eflt
temperlltUN
Amount of
.,._.,_
luminous
Intensity
meter
kilo
gram
second
ampere
kelv1n
mole
candela
kg
mol
cd
Unit
symbol
11 The
units for measurement ere defined in the International System of Units Sl (Systeme International d'Unites). It
is based on the seven basic units lSI units), from which other units are derived.
Base quantities, derived quantities and their units

Ouentlty
Unit
Nwne
_jSymbol
Symbol
..,.,.atlon
Remarks
Examples of
Length, Ana. Volume, Angle

Length
Area
Volume
Plane
angle
(angle)
Solid angle
A.S
meter
1m
square meter
m2
1m2
are
hectare
a
ha
cubic meter
m3
liter
l,l
a,p,y ... radian
rad
10dm 100cm
1000mm
1mm = 10001Jm
lkm 1000 m
1 inCh 25.4 mm
In aviation and nautical applications
the following applies:
1 international nautical mile= 1852 m
Symbol S only for cross-sectional

10000cm2
areas
1000000 mm2
1a
=100m2
1 ha
= 100 a . 10000 m2 Are and hectare only for land
100 ha 1 km 2
1000dm3
1 000000 cm3
1 I = 1 l = 1 dm3 = 10 dl =
0.001 m 3
= 1 cm3
lml
1m3
Mostly for fluids and gases
1 rad = 1 m/m 57.2957...

= 180'/K
degrees
minutes
seconds
,.
,.
,.
steradian
sr
1 sr
:0 rad =60'
=1
= ,.,60 = 60"
= 1'/60 = 1,13600
1 m 2/m 2
1 rad is the angle formed by the inter

section of a circle around the center of
1 m radius with an arc of 1 m length.
In technical calculations instead of
a = 33 17' 27 .6', better use is r1
33.291.
An object whose extension measures

1 rad in one direction and perpendicularly to this also 1 rad, covers a solid
angle of 1 sr.
Mechanics
Mass
kilogram
gram
kg
g
megagram
metric ton
1 metric t = 1000 kg= 1 Mg

0.2g
= 1 ct
1 kg
1g
= 1000 g
1000mg
Mg
linear mass
density
kilogram
per meter
l(g/m
1 kg/m = 1 g/mm
Area mass
density
kilogram
per square
meter
kgtm2
1 kg/m2
kilogram
per cubic
meter
kg/m3
1000 kg!m3 = 1 metric tfm3

= 1 kg/dm 3
1 g!cm3
= 1 g/ml
= 1 mg/mm3
Density
(}
Mass in the sense of a scale result or a

weight is a quantity of the type of m ass
(unit kg).
= 0. 1 g!cm2
Mass for precious stones in carat (ct).

For calculating the mass of bars, pro
files, pipes.
To calculate the mass of sheet metal.
The density is a quantity independent

of location.
21
Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols. Units

Quantities and Units (continued)
Ouantlty
Symbol
Unit
~
R.mertca
ISmbo!
~ of 8l)pllc:atlon
Mechanics
Moment
of inertia, 2nd
Moment of
mess
Force
Weight
Torque
Bending morn.
Torsional
kilogram x
square
meter
kg -m 2 Th~;~ following applies lor a

homogenous body:
newton
newton x
meter
Nm
J or2- v
Fa. G
M
Mb
1N
1 kgslm 1 ~
The moment of Inertia I 2nd moment or

mass) is dependent upon the total
mass of the body as well as its form
and the position of the axis of rotation.
The foroo 1 N effects a change In vel
oclty of 1 m/s In t sIn a 1 kg mass.
1 MN 10'1 kN 1 000000 N
2
1 N -ma1 kg z'"
s
1 N . m Is the moment that a loroe of

1 N effects with a lever arm of 1 m.
Momentum
kilogram x
meter
per second
kg mls 1kg m/S 1N -s
The momentum Is the product of the

mass times velocity. It has the direction
of the velocity.
Pressure
pascal
Pa
newton
per square
millimeter
Ntmm2
1 Pa = 1 Nfm2 = 0.01 mbar

1 bar 100000 N/m2
10 N/cm2 lOS Pa
1 mbar 1 hPa
1 Ntmm2 - 10 bar 1 MN/m2
1 MPa
1 daN/cm2 0.1 N/mm2
Pressure refers to the force per unit

area. For gage pressure the symbol Po
is used (DIN 1314).
1 bar = 14.5 psi (pounds per square
inch 1
meter to the
fourth power
centimeter
to the fourth
power
1 m = 100000000 em
Previously: Geometrical moment o f

Inertia
1 J =1N-m1W.s
1 kg m 2/s2
Joule for all forms of energy, kW h

preferred for electrical energy.
wall
1W=1J/s=1N m/s
1 V . A 1 m 2 . kg:!s3
Power describes the work which is

achieved within a specific time.
seconds
minutes
hours
day
year
s
min
h
d
a
1 min a 60s
lh = 60 min= 3600s
ld = 24 h = 86400 s
3 h means a time span (3 hrs.),

3h means a point In time (3 o'clock).
If points in time are written in mixed
form, e.g. 3h24m1os, the symbol min
can be shortened to m.
hem
Hz
1Hz = 1/s
1 per second
1/s
1/s
1 per minute
1/min
meters per
second
meters per
minute
kilometers per
hour
1 per second
radians per
second
m/S
1/s
rad/s
cu 2n n
For a rpm of n = 2/s the angular veloci

ty w =4 11/s.
meters per
second
squared
m!s2
1 mfs2 =1 m/S
1s
Symbol g only for acooleration due to

gravity.
g = 9.81 m!s2" 10 m/s2
Mechanical
stress
01 T
Second
moment of
area
Energy, Work,
Quantity of
heat
Power
Heat flux
lime
Time,
Time span,
Duration
E,W joule
<P
Frequency
f.v
Rotational
speed,
Rotational
frequency
Velocity
Angularveloc.i ty
Acceleration
-=
em
())
a,g
1/min 1 min
1 m/s
1 Hz
= 60/min = 60 min
~s
=60m!min
a 3.6km/h
m/min 1m/min=~
60s
1m
km/h
1 km/h
= 3.6s
=1 cycle in 1 second.
The number of revolutions per unit of

time gives the revolution frequency,
also called rpm.
Nautical velocity in knots (kn):
1 kn =1.852 km/h
miles per hour= 1 mile/h = 1 mph
1 mph= 1.60934 km/h
22
Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units

Quantities and units (continued)
Ouentlty
Unit
Neme
Syrnbol
Sym
bol
Aemerb
Rel8tlor-"ip
Examples of applation
EJ.c:trldty and MllgMtiem

Elec:tric cun-ent
Electromotive
force
Electrical
resistance
Electrical
conductance
Specific
resistance
Conductivity
amp-
volt
1 V 1 W/ 1 A 1 J/C
ohm
1 Qa 1V/1A
siemens
1S 1N1V 1/0
The movement of an electrical charge Is

called current The electromotive force
is equal to the potential difference bel
ween two point s In an electric field. The
reciprocal of t.h e electrical resistance is
called the electrical conductivity.
(!
ohmx
meter
siemens
per meter
Q.m
1~ Q m 1 Q. mm2tm
tJ =- n - - -
y, x
0 - mm2
m
1 .
m
- n - - l!
Q . mm2
I .
S/m
Frequency
hertz
Hz
1Hz
1/s
1000Hz 1 kHz
Frequency of public electric utility:

EU 50 Hl. USA/Canada 60 Hz
Electrical energy
joule
1J
1WS 1Nm
1kW h 3.6MJ
1Wh ~3.6kJ
In atomic and nuclear physics the unit

eV (electron volt) is used.
Phase
difference
'{/
for alternating current:
The angle between current and voltage

In inductive or capacitive load.
Elect. field strength

Elect. charge
EleCt. capacitance
InduCtance
Power
Effective power
COSop (f':/
E
L
volts per meter VIm

coulomb
c
farad
F
henry
H
wan
1C :1A 1s;1A h 3.6kC

1F 1 CN
1 H 1 V s/A
E =!_ C = ~
1W 1J/s 1Nm/S
~ 1V A
In electrical power engineering:

Apparent power Sin V A
Kelvin (K) and degrees Celsius (C) are

used for temperatu res and tempera
lure differences.
t = T- To: T0 = 273.15 K
degrees Fahrenheit (f): 1.aF = 1c
O a / t
Thermodynamics and Heat transfer

Thermo
r.e
kelvin
OK -273.15 C
t,ll
degrees
Celsius
o c 273.15 K
OOC = 32 F
oF =-17.nc
joule
1J =1Ws=1Nm
1 1NV h s 3600000 J 3.6 MJ
1 kcal " 4.1868 kJ
joule per
kilogram
Joule per
cubic meter
J{kg
1 MJ/Icg 1 000 000 J/kg
Jtm3
1 MJ/m3 = 1000000 J/ m3
Thermal energy released per kg fuel

minus the heat of vaporization of the
water vapor contained in the exhaust
gases.
dynamic
tempenrture
Celsius
temperatu re
Quantity of
heat
Net calorific
value
Hn,.
Non-SI units
length
Area
1 inch =25.4mm
1 foot =0.3048m
1 yard =0.9144m
1 nautical
mile = 1.852 km
1 mile = 1.609 km
1 sq.in = 6.452cm 2 1 cu.in

= 16.39cm3
1 sq.ft a 9.29dm2 1 cu.It
28..32 dm3
1 sq.yd = 0.8361 m2 1 cu.yd
= 764.6dm3
1 US gallon = 3.785 dm3
1 Imp. gallon e 4.536 dm3
Pressure
a 158.8dffi3
1 barrel
1 bar 14.5 psi
Volume
Energy, Power
Mass
102
= 28.35g 1 PSh
1 lb
453.6g 1 PS
1 metric! 1000 kg 1 kcal
1 short ton = 907.2 kg 1 kcal
1 carat
0.2g
1 kpm/s
1 Btu
1 hp
0.735kWh
=735W
4186.8Ws
=1.166 Wh
= 9.807 W
s 1055 W s
=745.7W
Prefhces of dec:lmal f8Ct0r$ and multiplel

pico
nano
micro
milli
centi
deci
deca
hecto
kilo
mega
giga
Prefix: symbol
Prefix
II
da
Power often
1Q 12
1CJ"9
lo-6
10"'1
lo-2
1o-'
101
102
103
106
1cf'
10 12
Factor
1 mm = 1o-3m= 1/1000 m,
1 km a 1000m,
tera
Multiple
1 kg . 1000 g,
1 GB (Gigabyte! s 1000000000 bytes
23
Mathematics: 1.5 Length s
Calculations in a right triangle

The Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triengle the square of the hypotenuse is equal
to the sum of the squares of the twO sides.
8
side
side
hypotenuse
Squere of the
hypotenuse
1st eKemple:
c = 35mm;8 21 mm; b 7
b = Jc2 - a2 =./('35 mm)2 - (21 mm)2 = 2Bmm
2nd eKample:
Length of the
hypotenuse
c=.j;2;b2
CNC program with R 50 mm and I 25 mm.
K7
c2 = 82 +b2
Length of the sides
R2 = t2 + K 2
K a JR2-12 ~ JS02
a=Jc2 - b2
mm2 - 252 mm2
K = 43.3mm
Eudidean Theorem (Theorem of sides)

The square over one side is equal in area to a rectangle
formed by the hypotenuse and the adjacent hypotenuse
segment.
a, b sides
c
hypotenuse
Squwe over the side
p, q hypotenuse segments
a 2 = C p
Elcemple:
A rectangle with c = 6 em and p = 3 em should be
changed into a square with the same area.
CQ
How long is the side of the square a?
Cp
a2 =c p
a =..fC:P=J6 cm- 3cm= C.2Ccm
Pythagorean theorem of height

The square of height his equal in area to the rectangle of
the hypotenuse sections p and q.
height
p, q hypotenuse sections
Example:
Right triangle
p = 6cm;q= 2cm;h =?
pq
hl=pq
h
=.fP:Q =Js em 2cm = ./12 cm2 = 3.46cm
Square of the height
h2 = p. q
24
Mathematics: 1.5 Lengths
Division of lengths, Arc length, Composite length

Sub-dividing lengths
Edge distance
=spedng
I totallength
p spacing
Ex.,..ple:
1= 2 m; n 24holes; P 7
n+1
Edge ditltllnce ,<
~ing
Subdividing into pieces
1:1950 mm; a 100mm; b a 50mm;

n 25holes; p ~ 7
1-labl 1950mm-150mm
p c ---=
1Smm
n- 1
25 - 1
I,
n- 1
Number of pieces
'
Example:
0[ -
1-(a+b)
P=---
bar length
s saw cutting width
z number of pieces I, remaining length
piece length
I = 6000mm; t. 230 mm; s = 1.2 mm; z 1; 1, = 1

1
6000 mm
- 25. 95: 25piz =- - =
l,+s 230mm+ l.2 mm
I, =1-z (11 +5)=6000 mm-25 (230 mm + 1.2 mml
.._
---s
Spacing
n
number of holes
a. b edge distances
Example:
- r. r-
I.
n +1
24 1
I totallength
p spacing
...__
I
p =-
p a-1-- ~ BOmm
r---
.&.1
Spacing
n number of holes
Z= - -
Is+ s
Remaining length
I,= 1- z (15 + s)
= 220mm
Arc length
Exemple: Torsion spring
1. arc length
r radius
!itti
.~
~
Arc length
a angle at oenter
d diameter
n r a
1=-a
180"
Example:
r 36 mm; a 120"; 1,
a ?
". 36mm 120'
75.36nvn
' =~ =
100"
I~
n d a
Ia = - - 360"
1CTCI
Composite length
D
outside diameter
dm mean diameter
1,.12 sec:tion lengths
/2
<::>~
-~
t,
d inside diameter
t thickness
L oomposite length
a ngle at oenter
Example (composite length, picture lehl:

0=360 mm; I= 5 mm;a = 270;1,: = 70 mm;
dm ?; L ?
dm =D - t = 360mm -5 mma 355mm
L = 1,+12= ttdm a +/2

360
" 355 mm 270" + 70 mm = 906.45 mm
=
360"
Composite length
L =l1
+ l2 + ...
25
Mathematics: 1 .5 Lengths
Effective length, Spring wire length, Rough length

Effective lengths
0
d
dm
a
Effective length
of circular ring
outside diameter
inside diameter
mean diameter
thi<:lcness
effective length
angle at cent.e r
Effective length of a
~~~~,;;
0
Cltculer ring sector
Example (circular ring sector):

0 36 mm; t 4 mm; a 240; dm 7; I 7
Mean diameter
dm = D- t
dm O- t 36 mm - 4 mm a 32mm
n dma . n-32 mm 240' 6l.ll2 mm
360'
360'
dm = d+ t
d,..
Spring wire length

Example: Compression spring
Effective length
of the helix
effective length of the helix
Om mean coil diameter

number of active coils
l=n Dm i +
2 1t Om
Example:
Om 16 mm; i 8.5;1 7
l= nDmi+2nDm
= n - 16 mm 8.5 + 2 n - 16 mm= 528mm
Rough length of forged parts and pressed parts

When forming without scaling loss the volume of the rough
pan is the same as the volume of the finished part. If there
is scaling loss or burr formation, this is compensated by a
factor that is applied to the volume of the finished piece.
V0 volume of the rough part
V0 volume of the finished part
q
addition factor for scaling loss or loss due to burrs
A 1 cross-sectional area of the rough part
A2 cross-sectional area of the finished part
11
initial length of the addition
12
length of the solid forged part
Volume without scaling loss
Volume with scaling

loss
Example:
scaling loss
A cylindrical peg d 24 mm and 12 = 60 mm is pressed

onto a flat steel workpiece 50 x 30 mm. The scaling
loss is 10 %. What is the initial length 11 of the forged
addition?
V0 = V0 (l+q)
Atlt = A2-12 (1+q)

t. _A2 l2 ll+ql
At
n (24 mm)2 60mm 11 + 0.11
4 50mm 30mm
20mm
A, /1 = A2 /2 (1 + q )
26
Mathemat ics: 1.6 A reas
Angular areas
Square
A
I
d length of diagonal
area
lenglh of side
A =/2
Example:
I 14 mm; A 7; d 1
A 12 (14 mm)2 196 mm2
d a
I a
14 mm a 19.8 mm
fi
fi
Length of dU.gonal
d=f2'
Rhombus (lozenge)
A
I
w width
area
lenglh of side
Area
A =l w
Example:
1=9 mm; w=8.5 mm; A - 7
A I w 9 mm 8.5mm 76.5 mm2
Rectangle
A
I
w widlh
area
length
Area
length of diagonal
A =I W
Example:
)
I= 12 mm; w - 11 mm;A - 7; d 7
A = I w = 12 mm 11 mm = 132mm%
d = JI2+ w2 = ,Ji.12mm)2 + (11 mm)2 z J1ffimm2
= 16.28 mm
Length of dU.gonal
d= ~
Rhomboid (parallelogram)
A
w widlh
area
lenglh
Area
A =l w
Example:
la36mm;
15mm;A a ?
A I w 36mm. 15mma 540mm2
Trapezoid
A
11
l2
1m average length
w width
area
longer length
shorter length
Area
A=
/1 + 12 W
Example:
11 = 23mm;l2 = 20mm; W= 17 mm;A?
A = 1,+ 12 w= 23mm + 20mm. 17 mm
= 365.5mm%
Triangle
A
I
area
length of side
w width
l w
A =-
Example:
11 = 62 mm; w 29mm;A = ?
A = 11 -w
62mm 29mm - S99mm2
27
Mathematics: 1.6 Areas
Triangle, Polygon, Circle

Equilateral triangle
A area
Diameter of
d diameter of inscribed circle circumscribed circle
length of side
h height
0 diameter of circumscribed
circle
Example:
ID ~
= J3 . f =2 .
Area
Iri._~-A--=~~ -J3_3~-~~2~=
Diameter of
"_:_~--~ _.:_;
I 42 mm; A ?;
3_e_.r_=_Q
_ _.1
2
'....
~~-i~
Regular polygons
.A
I
0
d
fJ
Diameter of
area
inscribed circle
length of side
diameter of circumscribed
circle
diameter of inscribed circle
Diameter of
no. of vertices
angle at center
vertex angle
Area
.___d_=_J_o_2_-_~2__.I I.__A_=_-n_~~--d_ _,
_c:_u~
_=_J_d_2_:_7_:-.JI
w
...
r:~.:r~l l
Example:
Hexagon with 0=80 mm; I =?; d= ?; A=?
I = 0 -sin C':')
d = ,Jo2 -J2
= !Klmm-sin(~) = 40mm
=.}6400 mm2 - 1600 mm2 = 69.282 mm
A = n ld = 6 40mm 69.282 mm = 41 56..92 mmZ

4
4
Calculation of regular polygon using table v * No. of
8
10
12.
~of
kMA
0.325 . oz
0.500 0 2
0.595. 0 2
0.649 02
0.707 . 0 2
0.735 . 0 2
0.750 . 0 2
1.299 . d 2
1.000 . d2
0.908. d 2
0.866 . d 2
0.829 . d 2
0.812 . d2
0.804 . d 2
......,_circle
OA33 f2
1.000 12
1.721 -12
2.598 . p
4.828. f2
7.694 . f2
11.196. f2
1.154 I
1.414 I
1.702 I
2.000 I
2.614 I
3.236 1
3.864- 1
2.000 . d
1.414 . d
1.236. d
1.155 . d
1.082 . d
1.052 . d
1.035 d
Example: Octagon with I = 20 mm

A = ?; 0 = ?
A .. 4.828 -1 2 4.828. (20 mm)2 1931.2 mm2 ;
~of
o-
irwaibed- d -
0.578 I
1.000 - 1
1.376 I
1.732 1
2.414 I
3-.078 1
3.732 I
0.500 0
0.707 . 0
0.809 0
0.866 0
0.924 0
0.951 0
0.966 0
l.8ngth of side I
0.867
0.707
0.588
0.500
0.383
0.309
0.259 .
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o~ 2.614 . I 2.61 4 . 20 mm = 52.28 mm
Circle
A
d
area
diameter
C circumference
Example:
d 60 mm; A ?; C 1
Circumference
A = nd2 = ,.. (60mmJl - 2827 mm2

4
4
C =Jtd=n-60mm= 188.5mm
1.732. d
1.000 . d
0.727 . d
0 .577. d
0.414 d
0.325. d
0.268. d
28
Mathematics: 1.6 Areas
Circular sector, Circular segment, Circular ring, Ellipse

Circular sec:tor
A area
diameter
arc length
11
chord length
radius
angle at center
Area
Example:
d 48 mm; a
nra
' - liiii"A.
A = Ia r
2
1100; Ia 7; A 7
1124mm110"
190'
a 46.1 mm
!L!_ .
48.1 mm 24 mm
563
mm2
f"""~ ==
Circular segment
Circular segment with a :S 180"
I
A area
d diameter
w width of segment
Area
r radius
a angle at center
arc length
chord length
Example:
18
I
I r - l (r - w)
r=30 mm; a = 1200; I 1; w a 7; A 7

1
I 2rsin~2:llmmsin 20' 51.96 mm
A = _.a'---:-'--.....;.
2
Chord length
I= 2 rsin~
w-~ 1Bn~- Sl.96mm 1Bn 120' 14.999mm 1S mm

2
A JrtP . ..!.._llr-wl
1= 2 J w (2 r- w)
4 :B1'
2
Jrf60mm)2 120' 51.96mm C30mm - 1Smml
- - -4- - :B1'2
Height of segment
w =itan~
552.8 mm>
Radius
r;/2
w 12
r = -+--
w = r - , r -4
2 8 w
Circular ring
A
area
0 outside diameter
d
inside diamet.er
dm mean
diameter
w width
Area
A= n dm W
Example:
o.
160mm; d 12Smm;A=?
A -~ (02 -d2) . ~(100Z rnm2 -1252 mm21

4
=7834 mrn 2
area
length
Example:
A
d
C
diameter
Circumference
0=65 mm; d =20 mm;Aa?
A= nOd = n 65mm20mm
4
4
= 1021mm2
Area
,..;..._ _ _lt D
!"-d~--.
A=-4
Circumference
C -n D +d
2
29
Mathematics: 1.7 Volume and Surface area
Cube, Square prism, Cylinder, Hollow cylinder, Pyramid

Cube
V volume
A, surface area
Volume
length of side
Example:
Surface area
I 20 mm; V 7; A. 7
V I' (20 mml' 8000 mm'

A , 6 . P 6 (20 mm)2 2400 mm2
Square prism
V volume
A, surfaoe area
I
length of side
h height
w width
Example:
Volume
V=IW h
Surfaee area
l6cm;w 3cm;h2cm;V.7
V l W h 6cm 3cm. 2cm= 36cm3
As= 2 . (/ . w + I . h + w . h)
Cylinder
V volume
A 0 surface area
d diameter
h
Volume
height
1td2
V= - - h
4
A. cylindrical surface area

Example:
Surface area
d s 14mm;h = 25mm; V?
V =zr d'h
4
_ Jt(14mml' 2Smm
4
= J848mm3
lAs=1tdh+2 ~1
Cylindrical surface area
Ac=n d h
Hollow cylinder
V volume
As surface area
D. d
diameter
h
height
Volume
Example:
0 42 mm; d e 20mm; h80mm;

V=?
V =~ (D2-d2l
As =n<D+dlG<D- d)+ h]
= Jt-SOmm (42'mm2-20'mm2)
4
= 85103mm3
Pyramid
V volume
h height
h 5 slant height
I length of base
11 edge length
w width of base
Example:
I= 16 mm; W= 21 mm; he45mm; V= 7

V = l-w h= 16mm-21 mm-45mm
3
3
= 5040mm3
Volume
f Wh
V=--
Edge length
'~=M
Slant height
30
Mathematics: 1.7 Volume and Surface area
Truncated pyramid, Cone, Truncated cone, Sphere, Spherical segment

Truncated pyramid
V
11.1,
volume
lengths ol
A 1 ereeolbase
base
A, t.op11Ur18Ce
t,.
slant height
height
w1, ~ widths
sunece
bample:
11 40mm;l2 22 mm; w1 28mm;
"'2 15 mm; h 50mm; V1
Volume
lv=~IA,+Az+~l~
Slant height
v =!!.lA,
+Az+JA, Az)
3
= 50mm 11120+330+ J1120330)mm2
3
= 34299mm3
Cone
V
A:
d
volume
conical surface area
diameter
height
slant height
h1
Volume
n d 2 h
V = - - -
bam pie:
A _n d h5
c 2
d 52 mm; h 110mm: V= 1
v -"d2.!!.
4
Conical o;urface area
l'<152mml' 110mm
4
-3= 77870mm3
Truncated cone
V volume
conical surface area
0 diameter
of base
diameter
of top
height
slant height
A:
hs
Example:
D 100 mm;d 62 mm; h80mm;
v.?
V = l'<h 1Dl+d2 +Ddl
12
= >tBOmm .(100' +622 +10062)mm2
12
= 419800mm!
Sphere
V volume
surface area
diameter of sphere
Volume
As
Example:
d =9 mm;V=7
V = Jtcf3. Jt{9 mm)3
382mm!
Surface a<ea
Spherical segment
V volume
A 1 lateral surface ar ea
As surface area
d
h
bample:
d =8 mm; h= 6 mm; V = 1
v =Jth' (~ - ~)
=lt~mm2 (a';""- 6';"')
=226mm3
diameter of sphere
height
Volume
StM'face area
I As
= 1t h . 12 . d- h)
lateral surface area
A 1 = ndh
31
Mathematics: 1.8 Mass
Volumes of composite solids. Calculation of mass

Volumes of composite IOiids
ToUivolume
V total volume
v,. v2 partial volumes
Example:
Tapered sleeve; 0 42 mm; d 26 mm;
d1 16mm; h 45mm;
v. 7
V1 5 1<h .(02+d2+D dl
12
=~ (42 2 + ~+4226)mm2
12
a 41 610mm2
11d 2
,..162mm2
Vz =7h=
- 45mm = 9048mm2
4
v : v, - v2 m 41610mm2 - 9048mm2 32562 mm3
Calculation of mass
m
V
mass
volume
I!
density
Mass
Example:
Wori(pieoe made of aluminum;
6.4 dml; {} 2.7 kg/dml; m~ 7
v-
m = Vu = 6.4 dm3 - 2.7
Values for density of

solids, liquid s and gases:
pages 116 and 117
dml
= 17. 281<9
Unur mass density
. . kg
m mm
m mass
m ' linear mass density
length
Unear mass density
m = m ' .f
Examp le:
Steel bar with d 15 mm;
m' = 1.39 kg/m; 1= 3.86m; m= 7
m =m '1 = 1.39 ~- 3.86 m

m
: 5. 37kg
m mass
A area
m area mass density
Application: Calculating
the mass of profile sections, pipes, w ires, etc.
using the table values for
m'
Area mass density
m= m A
Example:
Steel sheet
t = 1.5 mm; m = 11.8 kglm 2;
A= 7.5m2;m=7
m =m" A = 11. 8
= 88. 5 1qj
~ 7.5 m2
Ap plication: Calculating
the mass of sheet metal,
foils, coatings, etc using
the table values for m
32
Mathematics: 1.9 Centroids
Centroids of Lines and Plane Areas

Centroids of linea
c,.
lengths o f the lines

C,
~ centroids of the lines
horizontal distances of the line centroids from the y-axis
Yc y1, y2 vertical distances of the line centro ids from the xaxis
/, 11 /2
x,. x 1, x2
Une segment
Compotite continuous lines
y
Circular arc
General
i
I
/- 1000
Yc =- n-a
Semicircular arc
Yc"' 0.6366 r
II
-1------- -----'-
Quarter circle arc

Calculation of I and /0 :
Page28
Yc "' 0.9003 r
Centroids of plane areas

A, A1, A2 areas
C, C1, ~ centroids of the areas
horizontal distances o f the area centroids from the y-axis
y., y1, y2 vertical distances of the area centroids from the xaxis
x.:. x,, x2
Rectangle
------
1'----_
Y
c=~----~
Triangle
Circular sector
General
Composite -
1;3 { ">f
2 .,.[
Yc=3:f
yh--------~~----~
Semkirde area
Yc "' 0.4244 r
Quarter circle area
Yc"' 0.6002 r
w
Yc = 3
I
I
X
Circular segment
'1:
f3
Yc = 12A
Table of Contents
33
2 Physics
2.1
time 1 - - -
s 5
2.2
'
Motion
Uniform and accelerated motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Speeds of machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
r
A
Forces
Adding and resolving force vectors . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weight, Spring force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lever principle, Bearing forces ... . ............
Torques, Centrifugal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
36
37
37
2.3
Work., Power, Efficiency

Mechanical work ........................... . 38
Simple machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Power and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4
Friction
Friction force ..................... .. ........ 41
Coefficients offriction ........ . .... .... ...... 41
Friction in bearings . ... ........ .......... .... 41
2.5
Pressure in liquids and gases

Pressure, definition and types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Pressure changes in gases .... .... ..... ...... 42
2.6
Strength of materials
Load cases, Load types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety factors, Mechanical strength properties ..
Tension, Compression, Surface pressure .. .....
Shear, Buckling ......................... .. ..
Bending, Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shape factors in strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Static moment. Section modulus, Moment of inertia .
Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes ..
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
2.7
Thermodynamics
Temperatures, Linear expansion, Shrinkage .... . 51
Quantity of heat .......... ..... ........ ..... 51
Heat flux, Heat of combustion ..... ........... 52
2.8
Electricity
Ohm's Law, Conductor resistance . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resistor circuits ...................... . ......
Types of current .......................... ..
Electrical work and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
54
55
56
34
Physics: 2.1 Motion
Uniform motion and uniformly accelerated motion

Uniform motion
LlrMar motlon
Displacement-time dlagre m
30 ,--,-,,....,.---,-.,.--,
velocity
time
displacement
Example:
v a 48 km/h; s - 12 m;t7
Conversion:
48~ = 4SOOOm = 13.33~

h
38Xls
1~ - 60~- 3.6km
s
min
h
1~ = 16.667 ~
h
t ! ~ 0.9s
timet--
min
c 0.2778.!:!!
13.33m/s
Circuler motion
v
circumferential velocity.
cutting speed
w angular velocity
n rotational speed
d
radius
diameter
Example:
Pulley, d 250 mm; n 1400 min- 1;
V ?; w 1
1400
Conversion: n = 1400min- 1=
= 23.33s-1
60s
v = Jt d n = Jt 0.2Sm 23.33s-1= 18.3.!:!!

s
"' = 2 lt n = 2 Jt - 23.33s-1 = 146.6s-1
Circumferential
~
Angular
velocity
w= 2 n n
1
..2... = min 1= - min
60s
For a cutting speed of a circumferential velocity

seepage35.
Uniformly accelerated motion

Velocity-time diagram
The increase in velocity per second is called acceleration; and a decrease is clecelation. Free fall is
uniformly accelerated motion on which gravitational
acceleration g i.s acting.
v terminal velocity (acceleration),
o r initial velocity (deceleration)
s displacement
time
a acceleration
g gravitational
acceleration
Displacement-time diagram
Object, free fall from s = 3m; v = 1
a = g = 9.81~
s
v = J2 -a-s=
J2 -9.81 mls2 - 3 m = 7.7!!!

5
2nd example:
~
Displacement due to
acceleration/
deceleration
S= - Vt
2
Vehicle, v = 80 km/h; a= 7 mfs2;

Braking distance s = 1
Conversion: v =80km = 80000m = 2222~
h
38Xls
s
s=.!.a-t 2
v =~
S=-2a
v2
time f - - -
Terminal or Initial
1st example:
lime f - -
The following applies

to acceleration from
rest o r deceleration to
rest
(22.22 mtsfl
s = ~= 2-7mJs2 - 35.3m
v2
35
Physics: 2.1 Motion
Speeds of machines
Feed rate
Feed rate
for drilling. turning
vt feed rate
n rotational speed
feed
I,
feed per cutting edge
number of CtJtting edges, or

number of teeth on the pinion
v1= nf
P thread pitch
p
pitch of raok and pinion
Feed rate
for milling
1st example:
Cylindrical milling cutter, Z 8; f, 0.2 mm;
n 45/min; Vf 7
v n ~ N Q 45 ~ 0.2mm . 8 s 72 m~
m 1n
m.n
2nd exemple:
Feed drive with threaded spindle,
P 5 mm; n112/min;.., . 7
1
v1 a n P 112- - 5mm - 560 .!!!!!!
min
min
Raclt and
pinion
Feed rate
for screw d rive
v1 =n - P
Jrd example:
Feed rate for

rack and pinion
Feed of rack and pinion.

n 80/min; d75 mm; "1 7
v1 ;1tdn a l<75mm 80 ~
vr = n N p
mon
= 18850,!!!!!!a 18.85....!!!_
min
v1 =ndn
min
Cutting speed, Circumferential velocity

Cutting speed
v0 cutting speed
v circumferential velocity
d
Cutting speed
diameter
Ve
= 1t d
n rotational speed
&ample:
Turning,
n = 1200/min; d = 35 mm; Vc ?
v. =l<d n=1t 0.005m 1200~

mon
Circumferential
velocity
v= n d n
; 132....!!!...
min
Average speed of crank mechanism

v, average speed
n number of double strokes
s
stroke length
v8
EJCample:
Power hacksaw,
s 280 mm; n = 45/min;
!5
e -o
-""'"'
e.,
'" "'
v8 = 7
v. =2 s n= 20.28m45~
= 25. 2 ~
m1n
min
Average speed
= 2 S n
36
Physics: 2.2 Forces
Types of forces
Adding and resolving forces
Chosen for the following
examples Mr
F1, F, component forces

F,
resultant force
=10 r!:n
vector magnitude
(length)
Mt scale of forces
Reptetentlng forces
Forces are represented by vectors.
The length I of the vector corresponds to the
magnitude of the force F.
Adding collinear forces acting In the seme dirac:tion

Sum
Example: F1 80 N; F, 160 N; F, 7
F, F, + F2 ~ 80 N + 160 N 240 N
F,
I F,
F,
Subtracting collinear fon:es acting In opposite difectlons
"I
Difference
P""""'..........._ - .
F, = F1 - F2
Example: F, 240 N; F, 90 N; F, 7
F, = F, - F, 240 N - 90 N 150 N
Addition and resolution of forces

whose lines of action lnterseet
(force wctoral
Example of graphical addition:
F1 120 N; F, 170 N; y 118";

M 1 10 N/mm; F, = 7; measured: I 25 mm
F, I M 1 25 mm 10N/mm = 250N
Resolution
Example of graphical resolution:
F,
F1
=260 N;
a 90";
Sotving a force diagram by

adding or resolving
p 15;
M1 - 10 N/mm;
7; F1 = 7; measured: 11 = 7 mm; 12 27 mm
F1 =1 1 M 1 7 mm 10N/mm 70N
F, =l2 Mt=21 mm 10N/mm 270 N
Shape of
the force
diagram
Required
trigonometric
function
Force diagram sine,

with right
cosine,
angles
tangent
Force diagram Law of sines,
with oblique Law of
angles
cosines
Forces of acceleration and deceleration

A force is required to accelerate or decelerate a mass.
F acceleration force
a acceleration
m mass
Acceleration force
Example:
m
m = 50kg; a a 3S2; F :?
F = mB= 50kg3 !:!:!.= 150kg. !:!:!.a 150 N

s2
s2
Weight
Gravity generates a weight force on a mass.
Fw weight
g gravitational
m
mass
acceleration
Example:
Fw = 7
Fw=mg= 1200 kg 9.81~ =11772N
1-beam, m 1200 kg;
Fw =9,81 N
Weight
Fw= m g
g - 9.81 ~ 1 0~
s
Calculation o f m ass:
page 31
Spring forc:e (Hooke's law)

The force and corresponding linear expansion
of a spring are proportional within the elastic range.
F spring force
s spring displacement
R spring constant
40~
...t
300
t:zoo
~ 100
'ii
~
Spring force
F= R S
Example:
0 ll!:~.l..._.J..._J
0
10 20mm40
spring
displacement
s ..._.
Compression spring, R 8 N/mm; s 12 mm; F = 7
F = RS=8~ 12 mm= 96N

mm
Change in spring for ce
t:. F= R t:.s
37
Physics: 2.2 Forces
Torque, Levers, Centrifugal force

Torque and Ieven
The effective lever arm is the right anglo distance Moment
between tho fulcrum and the line of application of
the force. For disk shaped rotating parts the lever
arm coNesponds to the radius r.
M
moment
F force
lever principle
I
effective lell8r arm
l:Mt sum of all counter-clockwise moments
I M, sum of all clockwise moments
Two-ended lever
~~' \ f
Example:
Ang~~N,
~~~ -=~$
F,
.~
Angle lever, F1
30 N; / 1 0.15 m; 12 0.45 m ;
F,. - 7
F = F1 11 = 30 N 0.15m lON
2
12
lever principle with

only 2 applied forces
F, . I, = F2 . /2
0.45m
Bearing forces
Example of bearing forces
A bearing point is treated as a fulcrum in calculating lever principle

bearing forces.
FA, Fa bearing forces
I, 1,, 12 effective
F1, F,. forces
181/er arms
Example:
Bearing Ioree at A
Overhead travelling crane, F1 40 kN; F2 15
kN; 11 6 m ; 12 : 8 m; I = 12 m; FA= 7
Solution: B is selected as fulcrum point; the
bearing Ioree FA is assumed on a singleended lever.
FA = F1 11 +1)12 40kN 6m+ 15kN 8m 30kN
I
12m
Torque in gear drives

The lever arm of a gear is half of its reference diame- Torques
ter d. Different torques result if two engaging gears ,......_ _ _ _ __,
do not have the same number of teeth.
M, = 1 d,
f1
Driving gear
Driven gear
F, 1 tangential force
Fa tangential force
M 2 torque
M 1 torque
d 1 reference diameter
d, reference diameter
z1 number of teeth
q number of teeth
n 1 rotational speed
n, rotational speed
gear ratio
Example:
Gears, i a 12; M1 =60 N . m ; ~ - ?
~= i
M 1 = 12 60N .m a 720N m
For gear ratios for gear drives see page 259.
Centrifugal force
Centrifugal force Fe when a mass is made to move
along a curvilinear path, e. g. a circle.
Centrifugal force
Fe centrifugal force w angular velocity
m mass
v circumferential velocity
r radius
Example:
mv2
Turbine blade, m 160 g; v 80 mts;

d=400 mm; Fe = 7
F. = mv2 = 0.16kg. toom/SJ2
r
o.2m
5120kg. m = 5120N
s2
Fc= - -
38
Physics: 2.3 Work. Power, Efficiency
Work and Energy

Mechanical wortc. lifting work and frictional wortc
Worl< is performed when a force acls along a distance.
F
Fw
~=A
FN
force in direction of travel

weight
friction force
normal force
s. h
JJ
work
force distance
height of lift
coeffocient of
friction
Work
W = Fs
L.ihlng wortt
W =fW h
1st example:
Frictional work
F 300 N; S 4 m; W 1
w . F S
300N 4 m 1200 N m 1200J
2nd example:
FN 0.8 kN; S 1.2 m; ,_,. 0.4; W 1

5 0.4 . 800 N . 1.2 m 384 N . m - 384J
Frictional work.
w.,. . .Fr.
1kWh3.6MJ
Energle of position
Energie of position is stored worl< (energy of position,
spring energy).
E.-gyof
position
r-,
! :
E. Wp energy of position
Fw
s. h
weight
force
spring constant
travel, lift or fall
height, spring
displacement
Energy of position
Wp ==
FW s
Example:
Drop hammer, m = 30 kg; s 2.6 m; W0
W0 = Fw s = 30kg 9.81~ 2.6m = 765J
Kinetic energy
Unear motion
Kinetic energy is energy of motion.
E. IN)< kinetic energy or work
v velocity
m mass
angular velocity
mass moment of inertia
J
Rotational motion (rotation)
Kinetic energy
of linear motion
Example:
J~
Drop hammer, m = 30 kg;
s = 2.6 m; IN)< = 1
v = ~ =J2- 9.81
2.6 m =7.14 rnts
Wk = m -v2 = 30kg-{7.14 rn/s)2 _
J
766
2
2
mts2
Kinetic energy
of rotational motion
Golden Rule of Mechanics

"What is gained in force is lost in distance.
W1
F1
s,
Fw
h
input wo rk
input force
displacement of
force F1
weight
height of lift
W 2 output work
F2 output force
52 displacement of
force F2
'I
effociency
Example:
Ufting device. Fw= 5 kN; h =2m; F= 300 N; s= 1
s =fwh= 5000N-2m _ 3J.Jm
F
300N
" Golden Rule"

of Mechanics
Allowing for
friction
39
Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency
Simple machines
Fixed pulley11
Movable pulley11
F, = Fw
F, =Fw
2
s, = 2. h
Block and tackle 11
Inclined plane11
n no. of load-bearing
a ang le of inclination
ropes, pulleys
F1 s,
F, = -Fw
=Fw h
F1 =
Wedgell
Fw sin a
Boft1 1
p angle of inclination
tan fJ incline
F,
P thread pitch
I leverarm
For 1 full turn
s, =F2 h
Gear winch 1'
Hoisting winch,,
I
crank length
drum
diameter
number of turns
of the drum
Fwd
F1 1= - 2
crank length
drum
diameter
gear
ratio
Fwd
F,fi = - 2
11 The formulae apply to a hypothetical frictionless condition, wherein the output work W1 is equal to the input work
w2.
40
Physics: 2.3 Work. Power, Efficiency
Power and Efficiency

Power in linear motion
Power is work per unit time.
P
W
Power
power
work
velocity
displacement in
the Ioree direction
time
P= w
1st elUimple:
Forklift. F 15 kN; v 25 mtmin; P ?
P s F V=15000N 2Sm = 6250N m a 6250W = 62S kW

60s
s
P = F v
2nd eKample:
Crane lifts a machine.
l 4.5s;P a ?
1.2 t; s 2.5 m;
1W s 1
Fw=mg= 1200kg - 9.81 mtsl= 11772N
~
s
=1 N - m
P =f:tt.:_! 11n2 N 2.5m =6640W = 6.5kW

1
4.5s
1kW = 1.36PS
For power in pumps and cylinders see page 371 .
Power in circular motion

p power
M torque
F tangential force
v velocity
s displacement in the force direction

1 time
n rotational speed
w angular velocity
Power
P =F v
P=F n dn
EKample:
P= M 2 n n
Belt drive, F= 1.2kN; d=200mm; n=2800/min; P=?
P = F ndn
1_
= 1.2kN . " - 0.2 m .
2000
60s
= 35.2kN m = 35.2kW
s
or:
Numerical equation:
Enter ..... Min N . m , n in 1/min
Result-> Pin kW
For cutting power in machine tools see pages 299 and 300.
Power
M -n
P=--
9550
Efficiency
input
power
P Mt=Pt
Efficlency refers to the ratio of power or work output to the Efficiency

power or work inpuL
r-----P.
~---,
P1 input power
W 1 input work
'I total efficiency
P1
output power
W2
output work
, , '11 partial efficiencies
1) =
P,
w2
1)=-
w,
&ample:
Belt drive, P1 = 4 kW; P1 =3 kW; '11 =85%; 1/= ?; '11 = 7
'1 =!1_= 3kW = 0.7S;

P1
Brown coal power station

Coal power station
Natural gas power station
Gas turbine
Steam turbine (high pressure)
Water turbine
Cogeneration
0.32
0.41
0.50
0.38
0.45
0.85
0.75
4kW
Total efficiency
>lz=.!l.= 0.75 = 0.88

'h
0.85
Gasoline engine
0.27
Automobile diesel engine (partial load) 0.24
Automobile diesel engine (full load)
0.40
Large diesel engine (partial load)
Large diesel engine (full load)
Three phase AC motor
Machine tools
O.JJ
0.55
0.85
0.75
Screw thread
Pinion gear
Worm gear, i 40
Friction drive
Chain drive
Wide Vbelt d rive
Hydrostatic transmission
0.30
0.97
0.65
0.80
0.90
0.85
0.75
41
Physics: 2.4 Friction
Types of friction, Coefficients of friction

Friction force
Static friction, sliding friction
fN
[ ; :: ~
The resulting friction Ioree Is dependent on the normal

Ioree 1), and the
Friction force for static
type of friction, i.e. static. sliding or rolling friction
and sliding friction
frictional condition (lubrication condition):
dry. mi><ed or viscous friction.
fT.=J.LFlJ
surface roughness
material pairing (material combination)
These effects are all incorporated into the e><perimentally
determined coefficient of friction ,.._
Friction force
1i>J normal force f ooeffocient of rolling friction
for rolling friction tl
f'f friction force ,. ooeffocient of friction
r radius
Static friction, t>llding friction
ff
1st example:
Plain bearing. 1i>J 100 N;,. = 0.03; f'f 1
f'f = ,.. FN= 0.03 100 N = 3 N
f): = ~
r
I
I
Rolling fTiction
FN
Fr
2nd example:
/O:ii.,
Crane wheel on steel rail, 1), 45 kN; d 320 mm;

f 0.5 mm; f'f 1
FF = f F, 0.5 mm 45000 N 140.6N
160mm
\ "'1
__i
ff--
'
Coefficients of friction (guideline values)
..,
II caused by elastic
deformation between roller body
and rolling surface
..,
lubricatod
0.10
0.15
0.10
0.10
0.15
0.18
0.10
0.10
0.10- 0.05
0.10-0.08
0.06-0.0321
0.05 - 0.03 21
0.30
0.04
0.60
0.55
0.15
0.04
0.30
0.10
0.30
0.04
0.55
0.35
0.12 - 0.03 21
0.0421
0.3-0.2
0.05
0.50
0.28
0.50
0.20
0.16
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.20- 0.10
eo.flldent"' ...... ~ ,. Coofllclent "' -.g frlc!lon ,.
Material p.iring
Example of llppllcatlon
steel/steel
steel/cast iron
steei/Cu-Sn alloy
steei/Pb-Sn alloy
vise guide
machine guide
shaft in solid plain bearing
shaft in multjlayer plain bearing
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.15
steel/polyamide
steei/PTFE
steel/friction lining
steel/wood
shaft in PA plain bearing

low temperature bearing
shoe brake
part on an assembly stand
WOOd/WOOd
cast iron/Cu-Sn alloy
rubber/cast iron
rolling elemenVsteel
underlay blocks
adjustment gib
belts on a pulley
anti-friction bearing31, guidewayli
0.003-0.001
21 The significance of the material pairing decreases with increasing sliding speed and presence of mixed and viscous
31
friction.
Calculation performed in spite of rolling movement. because it is typically similar to calculations of static or sliding
friction.
Coefficients of rolling friction (guideline values)41

Material pairing
Example of appicetlon
steel/steel
plastic/concrete
rubber/asphalt
steel wheel on a guide rail

caster wheel on concrete ftoor
car tires on the street
Coefficient of roling friction f in mm
Friction moment and friction power in bearings

M
FN
(# ~
\_
~ ,. .Jj
~h=JI F11
I'N
friction moment
normal force
frict.i on power
41 Data on coefficients
of rolling friction can

vary considerably in
technical literature.
0.5
5
8
,.
d
coefficient
of friction
diameter
rotational speed
Example:
Steel shaft in a Cu-Sn plain bearing,,. 0.05;
F, 6kN; d= 160 mm; M = 1
M ='"'F,d = 0.056000N 0.16m 24N m
2
2
Ft-iction moment
M=J.L~d
2
Friction power
I P=w Fw n dn l
42
Physics: 2.5 Pressure in liquids and gases
Types of pressure
Pressure
A
pressure
area
Pressure
F force
F
P =-
Example:
F 2 MN; piston 0 d 400 mm; p .. 7

F 2000000N
N
p .. -..
., 1591 -::;- 159.1 a.-
1t
I<Wcmr
cm-
Units of pressure
N
1 Pe .. 1 rrY- 0.00001 bar
N
N
10 crrll 0. 1 mrrll
1 bar
For calculations on hydraulics and pneumatics see page 370. 1 mbar .. 100 Paa 1 hPa
Gage pressure. air pressure, absolute pressure

Po
J.,
c!
+1
Pa
:1
..
~
:; bar
bar
Q.
~~
QQ.
air
lll
pressure
.1 li e! Pomb
1
gage pressure (excedens. excess)
Pamt> air pressure (ambient, surroundings)

absolute pressure
The gage p ressure is

positive. if Pot>s > p - end
negative, if , _ < Pemb (vacuum)
E.xample:
Gagep~re
Pe
=Pabs -
P amb
Pomb 1.013 bar " 1 bar

(standard air pressure)
Car tires. Po ., 2.2 bar; Pamt> 1 bar; Pebo 7
~~~vacuum
Pobs =Po+ Pemb 2.2 bar+ 1 bar 3.2 bar
Hydrostatic pressure. buoyancy

Pe hydrostatic pressure,
q
g
Iii
inherent pressure
V
density of the liquid
h
gravitational acceleration
buoyant force
displaced volume
depth of liquid
Hydrostatic pressure
Pe = 9 e h
Buoyant force
Example:
What is the pressure in a water depth of 10m?
m
kg
p 0 = 9 I} h = 9.81 ;z 1000 m3 10m
Fa =9eV
g=9.B1~., 10 ~
s
kg
= 98100 m. s2 = 98100Pa ~ 1t..
For density values, see page 117.
Pressure changes in gases

Compt'ession
condition 1
condition 2
~ ~
Boyle's law
5
bar
t~
I
_.
.
1
~ ~..~-_...
~
3 dm3 5
volume V - - -
Concfrtion 1
,_, absolute pressure
V1
volume
T1
absolute
temperature
Condition 2
PatK2 absolute pressure
v2 volume
T2 absolute
temperature
Paas1 V1
= Pabs2 V2
T,
T2
Special cases:
constant taml)ature
Example:
A compressor aspirates V1 30 m3 of air at
= 1 bar and r1 = 15c and compresses
it to V2 = 3.5 m3 and r2 = 150"C.
What is the pressure ~Jat:,a7
Pobsl
calculation of absolute temperatures (page 511:

T1 = r1 + 273 = (15 + 273) K = 288 K
T2 = r2 + 273 = (150 + 2731 K 423 K
Plb!Q =
V, T2
T1 -v2
1 bar-3:lm3 -423K
= 288 K 3.5 m3 - 12.S bar
p_,
Pabs1 . v, = Pabs2 . v 21
constant volume
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials
Load cases. Types of loading, Material properties, Stress limits

Load cases
dyMmic loading
st8tlc lo8dlng
!lfvv
pWNtlng
tatlonery
.tt-lng
Jt=_ :M_
hme -
Load case II
The load increases to a maximum
value and then falls back to zero,
e. g. for crane cables and springs.
]o
hme--
~-~ t
tm.~
Loadcase I
M agnitude and direction of the load
remain the same. e. g. for a weight
load on columns.
Loadcase Ill
The load alternates between a posi
tive and a negative maximum value
of equal magnitude. e.g. for rotating
axles.
Types of loading, material ~operties. stress limits
su.a
Type of load
Tension
Compression
Material properties
Umlt .....
Strength
for pllstlc
defolnw!lon
tensile
stress
tensile
strength
o,
Rm
:d
Shear
~
Tonion
H
Buckl ing
:=
-~
elongation
Re
0.2%-yield
point
Rp0.2
elongation
at fracture
A
stress
com pression
strength
natural
compression
yield point
compression set
Oc
Oce
O'cf
tc
com pres-
sion
0.2 %offset compressive

yield strength
failure
CcB
Oc0.2
Bending
yield strength
Standard str-limits O'Mm

few load case
I
II
Ml
material
ductile brittle
!steel) (cast
iron)
pulsating
tensile
fatigue
strength
alternating
tensile
fatigue
strength
OtPliiS
o,A
pulsating
compres
sion
fatigue
strength
alternating
compres
sion
fatigue
strength
Ocpuls
OcA
pulsating
bending
fatigue
strength
alternating
bending
fatigue
strength
ob.,..ls
O'bA
pulsating
torsional
fatigue
strength
alternati ng
torsional
fatigue
strength
TtPUIS
r 1A
Rm
Ro
Rpo.2
material
ductile brittle
(steel)
(cast
iron)
O'cf
Oce
Oco.2
bending
stress
bending
strength
bending
limit
deflection
bending
limit
O'b
O'bB
O'bf
O'bf
shear
strength
shear
stress
shear
strength
'
'8
rse
torsional
stress
torsional
strength
torsional
limit
angular
deflection
torsional
limit
r,
'a
Tof
"'
Tof
buckling
stress
buckling
strength
O'b<J
Otx.e
buckling
strength
O't><JB
44
Mechanical strength properties, Allowable stresses, Safety factors

Mechanical strength properties in static and dynamic loMing11
Typeof lold
Tension, Cornpt-.lon
ShHr
Toraion
Bending
Load case
II
Ill
II
Ill
Stress
limito1im
R,. Rpo.2
OtJ>~Ao
o ,A
Ocf~ Oc.0.2
OcJ>~Ao
De A
r,e
C1b F
Ob J>~Ao
ObA
t'lf
Material
Stress limit owm in

235
275
295
335
365
235
275
295
335
365
440
510
635
735
835
340
490
580
650
800
900
1050
440
510
635
735
835
340
490
580
630
710
760
870
S235
S275
E295
E335
E360
C15
17Cr3
16MnCr5
20M nCr5
18CrNiMo7 6
C22E
C45E
C60E
46Cr2
41Cr4
50CrMo4
30CrNiM o8
150
180
210
250
300
140
160
170
190
210
120
140
150
160
190
610
670
740
920
1040
370
390
440
540
610
250
290
360
420
470
250
290
360
420
470
210
220
270
310
350
410
520
600
670
750
820
930
240
310
350
390
440
480
550
245
350
400
455
560
630
735
245
350
480
455
510
560
640
165
210
240
270
330
330
375
340
390
260
300
340
390
150
180
210
240
115
135
150
175
115
135
150
175
90
105
120
140
350
420
345
500
380
600
700
500
560
470
520
220
240
270
300
200
240
290
320
195
225
275
305
115
130
160
175
410
470
510
470
550
600
430
480
550
880
940
960
400
610
710
890
1030
1170
490
220
280
325
370
410
450
510
560
700
680
720
800
880
1000
800
300
360
420
480
300
300
160
185
210
240
EN GJS-400
ENGJS-500
EN-GJS-600
EN GJS-700
250
300
360
400
240
270
330
355
140
155
190
205
II
140
160
170
190
210
380
800
200
230
260
"tA
N/mm 2
170
200
240
280
330
330
340
390
330
200
230
260
...,....
290
350
410
470
510
290
390
GS 38
GS-45
GS-52
GS-60
Ill
II
910
1120
1260
1470
400
260
300
Values were determined using cylindrical samples having d s 16 m m with polished surface. They apply to strucrural steels in normalized condition; case hardened steels for achieving core strength after case hardening and
grain refinement; heat treatable steels in tempered condition.
The compression strength of cast iron w irh flake graphite is oc s - 4 R,.
Values according to DIN 18800 are to be used for structural steelwork.
Allowable stress for (pre-)sizing of machine parts

For safety reasons parts may only be loaded with a portion of the stress limit o 1;m which will
lead to permanent deformation. fracture or fatigue fracture.
o 8 otow allowable stress
owm stress limit depending on
type of loading and load case
safety factor (table below I
Allowable stress
(preliminary design)
Example:
What is the allowable tensile stress o 1 . - for a hexagonal bolt ISO 4017 - M12 x 50 10.9, if a safety factor of 1.5 is required with static loading?
N
CTum R8 - 10 9 10- - 900 ~; Or ollow

mm2
m
1m
v
900N/mrn2
~
1.5
600 ~2
O'lim
O'attow = - -
mm
For mechanical strength properties for bolts see page 211 .
Safety factors v for (pre-)sizing machine parts

I (s1ric)
LoadType of material
Safety factor v
11
ductile materials,
e.g. steel
1.2-1.8
and .. (dynamic)
brinle materials,
e.g. cast iron
2.0-4.0
ductile materials,
e.g. steel
3 - 41)
brinle materials,
e. g. cast iron
3 - 61)
The high margins of safety in part sizing relative to the stress limits are intended to compensate for yet unknown
strength -reducing effects due to pan shape (for shape-related strength factors see page 48).
45
Physics: 2.6 St rength of Materials
Tensile stress. Compressive stress, Surface pressure

Tensile stress
r
r-~
The calculation of allowable stress only applies to static

loading (Load case 1).
o,
F
t it1
'~(f
~
o,.._
o,=
tensile stress
tensile force
cross-sec1ional area
allowable tensile stress
R.
Rm
yield strength
tensile strength
safely faclor
F..._allowable tensile force
,,
Example:
o-
Round bar steel,

130 N/mm2
(S2.3 5JA,t 1.8); fattow 13.7 kN; d 1
s -~ -
CJ allow
+-=- ~. J'-v
13700N 100mm2
130 Nlmm2
c : 12mm (according to table, page 10)

For mechanical st""'Uth properties II. ond II, see pages 130
to 138. For c:aleulation of elastc ftlongation see~ 190.
Tensile stress
a,
"' s
Allowable tensile force
Fallow = Ot,allow.
sl
Allowable tensile atress
Re
for
steel
O't, allow = - ;
for
cast
iron
O't,allow
Rm
= --;-
Compressive stress
F
r-: r--.,
r-- 1- -
I'-v
s ........_
~I
The calculation of allowable stress only applies to static

loading lload case 1).
compression yield point F
compressive force
O<f'
compressive stress
F-allowableoomp. force
De
o...,...., allowable oomp. suess
CfOSSoSOCtional area
safety faaor
Rm tensile strength
Example.:
o.=sF
v
F
O'c
Allowable
compr8$Sive force
Fallow= Oc,allow.
Rack made of EN-GJL-300; S 2800 mm2;

v 2.5; Follow ?
4 -R,.,
f; a., - 5 = - , -,- S
r-- t--
'-.....:
,,
Comp<essive stress
4 300N/mm2
. 2800 mm2 = 1 344 000 N
2.5
f O< - - Slleflglh ll'OPO'Iieotee _
sl
Allowable
compressive stress
.. a n d - 1~161
O'cF
for
steel
a c. allow = ---;-
for
cast
iron
O'c,allow ..
4 Rm
- v-
Surface pressure
~
Al<~
F
p
force
surface pressure
contact surface,
projected area
&ample:
Sulface pressure
Two metal sheets, each 8 mm thick, are joined with a

bolt DIN 1445-10h1 1 x16 x 30. How great a force may
be applied given a maximum allowable surface pres
sure of 280 N/mm1?
F
p=A
F = pA = 280_!:!_ Bmm -10mm

mm2
= 22400N
Allow able surface pressure for joints with pins and bolts
made of steel (standard values!
Slicing fit smooth bolt
Assembly type
Press fit smooth pin
I At with notched pieee
I
I
Ill
Load case
I II I Ill I I I II I Ill
I II
allowable surface pressure in N/m m1
Component material
10
$235
100
70
35
70
50
25
30
25
25
10
E295
105
75
40
75
55
30
30
30
60
20
30
25
10
cast steel
85
60
45
cast iron
70
50
25
50
35
20
40
30
15
10
15
CuSn, CuZn alloy
40
30
15
30
20
40
30
AICuMg alloy
25
45
35
15
20
15
10
65
45
For reference values for allowable specific bearing load of various plain bearing materials see page 261.
46
Physics: 2.6 Strength of Material s
Shear and buckling stress

Shear stress
The loaded cross-section must not shear.
shear stress
Fallowable shear Slress S
shear strength
v
r
r ... r18
Shear stress
allowable shear force

cross-sectional area
safety factor
Example:
singleshear
Tsa
.. -
--;-
. n d' . n. (6mrn)2 = 28.3 mm2

4
r s. allow
= t30 mm2
= --;;-
F - " S .. - = 28.3mm2t30~ m3679N
mrril
doubleshear
=sF
Allowable
shear stress
Dowel pin 0 6 mm, single shear loaded.
E 295, V 3: F.,_ . 7
r.s 390 NJmrril
rs
FO< mechonCII st._th prOj)ett)es r
,,lind S<lfety fBCtCHS see P<I!Je 44.
Allowable sheer force
Fallow=
S '~'s. allow
Cutting of materials
The toeded crosssection must be sheared.
r.smox max. shear strength

Rm mox max. tensile strength
shea r area
cutting force
Mni mum
shear strength
Example:
Punching a 3 mm thick steel sheet S235JR;
d & t6mm ; F a ?
Cutting force
Rmmox 470 NJmm2 (Table page t30)

' Bmox ~ 0.8 Rmmox 0.8 470 N/mm 2 376 N/mm 2
S n d S lt 16 mm 3 mm 150.8mm2
F S f sBmn = 150.8 mm? 376 Nfmm2 = 5670t N
F =S
'~'sBmax
= 56.7 kN
Buckling stress (Euler columns)

Load case and free buckling
lengths !Euler colum ns)
Load case
II
F
Ill
F
IV
F
Calculation for buckling of Euler columns applies only to

thin (profile) parts and within the elastic range of the
workpiece.
Allowable buckling
fbu.a~~ow allowable buclding force E Modulus of elasticity force
I
length
I Moment of inertia
100
free buclding length
v
safety factor (in machine construction .. ~ 10)
Example:
Beam IPB200, I = 3.5 m; clamped at both ends;
v tO; Fooa~tcw ?; E 2t0000 NJmm2 = 2t . toG N/cm2
(table below); / 11 = 2000 em
2 E 1
lt . .
F -=1[;"7=
Jt2 2t t0S ~2000cm'
--~~~~
~~--~
10.5350cm)2 10
= t.35 toG N = 1.35 MN
free buckling lengths

li>.J=21 /i>.J:I 1~0.11 li>.J:05-I
11 for moments of inertia of an area (2nd moment), se<1 pages
49 and 14fH51. Special calculation methods are stipulated

for stl't.IC!Ural steel ac:c.ording to DIN 18800 and DIN 4114.
Modulus of elasticity E in kN/mm2
t9~2t6
EN-GJI.
150
EN-GJl.
300
80-90
1tD-140
GS-38
17Q-185
210
170
80-t OO
Aleloy
1i alloy
60-80
112- t30
47
Bending and torsional stress

Bending str...
Tensile and compressive stresses occur in a member
during bending. The maximum stress is calculated In
boundary areas of the member; they may not exceed
the allowable bending stress.
F
bending Ioree
Ob bending stress
Mt, bending moment
f
denection
w axial section modulus
Example:
Beam IPE240. W 324 cm3 (page 149); clamped at
one end; concentrated load F 25 kN; I 2.6 m; ob 7
Allowable bending
stress ob allow
from page 44
u - ~ - 25000N 260cm = 20061 ..!:!__ 200 ~

b
w
324cm3
cm2
mm2
Bending to.d c . . in bums
Beam loaded with a conc:entrated load
Beam with a uniformly distributed load
fixed at one end
fixed at one end
F .{3
f= - 3 E I
f =--
F .f3
f= - - -
f = ~----=--
F .f3
8 E I
5Ff3
48- E I
384-El
F./
Mb = -
12
E Modulus of elasticity; values: page 46 I 2nd moment of inertia; formulae: page 49; values: pages 146 to 151.
F" Distributed load (load per unit length, e.g. N/cml
I Length of distributed load
Torsional stress
Aft torsional moment
r 1 torsional stress
Wp polar section modulus
Torsional stress
Example:
Shaft. d e 32 mm;
Aft 420 N - m; r 1 ?
W. ="d :n-(32mm)l - 64J4mm3

p
16
16
r, _ M 1 _ 420000 N - mm 663 -~
- WP
6434 mm3
mmFor polar section moduli see pages 49 and 151
Allowable torsionalstress runow from page

44or page 48
48
Physics:
2.6
Strength
of Materials
Shape factors in strength

Shape-related strength and allowable stress for dynamic loading
Shape-related strength is the fatigue strength of the cross-section of a dynamically loa
dod member w ith an additional allowanoe lor the strength reducing effects of the component's shape. Important factors include
the shape of the component (presence of stress concentration)
machining quality (surface roughness)
stock dimensions (member thickness).
When compensating for the required safety l ector this yields the allowable stress nee
ded to verify the strength of a member which is dynamically loaded.
surface condition factor
b,
os shape-related strength
oum stress limit of the unnotched
size lector
~
cross-section, e. g. "t>a or r, puts (page 44)
stress concentration factor
p~
safety factor lor fatigue frecture
VF
o(rlo~iow allowable stress
Example:
Shape-r elated strength

(dynamic loading)
_<Tum ~-~
us-
{Jk
rs = rrom -~-~
fJk
Allowable stress
(dynamic loading)
us
O"auow= Yf
Rotating axle, E335, transverse hole, surface roughness FU 25 11m.

rough part diameter d =50 mm, safety factor vF 1.7; as ?; oo~~ow 7
abw = 280 N/mm2 (page 44); b 1: 08 ~ 570 N/mm2, diagram below);
b.! = 0.8 (diagram below); Pk = 1.7 (table below)
280 N/mm2 . 0.8. 0.8
% 0~:tcbo bz _
= 105N/mm2
Us
1.7
/Jk
Uallow = os/"F = 105 N/mm2/1.7 = 62Nimm2
rs
ratlow = VF
v,: lor steel .. 1.7
Stress concentration and stress concentration factors Pt. for steel

Example: Stress distribut.i on
lor tensile loading
Unnotched crosssections have an unint.e rrupted distribution of forces and therefore a uniform stress distribution. Changes in cross-sections lead to concentrations
of lines of Ioree where stresses are concentrated. The ensuing reduction of strength
is primarily influenced by the notch shape, but also by the notch sensitivity of the
material.
engoneel'1og
stl"'ess in
unnotched par t
Noteh sNipe
.u ,111
ti'l
Shah with shoulder

Shaft with semicircular notch
Shaft with retaining ring groove
~~/5
.~ )
sTress
S185- E335
S185-E335
S185- E335
1.5- 2.0
1.5-2.2
2.5-3.0
1.3- 1.8
1.3-1.8
2.5-3.0
S185- E335
C45E+OT
SOCrMo4+0T
1.9- 1.9
1.9-2.1
2.1-2.3
1.5- 1.6
1.6- 1.7
1.7-1.8
Woodruff key way in shaft

Spline shah
S185-E335
S185- E335
2.0-3.0
2.0-3.0
1.6- 1.8
Shaft interface to snug fit hub
S185-E335
2.0
1.5
Shaft or axle with transverse

through hole
S185-E335
1.4-1 .7
1.4-1.8
S185-E335
1.3-1.5
tensile loading
1.6- 1.8
Key way in shaft
~ ti't Jl
concentration in
notched part
Flat bar with hole
Surface condition factor b, and size factor
t 1.0
~
0.8 1" '

~ 0.7
c:
0.6
'Ee o.s
~
5
VI
0.4
...
for steel
1.6
09 1:::-- -
~ t:::: ::::--. ~ -
:-
01 E
u
::1.
..... .1'<: -r-~--
~~
Stress cot~C~tration factcw fJk

bending
tonlon
Material
, f'nll,
4 .,
- c
10 5 ;:
25 "'a:
40 1! ~
r-- 100 '~:!!

,_ .r;
1000 1200 1400

400
600
600
tensile stength Rm in N/mf - -
01 en
-=>
01o
'0 '-
t
~
1.0
0.9
.<:)
'-
t~
~
0.8
tt sio, . cojpression
"
............. ~endi~/tolsion
0.1
;;;
0.6
0
25
50 75 100 125 150 mm 200

stock diamet er d - -
49
Moments of area and Polar section moduli 1)

Bending end Budllng
Sh~~pe of the
ArM moment of
lnenlal
croa-sec:tlon
1td3
W --32
1td'
64
~~!
,_
- d 41
64
11 (>4
~
~
PoiMCtion
modulusWp
~w
,___
(ft3
Tonion
AxWMCtlon
W=
1t d3
Wp =-;s-
- d 41
32 0
lt(>4
W0 a
lt(>4
- d 4)
160
, _ 0.05 . )4 - 0.083 d . 03
w . 0.1 . 03 - 0.17 d [)2
I 0.003 (0+ d)4
w . 0.012. (0 + dl3
Wp 0.2d3
, _ 0.003. !D+ d)4
W= 0.012 (0 + dl3
Wp 0.024 . (0 + d)3
W0
0.2 03 - 0.34 d [)2
also applies for more keys
'&P
X
,. = ,, =
1
lB'"
12
s .sJ s .,/3 .d3

w. = 48 = ~
s.J3.s<
5 s3 _5d3
.-24Jj- 64
Wh3
=-12
hw3
I = -y
12
'1~':11
Wp=0.188 s'
w. -
s.J3.d
lx= ly = ~
Wp a 0.208 trJ
,/2.;,3
W, = 1 2
t. = ly = ~
RP
11
W. = trl
6
h'
BHl-wtrl
12
H.B3 - hw3
lv
12
dl
w.= - 6-
wft2
Wp=IJ ..,il . h
hw2
w. = 6-
Values for 'I

see table below
w. =
IX -
W0 = 0.123
w.
BHl - w h 3
6H
HB3 -h w3
Wp =
t (H+hHB +w)
2
68
2nd moments of inertia and axial section moduli for profiles see pages 146 to 151.
AuxiliiWY value '1 for polar section moduli of rectangular c:ross-teetions
h/w
o.208
1.5
1 0.231
0.246
0.267
I
I
0..282
0.299
I
I
0.307
I
I
10
0.313
I "'
I 0.333
50
Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes

Section modul or lltdc moments for type loading
u.Benclng
Budcllng
Tonlon
-~
c.-~Kt~on
&h.-
St.ndMd
de8lgn8tlon

'$*'
w.
m'
kg/m
t.c:tor'' cmJ
w.,
em'
,_..
em'
1...,
Wp
t.c:tort cmJ
fKtor11
round bar
EN 10060100
61 .7
1.00
98
1.00
98
1.00
491
1.00
196
1.00
square bar
EN 10059 100
78.5
1.27
167
1.70
167
1.70
833
1.70
208
1.06
pipe
EN 10220 114.3 X 6.3
16.8
0.27
55
0.56
55
0.56
313
0.64
110
0.56
18.3
0.30
67.8
0.69
67.8
0.69
339
0.69
110
0.56
hollow
structural
section
EN 10210.2
100 X 100 X 6.3
16.1
0.26
59
0.60
38.6
0.39
116
0.24
77
0.39
hollow
structural
section
EN 10210 2
120x 60x6.3
flat bar
EN 10058100 X 50
39.3
0.64
83
0.85
41 .7
0.43
104
0.21
T-section
EN 10055T100
16.4
0.27
24.6
0.25
17.7
0.18
88.3
0.18
U-Channel
section
EN 1026U100
10.6
0.17
41.2
0.42
8.5
0.08
29.3
0.06
!-beam section
DIN 10251100
8.3
0.13
34.2
0.35
4.9
0.05
12.2
0.02
.j:
!-beam section
DIN 1025l PB100
20.4
0.33
89.9
0.92
33.5
0.34
167
0.34
fll
.fn
:r
I
t
-t-
y
11 Factor referenoed to round bar EN 10060-100 (cross-section in first row of table)
51
Physics: 2.7 Thermodynamics
Effects of changes in temperature

Temperature
T
373
K
273
t
+tOO - boiling point
of water
point
0 __ melting
oflce
_273 _
absolute
zero
Temperetures are measured in Kelvin IKl. ~ Celllus

(Centigrade, ' Cl or degreM Fehnw'lhelt I'Fl. The Kelvin scale
originates etthe lowest possible temperature, absolute zero;
T= t+ 273
the origin of the Celsius scale is at the melting point of ice.
T temperature in K
r. {J temperoture in c
!thermodynamic temperacure)
rF temperature in 'F
TemperlttUt"e In
Example:
degtHs Fahrenheit
t 20'C;
tf = 1.8. t + 32
T t + 273 (20 + 273) K 2:93 K
r.?
Unear expansion, Change In ciameter

a1
ooeff1cient of
linear expansion
M , AO temperature change
AI linear expansion
Ad change in diameter
/1
initial length
d 1 initial diameter
Example:
Unear expanllon
l1/=a1 -/1 l1t
Change In dlamltter
Plate of unalloyed steel,/1 ~ 120 mm; a 1 ~ 0.000 011 9 ~

At = 550'C; AI= ?
11/ = a 1 -/1 lit
1
0.0000119 OC 120mm 550'C 0.785mm
l l1d= a 1 d 1 M
For coefficients of line
ar expansion see
pages 116 and 117
Change in volume
av
coefficient of
volumetric expansion
AV change in volume
V,
initial volume
At, AD temperature change

Example:
Gasoline.
v, ~ so I; av ~ 0.001~; At~32'C; t.V ~ ?
11V = avV1 At~0.0012_ 60 I 32' C = 1.91

'C
Change In volume
l l1V=avV1
M I
For solids
av 3 a 1
For coefficients of volu
metric expansion see
page 117.
For volumetric expansi
on of gases see page 42.
Shrinkage
S
I,
shrinkage allowance in %
workpiece length
/1
pattern length
I _ 1100%
pattern""
..-.
--
""~- -
. ue,,.,
.,
._u
- ----,.~ ,v-- "\.
workpiece
I
Example:
- 100%-S
AI casting, I 680 mm; S 1.2%; /1 ?

11
= /-100% = saomm 100%

100%-S
100%- 1.2%
= 688.2mm
For shrinkage allow

ances see page 163
Quantity of heat with changes in temperet\A'e

The specific: heat c indicates how much heat is needed to Quantity of heat
warm up 1 kg of a substance by 1' C. The same quantity of
heat is released again during cooling.
O=cmM
c
spec. heat capacity
0 quantity of heat
At, lJ.{J temperature change
m mass
Example:
lcJ
Steel shaft, m = 2 kg; c = 0.48 kg. 'C;
At=8000C; 0=7
0 = cmAt=0.48~ 2 kg 800'C= 7681cJ

kg OC
11cJ= tkWh
3600
tkWh=3.6MJ
For specific heat see
pages 116 and 117.
52
Physics: 2.7 Thermodynamics
Heat for Melting, Vaporizing, Combustion

Hut of fusion, Hut of vaporization
Heal energy is necessary 10 lransform substances from Heat of fusion
a solid stale to a liquid state or from a liquid state to a
gaseous stal.e. This is known as the heal of fusion or heal
O=qm
of vaporizalion.
0 heal of fusion
r specific heat
heal of evaporation
of evaporal ion
Heat of vaporization
q specific heal of fusion
m mass
Heat of vaporization
' r-h
steam!
100
0(
1f
f .
115*1
- .
liquid
Copper, m 6.5 kg; q 213 ~; 0 7

kg
,;;;
Exunple:
(water)
o ~ q m 213~ 6.5kg
quantit y of heat
kg
1384.5kJ U MJ
O=rm
I
I
For specifte heat of

fusion and heat of
evaporation see
pages 116 and 117.
Hu t flux
The heat flux <P continually occurs wilhin a substance Heat flux with
thennal conduction
whh movemen1 from higher 10 lower temperawres.
The heat t r1111$1ni$$lon ooefflcient lr also compensates,
A. A M
along wi1h the thermal conductivity of a part, for the heat
4>= - -s
lransmission resistance on the surfaces of the part.
t,
A/
'
'
t 2<f1
<P heal flux

A thermal conductivity
k heat transmission
ooefficient
tJ.t. All temperature difference

component thickness
s
A
area of the component
Example:
Heat protection glass. k = 1.9 rnZW ; A = 2.8 m2;
t.r = 32"C;<P = 7
"C
"' <~>
<P = k A llt = 1.9~

-2.8rnZ 32"C= 170W
rnZ. "C
Heat flux with

heat t ransmission
C!l=k A M
For thermal conductivi

tv values A see
pages 116 and 117.
For heat transmission
coefftcients k see
below.
Heat of combustion
~ !;,
--'; \'Q
v
The net calorific value H,. (H) of a substance refers

to the heat quantity released during the complete
combustion of 1 kg or 1 m' of that substance.
0
heat ot combustion
Hnt, H net calorific value
m
mass of solid and liquid fuels
v
volume of fuel gas
Example:
MJ
Natural gas. V = 3.8 ml; f4...=35 m3 ; 0 = 7
~~
MJ
0 = f4... V= 35m3 3.8 m3 = 133 MJ
a_
Uquid
0 = Hnet m
Heat of combustion of
gases
0 = Hnet V
H.at transmlesion coeffldents k

for construction materials Md parts
Net calorific valua H- IHI low fl*s

Solid
fuels
Heat of combustion of
solid and liquid substances
a_
"']
MJ/ kg
fuals
MJ/kg
Gaseous
fuels
wood
biomass (dry)
brown coal
coke
pit coal
15-17
14-18
16 - 20
30
30-34
alcohol
benzene
gasoline
diesel
fuel oil
27
40
43
41 - 43
40-43
hydrogen
natural gas
acetylene
propane
butane
a_
Construction
MJ/ml elements
10
outer door, steel
34-36 sash window

57
93
123
brick wall
intermediate floor
heat insulating board
s
mm
50
12
365
125
80
kmz.oc
5.8
1.3
1.1
3.2
0.39
53
Physics: 2.8 Electricity
Quantities and Units, Ohm's Law, Resistance

Electrical quantities and units
au.ntlty
Unit
Symbol
Name
Neme
Symbol
e lectrical voltage
volt
e lectric curre nt
ampere
e lectrical resistance
ohm
e lectrical conductance
Siemens
e lectrical power
wan
I
I
1 0= ~
1A
1W = 1V 1A
I
I
Ohm's law
J'
l'
E voltage in V
I e lectric current in A
R resistance in Q
Example:
Electric current
R = 880; E = 230V; I = 7
R
E
1 =_ = 230V = 2.6A
R 880
/ = E._
R
For circuit symbols see

page351 .
Electrical resistance and conductance
i:E
..
'Rj 0
O.S
1.S
Resistance
R resistance in Q
G conductance in S
Example:
2 S 2.S
Electrical resistivity, electrical conductivity, conductor resistance

electrical resistivity in Q mm2/m
electrical conductivity in mi(Q. mm2)
R resistance in Q
(!
~
~
w ire cross section in
R=~
G
Conductance
R= 200; G = 7
1
1
G = ;q = 200 = 0.05S
conductance (j - - -
I
I
mm2
wire length in m
Example:
I
G=~
R
Electrical resistivity
1
(! = -
Copperwire,l = 100m;
A= 1.5mm2;u = 0.0179 O -mrrr : R = 7
m
mm> . 100m
ol 0.0179 o . m
- 1.190
R =- =
1.5mm2
A
For electrical resistivities, see pages 116 and 117.
Conduc:tor resistance
{} . f
R=-
Resistance and Temperature

Material
Tk value a in 1/K
aluminum
0.0040
lead
0.0039
gold
0.0037
copper
0.0039
silver
0.0038
tungsten
0.0044
tin
0.0045
zinc
0.0042
graphite
-0.0013
constantan
.. 0.00001
AR change in resistance in Q
R'J!) resistance at 20"C in Q
R, resistance at the temperature t in Q
a temperature coefficient ( Tk value) in 1/K
At temperature difference in K
Change in resistance
1 6 R =a R20 M
Resistance at
temperature t
Example:
Resistance of Cu; Rro = 150 Q; f= 75"C; R, ?
o o.0039 1/ K; At= 75"C - 2oc = ssc " ss K
R, R'J!)(l+a Atl
1so o. 11 o.0039 1/K. ss Kl = 182.2 n
R1 = R2o+ t.R
Rt = R2o (1 + a M)
54
Current density, Resistor circuits

Current density In wires
+"() allowable wrrenl d_ens1l y

- A 1-+-1-+-1:~1--;
l64 -
a
~2
.f 0o
..
- f-_:;.. . ~
Example:
current density in AJmm2

eleclric current in A
A conductor cross section in mm2
J
I
--
1 2 l 4 mm2 6
conductor (cross-sectional) area A
A 2.5mm2; 1= 4A; J = 7
J .,!... .. ~ : 1.6 ~
A
2.5mm2
mm2
Voltage drop In wires
/;J
E
E,;
I
R,..,.
Voltage dtop
voltage drop in wire in V

voltage at terminal in V
voltage across load in V
electric current in A
resistance for feed or
retum line in Q
Voltage at load
Series resistor circuit
total resistance. equivalent resistance in Q

total current in A
E
total voltage in V
R,, R, individual resistances in Q
11, 1,. partial current in A
E,, & voltage drop across R, & R2 in V
Total resistance
R = R, + R2 +...
Total voltage
Example:
Total current
R, = 100; R, = 200; E = 12V; R = 7; / 5 ?;

Et= 7; E2 =7
R = R1 + R2 = 100 + 200 = 30 0
Voltage drops
1 = E:_ = 12V = 0.4A

R 300
E , = R, 1 = 100 0.4A = 4 V
E2 =~1 = 2000.4A = 8V
Para llel resistor circuit

R
total resistance, equivalent resistance in Q

total current in A
E
total voltage in V
Rt. R, individual resistances in Q
11, l2 partial current in A
E,, & voltage drop across R, & ~ in V
Example:
R, = 150; ~=300; E = 12V; R = 7; I = 7;

11 = 7; l 2 = 7
R _ R,~
R1 + R2
150 30 0
150+ 300
lOO
1 =E:_ = 12 V = 12A
R 100
Total resistance
E,
11
= ~ = 12v = 0.8A'
R, 150
" Use this formula if there a re only two parallel

resistors in the circuit.
- :: -+-+ ...
R R1 R2
Total voltage
Total current
I = I, + /2 + .. .
Partial currents
55
Types of current
Direct CUrTent (DC; symbol - 1. DC voltage
~ ~------------
'---
Direct current flows in one direction only and main Et.ctric current
tains a constant level of current. The voltage is also
constant.
I = constant
I
E voltage in V
t
timeins
f ---
E .. constant
Alternating current IACI; symbol - ), AC voltage

Cycle duretlon and Necjuency
While the voltage is continuously changing in a sinu Cycle duntion
soidal pattern, tho free electrons are also continuous
ly alternating their direction of flow.
f frequency in 1/s, Hz
T period ins
w angular frequency in 1/s
I
electri<: current in A
E voltage in V
1 time ins
Angular frequency
Example:
Frequency 50 Hl; T = 7
-T
T a ..2._ = 0.02s
so'
1 Hertz 1 Hz 1/s
1 period per second
Maximum value and .tfective value d current and voltage

/""'' maximum value of the electric current in A
/e11 eHective value of the electric current in A
""'. maximum value of the voltage in V
E"ett eHective value of the voltage in V (voltage
that produces the same power as an identical
DC voltage across an ohmic resistor).
I
E
voltageinV
time ins
Example:
M aximum value of the

electric current
lmax
=f2 feff
Maximum value of the
~~:, f2 E,,
E"eti = 230 V; E""" = 7

~ afl 230V a 325V
Three-phase current
Three-phase current is created from three
AC voltages each oHset by 120".
E
T
voltage inV
period ins
L1 phase 1
L2 phase 2
L3 phase 3
E"ett eHective voltage between phase wire and
neutral wire = 230 V
Ee11 eHective voltage between two phase wires
= 400V
r:.
Maximum value of the
f2
E,.
56
Electrical Work and Power, Transformers

Electrical work
!ololo!ol3l!!ll
W electrical work in kW . h
electrical power in W
r time (power-on time) in h
E.lectrlcal work
W = P t
Example:
Hot plate, P 1.8 kW; t 3 h;
W- 7 in kW . hand MJ
~0
Oc::=:l
~~~~
NQ =
W p. t 1.8 kW 3 h 5.4 kW h - 19.44 MJ
1 kW h = 3.6 MJ
- 3600000 w . s
Elec:tric:el power with dlrec:t cunent Met eltemeting or thrM-phMe cunent with nocweec:tive 1oac111
Direct or alternating current
--
j
,
r
electrical power in W
1st example:
Light bulb, E = 6V; I = SA ; P =7; R =1
p ,. E 1 = 6V SA = JOW
R
.----..
...,
N
..,J
2nd example:
R,
..,J ~
I~
PQ E l
P = 12 R
P=-
R = E_ = SV = 1 20
I SA
Three-phase current
..,J
Power with direct

or alternating current
E voltage (phase-to-phase voltage) in V

I electric current in A
R resistance in 0
Annealing furnace, threephase current,

E = 400V; P = 12kW; 1= 1
P
12000W
I = 'Jl.E = Jj.400V = 17.3A
,..!!.L,
-.3.-L..
Pow with
three-phase current
P = f3 E I
i.e. only with heeting devices (ohmic resistors)
11
Electrical power with alternating end three-phase current with reactive load component 12'
Alternating current
ltt:=J
Thr..-phase current
..,J
.....
_,
N
..,J
'l
electrical power output in W

voltage (phase-tophase voltage) in V
COS' power factor
Electric pow o.rtput

with alternating current
E
I
Eumplcr.
Three-phase motor, E 400 V; I 2 A;
COS\1' = 0.85; P= 7
~~
.----..
(3 EI COS'/' (3 400V 2A 0.85
= 1178 W 1.2 kW
I
I
P = E . J . COS<{J
Elec:tric power output

with three-phase current
P= {3 . E .J. COS</)
21
i.e. in electric motors and generators
Transformers
Input
Output
side
side
(primary coil)
(secondary
coill
J,
11
ITJffi
N1 ,
number of turns
11 ,
current level in A
E,.E2 voltages in V
Example:
N1 = 2875; N2 =100;E 1 = 230V; J, = 0.25A; E2 = ?; 12 = ?
E = E1 ~ = 230V100 = 8 V
2
N1
2875
lz = I,N, 0.25A 2875 - 72A
100
Nz
Voltages
I
I
~ = N,
E2 N2
Electric current
!J_ = N2
/2
N,
Table of Contents
57
3 Technical drawing
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Basic geometric constructions

Lines and angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tangents, Circular arcs, Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inscribed circles. Ellipses. Spirals . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cycloids. Involute curves. Parabolas . . . . . . . . . .
59
60
61
G raphs
Cartesian coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Graph types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
63
Drawing elements
Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drawing layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Line types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
65
66
67
Representation
Projection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Views ... ......................... ........
Sectional views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
71
73
75
Entering dimensions
Dimensioning rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diameters. Radii, Spheres, Chamfers, Inclines.
Tapers, Arc dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tolerance specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simplified presentation in drawings . . . . . . . . . .
3.6
81
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Weking and Soldering

Graphical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dimensi oning examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9
78
80
Wori<piec:e elements
Bosses, Workpiece edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thread runouts. Thread undercuts . . . . . . . . . . .
Threads, Screw joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Center holes. Knurls, Undercuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8
76
Machine elements
Gear types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roller bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seals................ .... .... ... . . ........
Retaining rings. Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7
58
93
95
Surfaces
Hardness specifications in drawings . . . . . . . . . .
Form deviations, Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface testing. Surface indications . . . . . . . . . . .
97
98
99
3.10 ISO Tolerances and Fits

Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic hole and basic shaft systems . .. ... . ....
General tolerances .... .. ....... ....... . ....
Roller bearing frts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fit recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geometrictolerancing ..... ....... ........ ...
102
106
110
110
111
112
58
Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions
line segments, Perpendiculars and Angles

Parallels to a line
Given: Line segment AB and point P on the desired parallel line g'
1.
2.
3.
4.
Arc with radius rabout A results in intersecting point C.

Arc with radius r about P.
Arc with radius r about C results in intersecting point D.
Connecting line segment PO is parallel line g' to AS.
Bisecting a line
Given: Line segment AS
1. Arc 1 with radius rabout A; r> tAB.
2. Arc 2 with equal radius r about B.
3. The line connecting the intersecting points is the perpendicular
bisector or the bisector of line segment AB.
Dropping a perpendicular
Given: Straight line g and point P
1. Any arc 1 about P results in intersecting point A and B.
1
9~:-----+---~
2. Arc 2 with radius r about A; r >
AB.
3. Arc 3 with equal radius r about B (intersecting point C).

4. The line joining intersecting point C with P is the desired perpendicular.
Constructing a vertical line at point P

Given: Straight line g and point P
1. Arc 1 about P with any radius rresults in intersecting point A.
2. Arc 2 with same radius r about point A results in intersecting point B.
3. Arc 3 with equal radius r about B.
4. Construct a line from A to B and elCtend it (to intersecting point C).
5. Construct a line from point C to point P to obtain the vertical at P.
Bisecting an angle
3
Given: Angle a
1. Any arc 1 about S yields intersecting points A and B.
2. Arc 2 with radius r about A; r >
AB.
3. Arc 3 with equal radius r about B results in intersecting point C.

4. The line joining intersecting point C with S is the desired
bisected angle.
Dividing a line
Given: Line AB should be divided into 5 equal parts.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Construct a ray from A at any desired angle.

Mark 5 equal lengths with a compass on the ray from A.
Construct a line from point 5' to B.
Construct parallels to 5' B through the other division poi'nts 1'-4'.
59
Tangents, Circular arcs, Polygons

Tangent through point P on a circle
Given: Circle and point P
1. Construct line segment MP a.n d extend it.
2. Arc about P gives imersecting points A and B.
3. Arcs about A and 8 with the ssme radius yield intersecting points C
and D.
4. The line passing through C and D is perpendicular to PM .
Tangent from a point P to a circle

Given: Circle and point P
1. Bisect MP. A is the midpoint.
2. Arc about A with radius r - AM yields intersecting point P. T is the
tangent point
3. Connect T and P.
4. MT is perpendicular to PT.
Rounding an angle (arc tangent to two straight lines)

Given: Angle ASS and radius r
1. Construct parallels to AS and Bs of distance r. Their intersection M is
the desired center of the circular arc of radius r.
2. The intersection of the perpendiculars from M to the line segments
AS and BS are the transition points C and 0 for the arc.
Connecting two cirdes by an:s

Given: Circle 1 and circle 2; radii
R, and
Ro
1. Circle about M 1 with radius R, + r 1

2. Circle about Mz with radius R, + r2 intersects with 1 to yield
intersecting point A
3. Connecting M 1 and M 2 with A yields contact points Band C
for the inside radius R,.
4. Circle about M 1 with radius Ro - r 1
5. Circle about M 2 with radius Ro- r2 combined with step 4 results
in the intersecting point D.
6. D connected to M 1 and M2 and eKtended gives the contact points E
and F for the outside radius flo.
Circumscribed regular polygon
(e. g. pentagon)
Given: Circle of diameter d

1. Divide AB into 5 equal parts (page 58).
2. An arc centered at A with radius r
= AB yields points C and D.
3. Construct lines from C and D to 1. 3, etc. (all odd numbers).

The intersecting points on the circle yield the desired vertices of the
pentagon.
For polygons with an even numb..- of angles C and D are connected
to 2, 4, 6 etc. lall even numbers).
Circumscribed hexagon, dodecagon

Given: Circle of diameter d
1. Ale centered at A with radius r
2. Ale with radius r about 8 and A

3. Construct line segments connecting the intersecting points to yield
the hexagon.
For a dodecagon find intermediate points
including intersections at C and D.
60
Technical d rawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions
Inscribed and circumscribed ci rcles for triangles. Circle center point, Ellipse, Spiral
Circle inscribed in tn.ngle
Given: Triangle A. B. C
1. Bisect angle a.
2. Bisect angle p (intersecting at point M).
3. Inscribed circle about M .
Circle circumscribing tn.ngle

Given: Triangle A. B. C
1. Construct the perpendicular bisector of line segment AB.
2. Construct a perpendicular bisector on line segment BC (intersecting
at point MI.
3. Circumscribed circle about M .
Anding the center of a circle

Given: Circle
a
1. Choose any straight line a that intersects the circle at A and B.

2. Straight line b (approximately perpendicular to straight line a) inter
sects circle at C and 0.
3. Construct perpendicular bisectors on line segments AB and CD.
4. Intersecting point of the perpendicular bisectors is the center M of
the circle.
Constructing an elipse from two cirdes

Given: Axes AB and CD
1. Two circles about M with diameters AB and CO.
2. Construct several rays through M which intersect both circles
(E, Fl.
3. Construct parallels to the two principle axes AB and CO through E
and F. Intersecting points are points on the ellipse.
Constructing an ellipse in a parallelogram

Given: Parallelogram with axes AB and CO
1. A semi-circle with radius r MC about A yields point E.
2. Subdividing AM (or BMI into halves, quarters and eighths yields
points 1. 2 and 3. Construct parallels to axis CD through these points.
3. Dividing EA in halves. quarters and eighths yields points 1, 2 and 3
on the axis AE. Parallels to axis CO through those points give inter
secting points F on the circular arc.
4. Construct parallels to AE through intersection .E2ints F to the semi-cir
cle axis, from there construct parallels to axis A B.
5. Parallel intersection points of matching numbers are points on the ellipse.
Spiral (approximate construction using a compass!

Given: Rise a
1. Construct square ABCO with a/4.
2. A quarter circle of radius AD centered at A yields E.
"'I _,.+- - + - - -1-'-'. ,...--+---1-K
3.
4.
5.
6.
A
A
A
A
quarter circle of radius ~ centered at 8 yields F.

quarter circle of radius CF centered at C yields G.
quarter circle of radius OG centered at 0 yields H.
quarter circle of radius AH centered at A yields I (etc).
61
Cycloid, Involute, Parabola, Hyperbola, Helix

Cycloid
auxiliary
ctrcle 5
Given: Rolling circle of radius r
homontal
center hne
1. Subdivide the pitch circle into any number of equal sized pans. e.g. 12.
2. Divide the base line (a extent of the pitch circle "d) into equal pans,
in this case 12.
3. Vertical lines from segment points 1- 12 on the base line to the ex
tended vertical center line of the rolling circle yield the midpoints
M, - Mt2
4. Construct auxiliary circles about the midpoints M 1- M 12 with radius r.
5. The intersecting points of these auxiliary circles with the parallels
through the points on the rolling circle having the same numbers give
the points of the cycloid.
Involute
Given: Circle
1. Subdivide the circle into any desired number of equal sized parts,
e.g. 12.
2. Construct tangents to the circle at each section.
3. Marie off the length of the developed circumference on each tangent
from it.s contaCI point.
4. The curve through the endpoints forms the involute.
9
Parabola
Given: Orthogonal parabola axes and parabola point P
1. Parallel g to vertical axis through point P gives P'.
2. Divide distance OP- on the horitontal axis into any desired number of
partS (e.g. 5) and construCI parallels to the vertical axis.
3. Subdivide distance PP' into the same number of segments and connect
to origin at 0.
4. Intersecting points of the lines with the matching number yield points
on the parabola.
Hyperbola
Given: Orthogonal asymptotes through M and point P on the hyperbola.
........--..,..,...'-- 9t
-+--'~-
1. Construct lines g, and 92 parallel to the asymptotes through point P on

the hyperbola.
2. Construe~ any desired number of rays from M .
3. Construct lines through the interseelions of the rays with g 1 and g2
parallel to the asymptotes.
4. Intersecting points of the parallel lines (P 1, P2, ...) are points on the
hyperbola.
Heliocoidal Hne (Helix)

Given: Circle of diameter d and pitch P
1. Divide semicircle into equal sections, e.g. 6.
2. Divide the pitch Pinto twice the number of equal segments, e.g. 12.
3. Extend the same number of horizontal and vertical lines to intersection. The intersecting points yield points on the heliocoidal line.
62
Technical drawing: 3.2 Graphs11
Cartesian coordinate system
'
Lll\ 1.1
,.,
,,n.
Cootdinllte axes
abscissa (horizontal axis; x -axis)

ordinate (vertical axis; y axis)
Velues to be plotted
positive: from the origin towards the right, or up
negative: from the origin towards the left, or down
M.,tdng the positive axis direction with
arrow heads on the axes. or
arrows parallel to the axes
FormuJ. symbols are entered In italics on the
abscissa below the arrow point
ordinate to the left next to the arrow point
Pzlx-2, y-11
or in front of the arrows parallel t o the axes.
Scalea are normally linear, but sometimes they are di

vided logarithmically
.,
200
~N/-
formula
symbol
char<tc:lenshc
M agnitudes of values. They are placed next to the scale
ticks. All negative values have a minus sign.
150
100
Velue uniU are placed between the two last positive

numbers on the abscissa and ordinate or after the f ormulasymbol.
---........ ... so
0
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -(),1
-SO
Grid marks simplify plotting of the values.
u.- (curvn) connect the values that have been plotted
__,/,oo
on the graph.
-150
200 .---.-----,--..,.----,
N/1Ml2
150 t----,--+---+-'7""9'-.::...._--1
t 100 ~-~~~~-4--~
0.2
OJ
Une widthL Unes are drawn in the following proportion:

Gridlines : axe,s : curves 1 : 2 : 4 .
G.-.ph MC1iona are constructed if values are not to be
plotted in each direction from the origin. The origin may
also be hidden.
0.4 .,. 05
c ---
Enmple (spring charecteristlc curve):

The following disk spring values are known:
Spring displacementsin mm
0.3
Spring force F
inN
600 1000 1300 1400
0.6
1.0
1.3
What is the spring force F with a spring displace

mentor s5 0.9 mm?
Solution:
The values are plotted on a graph and the points are
connected by a curve. A vertical line at s = 0.9 mm
intersects the curve at point A
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
L2 mm 1.4
spring displacement s - - -
With the help or a horizontal line through A. a spring

force of F ~ 1250 N is read from the ordinate.
11 Graphs are used to represent value-based relationships between changing variables.
63
Technical d rawing: 3.2 Graphs
Polar coordinate systems. Area graphs

Cartesian coordinate ..,.tern (continued)
cf. DIN 461 (1973.()3)

Graph.s with multiple curves
1600
.c
..
;;,
c
i:
"'
I--
R.
N/mm1
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
When measured values are highly scattered, a different special

symbol is used for each curve, e.g: 0 , x , 0
r--....
r--...
R,
. . . .\
'\\
Marl<ing the curves

when the same type of line is used, by using the names or
formula symbols of the variables or by using different colors
for the curves
by different types of lines
100 200 300 400
0(
600
lemperature - -
Polar coordinate ..,.tern
cf. DIN 461 (1973.()3)

Polar coo rdinate systems have a 360 division.
Origin (pole). Intersection of horizontal and vertical axis.
Angle lyout. The angle
the right of the origin.
o is assigned to the horizontal axis to
Angle position. Posit.i ve angles are plotted counter;:lockwise.

Radius. The radius corresponds to the magnitude of the value to
be pl~ed. Concentric circles may be drawn about the origin to
simplify plotting of the values.
Example:
Using a measuring machine, the roundness of a turned bush
ing is checked to see if it lies within the required tolerance.
The out-of-roundness found was probably caused by clamping the bushing forcefully in the chuck.
Areegrephs
Bar graphs
non
lt D
2005
2006
2007
S%
S%
2008
In bar graphs the quantities to be represented are drawn as horizontal or vertical columns of equal width.
Pie charts
Percent values are normally represented by pie charts. In these
the circumference of a circular area corresponds to 100%
(" 360").
Central angle. The percentage x. to be plotted determines the corresponding central angle:
25%
~b
'"G
'"
Ex~:
What is the central angle for the percentage or lead in the

alloy CuPb15Sn8?
Solution:
a='Yi!/1'15%= 54
100%
64
Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of drawing
Fonts
Lettering, fonts
d . DIN EN IS030!NHl 11998-041 and DIN EN ISO 3098 2 1200()..111
The le" ering or tech nical draw ings can be done using t ype style A (close-spaced! o r type style B. Bo th styles m ay be
drawn v ertical lVI o r slant ed by 15 t o the right II it alics). To ensure good legibility, the d istance between the charact ers should be two line w idths. The d istance may be reduced t o one line w idth if certei n characters are tog ether.
e.g. LA, TV, Tr.
d . DIN EN ISO 3098-0 (1998041
Dimensions
bt
w ith diac ritic'' characters
~ w ithout d iacritic c haracters
1>J
w ith upper case le"ers and

nu mbers
11 d iacritic= used t o further dif

f erentiate. especially for le"ers
Character height h or height of upper

case letters (nominal size! in mm
20
d. DIN EN ISO 3098-311998-041
Type style
2
14h
;o h
bt
c,
I>J
25 h
14
llh
14
14
17h
J.Qh
~h
~h
Q h
;oh
10
10
~h
14
7
10
14 h
14
14h
1
;oh
;o h
Greek alphabet
OJ
4
;oh
i4 h
6
;o h
i4 h
4
;o h
d. DIN EN ISO 3098-3 (2000- 111
alpha
I;
zeta
1\
).
lambda
pi
<I>
'I'
ll
beta
'1
eta
mu
rho
chi
e a
theta
"'
psi
gamma
delta
epsilon
"
I'
v
nu
:r
sigma
ljJ
iota
xi
tau
kappa
omicron
upsilon
O)
phi
omega
Roman numerals
I =1
X = 10
II
cc
= 100
M = 1000
=2
XX = 20
= 200
MM =2000
=3
XXX= 30
CCC a 300
IV =4
VI = 6
VII =7
VIII
XL =40
L = 50
lX=60
LXX = 70
D = 500
DC= 600
DCC= 700
LXXX =80
XC =90
DCCC= 800 CM 900
co =400
Exampl es: MDCLXXXVII = 1687
MCMXCIX = 1999
=8
MMVill=2008
IX = 9
65
Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales

Preferred numb.-. end series of prefen-ed numbers11
cf. DIN 323-1 (1974-081
AS
A10
A20
A.O
AS
A10
A20
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
A.O
4.00
1.06
1.12
1.12
1.25
1.25
4.25
4.50
4.50
5.00
5.00
5.60
5.60
1.18
1.25
4.75
5.00
1.32
1.40
1.40
1.60
1.60
5.30
1.50
1.60
1.60
6.00
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
1.70
1.80
6.70
1.80
7.10
7.10
8.00
8.00
9.00
9.00
10.00
10.00
1.90
2.00
2.00
7.50
2.00
8.00
2.12
8.50
2.24
2.24
2.36
2.50
2.50
9.50
2.50
2.50
10.00
2.65
2.80
Multiplier
Series
2.80
3.15
3.15
A 10
3.35
3.55
qs =
AS
3.00
3.15
10.00
V;o .. 1.6
10
(10 .. 1.25
q 1o
20
(10 .. 1.12
A20
q 20
R40
qo =
3.55
3.75
1'1o 1.06
Radii
cf. DIN 250 (2002.()41

0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0,8
1.2
1.6
2.5
10
12
16
18
20
22
2S
160
180
200
Values shown in bold font in the table are preferred values.
100
110
125
140
28
32
36
.0
45
50
Scale factors21
1>
63
70
80
90
cf. DIN ISO 5455 (1979-12)
Actual size
1 :1
56
Enlargement factors
Reduetion factors
1:2
1:5
1: 10
1 : 20
1 : 50
1 : 100
1 :200
1:500
1:1000
1:2000
1 : 5000
1 : 10000
2: 1
20:1
5:1
50 : 1
10: 1
Preferred numbers, e. g. for length d imensions and radii. Their usage prevents arbitrary graduations. In the series
or preferred numbers (base series A 5 to A 401, each number of the series is obtained by multiplying the p revious
number by a constant multiplier for that series. Series 5 (R 51 is preferred over R 10, A 10 over A 20 and A 20 over
R 40. The numbers or each series can be multiplied by 10. 100. 1000, etc. or divided by 10. 100, 1000. etc.
2l For special applications the given enlargement and reduction factors can be expanded by multiplying by whole
multiples of 10.
66
Drawing layout
Peper sizes (ISO)
cf. DIN EN ISO 5457 (1999-071 and DIN EN ISO 216 12002..031
Format
dimensions'' in mm
Drawing area
dimensions in mm
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
841x 1189
594 )( 841
420 )( 594
297 X 420
210 X 297
148 X 210
105 X 148
821 )( 1159
574x81 1
400xS64
277x390
180x277
11 The height: width aspect ratio of the drawing papers are 1 :
f2 ( 1 : 1.4141.
Folding for DIN A4 format
cf. DIN 824 ( 1981..()31

1st fold: Fold right side 1190 mm wide)
toward the back.
2nd fold: Fold the remainder of the sheet
so that the edge of the 1st fold Is
20 mm from the left edge or the
paper.
.CJ
190
':iue
block
1st fold: Fold the left side 1210 mm widel

towards the right.
2nd fold: Fold a triangle of 297 mm height
by 105 mm width towards the
left.
Jrd fold: Fold the right side (192 mm widel
towards the back.
4th fold: Fold the folded packet of 297 mm
height toward the back.
Title block
cf. DIN EN ISO 7200 (2004..()51. Replacement for DIN 6771-1
The widlh of the title block is 180 mm. The sizes of the individual data fields (field widths and heights) are no longer
stipulated, in contrast to the previous standard. The table at the bottom of this page has examples of possible field sizes.
Example of e title block:
~. dopt.
AB 131
Susan Miller
John Smith
App<oyed by
er..tedby
Teehnicai-
11
12
Kristin Brown
13
T~of
[o~
Assembly drawing
John Oav1s
14
released
Tllle.-2
........__
15
10
r-
A225-03300-012 4
Circular saw shafy 3

complete with bearing
a,5 ,~-- date6 L 7, 8

A
2008-01-15 de 113
Drawing specific call outs, such as scale, projection symbol, tolerances and surface specifications should be indicated
on the drawing outside of the title block.
Data fields in the title block

Field
no.
F'oeld name
Max. no. of
chenoc:ters
not specified
25
25
Field name
optional
reqo*ed
yes
yes
yes
'
3
Owner of the drawing

Title (drawing name)
Additional title
4
5
Drawing number
Change symbol (drawing version)
Issue date of the drawing
16
2
10
Language identifier (de ; German)

Page number and number of pages
Type of document
4
4
30
10
11
12
Document status
Responsible department
Tech nical reference
20
10
20
13
14
15
Drawing originator
Authorizing person
Classif ication/key words
20
20
not specified
6
7
8
9
yes
yes
Field size (mml

height
width
69
60
60
51
7
25
yes
yes
yes
10
9
60
yes
yes
yes
51
26
43
yes
yes
44
43
24
yes
yes
r---1!--18
01 .1
01.2
Solid line, thin
dimension and extension lines

leader and reference lines
root of thread
hatching
position direction of layers
(e.g. lamination)
outline of hinged section
short center lines
imaginary intersections from
penetrations
origin circles and dimension line

terminators
diagonal crosses to mark plane
surfaces
framing details
projection end grid lines
deflection lines on rough end
machined parts
marking for repeated details (e. g.
root diameter of toothed gear)
Free-hand line, thin 11
preferably hancJ..drewn representing border of partial or broken views

and sections, provided that the border is not a line of symmetry or a
center line
Break line, thin 11
preferably automated drawing representing border of partial or bro

ken views and sections, provided that the border is not a line of symmetry or a center line
Solid line, thick
II
main representations in graphs,

edges and flow charts
system lines (steel construction)
mold parting lines in views
visible edges and outlines

crests of threads
limit of the usable thread length
cross-Section arrow lines
surface structures
(e. g. knurls)
02.1
Dashed line, thin
hidden edges
02.2
Dashed line, thick
identifies allowable areas for surface treatment (e. g. heat treatment)
04.1
Dot-dash line
(long dash), thin
center lines
lines of symmetry
04.2
Dot-dash line
(long dash), thick
marking areas of (delimited)

required surface treatment
(e.g. heat treatment)
05.1
Two-dot dash-<lot line

(long dash), thin
points
hidden contours
partial circle in gears

hole circle
marking section planes
outlines of adjacent parts
final position of movable parts
centroidal axes
oontours of the shape
portions in front of the cutting plane
outlines of alternative designs
02.1 and 02.2
12. d
04.1, 04.2 and

05.1
<0.5- d
oontours of finished parts within

rough parts
framing special areas or fields
projected tolerance zone
Example: Une type 042

'>
t lt---.l'.:.: :'d ----f'-;

F+.,;...._~
3-d+ ~H
O.Sd 3-d
' .
68
Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of d rawing
line types
Une thidcneues and line groups
cf. DIN ISO 128-24 (1999 12)
Une widths. Normally two line types are used in drawings. They are in a ratio of 1: 2.
Line groups. The line groups are ordered in a ratio of 1: (2 I 1 : 1.4).
Selection. Line thicknesses and line groups are selected corresponding to the type and size of drawing. es welt as to
the drawing scale end the requirements of microfilming and/or method of reproduction.
(clmenslon In mml for
AMoc:iat.clline thldc.-
Thick lines
Line group
Thin liMs
Dimension nd tolnce
callouts. grllllhiaol
ymbol
0.25
0.25
0.13
0.18
0.35
0.35
0.18
0.25
0.5
0.5
0.25
0.35
0.7
0.7
0.35
0.5
0.5
0.7
1.4
1.4
0.7
1.4
Examples of lines in technical drawings
cf. DIN ISO 128-24 (1999 12)
end posi tion of the

moving part (05.1)
identification of
sechon plane 104.21
visible contours
(01.2)
extension _ _ ___,
line (01.11
A- A
hatching
line (01.1)
border
lines (01.11
Line of symmetry (04.1)
border line (01.1)
short center line (01.1)

surface structure
(knurl)
(01.21
--
'
hole cirde
(04.1)
~esignation
hidden contour {02.1)
of (heat) treatment (0411
edge in front of section plane (05.1)
69
Technical d rawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
General principles of presentation, Projection methods

General principles of presentation
cf. DIN ISO 128-30 12002.()51 and DIN ISO 5456-2 (1998-041
Selection of the fron t view. The view that is selected for the front view is the one which provides the most information regarding shape and dimensions.
Other views. If o ther views are necessary for clear representlltion or for complete dimensioning o f a w orkpiece, the
following should be observed:
The selection o f the views should be limited to those most necessary.
Additional views should contain as few hidden edges and contours as possible.
Position of other views. The position of other views is dependent upon the method of projection. For drawings based
on the first- and the third-angle projection methods (page 701 the symbol for the projection method must be given in
the title block.
Axonometric representation11
cf. DIN ISO 5456-311998-041
l.ometrlc projection
Dia....tric: ~lon
X : Y : Z . 0,5: 1: 1
Approximate construction of the ellipse:

1. Construct a rhombus tangential to the hole. Bisect the
sides of the rhombus to yield the intersecting points
M, M 2 andN.
2. Draw connecting lines from M 1 to 1 and from M 2 to 2
to yield the intersecting points 3 and 4.
3. Construct circular arcs with radius R about 1 and 2
and with radius r about 3 and 4.
Construction of ellipses:
1. Construct an auxiliary circle with radius r= d/2.
2. Subdivide height d into any desired number of equal
segments and construct grids (1 to 3) .
3. Subdivide the diameter of the auxiliary circle into the
same number of grids.
4. Transfer the segment lengths a, b etc. from the auxiliary circle to the rhombus.
auxiliary circle
Cavalier projection
X : Y :Z 5 0.5 : 1:1
ellipse as
a circle
y
Ellipse construction identical to that on page 60 (ellipse
construction in a parallelOgram).
1
y
Ellipse construction identical to that of the diametric projection (above).
1 Axonometric representations: simple, graphical representations.
70
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in d rawing s
h d
. .
ProJectton
met o s
, f DIN 1:.,r 1/r il'

"'" 1:or1 >~''";
1
;oo;
[ll\j
0~1
l'lGH o.11
Arrow projection method

Merklng the direction of observation:
with arraw lines and upper case letters
Mertdng the views:
with upper case letters
Locations of the views:
any location with respect to front view
Layout of upper ease letters:
above the views
vertical in reading direction
above or to the right of the arraw
lines
First-angle projection
Locations with respect to front view F:
T
top view
below F
LS
view from
the left side
rightof F
RS
view from
the right side
left of F
bonomview
above F
rear view
left or right
ofF
Symbol
Third-angle projection 11
locations with respect to front view F:
[J
top view
above F
lS
view from
the left side
left of F
RS
view from
the right side
right of F
bottom view
belowF
rear view
left or right
ofF
Symbol
E3
Symbols for projection methods

Symbol2l for
first-angle projection
Symbol few first-engle Pf'Ojectlon

third-angle projection
H
Germany and most
European countries
1>
2>
Application in
English speaking countries,
e.g. USA/Canada
3-d
h font height in mm (page 64)

H=2h
d =0.1h
Second-angle projection is not provided.

The symbol for projection method is included in the drawing layout (page 66).
71
Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings
Views
, , o1N 1so
j( , ,
{j
ll>< Hr
200) lh
Partial views
Application. Penial views are used 10 avoid unfavorable
projections or shone ned representations.
Position. The penial view is shown ln the direction of the
arrow or rotated. The angle o f rotation must be given.
Boundary. This is identified with a break line.
Application. It Is sufficient to represent just a ponlon o f

the whole workpiece, for example if space ls limited.
M arking. With two shon parallel solid lines through the
line of symmetry on the outside o f the view.
Application. If the representarion is clear, a panial view is

sufficient insteed of a full view.
Representation. The partial view (third-angle projection)
is connected with the main view by a thin dot-dash line.
Adjacent parts
@l1
Application. Adjacent pans are drawn if it aids in understand ing the drawing.
Repfesentation. This is done with thin two-dot dash-dot
lines. Sectioned adjacent pans are not hatched.
L...>-.._ housing
Simplified penetrations
$fj~~~~$~
.l f_!:z~.f.Jf~.J
BD
Application. If the drawing remains clearly understandable, rounded penetrating tines may be replaced by
straight lines.
Representation. Rounded penetrating lines are drawn
with thick solid lines for grooves in shafts and penetrat
ing holes whose diameters significantly differ.
Implied penetrating lines of imaginary intersections and

rounded edges are d rawn with thin solid lines at the
location at which the (circumferential) edge would have
been with a sharp edged transition. The thin solid lines
do not contact the outline.
Broken views
Application. To save space only the important areas of

long workpieces need to be represented.
Representation. The boundary of the remaining pans is
shown by free-hand lines or break lines. The pans must
be drawn dose to each other.
72
.
V1ews
<I [)I'J ,,_, ) 1!-l ]J
,, 1 3 : , 2u, 7 J'i
Repeating geometrical elements

Application. For geometric elements which repeat regu
larly, the individual element only needs to be drawn
once.
Representation. For geometric elements which are not
drawn,
the positions of symmetrical geometric elements are
shown with thin dotdash linas.
asymmetrical geometric elements of the area in which
they are found are drawn with thin solid lines.
The number of repeated elements must be given in the

dimensioning.
Parts at larger sc:ale (details)

Application. Panial areas of a workpiece which can not
be clearly represented may be drawn at a larger scale.
Representation. The panial area is framed with a thin
solid line or encircled and marked with a capital letter.
The panial area is represented in an enlarged detail view
and is identified with the same capital letter. The enlarged scale is additionally given.
Minimal inclines
Application. Minimal inclines on slopes, cones or pyramids which cannot be shown clearly, do not have to be
drawn in the corresponding projection.
Flepfesentation. The edge representing the projection of
the smaller dimension is drawn with a thick solid line.
Moving parts
' '
. '"""'
i i
i/
Application. Depicting alternative positions and limits of

movement of pans in assembly drawings.
Representation. Pans in alternate positions and limits o f
movement are drawn with two-dot dash-dot lines.
Surface structures
R~on.
Structures such as knurls and emboss

ing are represented with thick solid lines. Panial representation of the structure is preferable.
73
. I .
Sect10na
v1ews
'I DIN IS),,, :t)
~l
'" 1
su ,20
o, os,
Section types
view
___
full section
Section. The interior of a workpiece can be shown with
a section. The front part of the workpiece, which hides
the view to the Interior, is perceived to be cut out.
ls~---
l-
- - '&.
In a section it is possible to represent:

the cutting plane and additional workpiece outlines
lying behind the cutting plane or
only the cutting plane.
- - - - -l
l -1--
hall section
partial section
~BJ
Full sec:1ion. The full section shows the conceptualized

workpiece sectioned in a plane.
Half section. In a symmetrical workpiece one half is
represented as a view, the other half as a section.
Partial sec:tion. A partial section shows only part o f the
workpiece in section.
Definitions
-..~,...........-section
line
A-A
crosssection
~j{2z:zzzz:6,.__'area
F-JlL
B-B
~ ~
CUtting plane. The cutting plane is the imaginary plane

with which the workpiece is sectioned. Complicated
workpieces can also be represented in two or more cut
ting planes.
Cto~on
area. It is formed by the theoretical sec

tioning of the workpiece. The cross-section area is
marked with hatch lines (see below and page 75).
Section line. It marks the position of the cutting plane;

for two or more cutting planes it marks the cutting path.
The section line is drawn with a thick dot -<lash line.
For two or more cutting planes the path of the section
line is emphasized on the ends of the corresponding
plane using short thick solid lines.
Marking the sec:tion line. It is done with the same upper
case letters. Arrows drawn with thick solid lines indicate
the direction for viewing the cutting plane.
Marking the section. The sectional view is marked with
the same upper case reference letters as the section
lines.
---;
Hatching of sections
Hatching. The hatching is drawn wit h parallel solid lines,
preferably at an angle of 45 to the centerline or to the
main outlines. The hatching is interrupted for lettering.
Hatching is used for
individual parts - all hatch lines for cross-section areas
should be in the same d irection and at the same spacing.
parts adjacent to each other - hatch lines for the dif
ferent parts should be in different directions or at dif
ferent spacing.
large cross-section areas - hatching preferably only
near boundaries or edges.
74
I .
.
Sect1ona v1ews
.l
[)
"J 1<,() 1/-i
lt)
'" , ,, 1 , 1,1; "'"
Special sections
ll
I
r1d
Profile 18Ctions. They may be

drawn rotated in a view (revolved section).
The contour lines of the section are represented with
thin solid lines and are drawn within the interior of the
part.
taken out of a view (removed section).
The section must be connected with the view by a thin
dot-dash line.
Sectlons with intersecting planes. If two planes intersect, one cuuing plane may be rotated in the projection
plane.
Details of rotated parts. Uniformly arranged details outside of the cross-section area, e.g. holes, may be rotated
in the cuuing plane.
Outlines and edges. Cont.o urs and edges lying behind

the cuning plane are only drawn if they add clarity to the
drawing.
Parts that are not sectioned

Not sectioned in the lengthwi.se direction:
parts that are not l)ollow, e. g. screws, bolts, pins,
shafts
- areas of an individual part which should protrude from
the base body, e.g. ribs.
Notes on drawing
Tool edges
Circumferential edges. Edges exposed by sectioning
must be represented.
Hidden edges. In sections the hidden edges are not
represented.
Edges on the center line. If an edge falls on a centerline by sectioning, it is represented.
edge on the
HaH-sec:Uons in symmetrical wori<pieces

Section halves of symmetrical workplaces are preferably
drawn in relation to the center line,
below. with horizontal center lines
to the right, for vertical center lines.
75
Hatching, Systems for entering dimensions

Hatching
cf. DIN ISO 128-50 (200205)
Section areas are generally marked with basic hatching without consideration of the material.
Parts whose material should be emphasized can be identified using specifiC section lining.
Basic hatchi ng (without considering t he material)
Solids
~
Natural mat erials
- ---'-
Metal s
,.:F. : e: . r :. :7ou:.=sc..__--J~~~?,AL--....!.:!N~o~n~fC!'e~rr~o!.!:u!!!,s
metals
W.,.&',&,..
metals
~d
heavy metals
Systems for entering dimensions
"''~
12 d9
cf. DIN 406-10 (1992 12)

The dimensioning and tolerandng of workpieces can be
based on
function,
manufacturing or
testing.
Several systems of dimensioning may be used within a
single drawing.
Dimensioning based on function

Characteristic. Selection. entry and tolerancing of the
dimensions is done according to design requirements.
Dimensioning based on fabrication

Characte.-istie. Dimensions which are necessa ry for
fabrication are calculated from functional dimensions.
Dimensioning based on testing

Charactflf'istic. Dimensions and tolerances are entered
in the drawing acconding to the planned testing.
76
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
Dimensioning drawings
Dimension lines, clmenalon line termlneton, extension nr-, ~numbeR cf. DIN 406-11 (199212)
Dimension lines
extension tine dimension runber
40 /
drmension tine
Design. Dimension lines are drawn as thin solid lines.
7tr
Entry. Dimension lines are used for:

length dimensions parallel to the length to be dimen
sioned
angle and arc dimensions as e circular arc about the
oenter of the angle or arc.
dimension line terminator
65
Umlted sp~~ce.lf space is limited, dimension lines may be

extended to the outside using extension lines
entered within the workpiece
drawn to the edges of the part body.
20
"' :--
1\~
Spacing. Dimension lines should have a minimum dis

tance of
10 mm from the edge of bodies and
7 mm berween each other.
:2
~
Dimension line ...-mln8tcw
Sd
!->
Dimension arrowheads. Generally arrowheads are

used to delimit the boundaries of dimension lines.
arrowhead length: 10 x dimension line width
angle of lateral side: 15"
Dots. Used if space is limited.
diameter: 5 x dimension line width
Extension lines
~t
f1L'$4
8
1 5
16
~rH
Hi-..............
""
extension tine passing
50
De5ign. Extension lines ere drawn perpendicular to the

length to be dimensioned with thin solid lines.
Special fe8tures
Symmetrical elements. Centerlines may be used as
extension lines within symmetrical elements.
Breaks in extension lines may be used e. g. for enter
ing dimensions.
Within a view the extension lines may be drawn to
spatially separate elements of the same or similar
shape.
Extension lines may not be extended from one view to
another view.
through part
Dimension numbers
55
Entry. Dimension numbers are entered

in standard lenering according to DIN EN ISO 3098
35
f-J
r--
with a minimum font size of 3.5 mm
.....__ 1-
""
2.5 2 2.5
(10) 6
15
~~-F
t
I
__j
t-j
40
"'t'
;!t ~t
above the dimension line

so that they are legible from below and from the right
for multiple parallel d imension lines - separated from
each other.
Umited sp~~ce. If there is limited space, the dimension
ing numbers may be entered
on a leader line
over the extension o f the dimension line.
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering d imensions
77
Dimensioning rules, leader and reference lines, angle dimensions,
square and width across flats
cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-121 and

DIN ISO 126-22 11999-111
Dimensioning rules
Entering dimensions
!I~ -----
Each dimension is only entered once. If two elements

have identical dimensions but different shapes, they
must be dimensioned separately.
If multiple views are drawn, the dimensions should be
entered where the shape of the workpiece is best
recognized.
Symmetrical workpieces. The position of the center
line is not dimensioned.
N
,...,
12
Chained dimensions. Series of chained dimensions

should be avoided. If chained dimensions are required
for reasons related to manufacturing, one dimension of
the chain must be in parentheses.
so
Ret workpieees. For flat workplaces that are only drawn

in one view, the thickness dimension may be entered
with the reference lener t
in the view or
near the view.
u..der and refer- lines

leader lines. leader lines are drawn as thin solid lines.
They end
with an arrowhead, if they point to solid body edges
or holes.
with a dot, if they point to a surface.
without marking. if they point to other lines.
leader line
Reference li.-. Reference lines are drawn in the read

ing direction with thin solid lines. They may be connected to leader lines.
Angular dimensions
Extension lines. The extension lines point towa rd the
vertex of the angle.
Dimension numbers. Normally these are entered tangentially to the dimensioning line so that their low er
edge points to the vertex of the angle if they are above
the horizontal center line and with their upper edge if
they are below it
[}E i
~WAF11
tf_WAF11
[]lZI
Square
Symbol. For square shaped elements the symbol is set
in front of the dimensioning number. The size of the
symbol corresponds to the size of the small leners.
Dimensioning. Square shapes should preferably be
dimensioned in the view in which their shape is recognizable. Only the length of one side of the square should
be entered.
Width auoss flats
Symbol. For widths across flats the upper case leners
WAF are placed in front of the dimensioning number, if
the width between flats cannot be dimensioned.
78
Diameters, radl, ipheres, chamfers, indlnes, tapers, arc dmensions
cf. DIN 406 11 (1992 121
Diameter
Symbol. For all diameters the symbol 0 is placed befo
re the dimension number. Its overall height corresponds
to the height of the dimensioning number.
Umited space. In the case of limited space the dimension references the workpiece feature from the outside.
Radius
Symbol. For radii the lower case letter r is placed before
the dimensioning number.
Dimension lines. Dimension lines should be drawn
from the center of the radius or
from the direction of the midpoint.
Sphere
Sym bol. For spherical shape workpiece features the
capital letter S is placed before the diameter or radius
symbol.
45 ch1mfers and countersinks of 90 can be simply

dimensioned by indicating the angle and the chamfer
w idth. Both drawn and undrawn chamfers may be
dimensioned using an extension line.
Other chamfer angles. For chamfers with an angle de
viating from 45 the
angle and the chamfer width or
the angle and the chamfer diameter
are to be entered.
Inclines, t..,.rs
c:s
~
1:::::::.30%
Incline
Symbol. The symbol t::.. is entered before the dimen
sion numbers.
Orientation of the symbol. The symbol is oriented so that
its incline matches the incline of the workpiece. Preferably
the symbol is connected to the inclined surface with a
reference line or a leader line.
Taper
Symbol. The symbol C> is entered before the dimension numbers on a reference line.
Orientation of the symbol. The orientat.i on of the symbol
must match the direction of the workpiece taper. The
reference line of the symbol is connected to the outline
of the taper with a leader line.
Arc dimensions
Symbol. The symbol r.. is entered before the dimen

sion numbers. For manual drawing the arc may be
labeled with a similar symbol over the dimension number.
Technical d rawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions
79
'
Slots, threads, patterns
d . DIN 406-11 (1992 12) and DIN ISO 641o-1 (1993-121
10P9
~!
Vf__,rft--\'l
closed slot
~
"'1
,...
"'
open slot
h = 50 2
z
"'
Slot depth. The slot depth is measured

from the slot side for closed slots
from the opposing side for open slots.
open slot
10N9 50.2
_....!_ _ _ _
36+0.3
Simplirted dimensioning. For slots represented only In

the top view, the slot depth is dimensioned
with the letter h or
in combination with the slot width.
With slots few retaining rings the slot depth may also be
entered in combination with the slot width.
Limit deviations for tolerance classes JS9. N9, P9 and
H11 : page 109
Slot dimensions
for wedges see page 239
for fined keys see page 240
for retaining rings see page 269
Code designation. Code designators are used for stand

ard threads.
:z::ri===rf--r7h~~
-'
..,
I
i:~===t-{---'L2~~
Left hand threads. Left hand threads are marked with

LH. If both left hand and right hand threads are found on
a workpiece. the right hand threads get the addition RH
Multiple SQ'ew threads. For multiple screw threads the
pitch and the spacing are entered behind the nominal
diameter.
Length specifications. These give the usable thread
length. The depth of the basic hole (page 211) is normally not dimensioned.
cf. &~f==9
F = =t - --i
<X>
..,
~ .L~I::::==:::il::==~----1...__ _y
Chamfers. Chamfers on threads are only dimensioned if

their diameters do not correspond to the thread core or
the thread outside diameter.
Radial and I~ patterns
Identical design elements. The following data is given

for spacing of identical design elements having the
same distance or angle between them
the number of elements
the distance between the elements
the overall length or overall angle (in parentheses!.
80
Tolerance specific:lltions
cf. DIN 40&-12 (199212), DIN ISO 2768-1 (1991 06) and DIN ISO 2768-2 (199104)
! -f-tn-.------+:--,1 ~ ~ t
-
0.15
i--=3:.::.5-=-0.:..:.
.10~1
Entry. The deviations are entered

aher the nominal size
if there are two deviations, the upper deviation is
shown above the lower deviation
for equally large upper and lower deviations by a
x mark before the number value, which is only entered
once
for angle dimensioning with units specified.
~1---,r'-~+
I 40 -o.v-oJ
~ . 00' 45"
L.______l!0 0 0' 30"
Entry. Tolerance classes are entered for

single nominal sizes: aher the nominal size
parts shown inserted: the tolerance class of the interior
dimension (hole) is before or over the tolerance class
of the outer dimension (shah).
Tolerance lf)8Ciflcatlons few lpeCifie . , _
Area of application. The area to w hich the tolerance

applies is bounded by a thin solid line.
Application. General tolerances are used for

linear and angular dimensions
form and position.
They apply to dimensions without individual tolerance
entry.
DIN 509 - E 0.8 KO.J
V\
'Q
~-l-!I---'2:....K....;.;
45:....
- --
-~r-~;f ~
bolts
40
53
10SPb 20
ISO 2168- m
Drawing entry. The note for general tolerances (page

110) can be located:
near the individual pan drawings
for title blocks according to DIN 6771 (retracted):
in the title block.
E.ntries. Given are:
the sheet number of the standard
the tolerance class for linear and angular dimensions
the tolerance class for form and pOSitional tolerances,
as needed
81
Dimensioning in drawings
Dimensions
cf. DIN 406-10 and 11 (1992-12)
Tyi)M of dimensioning
10 60
basic cftmenSion
s.lc Dimemions. The basic dimensions of a w orkpiece

are the
total length
total width
total height
Shape dimensions. Shape dimensions establish, e.g. the
dimensions of slots
dimensions of shoulders.
Positional dimensions. These are used to specify the
location of
holes
slots
elongated holes, etc.
Special dimensions
.L dimension
auKiliary --..,;.,__
I
I
Rough dimensions
Function. Rough dimensions might be used to give
information about, for example, the dimensions of cast
or forged workpieces before machining.
Labeling. Rough dimensions are put in brackets.
Awciliary dimensions
Function. Auxiliary dimensions give additional information. They are not necessary to geometrically define the workpiece.
Labeling. Auxiliary dimensions are
put in parentheses
entered without tolerances.
30
(351
rough dimension
10
1:
v:;z
25
~
1- - - - - 1-
20
fd
- - - -
b:
(42 -0.1)
(1.2 -0.1j100%)
Dimensions not drawn to scale

Labeling. Dimensions not drawn to scale might be used
for drawing changes, for example, and they are marked
by underlining.
Prohibited are underlined dimensions in computer aided
(CAD) drawings.
Control dimensions
Function. It should be noted that these dimensions are
espe<:ially checked by the purchaser. If necessary a 100%
check will be performed.
Labeling. Control dimensions are set in frames with
rounded ends.
Theoretically precise dimensions
Function. These dimensions give the geometrically ideal

(theoretically precise) position of the shape of a design
feature.
Labeling. The dimensions are placed in a frame without
tolerance Spe<:ifications and correspond with geometric
tolerancing.
82
Types of dimensioning
Parallel clmensloning, running dimensioning, coordinate dimensioning11 cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-121
StMic dlmenllonlng
N
N
Dimension linH. Several dimension lines are entered

together fo r
stacked linear dimensions
concentric angular dimensions.
!:!:
Running dimensioning
Origin. The dimensions are entered outwards from the

origin in each of the three possible directions. The o rigin
is indicated by a small circle.
Dimension linH. The following applies for the entries:
As a rule only one dimension line Is used for each
direction.
If there is limited space two or more dimension lines
may be used. The dimension lines may also be shown
broken.
1400
6S
0
-SO
Dimensions
must be provided with a minus sign If they are entered
from the origin in the opposite direction.
may also be entered in the reading direction.
170
-SO
lli_-J
Coordinate dimensioning
~~l~~
11130
+
0
50 "40
2
3
180 190 "30

220 115 "75
325
50
+ X=120
+ Y: 115
~ ~ ~g
11140
l&75
1=12
X: 325
entered in tables or
entered near the coordinate points.
Oim~Sions. These must be provided with a m inus sign

if they are entered from the origin in the opposite direction to the positive direction.
1
2
3
Cartesian coordinates (page 63)

Coorcinate values. These are
Point of origin. The point of origin

is entered with a small circle
can lie at any location of the drawing.
+v=50
Item
11
X
50
.,
r
d
140 o c30
140 30. 030
100 so 11130
140 900 c30
Polar coordinates (page 63)

Coorcinate values. The coordinate values are entered in
tables.
Parallel dimensioning, running dimensioning and coordinate dimensioning may be combined with each other.
83
Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering d imensions
Simplified presentation in drawings

Simplified representation of holes
cf. DIN 6780 (2000.101
Hole bMe, line widths few limplllled repr~

Full scale represen- , Full scale representation, simpli
tation, full scale
dimensioning
lied dimensioning
~
\l!10x14U
\l!10x14U
Simplified representation, simplilied dimensioning

\l!10x14U
~ d]
fiJ er-m\l!10 x 14U
\l!10x14U
Hole base
The shape of the hole base is given by a symbol
if necessary.
The symbol U for example means a flat hole
base (cylindrical end bore).
Unewidths
For holes depicted in simplified form, tho posttions of holes should be drawn as:
simply the intersecting axes in the top view
the position of the holes in thick solid lines in
parallel axis representation.
Stepped holee, countersinks end chamfwa. intenwl1hreeds
iJ
6
~~
90
~
6
ll!1165U
\l!6.6
\l!I16.SU
\l!6.6
~ 0]
\l!116.SU
1116.6
~
11112.490
1116.6
err
111116.SU
Ill .6
11112.4x90
1116.6
ctJ
ma 0i rn
m ~ rn
~rrtrr
~
M10
M10><1S/20
Stepped holes
For holes with two or more steps the dimensions
are written under each other. Here the largest
diameter is written on the first line.
Countersinks and chamf ers

For countersinks and hole chamfers the largest
countersink diameter and the countersink angle
are given.
M10><1S/20
Internal tttreads
The thread length and the hole depth are sepa
rated by a slash. Holes without depth specificalion are drilled through.
Examples
(!!10H7
11112><90
11110H7
1111290
11110H7
M10- LHx12
M10- LH><12
111803
\l!8x90
11143
!118xO.l
ll!8x90
1114.3
ctJ
Hole010H7
Through hole
Chamfer 1 x 45
90
leh hand thread MlO

Thread lenglh 12 mm
Drilled through core hole
Cylindrical countersink 0 8
Bore depth 0.3 mm
Through hole 04.3 with
cone shaped counterbore oo
Countersink diameter 08
84
Technical drawing: 3.6 Machine elements
Gear types
Repr...ntation of gears
cf. DIN ISO 2203 ( 1976-061
' '\
$
.\~
. -~
lntemaliptlr gew
Rack lllld Pinion
~~n
~~y
Worm and worm geer
Positive drive l*t$
85
Roller bearings
d . DIN ISO 8826-1 0990-121 and DIN ISO 8826-211995-101
El4lments of.~ aimplifled
limpllfiad
element
Long, straight line; for representing

the axis of the roller bearing elements for
bearings that cannot be adjusted.
For general purposes a

roller bearing Is represented as square or rec
tangular with a froestand
ing upright cross.
If necessary, the roller

bearing can be represented by its ootline
and a free-standing
upright cross.
Representation of single-row roll burings
detailed
limpllfiad
grephieal
~ ~~
R g
~ ~~
n 1::1
~ ~I_
fq I_
dali9natlon
Radial-deep
groove ball
bearings.
cylindrical roller
bearings
Radial spherical
roller beanng
(barrel-shaped
bearing)
Angular-cont8CI
ball bearing,
tapered roller
bearing
Needle bearing,
needle roller
assembly
Axial-deep grooved
ball bearing.
axial-roller bearing
Axial-spherical
roller bearing
Combined baD bearings

Combined
radial-needle
bearing with
angular-contact
ball bearing
Combined
axial-ball bearing
with radial needle
bearing
,.,.--atlon
~CP~anetlon, eppi~Qtlon
Long, curved line; for representing the 8>Cis

of the roller bearing elements for bearings
that can be edjusted (self-aligning bearing).
Short straight line; used to represent the
position and number of rows of roller
bearing elements.
Orde; for the representation of roller bearing elements (bells, roller, needle rollers)
which ant drawn petpendicular to their aids.
~of
dNIIed
simplified
double row roller burinp
graphical
dasignetion
~ ~~
R aa
f9
~
Lj
~ ~
I'+ +'I !!!
R~ ~ic:ut.r to
Radial-deep
groove ball
bearings,
cylindrical roller
bearings
Spherical roller
bearing. radialSpherical
roller bearing
Angular-contact
ball bearings
Needle bearing,
needle roller
assembly
Axial-deep grooved
ball bearing,
dual action
Axial-deep grooved
ball bearing with
spherical seating.
dual action
the rolling element axis
Roller bearing with

any desired type of
roller element
shape (balls.
rollers, needles)
86
Technical drawing: 3.6 M achine elements
Representation of seals and roller bearings

Simplified representation of .....
cf. DIN ISO 9222-1 11900-12) and DIN ISO 92222 11991 03)
Elements of a detelled simplified repr-tetlon
simplified
graphical
e!Cplanatlon
For general purposes a

seal is represented by a
square or rectangle and a
separate diagonal crossmar'k. The sealing direction can be given by an
arrow.
element
e!Cplanatlon. eppllcatlon
Long line parallel to the sealing surface;
for the fixed (static) sealing element.
Long diagonal line; for the dynamic sealing element; e.g. the sealing lip. The
sealing direction can be g iven by an
arrow.
Short diagonal line; for dust lip seal,

scraper rings.
Short lines pointing to the middle of l he

symbol; for the static pans of U-rings
und V-rings. packing.
If necessary, the seals can
be represented by the outline and a free-standing diagonal cross-mark.
Short lines. which point to the middle of

the symbol; for the sealing lips of U rings und V-rings. packing.
T U
T and U; for non-contact seals.
Examplw ol detailed limpllfied - ..don ol .....

Profile gaskets. peddng sets, labyrinth SHis
Shllft SNis and piston rod .....

designation for
detailed
simplified
[Z]
~
graphical
rotation
linear
motion
detailed
limplified
graphical
B
El
~
~
Dual row deep grooved roller bearings

and radial shaft seal2l
Packing set2l
Shaft seal
without dust
lip seal
Rod seal
without
stripper
Shaft seal
with dust lip
seal
Rod seal
with stripper
p;
Shaft seal.
dual action
Rod seal.
dual
action
Examples ol simplified
....,..._.tation
Deep grooved roller bearings and

radial shaft seal with dust lip sealll
Q]
detailed
simplified
oiMIIIs and roler bearings
11 Top half: simplified representation; bottom half: graphical representation.

21 Top half: detailed simplified representation; bottom half: graphical representation.
grephlcel
..
87
Representation of retaining rings. Slots for retaining rings.

Springs. Splines and serrations
Representation of retaining rings and slots for retaining rings
~tlltion
Retaining
rings for
holes
(page 269)
11
Ret8lnlng
rings for
shafts
(page 2691
Oevietions
~dlmenlion
-- ~
~~r--t
1n
~~
reference plane
~ for dimensioning
a roller bearing
width + retaining
ring width
rrtil13
f-l-
,... ! ~
rrti13
..0"'0
'""'-
Deviations for ~:
upper deviation: 0 (zero)
lower deviation: negative
Deviations for o:
upper deviation: positive
lower deviation: 0 (zero)
11
......r
l"
reference plane
for dimensioning 1>
~
I
._
Deviations for ~:
Deviations for a:
For functional reasons the reference plane for the dimensioning of slots is the locating face of the part to be secured.
Representation of springs
cf. DIN ISO 21621 11994-08)
ftepo'..m.tion
rum.
Cylindrical
helical compression
spring (round
wire)
Cylindrical
helical tension spring
Disk spring
(simple)
Symbol
,..,_
~on
i
m
=
1
..,.;
I .
I
-e *
Disk spring assembly (disks

layered in the
same direction)
1~
! I
Cylindrical
helical tension spring
Cylindrical
helical compression
spring (square
wire)
Disk spring
assembly
(disks layered
in alternating
directions)
Representation of splines and serrations

Sh.tt
Splines or
spline hubs
with straight
flanks.
Symbol:
Jl..
Toothed shafts
or toothed
hubs with
involute
splines or
serrations.
Symbol:
.J\.
MC1ion
view
MC1ion
vi-
e.T e,..
Symbol
m
=ts ~ f
51
cf. DIN ISO 64 13 (1990-031
Joint
Hub
~* ~@ ~$
~- ~@
.J'\., ..
.J'L
-
.
=> Splines ISO 14-6 x 26 n x 30: Spline profile with straight flanks according to ISO 14, number of
Splines N ~ 6, inner diameter d 260, outer diameter 0 a 30 (page 241)
88
Technical drawing: 3.7 Workpiece elements
Boss
dimeo- up to3
sions
t....
Example
Draw ing
entry
~~5
3
~135050.3
dz .....
in mm
/,_
inmm
0.3
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.5
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.9
1.2
2.0
3.0
outer edge
field for entering
dimension
~
~!
Burr allowed,
material removal
not allowed
inner edge
Transition allowed,
material removal not
allowed
Removal required, Removal required.

burr not
transition not
allowed
allowed
outer edge
inner edge
allowed
for
Burr
Material
removal
Example
-rt
SJ
Meaning
Outside edge without burr.

The allowable material removal
is between 0 and 0.3 mm.
(/=)
Collective indications apply to all edges for which an
edge condition is not given.
Edges fOf' which the collective indication does not
apply m ust be marked in the drawing.
The exceptions are placed alter the collective indication
in parentheses or indicated by the base symbol.
Collective indications which are
only valid fOf' outside Of' inside
edges are given by the correSpOnding symbols.
-ft J
L.o.3
1h
m:-0.1
1.:95
Outside edge with allowable

burr of 0 to 0.3 mm
(burr direction specified).
Inside edge with allowable
material removal between 0.1
and 0.5 mm (material removal
direction not specified).
Inside edge with allowable
material removal between 0 and
0.02 mm or allowable transition
up to 0.02 mm (sharp edged).
89
Thread runouts, Thread undercuts

Thread runouts for metric ISO threads
EKternel thread
Pitch
11
cf. DIN 76-1 12004-061

Pitch
ISO
II
ISO
standard
thread
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.5
Thread runout ZI
standard
thread
p
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
Internal thread
M1
M1.6
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.6
M2
M2.5
M3
0.7
0.75
0.8
1
M4
M5
M6
x,
B!
max.
ma.x.
0.5
0.6
0.75
0.9
0.6
0.75
0.9
1.05
1.3
1.5
1.8
2.1
1
1.1
1.25
1.5
1.2
1.35
1.5
1.8
2.3
2.6
2.8
3.4
1.75
1.9
2
2.5
2.1
2.25
2. 4
3
3.8
x,
a,
max.
max.
M8
M10
M12
M16
3.2
3.8
4.3
5
3.75
4.5
5.25
6
6.2
7.3
8.3
9.3
6.3
7.5
9
10
7.5
M20
M24
M30
M36
10.5
12
11.2
13.1
15.2
16.8
4.5
5
6.5
6
M42
M48
M56
M64
11
12.5
14
15
13.5
15
16.5
18
3
3.5
4.2
5.1
Thread runout21
e,
18.4
20.8
22.4
24
11 For line threads the dimension of the thread runout is chosen according to the
pi1chP.
21 As a rule; applies if no other entries are given.
If a shorter thread runout is necessary, this applies:
x2 .. 0.5 . x1; ~ .. 0.67 . a 1; ~ " 0.625 . e1

If a longer thread runout is necessary, this applies:
aa .. 1.3 . a,; OJ .. 1.6 . e,
Screw thread undercuts for metric ISO threads

EKternal thread
Pitch
ISO
11
standard
form A and form B
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
M1.6
M2
M2.5
0.7
0.75
0.8
M4
125
1.5
1.75
2
2.5
{///7\.
M1
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.6
form C and form D
M3
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24
3.5
M30
M36
4.5
5
5.5
6
::o>
M48
M56
M64
11
M42
Internal threads
Form C21 Form Qll
External threads
Form A2 l Form 831
thread
lnt..-n al thread
cf. DIN 76 1 12004-061
dv
h13
0.1
d-0.3
0.12 d-0.4
0.16 d - 0.5
0.16 d - 0.6
g, 92 g, 92
mln. max. min. max.
0.45
0.55
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.9
1.05
12
0.25
0.25
0.3
04
0.5
0.6
0.75
0.9
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.6
1
1.1
1.25
1.5
dg
H13
d+0.2
d+0.2
d+0.3
1.6
1.8
2
2.4
2.2 1
2.4 1.1
2.7 1.25
3.3 1.5
d+0.3
d+0.3
d+ 0.3
d+ 0.5
2.8
3
3.2
4
3.8 1.75 2.75

4 1 . 9 2.9
4.2 2
3
5.2 2.5 3.7
5
6
7
8
0.8
1
12
1.4
1.6
1.75
2.1
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
d - 1.1
d-1.2
d-1.3
d - 1.6
1.5
1.6
1.7
2.1
2.45
2.6
2.8
3.5
0.8
0.9
0.9
1.1
1.75
1.9
2
2.5
0.6
0.8
1
1
d- 2
d -2.3
d - 2.6
d-3
2.7
32
3.9
4.5
4.4
5.2
6.1
7
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.5
3.2
3.8
4.3
5
d+ 0.5
d+0.5
d+0.5
12
1.6
1.6
2
d-3.6
d-4.4
d-5
d - 5.7
5.6 8.7 32
6.7 10.5 3.7
7.7 12
4.7
9
14
5
6.3
7.5
9
10
d+0.5
d+0.5
2
2.5
32
3.2
d - 6.4
d- 7
d - 7.7
d-8.3
11
12.5
14
15
5.5
6.5
7.5
8
9z
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.9
0.7
0.7
0.8
1
16
17.5
19
21
g,
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
dddd-
10.5
11.5
12.5
14
92
d+0.1
d+0.1
d+0.1
d+ 0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
1.1
g,
min. max. min. max.
d+ 0.3
d+0.5
0.5
0.6
0.75
0.9
6.7 3.2
7.8 3.8
9.1 4.3
10.3 5
0.9
1
1.25
1.4
1.6
1.7
2
2.4
4.9
5.6
6.4
7.3
d+0.5
10
12
14
16
13
15.2
17.7
20
6.3 9.3
7.5 10.7
9
12.7
10
14
d+0.5
d+0.5
d+0.5
d+0.5
18
20
22
24
23
26
28
30
11
12.5
14
15
d+0.5
16
18.5
20
21
DIN 76-C: Screw thread undercut shape C
For line thread screws the dimension of the thread undercut is chosen according
to the pitch P.
21 as a rule; always applies if no other entries are made
31 Only in cases where a shorter thread undercut is required.
90
Representation of threads and screw joints

Representation of threada
cf. DIN ISO 641o-1 (1993-12)
. g.. ~
Internal thread
~ ~m
.
a, accord. to DIN 7~1 . Thread runout 1S nonnally not shown.
Bolt thread
Bolts in internal thread
$3$~riJI
Thread undercut
Representation of screw joints

Hexagonal bolt and nut
detailed
simplified
h 1 bolt head hight

h 2 nut height
h 3 washer thickness
e diagonal between corners
s width across flats
d thread nominal 0
Screw joint with

cap screw
Screw joint with

hexagonal screw
h, "'0.1 d
h 2 "' 0.8 d
hl"' 0.2 d
e "'2d
s "'0.87 e
Screw joint with

countersunk head screw
Screw joint
with stud
91
Center holes, Knurls

Center holes
cf. DIN 332 1 (198&041

Nominal sizes
~ . ~
,_
~-
Form
...:;
! m~Mo
~~~ ~ ~I
'
: ~~
~~
form C
~~
't
'
f - +1 1+-
f - i -1 H:
...::J~+~t ~
1
1.25 1.6 2
2.5
2.12 2.65 3.35 4.25 5.3
form 8
d,
-o
lmon
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.7
4.6
5.8
lmon
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.7
4.6
5.9
If
3
2.2
4
2.7
5
3.4
6
4.3
lmon
5.4
11
14
18
9
22
6.8 8.6 10.8 12.9 16.4
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.6
8.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
d.l
3.15 4
6.3
'~"N)
10
9.2 11.4 14.7

14
7.4
18
22
9.2 11 .5 14.8
12.7 15.6 20
0.9
10
1.2
1.6
18
12.5 16
1.6
22.4
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.7
4.6
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.6
8.3
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.9
0.9
4.5
5.3
6.3
7.5
11.2 14
18
22.4 28
7.1
8.5
10
12.5 16
20
25
8:
C:
5.9
10
7.4
25
1.4
!min
A;
_L_
7.4
11
If
R:
Form
5
6.3 8
10.6 13.2 17
ds
C>
3.15 4
6.7 8.5
9.2 11.5 14.8
12.7 15.6 20
1.1
1.7
1.7
25
2.3
3
31.5
curved bearing surface. without protective countersink

straight bearing surface. without protective countersink
straight bearing surface. conical protective countersink
straight bearing surface. truncated conical protective counter
sink
Drawing callout for center holes
cf. DIN ISO 6411 (1997-111
A center hole is
required on the finished part
A center hole is allowed

on the finished pan
A center hole may not be present

on the finished pan
+----j'ISO 6411 -AI../8.5
~ISO 6411-A4/8.5
- B I S O 6411-A4/8.S
<ISO 6411 -M/8.5: center hole ISO 6411: a center hole is required on the finished part.
Form and dimensions of the center hole according to DIN 332: form A; d1 = 4 mm; dz = 8.5 mm.
Knurls
cf. DIN 82 (1973011
Letter
symbol
-'bo
RAA
...........
RBR
d, nominal diameter
d2 initial diameter
f
spacing
RBL
Standard spacing values
t: 0.5; 0.6; 0.8; 1.0; 1.2; 1.6 mm

Drawing entry (example):
DIN 82- RGE 0.8
RGE
RGV
RKE
- RKV
=
Name
Point
shape
Knurls with
axially parallel
grooves
dz = d , -
0.5 . t
Right-hand
knurl
dz d, -
0.5 . t
~30
Left-hand knurl
d,_ e d1- 0.5 t
~0
Left-hand/righthand knurls
Representation
e
~30
fll}
Axial and cir

cumferential
knurl
Initial
diameter~
raised
= d, - 0.67 . t
recessed
= d, - 0.33 . t
=d , - 0.67 . t
raised
recessed
d2 = d, - 0.33 . t
DIN 82-RGE 0.8: left-hand/right-hand knurls, raised points, t =0.8 mm
92
Technical d rawing: 3.7 Workpiece elements
Undercuts
Undercuts11
cf. DIN 509 (200612)
formE
for cyli ndrical surface to
be further machined
form F
for shoulders and cylindrical
surfaces to be further machined
__!_
lz
;- r J;\"i
..:"1
>:il
z,. Z, machining allowances

,
form G
form H
for small transition for planar and cylindrical surfaces
(for low loading)
.~~"""
dbo
-~. ~fH~' .
tr7
rl\, '-,_j~.i
-
j:;
J.f..;f._-f
..:"1 -6"1 I
;J; I
.2-t-.d...-!
Unden:ut DIN 509 - E 0.8 x 0.3: formE, radius, . 0.8 mm, undercut depth r1 0.3 mm
Undwcut dlmenlions end -enlnlt dimenlions

Form
,21% 0.1
,,
12
Correlation to diameter d 131

for W0<1<pieces with
Series Series +0.1 +0.05 +0.2

1
2
0
0
0
Form
F
G
(0.9)
> 0 1.6-0 3
0.2 X 0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
(1.1)
> 0 3- 0 18
0.4 X 0.2
0.3
R0.6
0.2
0.2
R0.6
0.3
0.2
2
2.5
(1.4)
(2.1)
> 0 10-0 18
> 0 18-0 80
0.6 X 0.2
0.6 X 0.3
0.2
0.1
2.5
(2.3)
> 0 18- 0 80
0.8 X 0.3
R1
0.3
0.2
0.5 0.15
0.4
0
0.6 0.05
(1.8)
> 0 18-0 50
R1
0.4
0.3
2.5
4
> 0 80
1.0 X 0.2
1.0 X 0.4
R1.2
R1.2
0.2
0.4
(3.21
(21
> 0 18-0 50
(3.41
> 0 80
1.2 X 0.2
1.2 X 0.4
> 0 50-0 80
> 0 80-0 125
1.6 X 0.3
1.4
2.5 X 0.4
2.2
0.6
1.0
0.1
2.5
4
0.3
0.3
0.2
(3.11
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.3
RO.B
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.05
7
(0.91
(4.81
(6.41
R1 .2
0.3
0.05
R1.6
R2.5
R4
RO.B
Undercut
r x r1
0.1
increased
fatigue strength
0.1
l't
normal
loading
R0.2
R0.4
E
and
F
M inimum dimension a for counter

sink on the opposing piece41
R0.4
(2.01
(2.41
0
0
0.9 0.45
0.7
0
1.1 0.6
0.9 0.1
> 0 125
4.0 X 0.5
3.6
2.1
0.4 X 0.2
0.8 X 0.3
(1.51
(1.11
> 0 3-0 18
> 0 18-0 80
(1.11
> 0 18-0 50
II All forms of undercut apply to both shafts and holes.

21
Undercuts with Series 1 radii are IJ(eferred.

31 The correlation to the diameter area does not apply with curved shoulders and
thin walled parts. For workpieces with differing diameters it may be advisable
to design all undercuts for all diameters in the same form and size.
- -
1.2 x0.3
4' Countersink dimension a on
opposing piece
A
0.35
0.65
'"'"''
t~ ~i- ;:--+..;!
~ dz = d,
i1
Drawing entry for undercuts

Normally undercuts are represented in drawings as a simplified entry w ith the designator. However they can also be
completely drawn and dimensioned.
Example: Shaft with undercut DIN 509 - F1.2 x 0.2
Example: Hole with undercut DIN 509 - E1 .2 x 0.2
simplified entry
simplified entry
Em
DIN 509-F 1.2< 0.2
~5.01
-R
BE :3 R12~ 113
complete entry
/::
complete entry
~~
"///..- '
DIN SOWlo01
...,
w///
~6
~
1
93
Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering
Symbols for Welding and Soldering

Positioning of symbols for welding and soldering in drawings
cf. DIN EN 22563 I 1997-<)3)
BHic:terms
solid refererce line

arrow line
weld symbol
joint
(e.g.bunjointl
'-._
"-
'' ' '' ' '"-'"!'//
tail
Reference line. This consists of the solid reference line

and the dashed reference line. The dashed reference line
runs parallel to the solid reference line and above or
below it. The dashed reference line is omined for symmetrical welds.
Anow line. It connec1s the solid reference line with
the joint.
dashed reference line
/ / / // / / / / / / / / 1
Tail. Additional entries can be given here es needed for:

method, process
evaluation group
wort<ing position
additional material
Joint. Orientation of the parts to be joined to each other.

Weld Information
graphical
symbolic
+
+
"other
side"
'
a317
~
~
t7
arrow side"
Warrowline
~ " other side"
V "-"-''''
Symbol. The symbol identifies the form of the weld. It is

preferably placed normal to the solid reference line, or if
necessary on the dashed reference line.
Anengement of the weld symbol
position of the
weld symbol
position of the weld

(weld surface)
solid reference line
"arrow side"
dashed reference line
other side"
For welds represented in Sec1ion or view, the position of

the symbol must agree with the weld cross section.
Arrow side. The arrow side is that side of the joint to
which the arrow line refers.
Other side. The other side of the joint that is opposite the
arrow side.
"-arrow line
arrow side"
"
-""-"'""'
'
'""""'
Supplemental and auxilirf symbols
Weld all around
rr-<23
Field weld (weld is made on

the construction site)
Entry of the welding
process in the tail
cf. DIN EN 22563 (199703)
\..._/
Weld surface hollow (concave)

Weld surfaoe flat (planar)
(\
vL
Weld surface curved (convex)

Weld surface notch free
Representation in drawings (basic symbols)

Weld type/
symbol
symbolc:
I ~r
B I Ejt'
Weld type/
symbol
)))))))))))))
Bun
weld
Rep~
graphical
cf. DIN EN 22553 (199703)
II
graphical
I tj~
B I ~t=
)))})))))))))
Vgroove
weld
~
symbolic
94
Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and solderin g
Symbols for Welding and Soldering

Reprnentation in drawings (belie symbols)
.....,_ot.wtloo'l
Wild..,_/
-vmbol
grtlphlcel
Flare-V
groove
weld
) ) ) ) ) ) ~ E::J
./\....
Plug
welding
r=1
Frontal
flush weld
,(," Ill
Steepflanked weld
'11.
Buildup
weld
rY'"'\
Fold weld
symbolic
aymbol
sfgr
B~~v
8~~r=
Yb\Jtl
weld
~PBr
y
HY-weld
r
lJ.groove
weld
IJL
Fillet weld
1~1 ~
Field weld
wittl3mm
seam
thickness
~
DlQ~
Jijroove
weld
t'
Spot weld
-=Uneweld
@:
u.c
:r-
~~+i
gr..,tlicel
symbolic
I ~r
Bl ~k
I Ejr
I ~~
I t9r
I Ejr
))))))))))))
))))))))))))
))))))))))))
Weld all
around
"-P.-.utlon
))) ))) ) )) )))
Bevel
groove weld
~~@r
cf. DIN EN 22553 1199703)
Wild..,..,
Surface weld
nmmunm
8ft
8fEJt
I *
95
Technical d rawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering
Symbol s for Welding and Soldering

Composite symbols for symmetrical welds 11 {examples)
Weld type
Symbol
Wetdtype
O(oublelV-weld
(X-weld)
D(oublelHYweld
O(oublel
bevel weld
D(oublelUweld
O(oublelY-weld
cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997..()31

Symbol
11The
symbols are loca

ted symmetrical to the
reference line.
Example:
Application examples for auxiliary symbols

Weld type
Flat
Vweld
Convex
double
V-weld
Yweld
with
backing run
Repr~
Wetdtype
1/27
~~
Flat
reworked
V-weld
Symbol
1-weld
(penetra
ting)
1-weld
(non pene!rating)
Flare-V
groove
weld
Rep<wentetion
v'
w
~
~
Flat
Vw eldwith
flat backing
run
f?m
Hollow fillet
weld, weld
transfer
unnotched
~;sss"'~sss~
cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997..()31
MMnk'll of the symbolic
~tatlol end dlmenlionlng
gr8phlcel
symbolic
dimension entry
ET~ --~
E777~~
Butt weld, penetrating,

weld seam thickness s a 4 mm
m; f44~ "'1
Butt weld, non-penetrating,

weld seam thickness s = 3 mm,
running over the entire
workpiece
l'rrTi
V-weld
(penetrating
weld) with
backing run
symbolic
Dimensioning examples
Weld type
graphical
cf. DlN EN 22553 (1997..03)
Symbol
RepnMntatlon
;<
Flare-V groove weld,

not completely melted down,
weld seam thickness s = 2 mm
I)
11111SOS811-C/
ISO 6941-PA/
fN499-E 42 ORR 12
~ y/~""'""'""'""'""'"'1
I
l l Supplementary requirements can be entered in a tail at the end of a reference line.
V-weld (penetrating weld)

with backing run, fabricated by
manual arc welding (code 111
accord. to DIN EN ISO 4063),
required evaluation group C
accord. to ISO 5817; flat weld
ing position PA accord. to ISO
6947; electrode E 42 0 RR 12
accord. to DIN EN 499
96
Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering
Symbols for Welding and Soldering,

Representation of adhesive, folded and pressed joints
Dimensioning examples (continued)
~Mdclmeolliotliolg
Weld type
Fillet weld
(continuousl
Fillet weld
(Interrupted)
MNnlng of the symboNc
symbolic
clmenlion entry
~~
Fillet weld,
weld leg thickness 8 3 mm
(height o f the Isosceles Irian
glel
gl'llphlcal
-~ ~~
~aS"-220(10)
Fillet weld (interrupted),

weld leg thickness 8 5 5 mm;
2 single welds each wilh
I 20 mm length;
weld spacing e 10 mm,
end distance v = 30 mm
a4"h30!101
1 a4Vh30(10)
Double fillet weld

!interrupted, symmetrical),
weld leg thickness 8 = 4 mm;
single weld length I 30 mm,
weld spacing e = 10 mm,
without end distance
(10)
Double
fillet weld
(interrupted)
25 20
Double
fillet weld
(interrupted,
staggered)
30
20
zS"-2 207(30)
/ zS V 3 20L (30)
II
1nlll 1nul
run
r~~"l
l"20"lI 30 120
I 30 120
Symbolic representation of adhesive, folded and

pressed joints (examples)
Type of
joint
Weld type/
symbol
Type of
joint
MNnlng/
r .,
chwing entry
20
Surface
seam"
Adhesive
bondedseams
-I
~t
Folded
seam
5w20=
VT
Double fillet weld

(interrupted, staggered),
weld leg thickness z = 5 mm;
single weld length / 20 mm,
weld spacing e 30 mm,
end distance v = 25 mm
cf. DIN EN ISO 15785 12002-121

Weld type/
symbol
Folded
seam
Meaning/
drawing entry
w..,@ 1
Er-1
5
Slant
seam1l
Fillet weld,
weld leg thickness Z 4 mm
(side length o f the isosceles
triangle)
//
Pressed
11 The adhesive media is not shown for adhesive seams.
Pressed
seam
seam
l...!
R404l
5x4 l..l
1~---~
97
Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces
Heat treated parts - Hardness specifications

Presentation and indication of heat treated parts on drawings
cf. DIN 6773 12001-04)
HMt tr..tment tpedlleations

Tm(s) fOI'
material condition
Menul'8ble peramet..,. of the material condition
Examples:
quenched and
tempered
hardened
hardened and
tempered
hardness HAC
value
HV
HB
rockwell hardness
vickers hardness
brinell hardness
Measuring points. Entering and dimensioning in the drawing with symbol (..j,.).
hardness Eht
indenNht
tation
Aht
case hardening thickness

nitriding depth
effedive hardening depth
Heat tr eatment diagram. Simplified, usually reduced scale representation of the

pan near the title block.
carburizing depth
nitride white layer thickness
Minimum tensile strength 01' micro

structure. If it is possible to test a part
treated in the same balch.
HTA
annealed
WL
All entries are made with plus tolerances.
nitrided
Possible additions
Identifying ...... of the aurt.. to undga locelized hMt treatment

-~--
Area must be
heat treated.
-----
Area maybe
heat treated.
- ---
Intermediate area may

not be heat
treated.
HMt tr..tment specifications In drewings (eJCaml)leal

Heat treatment of the entire part
ciffent requirements
same requirements
Method
Quenching
and temper
ing,
Hardening,
Hardening
and
tempering
Nitriding,
Case
hardening
~ ~
hardened and tempered
58 + 4 HAC (i) 40 + 5 HAC
quenched and tempered

350 + 50 HB 2.5/187.5
case-hardened and tempered

(!) 60 + 4 HACEht 0.5 + 0.3
"52 HAC
nitrided
" 900HV 10
Nht : 0.3 + 0.1
Surfaced
hardening
{33
HMt treatment
localized
Rtff&
--- 1105
- -hardened and entire

part tempered 60 + 3 HAC
{33
~-1:
__ ____
--case-hardened and
tempered 700 + 100 HV 10
Eht: 1.2 + 0.5
EE}l
~
(~=2 - --
- --
-----
-:::. _.:::::;---
surface hardened
620 + 120 HV 50
Aht 500 0.8 + 0.8
surface hardened
and entire pan tempered
(!) 54+6HAC s35 HAC
(!) s 30 HAC
- -surface hardened
and tempered
61 + 4 HAC Aht 600 0.8 + 0.8
Hardening depths and t o e . - in mm

Case-hardening depth Eht
0.05+0.03
0.1+0.1
Nitriding depth Nht
0.05+0.02
0.1+0.05 0.15+0.02
0.3+0.2
0.5+0.3
0.8+0.4
1.2+0.5
1.6+0.6
0.2+0.1
0.25+0.1
0.3+0.1
0.35+0.15
Induction hardening depth Aht
0.2+0.2
0.4+0.4
0.6+0.6
0.8+0.8
1.0+1.0
1.3+1.1
1.6+1.3
Laser/electr. beam hardening depth Aht
0.2+0.1
0.4+0.2
0.6+0.3
0.8+0.4
1.0+0.5
1.3+0.6
1.6+0.8
Control limit ham . - at the spedfied hardening daplhs

Case-hardening depth Eht
550HV 1
Nitriding depth Nht
core hardness + 50 HV 0.5
Effective hardening depth Aht
0.8 . minimum surface hardness, calculated in HV
98
Form deviations and roughness parameters

Form deviations
cf. DIN 4760 (1982-06)
Form deviations are deviations of the ae~ual surface (surfaces ascertainable by measurement) from the
geometrically ideal surface, whose standard shape is defined by the drawing.
o.gr.. of form deNdon (Profile sec- ex.nplea

tion repres. with vertical exagger81ion)
11t degree: form deviation
Jr()JV'"
~~
2nd degree: wavineu
deviation in
straightness.
roundness
Deflection of the workpiece or the machine during fabrics

tion of the part, malfunction or wear in the guides of t he
machine tool.
waves
Vibrations of the machine. runout or shape deviation of a

milling machine during fabrication of the part.
grooves
Geometry of the cuning tool, feed or depth of cut of the

tool during fabrication of the part.
scoring.
scales.
bumps
Sequence of chip formation (e. g . tearing chip), surface

deformation due to blasting during fabrication of the part.
matrix
structure,
lanioe structure
Crystallization cycles, matrix changes due to welding or hot

working. changes due to chemical effects. e.g. corrosion.
etching.
~
3rd degree: roughneu
~
4th degree: roughneu
~
5th and 6th degree: roughness
Cannot be represented
as a simple profile section
Surface texture profiles and parameters

profile
Sulf-
Primary profile (act. profile P profile)
'I~~: ~t
Waviness profile IW-profile)
z~=:I
RoughnfiiS profile (Ri)rofilel
z ?;-- ~~
~}0'
~
z
'V
' x~~
In= 51,
-r~~~~
~ I..L.,.
X~, ~
f-1- l"'
:.
"'
"
~
'j.
:.
"'
Rv =Zv3
I,
material
ratio~
a.rve
-:J
50~
In
Rmr in %
In
evaluation lenglh
single evaluation length
Explllnations
Total height of
the profile Pt
The primary profile represents the foundation for calculat

ing the parameters of the primary profile and forms the
basis for the waviness and roughness profiles.
The total height of the profile Pt is the sum of the height of
the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough Zvwithin the evaluation length ln.
Total height of
the profile Wf
The wew-s profile is obtained by low-pass filtering, i.e. by

suppressing the short wavelength components of the profile.
The total height of the profile Wf is the sum of the height of
Total height of
the profile Rt
The roughnMs profile is obtained by high-pass filtering, i.e. by

suppressing the long wavelength components of the profile.
The total height of the profile Rt is the sum of the height of
Rp, Rv
Height of the highest profile peak Zp, depth of the lowest

profile trough Zv within the single evaluation length 1,.
Highest peak
of the profile
The highest peak of the profile Rz is the sum of the height

of the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest
profile trough Zv within lhe single evaluation length I,.
Rz11
Arithmetic:
mean of the
profile ordinatesRa 11
The arithmetic mean of the profile ordinates Ra is the

arilhmetic mean of all ordinate values Zlx) within the single evaluation length 1,.
Material mlo
of the profile
The material ratio of the profile expressed as a percentage.

Rtnr, is the ratio of the sum of the contributing material
lengthS at a specified section height to the total evaluation
Rtnr
length/~
100
ZlxJ height of the profile at any position x; ordinate value

I,
cl. DIN EN ISO 4287 11998-10) and DIN EN ISO 4288 (1998-04)
Parameurs
:il
x"
POMible-
Centerline
(x-axis) X
The center line (x-axis) x is the line corresponding to the

long wavelength profile component which is suppressed
by profile filtering.
1) For parame1.ers defined over a single evaluation length. the arithmetic mean of 5 single
evaluation lengths to DIN EN tSO 4288 is used for determining the parameters.
99
Surface testing, Surface indications

Measuring sections for roughness
Periodic
profiles
(e.g. turning
profiles)
Non-periodic
profiles
(e.g. grinding and
lapping profiles)
Groove width
RSmmm
Rz
Ra
1Jm
IJm
cf. DIN EN ISO 428811998411
Umit
Single/
Periodic
wavetotal
profiles
length evaluation (e.g. turning
length
profiles)
IJm
Non-periodic
profiles
(e.g. grinding and
lapping profiles)
Limit
Single/
wavetotal
length ev aluat.ion
length
1,.1.
mm
gr0011e width
RSmmm
Rz
Ra
I'm
IJm
IJm
1,,1.
mm
> 0.01 - 0.04
up to 0.1
upto0.02
0.06
0.08/0.4
> 0.13-0.4
> 0.&- 10
> 0.1- 2
0.8
0.8/4
> 0.04- 0.13
> 0.1- 0.5
> 0.02- 0.1
0.25
0.25/1 .25
> 0.4-1.3
> 10- 50
> 2- 10
2.5
2.5/12.5
Indication of surface finish
v
vr
~
cf. DIN EN ISO 1302 (2002-06)
M.nlng
Symbol
Adcltlonel mt~rb
All manufacturing processes

are allowed.
Material removal specified, e. g.
turning, milling.
Material rem011al not allowed
or the surface remains in delivered condition.
e~
All surfaces around the contour

must have the same su rlacefinish.
a surface parameter" with

numerical value in 1Jm, trans
fer characteristicl'lindividual
evaluation length in mm
b secondary surface finish
requirement (as described
fora)
manufacturing process
d symbol for the required

groove direction
(table page 100)
e machining deviation in mm
EXII~
Symbol
material rem011ing machining

not allowed
Rz = 10 1-1m (upper limit)
standard transfer
charac1eristic3l
standard evaluation length'
" 16% rule" 51
~ Rzmax 0.5
1)
21
31
41
51
61
Symbol
M.nlng
JRa8
Machining can be done as

desired
standard transfer
characteristiCll
Ra = 3.5 1Jm (upper lim it)
standard evaluation length4'
"16% ruleSI
material removal machining

Rz = 0.51Jm (upper limit)
standard transfer
characteristic:!l
standard evaluation length41
"max. rule&l
ground
~0.008-4/Ra 1.6
0.5
.L0.008-4/Ra 0.8
Me.Ung
material removal machining
Ra = 8 1-1m (upper limit)
standard transfer
characteristic3'
standard evaluation length 41
16% rule" 51
applies all around the contour
material removal m achining

manufacturing process
grinding
Ra= 1.61J m (upper limit)
Ra = 0.81Jm (lower limit)
for both Ra values:
16% ruleSl
transfer characteristic
each 0.008 to 4 mm
standard evaluation lengthl
machining deviation 0.5 mm
surface grooves vertical
surface parameter, e. g. Rz, consists of the profile (here the roughness profile Rl and the parameters (here: zl.
traMfer characteristic: wavelength range between the short wavelength filter ls and the long wavelength filter
.1. 0 The w avelength of the long wavelength filter corresponds to the single evaluation length 1,. If no transfer char
acteristic is entered, then the standard transfer characteristic appliesll.
standard transfer characteristic: the limit wavelength for measurement of the roughness parameters is dependent
upon the roughness profile and is taken from tables.
standard evaluation length 10 5 5 x single evaluation length 1,.
M16o/o rule": only 16% of all measured values may exceed the chosen parameter.
Mmax. rule" ("highest value rule"): no measured value may exceed the specified highest value.
100
Surface finish symbols

lndic:etion of surface finish
cf. DIN EN ISO 1302 (200206)
Symbola for groove ciNctlon
Repro
sentation
of groove
direction
Symbol
Groove
direction
..L
parallel
to the
projection
plane
perpen
dicularto
the projection plane
X
crossed
in two
angular
directions
multi
directional
approximatelyconcentric to
the center
R
approxi
mately
radial to
the center
non-grooved
surface, non
directional or
troughs
S izM of the aymbola

Letter height h in mm
2.5
legibility
from below or from the right
3.5
10
14
20
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.4
2.0
0.25 0.35
H,
3.5
10
14
20
28
H,
11
15
21
30
42
60
Uyout
directly on the surface or with reference and
leader lines
E_.,.,... of chwlng entriea
,;z
~
~(vi)
JY
101
Roughness of surfaces
Recommended assignment of roughness values to ISO tolerance specific:ations11
Nominal si~e
range
from-to
mm
Recommended
values of
Rzand Ra
1Jm
ISO tolerarn:e gr&cle
5
R~
2.5
1- 6
0.4
Ra
Rz
2.5
6 - 10
Ra
0.4
Rz
4
10- 18
Ra
0.8
Rz
4
18 - 80
Ra
0.8
Rz
6.3
80- 250
Ra
0.8
Rz
6.3
250- 500
Ra
0.8
Achievable roughness of surfaces11
6
4
0.8
4
0.8
4
0.8
6.3
0.8
10
1.6
10
1.6
7
6.3
0.8
6.3
0.8
6.3
0.8
10
1.6
16
1.6
16
1.6
8
6.3
1.6
10
1.6
10
1.6
16
3.2
25
3.2
25
3.2
9
10
1.6
16
3.2
16
3.2
16
3.2
25
3.2
40
6.3
10
16
3.2
25
6.3
25
6.3
40
6.3
40
6.3
63
12.5
11
25
6.3
40
12.5
40
12.5
63
12.5
63
12.5
100
25
~in
I'm for type of menufecturing Ra in IJm for type of manufacturing

fine
normal
rough
fine
normal
rough
min.
from-to
max.
min.
from-to
max.
Manufacturing process
"'
c:
~
Cast.i ng:
.E
..E
Sintering:
' 1:
"-
4
10
25
Die casting
Permanent mold casting
Sandcasling
Sinter smooth
Calibrated smooth
Extrusion
Ol
~
0
u..
..
c
0
Ol
'g
(.)
Closed-die forming
Rod extrusion
Deep drawing sheet metal
_......,
Rolling:
Burnishing
M aterial
WireEDM
removal:
Dlesinking
Oxyacetylene cutting
Cutting
operations: laser cutting
4
10
4
0.4
0.1
0.8
1.5
16
Plasma cutting
Shearing
Water jet cutting
Machining Drilling: Drilling in solid
operations:
Boring
Countersinking
Routing
Turning: longitudinal turning
Facing
Milling: Peripheral, face milfing
Honing: Super finishing
long-stroke honing
lapping
Polishing
Grinding
4
16
0.1
6.3
0.4
1
2.5
1.6
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.1
10- 100
25- 160
63- 250
2.5- 10
1.6- 7
25- 100
63- 400
25-100
4-10
0.5- 6.3
2.8 - 10
5- 10
40-100
10-100
6- 280
10-63
16-100
40-160
2.5-25
10-25
4-10
4-63
10-63
10-63
0.1 - 1
1-11
0.25- 1.6
0.04- 0.25
1.6-4
160
250
1000
400
1000
400
16
10
16
31
1000
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.2
0.025
0.1
0.2
3.2
400
250
40
40
25
250
250
160
2.5
15
10
0.4
25
1.6
1.6
0.05
0.8
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.012
0.8-30
3.2- 50
12.5- 50
0.4-1 .6
0.3-0.8
3.2- 12.5
2.5- 12.5
3.2- 12.5
1-3.2
0.06-1.6
0.4-1
0.45
8 - 16
1- 10
1- 10
1.6- 12.5
6.3 - 25
6.3- 12.5
0.4-3.2
1.6- 6.3
0.8- 2
0.8-12.5
1.6-12.5
1.6-12.5
0.02-0.17
0.13- 0.65
0.025- 0.2
0.005-0.035
0.2-0.8
25
25
25
6.3
2
3.2
6.3
50
50
25
12.5
12.5
6.3
50
50
25
0.34
1.6
0.21
0.05
6.3
11 Roughness values, as long as they are not contained in DIN 4766-1 (cancelled) are according to SJ)e<:<fications of the industry.
Readout example:
reaming (for surface
characteristic Rzl
fine fmishing
Rz ... =0.4
Rz:4
conven~ finishing
Rz:10
rough finishing
....:::::::s;;, Rz ..., =25
102
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and Fits
ISO system of limits and fits

Terms
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 0990-1 1)
Hole
N
GuH
G,H
ES
El
TH
shaft
nominal sit e
hole max. dimension
hole min. dimension
hole upper deviation
hole lower deviation
hole tolerance
Gus
G,s
es
ei
Ts
nominal dimension
shaft max. dimension
shaft min. dimension
shaft upper deviation
shaft lower deviation
shaft tolerance
, - - nominal dimension
, - - nominal dimension
.J.. .r.-- tolerance cless

20H7
T'L- tolerance grede
L - fundamental deviation
.J.. .r.-- tolerance class

20s6
T"<---- tolerance grade
L - fundamental deviation
Explenation
ZMOIIne
It represents the nominal dimension that is Fundarnrt. A group of tolerances assigned to same
referenced by the deviations and tolerances. tolerwM:e
level of precision, e.g IT7.
grade
Fundamental The fund. deviation detormln. the position of Tolerance

deviation
the tolerance zone with resp. t o tho zero line. grade
Number of the fundamental tol. grade, e.g. 7

for tho fundamental tolerance grade
Difference between tho max. and the min. Tolerance

dimension o r between the upper and lower etas
deviation.
Name for a combination of a fundamen

tal deviation and a tolerance grade, e.g.
H7.
m.
Fundamental A tolerance assigned to a fundamental tole- At

tolerance
ranee grade, e.g. IT7 and a nominal dimension
range, e.g. 30 to 50 mm.
Planned joining condition between hole

and shaft.
Limits, deviations and tolerances
cf. DIN ISO 28&1 (1990 11)
Hole
Sh.tt
G uH=
N+ ES
Gus
= N + es
GIH =
N+ El
G1s
= N+ ei
Ts = es- ei
Example: Shaft 0 20e8; G,s = 1; Ts = 1

For values f or eiand es see page 107.
ei=-731Jm =-0.073 mm; es - -40 1-1m -0.040 mm
G,s N + ei 20 mm + (- 0.073 mm) = 19.927 mm
Ts = es- ei= - 40 1Jm - (-731Jm) 331'm
Ex ample: Hole 050 + 0.3/+ 0.1; GuH = ?; TH = 1
GvH N + ES s 50mm + 0.3mm =50.30 mm

TH c ES-E/=0.3mm-0. 1 mm - 0.2mm
Rts
cf. DIN ISO 2861 (199011)
Clearance fit
Fem.x max. clearance
Fem;n min. clearance
Fcmin =
G1H - Gus
Transition fit
Fr::m;.x max. clearance
fim.x max. interference
lnterlence fit
limax max. interference
limon min. interference
I I Fcmax =GuH - G1s I
Example: Fit 0 30 H8/f7; Fenu.x ?; Fe.- ?

For values for ES, El, es, ei see page 107.
GuH N + ES 30 mm + 0.033 mm = 30.033 mm
G1H = N + El = 30 mm + 0 mm = 30.000 mm
G..tt
~
N + ES = 30 mm + (-0.020 mm) = 29.980 mm

= N + ES 30 mm + (-0.041 mm) 29.959 mm
Fem.x c GuH - G,s = 30.033 mm- 29.959 mm =0.074 mm

Fcm.n = G,H- Gus = 30.000 mm - 29.980 mm = 0.02 mm
103
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and Fits
ISO system of limits and fits

fit systems
cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990- 11)
rrt 1ystem: basic hole 1ystem (all hole dimensions have the fundamental deviation H)
Examples for nominal dimension 25,
tolerance grade 7
Fundamental deviations lor shafts
40
I'm
20
10
o ~~-L--~~--~~~
transition
ftts
-10
-20
- 30
interference
fits
-40
transition
lit
interference
lit
rrt system: basic sheft system (all shalt dimensions have the fundamental deviation h)
Fu ndamental allowances for holes
Examples l or nomina l dimension 25,

tolerance grade 6
.so
jim
30
20
10
or-,...---,..r-~~--~
-10
-20
-30
-1.0
-SO
clearance
fit
The limit deviations of the tolerance grade for the fundamental deviations h, js, H and JS can be derived from the
fundamental tolerances: h: es = 0; ei = -IT js: es = + fT/2; ei = - IT/2 H: ES = +IT; El = 0 JS: ES =+ IT/2; El = -IT/2
tolerance
grade
to
IT13
ITS
to
IT12
Table
applies to
Nominal
dimension
over-to mm
ITS
to
IT13
ITS
to
IT10
IT3
to
IT10
IT3
to
IT1
to
IT18
rno
k
ITS
to
fT8
IT3
to
IT13
over
rn
all fundamentalrolerance grades
IT3
to
IT9
all fundamenral tolerance grades
- 60 - 30
- 10
- 12
+2
+11
-n
-36
-12
-15
+3
+13
-85 -43
-14
- 18
+3
+15
-110
- 100
- 50
- 15
- 21
+4
+17
- 190
- 110
- 56
- 17
- 26
+4
+20
-18
-28
+4
+21
-20
-32
+5
+23
- 135
-68
IT3to IT10
Lower deviation ei in tJm
Upper deviation es in IJm
- 230
IT3
to
IT9
+37
Umit deviations for fundamental tolerance grades given in the table row "Table applies to' (above and page 105) can
be calculated using tables on this page and page 105 and the formulas below. The values necessary for the lunda
mental tolerances IT are found in the table on page 103.
Formulas
for shaft deviations
ei= es-IT
Example 1: Shah (outside dimension)

0 40g5; es= 1; ei= 1
es (table above) = - 9 tJm

ITS (table page 103) 11 tJm
ei ~ es - IT s -9 jJm - ,, IJm e - 20 IJm
for hole deviations
El = ES- IT
ES= El+ IT
Example 2: Hole (inside dimension)
0 lOOKS; ES= 1; El= 1

ES (table page 105) = -3tJm + t.
(Value lJ. for fundamental tolerance grade
IT6 ace. to table, bonom of page 105: 7 tJm)
ES = -3 1Jm + 7 1Jm = 4 1Jm
IT6 (table page 103) = 22 IJm
El ES- IT 4tJm-221Jm -181Jm
zero line
100 ES
~ndamental
.L...L__ _ ___,_t
n
ei
r-'----.....,-,
tolerance
.<tolerance
IT
El
(fundamental
tolerance
..1-J' - - -~
---L...L iS tolerance n
tolerance
zone for hole
105
ITS
lTG
ITS
10
10
10
IT13
IT13
IT10
IT3 IT3 IT1 lTG

to
to
to
to
IT10 IT10 IT1S ITS
tolerance
grade
IT3
to
IT10
IT3
to
IT10
IT3
to
IT11
ITStoiT10
0 +60
- 4 +l> - 21 +!1 - 37 +l>
0 +66
-5 +l> - 23 +l> - 40 +l>
10
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
10
18
30
50
80
120
180
250
3 15
400
400
to
500
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
4
7
3
4
3
6
7
3
7
5
9
11
13
11
13
15
17
20
21
23
12
14
1G
19
23
26
29
32
34
ITS
ITS
ITS
18
50
IT3toiT10
to
IT3 to ITS
30
P.R.
to
IT3
IT4
ITS
ell fundamental tolerance grades
FundllmenUI
80
120
180
250
315
106
Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and fits
ISO fits
Basic hole system
cf. DIN ISO 286-2 (1990.11)

Limit deviations in 1Jm for tolerance classes 11
Nominal
dimension
range
over-to
mm
upto 3
3-6
6-10
10- 14
14- 18
18-24
24- 30
30-40
40- 50
50-65
65- 80
80-100
100- 120
lor
hole
~
16
0
t6
0
for shafts
arance, transition. int
fit
hS
0
-4
0
-6
j5
k6
315-355
355-400
400-450
450-500
1'
h6
tO
-6
-2
-16
- 10
-8
-6
j6
k6
m6
+8 +12 +18 +2.3

-3 +1 +7 +12
...
+23
+28
+5 +15 +24
-4 +2 +11
+37
+28
t21
0
- 20 -7
0
-41 -20 - 13
+9 +15 +21 t-28

-4 +2 +8 +15
+-'1
+28
+48
+311
+5 +12
-3 +1
0
-9
+16
0
0
- 11
t-6 +16
-5 +2
+28
+17
+19
0
0
- 13
+6 +21
-7
...
+22
0
0
- 15
+6 +25
-9 +3 +23
t-25
0
0
- 18
+7
- 11
..29
0
0
- 20
+7 +33
- 13 +4
+32
0
0
-23
+7 +36
- 16 +4
0
- 25
...
-4
0
15
0
-22 - 12
-8
- 13 -6
- 28 - 14
0
..g
+4 +6
+8 t-10
+4
-2
0
+2
+6 t-9 +12 +16
+4 ... 8
-2
+1
+7 +10 +15 +19
- 2 +1 +6 +10
\2
ns
+14
.. ...
30
....
1
...
- 25
-9
0 +1 1 +18 +25 +33

-5 +2 +9 +17
-50 - 25 -16
-30 -10
0 t- 12 t-2 1 +30 +39

-60 - 29 - 19 -7
+2 +11 +20
+II
+4S
t8l
t35
0
-36 -12
+40
0
-43 -14
0 + 14 +28 +40 +52
-83 -39 -25 - 11 +3 +15 t-27
+46
0
-50 - 15
0 +16 +33 +46 +60
-96 -44 -29 - 13 +4 +17 +31
I +121
+52
0
- 56 - 17
0 +16 t-36 +52 +66
- 108 -49 - 32 - 16 +4 +20 +34
+133
+7 t-40 t82 I +108
-18 +4 +37 +139
+57
0
-62 -18
0 +18 +40 +57 +73
- 119 -64 - 36 - 18 +4 +21 +37
~63
-68 -20
0 t-20 +45 +63 t-80
- 131 -60 -40 -20 +5 +23 +40
+2
+28
+3
....
.....
t81
.a
.a
.....,
+'Z7 l.el
t8l
+n
+&1 +100
+31 l..ao
*
....
..., ....
... ....
0 +13 +25 +35 +45

-71 -34 - 22
-9
+3 +13 +23
- 27
.,,
+163
+7 +45 +fS1 I +128
- 20 +5 +40 +118
+132
+10
+23
+111
+28
+111
The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7 157; their use is preferable.
+'Z7
+111
+32
+23
+31
...
+110
+43
t80
+-'1
+72
+13
+78
+18
.n +83
+&1 +71
+71 +101
+71
+117
t82
+43
........
...
.a
+117
+40
0
.zo
- 16 -6
0
-34 - 17 - 11
..
-8
"36
0
...,. .,,
lit
n6
.-18
0
.,.
1 1
0
225-250
280-315
g6
...........
+31
+23
+13
t8
180-200
250- 280
transition
til
+12
+8
+4
-6
160-180
200- 225
clearance
fit
+10
+3
-2
+4
-2
+6
0
+9
+1
+10
+1
120-140
140-160
for shafts
Paired with an H7 hole
results in a
+M
+10
+20
+15
+211
+111
rl
n5
~9
13
for
hole
Paired with an
H6 hole results in a
+112
+10 +125
+100
+83 +133
t88 +108
+108 +151
+77 +122
+1158
t80 +130
+113 +189
+1..0
+12e +190
+1&8
+130 +202
+170
+144 +221
+108 +190
+11iD +2M
+208
+188 +'Z72
+128 +232
+172 +292
+132 +252
....
....
...
.,,
107
ISO fits
Basic hole system
Nominal
dimension
range
over-to
mm
up to 3
3 -6
6- 10
10-14
14- 18
18- 24
24-30
30- 40
40- 50
50-65
65-80
80- 100
100-1 20
cf. DIN ISO 286-2 (1990-1 1)
.....
Umit deviations in 11m fO< tolera nce classes''

for shafts
for
for shafts
hole
Paired with an HS hole
Paired with an H11 hole
results in a
results In a
for
hole
clearance
fit
~
-..14
0
+22
0
-40
- 76
e8
- 14
-28
- 20
-38
-25
-47
127
0
-50
-93
- 32
-59
0
+18
d9
- 20
-45
-30
~
n
~
-16
- 10
- 22
-13
- 28
- 16
-34
h9
0
-25
0
-30
0
-36
0
-43
33 ~5
0 - 117
-40
-73
-20
-41
0
-52
+"39 -80
0 - 142
-50
-89
- 25
-50
0
-62
+46 - 100 ~
0 - 174 - 106
-30
160-180
......
.. B
.tS4 -120
-72
0 - 207 -126
-36
-71
- 95
-400 - 205
-50
- 93
-50
- 160
0
0
-43 - 110
t-130
0
-300 - 110
-430 - 240
-65
- 117
-65
- 195
0
0
- 52 - 130
-80
- 142
-80
- 240
0
0
-62 - 160
- 100
- 174
- 100
- 290
0
0
- 74 - 190
- 120
-207
- 120
-340
0
0
-87 -220
- 145
-245
- 145
-395
0
0
- 100 - 250
.......,
...
.., ..,
.... ....
..... ...
+74
+41
..,
...=-.....
....
.. !60
0
.-190
0
+110
..,
+271 +373
410
+308
+231
-50
0 +330
- 96 - 115 +258
+310
+422
+360
-so
-310 - 120
-470 - 280
-320 - 130
-480 - 290
-340 -140
-530 -330
-360 - 150
0
- 25
0
-30
0
-36
....,
........
.. .......
..,..
...,
.. .,.
.....,
..,
0
-75
0
-90
-550 -340
-380 -170
t-220
0
-600 - 390
-410 -180
-630 -400
200
-460
.250
0
-710 -450
-520 - 210
-no
-460
-580 -230
-830 -480
~ -240
-s50 -530
t72 -170 -100
+290 -740 - 260 - 170 - 170
0
200-225
+315
0 - 1030 -550 -285 -460 -115
0 - 285 - 172
-820 - 280
225-250
-1110 -570
+Gii
- 920 -300
250- 280
..a, - 190 - 110 -56
0 +311 +475 +320 -1240 ~2 0 -190 - 190
0
0 -1 050 -330 -320 -510 - 130
0 -320 - 191 - 108 - 130 +431
280-315
-1370 -650
+310 +&21
-1200 -360
+C7I
315-355
+360 -1560 -720 - 210 -210
0
+89 - 210 - 125 -62
0 +3110
0 - 1350 -400 - 350 -570 -140
0 -350 -214 - 119 - 140
355-400
- 1710 -760
+4311 +810
- 1500 -440
..eB7 +837
400-450
0
+97 -230 -135 ~
0 +4111 +740 +400 -1900 -840 -230 -230
0 -1650 -480 -385 -630 -155
0 -385 -232 - 131 -155 +837 +117
450- 500
- 2050 -880
+820
11 The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.
21 DIN 7157 recommends: nominal dimensions up to 24 mm: H81x8; nominal dimensions over 24 m m: H8/u8.
180- 200
h11
0
-290
43 I +72
...,
.,...
0
-43
-83 - 100
h9
-40
- 78
d11
-20
-80
- 30
- 105
-40
- 130
t-110
0
+34
.m1
-145 -85
0 - 245 - 148
d9
- 20
-45
-30
+40
...
+21
.a
+144 .z10
..sa
a11
ell
- 270 ~
-330 - 120
- 270 - 70
- 345 -145
-280
-370 - 170
...
... ..
+11
+41
+ZI
1 +131
+lO
+131 1
0
+122
- 74
+112
+101 +141
+171 +232
0 +124 +178
-m
clearance
fit
t60
0
+75
0
,..go
0"
+34
+20
+111
120- 140
140- 160
.........
0
-290
0
- 320
0
-360
0
-400
108
ISO fits
'
Basic shaft system
cf. DIN ISO 28&-2 (1990-11)
Limit deviations in 11m for tolerance classes11

Nominal
dimension
range
over- to
mm
upto 3
3- 6
6-10
10- 18
18- 30
30-40
40 - 50
50-65
65-80
80-100
100- 120
lor
shafts
lor holes
..g
clearance
fit
H6
+6
0
+8
0
+9
0
+11
0
+13
0
0
- 11
+16
0
+10
+13
- 13
+19
0
0
- 15
+22
0
+16
~
0
0
-5
0
-6
0
...a
0
transition ..........
fit
J6
M6
+2 - 2
-4 -8
+5 - 1
-3 - 9
+5 -3
-4 -12
+6 -4
- 5 - 15
+8
-4
- 5 - 17
0
- 18
+25
0
....
- 11
-5
-6 -24
-6
-6 - 28
+18 -8
-7 -33
160- 180
- 10
..;o
-21
41
0
- 16
+64 +34 +25 +14 +7

0 ...a
0 -11 -18 -25 -33
+25 +9
-21
0
IJ- 19
+76 +40 +30 +18 +9

0 -9
0 -12 -21 -30 -39
+30 +10
0
- 22
+90 +47 +35 +22 +10

0 - 10
0 -13 -25 -35 -45
+36 +12
..f2
...... --81
M7
R7
-31
-21
- 1f
-8
K7
-4
-14
-4
- 16
-4
- 19
-5
- 23
-7
- 28
0
-9
0
- 11
0
- 13
J7
N7
H7
+10 +4
0 -2
0 - 6 - 10 -12
+12 +6 +3
0
0 -6 -9 - 12
+15 +8 +5
0
0 - 7 - 10 - 15
+18 +10 +6
0
0 -8 - 12 -18
+21 +12 +6
0
0 - 9 - 15 -21
0
-6
0
0
- 25
+106 +54 +40 +26 +12

0 -12
0 -14 -28 -40 -52
+43 +14
280 -315
315 - 355
355 - 400
400-450
450 - 500
11
- '14
- 24
- 15
-D
- 17
-42
-21
-311
..;o
-D
-41
-a
-10
....
-30
-a
-34
- 72
-42 ~
..f2 - 78
-38
-73 ~
-41
-78 - 101
-10
....
....
........ ...
-10
-10 - 1211
..a
- 133
-10 - 1CI6
-1oe - 151
-41
-'JO
0
- 20
+29
0
+22 -8
-7 -37
-2Z
-11
0
- 23
+32
0
+25 ..g
- 7 -41
-a
-41
..fil
-79
- 32
+137 +69
+56 +17
0
- 25
+36
0
+29 - 10
- 7 -46
...
-61
-f/1
0
- 36
+151 +75
+62 +18
0
- 27
+40
0
+33 -10
-7 -50
0
-40
+1 65 +83
+68 +20
-29
+122 +61 +46 +30 +13

0 -14
+50 +15
0 -16 -33 -46 -60
225-250
250-280
- 11
-13
- 1S
-28
- 1f
-34
S7
- 77
- 117
180-200
200 - 225
...
.........
It
G7
- 11 -31
-31
transition
fit
+12
+2
+16
+4
+20
+5
+24
+6
+28
+7
.. ...
- '14
clearance
ftt
+20
+6
+28
+10
+35
+13
+43
+16
+53
+20
- 1f -a'!
- 11
-a.
Paired with an h6 shaft

results in a
F8
- 13 - 17
- 7 - 12
-4 - 12
-6 -20 -28
120- 140
140- 160
N
-4 ~
- 10 - 12
..
for holes
lor
shafts
Paired with an h5
shaft results in a
-28
-a
-ff1
......
-13 - 113
- 108 - 158
-ff1 - 123
- 113 - 1
- 74 - 138
+52 +36 +16
0 -14 - 121 - 180
0 -16 -36 -52 -66
-78 - 110
- 130
-f/1 - 1
+57 +39 +17
0 -16 - 144 -228
0 - 18 -40 -57 - 73
- 187
-1110 -ZM
- 103 -208
+63 +43 +18
0 - 17 - 188 -D2
0 -20 -45 -63 -80 -108 -229
- 172 ...az
The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.
... --
109
ISO fits
Basic shaft system
cf. DIN ISO 286-2 0990-11)

Limit deviations in I'm
Nominal
dimension
range
for
shafts
over~to
mm
bls 3
3- 6
0
- 25
0
30
6- 10
10- 18
18-30
30-40
40-50
50-65
65-80
80- 100
100- 120
0
- 36
0
- 43
0
- 52
0
62
0
- 74
0
- 87
120- 140
140-160
0
- 100
160- 180
180-200
200-225
0
- 115
280-315
315- 355
355-400
400-450
450..000
1 1 The
for holes
Pairing with an h9 shaft
results in a
clearance fit
C11
for
shafts
transition fit
E9
F8
H8 flwJSg21 Ng31
P9
+39
+14
+50
+20
+61
+25
+75
+32
+92
+40
+20
+06
+28
+10
+35
+13
+43
+16
+53
+20
+14
0
+18
0
+22
0
+27
0
+33
0
+ 12,5
- 12,5
+15
- 15
+18
-18
+21,5
-21,5
+26
- 26
0
- 43
0
-52
- 6
- 31
- 12
- 42
- 15
-51
- 18
-61
- 22
- 74
+ 112
+50
+64
+25
+39
0
+31
-31
0
- 62
- 26
-88
0
- 160
+134
+60
+76
+ 30
+46
0
+37
- 37
0 -32
- 74 -1 06
0
- 190
+159
+72
+90
+36
+54 +43,5
0 -43,5
0 - 37
-87 -124
0
- 220
+ 185
+ 85
+106
+43
+63
0
+50
- 50
0 -43
- 100 - 143
0
- 250
+215
+100
+122
+ 50
+72 +57,5
0 -57,5
0 - 50
- 115 - 165
0
- 290
+400 + 240
+190 +110
+137
+56
+81
0
+65
-65
0 -56
- 130 - 186
0
-320
+440 + 265
+210 +125
+ 151
+62
+89
0
+70
-70
0 -62
- 140 -202
0
- 360
+480 +290
+230 +135
+ 165
+68
+97
0
.. n.s
-n .s
0 - 68
-155 -223
0
-400
010
+120
+60
+60
+20
+145
+78
+70
+30
+ 170
+98
+80
+40
+ 205 + 120
+95
+50
+240 +149
+ 65
+ 110
+280
+120 +180
-:;:290 +80
+1 30
+330
+140 + 220
+340 +100
+150
+ 390
+170 +260
+400 +120
+ 180
+450
+200
+460 +305
+210 +145
+480
+230
+530
+240
+550 +355
+260 +170
-4
- 29
0
- 30
0
-36
-ro
0
- 75
0
- 90
0
- 110
0
- 130
illO
225- 250
250- 280
for tolerance classes 11
0
- 130
0
- 140
0
- 155
+280
+620
+300
+650
+330
+720
+360
+760
+400
+840
+440
+880
+480
for holes
Pairing with an
h 11 shaft results in a
clearance fit
A11
C11
010
+330
+270
+345
+270
+370
+280
+400
+290
+430
+300
+470
+310
+480
+320
+530
+340
+550
+360
+600
+380
+630
+ 410
+ 710
+460
+120
+60
+145
+70
+170
+80
+205
+95
+240
+ 110
+280
+120
+290
+ 130
+330
+140
+340
+150
+390
+ 170
+400
+180
+450
+200
+460
+210
+480
+230
+ 530
+240
+ 550
+260
+570
+280
+620
+300
+650
+330
+720
+360
+760
+400
+840
+440
+880
+ 480
+60 +60
+20
0
+78 +75
+30
0
+98 +90
+40
0
+ 120 +11 0
+50
0
+149 + 130
+65
0
.. no
+520
+820
+580
+ 950
+ 660
+1030
+740
+ 1110
+820
+1240
+920
+ 1370
+1050
+1560
+1200
+ 1710
+1 350
+1900
+1500
+ 2050
+1650
+180 +160
+80
0
+220 +190
+ 100
0
+260 +220
+120
0
+305 +250
+ 145
0
+355 +290
+ 170
0
+400 +320
+190
0
+440 +360
+210
0
+480 +400
+230
0
tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.
2J The tolerance zones J9/JS9, J10/JS10 etc. are all identical in size and are symmetrical to the zero line.
31 Tolerance class N9 may not be used for nominal dimensions s 1mm.
H11
110
Technical drawing: 3.10 To lerances and Fits
General tolerances, Roller bearing fits

General tolerances 1l for
linear and angular dimensions
cf. DIN ISO 2768 1 (1991061
LIMwclmelllkM
Tole~ance
Limit deviations in mm f or nominal dimension ranges
class
0.5
to 3
f (fine)
m (medium)
c (coarse)
v (very coarse)
over3
t o6
over6
to30
~0.05
~0.05
~0.1
:t0.1
:t 0.1
:t0.3
:t0.5
:o:0.2
:t0.5
:t1
~0.2
Tolerance
class
over30
to 120
over 120
to400
:t0.15
:!:0.3
.. o.2
:t0.5
% 1.2
:t2.5
:o.O.S
.. 1.5
Radii and ........
limit deviations in mm for

nominaf dimension ranges
f (fine)
m (medium)
c (coarse)
v {very coerso
0.5
103
over3
to6
:t0.2
:t0.5
x0.4
over 1000
to2000
over2000
to4000
:t0.3
~ 0.5
:t0.8
:t 1.2
%2
:t3
:t 4
:t6
Angul8r clmenslons
:t 2
%4
:a:8
Limit deviations in degrees and minutes

for nominal dimension ranges (shorter angle leg)
over 10
to 50
t o 10
.. ,.
:t l
%1
over400
to 1000
x2
1 3()'
.. 3.
over 50
to 120
over 120
to400
400
:t0"30'
.. 0" 20'
:t0 10'
.. o
% ,.
.. o 30'
.. 1.
.. o 15'
.. o 30'
"o 1o
.. o 2o
.. 2
General tolerances'' for form and position
cf. DIN ISO 27682 (1991-041

Tolerances m m m for
run
stnightand fletnominal dimension ranges in mm
Tolerance
class
up to
10
H
K
L
0.02
0.05
0. 1
over
10
to
30
0.05
0. 1
0.2
over
30
to
100
0. 1
0.2
0.4
aymmetry
nominal dim. ranges in mm nominal dim. ranges in mm
(shorter feature)
(shorter angle legl
over over
over over over
300 1000 up to 100 300 1000 up to over
100 over
300 over
1000
100
100
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
1000 3000
300 1000 3000
300 1000 3000
0 ..2
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.8
1
0.6
I 0.8 I 1
1.2
1.6
0.6
1
1.5
2
0.6 l 1 1 1.5 1 2
,I I I
over
100
to
300
0.2
0.4
0,8
11General tolerances~ to dimensions without individual tolerance entry. Drawing
0.1
0.2
0.5
entry page 80.
Tolerances for the installation of roller bearings
cf. DIN 5425 1 (1984-111
Radi.a bewing
Inner ring (shaft)
load
case
circum-
ferential
Outer ring (housing)

Funda~l~ations
f or shafts11 with
Fit
Load
transition
or
interference
low
h, k
k,m
m edium
j, lc, m
lc, m,n,p
ball boaring rolle< bearing
frt
required
high
clearance
fit
allowed
arbitrarily
large
m,n
n, p, r
Load
Fit
case
clearance
frt
allowed
an:l.n>-
point load
ferenlial
loadt ~
j, h,g, f
Thrust bewing
load type
Bearing construction
~
~
Combined
radiaVaxialload
ang ular contact ball

bearing
spherical roller bearing
tapered roller bearing
Pure axial load
ball bearing
roller bearing
11Fu ndamental
Load
Fundamental deviations
for housings11with
ball bearing 1 roller bearing
arbitrarily
large
J, H, G, F
uansition
low
or inter
terence
medium
K,M
M,N
high
N, P
fit
required
Shaft washer (shaft)

Housing plate (housing)
Fundamental deviat.
Fundamental deviations
for shafts11
for housing 11
Load case
Load case
circumfer.
po int
j, lc, m
H, J
load
load
paint
circum fer.
j
K,M
load
load
h, j, k
H, G, E
tolerance g rades: for shafts typically IT6, f or bores typically IT7. If the smoothness and accuracy of
running must satisfy increased requirem ents. also smaller t olerance g rades are specified.
111
Fit recommendations, possible fits

Fit recommendations 11
cf. DIN 7157 (1~ 1 1
From row 1 C11/h9, D10/h9, E9/h9, F8/h9, H81f7,

From row
F8/h6, H7/f7, H8/h9, H7Jh6. H7/n6, H7/r6, H8/l<S or uS
21 C1 1/h11, D10/h11 , H81d9. H8/e8, H7/g6, G7Jh6. H11/h9, H7(r6. H7/k6, H7/s6
Possible fits (examples)

Basic hole~!
0 !WJ
0 !IE
0 llJijJ
----
cf. DIN 7157 (1966-011

Characteristic/application examples
Basic shaft21
a...- fits
H81d9
Loose running rrt

Clearance allows for loose frt of mating parts.
(I.e. spacer sleeves on shafts}
H81e8
Free running rrt (Medium running fit}: Suffocient clearance is

allowed for ease of assembly.
(I. e. collar on shaft)
D10/h9
E9/h9
(II)
0
CSose running fit: Clearance allows for parts to be easily assemHB/n
bled by hand while maintaining location accuracy.

(I.e. plain bearing of shalt}
!IE]
F8/h9
H11n
Sliding rrt - free: Clearance allows accurate location and free

movement, including turning.
(i.e. piston valves in cylinders)
F8/h6
H7/g6
Sl iding fit - constrained: Clearance allows better locational

accuracy while still allowing sliding or turning movement.
(I.e. transmission gear on shaft)
G7Jh6
o r;JE'J
H8/h9
M inimal clearance fit: Allows locational accuracy and hand

force assembly without being a snug lit.
(i.e. spacer sleeves}
H8/h9
0 r:JEt
H7/h6
H7/h6
0 aiR
h6
l.oeationel clearance lit Allows snug lit of stationary parts that

may be assembled by hand force.
(i.e. punch in punch holder}
onn - J6
H71j6
Locationel transition fit - c:learance: For accurate location allowing more clearance than interference.
(i.e. gears on shafts}
H7/n6
Locationel transition fit - interference: For accurate location

where interference is pennissible.
(i.e. drill bushing in jigs}
H7/r6
l.ocetional interlerence fit For rigidity and alignment/accurate

location without special bore requirements.
(i.e. bushings in housings}
H7/s6
Medium drive fit: For ordinary steel parts or shrink tits of light
sections. lightest fit possible for cast iron.
(i.e. plain bearing bushings)
H8/u8
Foree fit For parts fining that can withstand high mechanical
pressing force or shrink fining.
(i.e. wheel on axte}
H8/x8
Extreme force lit For parts that can only be assembled by stretching or shrinking.
(i.e. turbine blade on shaft)
0 ~
pan
g6
0 130
0 _...
T.-.itlon fits
ell
---h6
h6
not specified
n6
o lliE -
0 -
0 ~
0 ~
r6
-s6
lnterfer.nc:e fits
not specified
.a
11
~~
Deviations from these fit recommendations should only be made in exceptional cases. e.g. installation of roller bearings.
The fits in bold print are tolerance combinations according to row 1. Their use is preferred.
11 2
Technical d rawing: 3. 10 Tolerances and fits
Geometric tolerancing
Tolerances of geometry. orientation, location and run-out
cf. DIN EN ISO 1101 (2()()6.{)21
Structure of tolerance spec:ifications

Detum
Toler..-d element
. ,.._~-~oo"""
"'~
11 03 A
-"" ~""moon.,...
datum lener
Datum element A
Symbol of
tolerance type
datum line
datum base
datum lener
tolerance value
toleranced
element
Datum Is the
datum line
with datum
arrow
The tolerance applies to the
~
'!f
l1
1_-3_--3
surface
line
E}Jq"."' fS-rf
t t---8
m''i" I :1 I ~
Ettr
center plane
s~
line
lnciCIItlona In drewlngs of detum ~IS lind tolerM>Ced elemerots

Datum
Simple datum
Example
Multiple datum
(two or three elements)
Common datum
t-~
--
Datum in feature
Individual datum lener
control frame
~~~'I
[11 1~~
Datum leners separated

with hyphens
Order of datum leners

according to their importance
ExempiH
~ 1603101
'
-LJ-
"'"WE ]~
~Sf7
.l 004IA I A
The axis of the hole

must run perpendicular
(tolerance value 0.04 mm)
to the datum surface.
The center plane of the slot

must run symmetrically
to the center plane of the
exterior surface (tolerance
value 0.1 mm).
. rFt?l'""'"
"
1+10.061 C I
gj2Sh6
The cylindrical surface

24g6 must run true to the
axis 201c6 and the flat
surface must be planar
(tolerance value 0.05 mm).
Indication in drawings
The slot must lie symmetrical (tolerance value

0.06 mm) and parallel
(tolerance value 0.02 mm)
to the axis 25h6.
cf. DIN ISO 1101 (1985-031
characteristic
Repr-.tion
lndrewing
symbols
(enmples)
Geometric
11.""'~
l 8P9
~T ~IIII0.02IC I
Explanation
Tolerance zone
At all points across width b. the surface curve

must lie between two parallel lines spaced t =
0 .1 mmapart
~-~
The toleranced axis ofthe shaft must lie within a

cylinder with diameter t = 0.04 mm.
The toleranced surface must be loeat.e d between

two parallel planes spaced apart a distance of
t=0.03mm.
Geometric tolerences
--
CJ
Straightness
Flatness
DEr
413~
~
113
Technical drawing: 3. 10 Tolerances and fits
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing GO & T

Indications in drawings (continued)
ct. DIN EN ISO 1101 1200602)

Tolerance zona
R~lon
In drawing
Tolerances of form (continued)
Circu
larity
The cone's circumferential line must lie between

two concentric circles spaced apart at a distance
of I 0.08 mm in each point of the cone length 1.
Cylindricity
The shell surface of the cylinder must lie between

two coaxial cylinders, which are spaced apart at
a radial distance of 1 0.1 mm.
~~ofile ~
line
R
L_Il B
The profile line mll$t lie between two enveloping

lines, whose gap is bounded by circles of diameter 1 ; 0.05 mm in each point of the workpiece
thickness b.
The centers of these circles lie on a geometrically
ideal line.
The surface of the sphere must lie between two
enveloping surfaces, whose gap 1 0.3 mm is
created by spheres. The centers of these
spheres lie on the geometrically ideal surface.
Profile
of
surface
V>
II
l_
L.
Paral
lei ism
The hole's centerline must lie between two

parallel planes spaced apart at a distance of
t 0.01 mm. The planes are parallel to datum
line A and datum plane B and in line with the
defined direction (vertical in this case).
The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder

of diameter 1 0.03 mm. The centerline of this
cylinder is parallel to datum line (axis) A.
Perpen
dicularity
Angularity

of diameter 1 0.1 mm that is perpendicular to
datum plane A.
<'-~-,.
'><._..: ...
datum
---- ~
pt.aneA
The plane surface must lie between two planes

perpendicular to datum line A that are spaced
apart at a distance of I 0.03 mm.

of diameter t ; 0.1 mm. The centerline of the
cylinder is parallel to datum plane Band inclined
at a theoretically exact angle of a E 45 with reference to datum plane A.
The inclined plane must lie between rwo parallel
planes spaced at a distance of 1 0.15 mm that
are inclined at a theoretically exact angle of
a : 75 w ith reference to datum line A.
T-~---
datum
lineA
114
Technical draw ing: 3. 10 Tolerances and fits
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing GO & T

Indications In drawings (continued)
cf. DIN EN ISO 1101 (2006-021

Tol.,.nOII -
T~ of locetlon

of diameter I 0.05 mm. The cylinder's centerline
must coincide with the theoretically exaC1 loca
tion of the hole's centerline in regard to the
datum planes A. B and C.
The surface must lie between two parallel
planes spaced apan at a distance of I 0.1 mm
that are symmetrical to the theoretically exae1
location o f the toleranced surface in regard to
datum plane A and datum line B.
The center of the hole must lie in a circle of diameter 1= 0.1 mm that is concentric to the datum
paint A in the cross seC1ion.
- m
pointA~
The centerline of all diameters must lie within a

cylinder of diameter 1 = 0.05 mm. The centerline
of this cylinder must coincide with the oommon
datum axis A-B.
The midplane of the slot must lie between two

parallel planes spaced apan at a distance of
1 = 0.05 mm that are located symmetrical to
datum plane A.
Symmetry
Runout~
' t'll!AI
Radial
circular
run out
In every cross section, the circumferential line

must be perpendicular to the common datum line
A-B between two concentric circles in the same
plane having a radial distance of 1=0.1 mm.
In every cross section, the 120 circumferential

line must be perpendicular to datum line A and
lie between two concentric circles in the same
plane that have a radial distance of 1 = 0.1 mm.
.,
if
-i~.
evefY
;::::s:<
I ~alum
'(
'?
erum
Ano
evefY
cross secuon
Axial
circular
runout
In every diameter, the circumferential line must

lie in the plane surface between two circles that
have a radial distance of 1 = 0.04 mm. The centerline of each diameter must coincide with
datum line A.
The shell surface must lie between two coaxial
cylinders having a radial distance of 1= 0.03 mm.
The centerlines of these cylinders must coincide
wit.h the oommon datum line A-B.
tJ
Total
axial
runout
The plane surface must lie between two p arallel

planes spaced apart at a distance of t = 0.1 mm
that are perpendicular to d atum line A.
~~
datum
lineA
every diamete r
~"
Table o f Contents
115
4 Materials science
II
1,,c.Mo,2ll CM5 II
I eowct\18 II X12Cf13 II
8235
II
,8MnQ5
4.1
Materials
Material characteristics of solids .... . ........ 116
Material characteristics of liquids and gases . . . 117
Periodic table ofthe elements ...... .... .... . 118
4.2
Designation system fOf steels

Definition and classification of steel ........... 120
M aterial codes, Designation ..... ... ..... . ... 12 1
4.3
Steel types, Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Structural steels .. ................... ..
Case hardened, quenched and tempered,
nitrided, free cutting steels ........... ..... . .
Tool steels ..... ... ......................
Stainless steels, Spring steels ....... .........
ceoE
35520
38SI7
4.6
Cast iron materials

Designation, Material codes ... . .. ...........
Classification ..............................
Cast iron ... .. ........................ .
Malleable cast iron, Cast steel ................
128
132
135
136
158
159
160
161
4.7
Foundry technology
Patterns, Pattern equipment ............... .. 162
Shrinkage allowances, Dimensional tolera nces . 163
4.8
light alloys, Overview of A I alloys ........ ....

Wrought aluminum alloys .. ............ .....
Aluminum casting alloys ...... ... . .... .... . .
Aluminum profiles ........... .. ... ... ... .. .
Magnesium and titanium alloys . .. ..... ......
4.9
164
166
168
169
172
Heavy non-ferrous metals, Overview . . . . . . . . . 173

Designation system . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . 174
Copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.10 Othet' metallic materials

Composite materials, Ceramic materials
177
Sintered metals ................. ..... .... .. 178
4.11 Plastics, Overview .. . . . .. .. .. . . .. . . . . . .. .. . 179

Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Thermoset plastics, Elastomers ... ... ...... .. 184
..... ........ ............ 186
Plastics
4.12 Material testing methods, Overview .. ....... .
Tensile testing ............................ .
Hardness test ............................ .
116
Materials science: 4.1 Materials
Material characteristics of solids

Solid materiel
o-lty
Meterial
Q
kg/dm3
Aluminum (AI)
Antimony (Sb)
Asbestos
Beryllium (Be l
Bismuth IBi)
Cadmium (Cd)
Carbide (K 201
Carbon (diamond)
Cost Iron
2.7
6.69
2.1 - 2.8
1.85
9.8
8.64
14,8
3.51
7.25
Melting
temp-
........
2467
1637
1280
271
321
- 3000
1560
765
Concrete
Constantan
Copper (Cul
1260
1083
Co~k
0.1- 0.3
3.9- 4.0
7.4-7.7
2050
1040
1903
1493
7.4 - 8.9
900
8.4- 8.7 900- 1000
0.06-0.25
2.4- 2.7
19.3
2.26
> 2000
4000
3550
1150- 1200
2500
1.8- 2.2
8.89
8.96
Glass (quartt glass)

Gold (Au)
Graphite (Cl
"
659
630.5
.. 1300
7.2
8.9
1.6 - 1.9
CuSn alloys
CuZn alloys
Foam rubber
&..t.m
'-tof
~
~
tu.ion
tlvlty
at 1.013 bar 811.013 bar at 1.013 bar

q
~
c
c
kJ/kg
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Coke
Corundum (AI203l
CuAI alloys
Boiling
tempereture
520-5501
1064
2642
2880
59
54
165
8.1
91
1.02
0.12
0.23
0.04
1.25
0.077
0.0000123
0.0000125
0.00003
81.4
125
58
0.80
0.52
0.50
0.6- 1.6
0.000005
0.00000118
0.0000105
134
268
69
69.1
0.18
0.46
0.43
0.83
0 .13
0.062
0.0000084
0.0000127
0.49
0.0179
0.00001
0.0000152
0.0000168
2300
2300
167
67
-
2707
4800
0.92 - 0.94
0 .92
5.0
30- 175
0
113.6
300
100
183
332
62
Iridium (lr)
Iron oxide (rust)
Iron. pure (Fe)
22.4
5.1
7.87
2443
1570
1536
>4350
135
Lead (Pbl
Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesium alloy
11.3
1.74
,. L8
327.4
650
.. 630
1751
1120
1500
24.3
195
Manganese (Mnl
Molybdenum (Mol
Nickel (Nil
7.43
10.22
8.91
1244
2620
1455
2095
4800
2730
Niobium (Nb)
Phosph., yellow (Pl
Pit coal
8.55
1.82
1.35
2468
44
.. 48()()
Plaster
Platinum (PI)
Polystyrene
2.3
21 .5
1.05
1200
1769
Porcelain
Ouartt, flint (Si02)
Selenium. red (Se)
2.3-2.5
2.1 - 2.5
4.4
Silicon (51)
Silicon carbide (SiC)
Silver (Ag)
11
.. 1600
1480
220
280
4300
2230
688
21 cross grain
1
23
384
0 .88
0.41
0.39
0.04-0.06
12- 23
61
1.7-2.1
0.96
0.44
46
105
0.04- 0.06
0.38
0.39
0.8 - 1.0
310
168
0.83
0.13
0.71
0.21
2.3
0.44
2.09
0.23
0.0000065
0.0000195
0.02-0.03
0.05 - 0.07
0.0000175
0.0000185
1018
0.022
0.000009
0.0000142
0.0000078
0.000051
59
0.58(pwdr)
81
0.13
0.67
0.47
0.053
0.0000065
0.13
0.000012
0.13
1.04
0.208
0.044
34.7
172
46- 139
0.000029
0.000026
0.0000245
251
287
306
21
145
59
0.48
0.26
0.45
0.39
0.054
0.095
0.000023
0.0000052
0.000013
288
21
53
0 .273
0.80
1.02
0.217
0.0000071
276
113
83
2.33
1423
2355
1658
2.4 disintegrates iTo C and 51 above 3000-G
to.5 1
961.5
2180 1 105
transformation temperature
a,
0 .0000238
0 .0000108
3070
0-100"C
~~2/m we or 1/K
0.028
0.39
2700
2300
e)(J)anaion
0.94
0.21
0.81
~ 3550
Greases
Ice
Iodine (I)
kJ/(kg K) Q.
Coefllc:lent
of linear
204
22
213
Specific
electrical
l'ftlstlvlty
at20"C
heet
at o-1ooc
356
163
- 2400
2595
at20"C
A
W/(mK)
Me.n
specific
31 at aoo-c
0.24
0.098
1010
0.000009
0 .00007
0.000004
0.000008
0.45
70
0.17
1.09
0.13
1.3
1.63)
9.9
0.2
1.23)
0.8
0.33
1012
83
9')
407
0.75
1.051)
0.23
2.3 . 109
O.Q15
0.0000042
0.0000193
117
Mat erials science: 4.1 Materials
Material characteristics of solid, liquid and gaseous materials

Solid materials !continued)
Melting
Density
Materiel
kg/~m3
Sodium (Na)
Steel, unalloyed
Steel, alloyed
97.8
- 1500
.. 1500
113
205
M.M
Specific
eo.fflcient
conductMty
lp8dflc:
hMt
at o-100-c
electrical
NlhtMty
at200C
8 1q)llllslon
at200C
o./:,~2/m
1/"C or 1/K
126
0.04
0.14- 0.18
0 .7
0.000071
0.0000119
0.000016 1
14
344.6
5400
2687
49
172
59
0.2
54
65.7
0.70
0.14
0.24
lltanium (li)
Tungsten (W)
Uranium (Ul
4.5
19.27
19.1
1670
3390
1133
3280
5500
15.5
130
28
0.47
0.13
0.12
0.42
0.055
.. 3800
88
54
356
6.12
0.20 - 0 .72
7.13
1890
.. 3380
343
31.4
0.06-0.17
113
0.50
2.1- 2.9
0.4
0.2
Latent
'-tof
Specillc
heet
907
48- 58
101
a,
c
kJI(kg. Kl
113
2996
231 .9
o - t ooc
2.07
16.6
7.29
ofUnNr
W/(mKl
Sulfur (S)
Tantalum (Ta)
lln ISn)
419.5
890
2500
Thenne&-
1.3
0.49
0.51
Vanadium IV)
Wood (air dried)
Zinc (Znl
0.97
7.85
7.9
...
8olllng
temp-
Latent
'-tof
fusion
-'
at 1.013 bar at1.013bar at 1.013 bar
(J
(J
q
kJ/kg
temperlltuN
0.124
0.114
0.0000065
0.000023
0.0000082
0.000004 5
0.000042
0.000029
0.06
Uquid materials
mezing
...... ....
; :;I
at20 c
Coefficient
of volume
KPnsion
---
Thefnwl.
c:onduc
tlvity
at200C
kJ/kg
W/(m Kl
kJ/(kg K)
1/"C or 1/K
520
220
170
- 114
-30
- 116
78
150-360
35
854
628
377
0.17
0.15
0.13
2.43
2.05
2.28
0.0011
0.00096
0.0016
- o.83
0.72-0.75
0.91
220
220
400
- 10
-30- - 50
- 20
> 175
25-210
>300
628
4 19
0.14
0.13
0.13
2.07
2.02
2.09
0.00096
0.001 1
0.00093
13.5
0.76- 0.86
1.00'1
-39
- 70
0
357
> 150
100
285
314
2256
10
0.13
0.60
0.1 4
2.16
4.18
0.00018
0.001
0.00018
Density
Material
at200C
Ignition
Of melting
temp-
tempere
at1.013bar at 1.013 bar
(J
kg/dm3
"C
Alcohol95o/o
Diesel fuel
Ethyl ether (C2H51,0
0.81
0.81-0.85
0.71
Fuel oil El
Gasoline
Machine oil
Me rcury IHgl
Petrole um
Water, distilled
I above 1oooc
8olllng
temp-
550
(J
(J
21 at boiling temperature and 0.013 bar
f.tv
31 at 4 "C
Gaseous materials
Metwial
Density Specific
Melting
Boiling
atO"Cand gravttyll tempenlture tempenlture
1.013 bar
at 1.013 bar
at 1.013 bar
(!let_
kg/m3
Thermal
Coefflc:ient
of thermal
at20"C
conduc
..
tivity2l
Specific
hellt
at 2Q'C and 1,013 bar
c,31
I c_4)
kJI(kg Kl
(J
(J
).
"C
"C
W/(mKl
A/AA
-84
- 82
-191
- 33
0.021
0.026
0.024
0.81
1.00
0.92
1.64
1.005
2.06
0.016
0.016
0.025
0.62
0.62
0.96
0 .82
1.05
14..24
2.19
10.1 0
1.68
1.04
0 .91
0.74
0.65
Acetylene (C2H2l
Air
Ammonia (NHJ)
1.17
1.293
o.n
0.905
1.0
0.596
Butane (C4 H 10)

Carbon d iox. (COzl
Carbon monox. (COl
2.70
1.98
1.25
2.088
1.531
0.967
- 135
- 575)
- 205
- 0.5
- 78
- 190
Freon ICF2CI2l
Hydroge n IH2l
Methane ICH..>
5.51
0.09
0.72
4.261
O.Q7
0.557
- 140
- 259
-183
-30
- 253
-162
0.010
0.180
0.033
0.39
6.92
1.27
Nitrogen IN2l
Oxygen(02l
Propane lCsHsl
1.25
1.43
2.00
0.967
1.106
1.547
- 210
-219
-190
- 196
-183
-43
0.026
0.026
0.018
1.00
1.00
0.69
-220
-78
1.33
0.716
1.56
0.63
0.75
Specific gravity ; density of a gas u divided by the density of a ir UA

21 Coefficient of therma l conductivity = the thermal conductivity Aof a gas divided by the thermal conductivity ).A of air.
41 at constant volume
51 at 5.3 bar
31 at constant pressure
11
Main groups
od
lA
1
IIA
1 I Hvctrogen
1.008
~h~ml
4 Be
Atomic number -- --+

(= proton number)
Relative atomic mass
Radioactive elements
in red, e.g. 222
Synthetic elements
in parentheses, e.g. (261)
Lener symbols
solid:
liquid:
gaseous:
Transition elements
IVA
Element name; state at

273 K <oc) and 1.o13 bar:
black print
brown print
blue print
1lUght metals 11 s 5 kg/dm3; Heavy nonferrous m etals 11 > 5 kg/dm'
lilA
....
....
co
10.811
13 AI
Alumi-
Ql
i....
urn
, ,
7
Nonmetels
iii'
Vi
I
(/)
40.078
iii'
38 Sr
::J
0
!1!
~
~
Ql
i....
iii'
Vi
119
Materials science: 4.1 Materials
Chemicals used in metal technology, molecular groups, pH value

Important chemicals used in metal technology
Tedlnlcal
designation
Chemlcel
u..
Formula
Properties
Acetone
(propanonel
Acetylene.
Ethane
ICH3l2CO
Aqueous
cleaner
Various
surfactants
-coo-
Colorless. combustible. lightly

volatile liquid
Highly reactive. colorless
gas. highly explosive
Various water soluble
substances
Carbonic acid
Carbon dioxide
c~
Carbo n
tetrachlorid e
Cleaning
agent
Copper vitriol
Carbon
tetrachloride
Organic
solvent
Copper sulfate
ca.
Corundum
Aluminum oxide
Al2~
Very hard colorless crystal,

melting point 2050 c
Grinding and polishing agent,

oxide ceramic materials
Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl aloohol,
denatured
Hydrochloric
acid
Nitric acid
~HsOH
Colorless, lightly combustible

liquid, boiling point 78"C
Colorless, pungent smelling,
strong acid
Very strong acid, dissolves metals (except precious metals)
Colorless crystal, slightly water
soluble, basic
Colorless. pungent smelling
liquid, weak lye
Colorless, oily, odorless
liquid, strong acid
Solvent, cleaning agent.

lor heating purposes, fuel additive
Etching and pickling of metals,
manufacture of chemicals
Acetone
Acetylene
Hydrochloric
acid
Nitric acid
designetion
~H2
-oso:r
-50:.-
C,H2n+2
CuS04
HCI
HN03
Spirits of
ammonia
Sulfuric acid
Sodium
carbonate
Ammonium
hydroxide
Sulfuric acid
H2so.
Teble salt
Sodium chloride
NaCI
Soda
Na2C03
NH4 0 H
Solvent for paint,

acetylene and plastics
Fuel for welding,
source material for plastics
Solvent. cleaning agent;
emulsifying and thickening
agent
Water soluble. non-c:ombustible Shielding gas for MAG
gas. solidifies at - 78"C
welding, dry ioe
as refrigerant
Solvent lor fats, oils and
Colorless. non-combustible
liquid, harmful to haallh
paint
Colorless, sometimes lightly
Solvent for fats and oils,
cleaning agent
combustible liquids
Blue. water soluble crystal,
Electroplating baths, pest
control. for scribing
moderately toxic
Etching and pickling of metals,

manufacture of chemicals
Degreasing and cleaning
baths, water softening
Cleaning agent (fat solvent),
neutralization of acids
Pickling of metals, electroplating
baths. storage batteries
Condiment, lor freezing mixtures,
lor chlorine e><traction
Colorless. crystalline salt,

slightly water soluble
Frequently occurring molecular groups

Molecular group
Designlltion Formula
Example
Deeignatlon
Fonnula
Description
Carbide
eC
Carbon compounds; to some e><tent very hard
Silicon carbide
SiC
Carbonat e
=C03
Compounds of carbonic acid, addition of heat

yields CO,
Calcium carbonate
CaC03
Chloride
-CI
Sahs of the hydrochloric acids; usu dissolve readily in water
Sodium chloride
NaCI
Hydroxide
- OH
Calcium hydroxide
Ca(0Hl2
Nitrate
- N03
Hydroxides are produoed from metal oxides and water;

behave as basics
Salts of the nitric acids; usu. dissolve readily in water
Potassium nitrate
KN03
Nitride
aN
Nitrogen compounds; some of them are very hard
Silicone nitride
SiN
Oxide
=0
Oxygen compounds; most commonly occurring

molecular group on earth
Aluminum oxide
AI203
Sulfate
- so.
Salts of the sulfuric acids; usu. dissolve readily in water
Copper sulfate
cuso.
Sulfide
=S
Sulfur compounds; important ores, chip breaker

in free cutting steels
lron{ll) sulfide
FeS
pH value
Type of aqueous
solution
pH value
Concentration
Hinmol/1
<
100
increasingly acidic
neu-
tral
10''
10'2
10"1
10"'
1o-6
1o-6
10'7
1o-8
increasingly basic
10
11
12
>
13
14
1o-9 10''0 10'" 10''2 10'13 10'14
120
Materials science: 4.2 St eels, Designation system

' [) IN fN 10070
Definition and classification of steel
Steel
/O(J{J 0/
Alloy with iron as the main component and a carbon content under 2.0o/o.
Microstructure
The microstructural components., e. g. ferrite, pearlite, carbides, and the cryst alline
structure, e.g. line grain, coarse grain, bands, determine the steel properties, e.g.
strength. toughness, workability. machinability, weldability.
Influenced by
Composition
Oegree of purity
Oeoxidation
- carbon content
- alloying elements
- non-metallic
inclusions
- phosphorus and
sulfur content
rimmed,
semi-killed or
killed
cast
I
Classification
I
Classifteation 11
IHigh-grade steels
Quality steels
No alloying element
reached the limit value
according to
table 1
High-grade steels differ from quality steels due to:

- more careful production
-at least one alloying

element reaches the
limit value according to
table 1
- improved deoxidation
- more exact composition
- steel types not

conforming to the
definition for stainless
steels
Stainless steflls2l
-ch rome content
at least 10.5%
- carbon content
maximum 1.2%
Classification by main
characteristics into
- corrosion-resistant
steels (pages 136, 137)
- improved hardenability
Table 1: Umlt values for

unalloyed steels
a.
ment
AI
- higher degree of purity
Alloyataels
Subtaquent proceMing
For example:
Fanning: rolling, stamping,
drawing, bending etc.
Heet treatment: quenching and tempering, surface hardening etc.
Annealing: normal i~ing,
spheroidi~ing, full annealing etc.
Joining: welding, brazing etc.
Coating: gal vani~ing etc.
Unalloyed steels
StHI manufacture
"'
0.30
Ele-
"'
ment
Mn
Element
1.65 Se
"'
0.10
Bi
0.10 Mo
0.08
Si
0.60
Co
0.30
Nb
0.06
Ti
0.05
Cu
0.40
Ni
0.30
0.10
Cr
0.30
Pb
0.40
0.30
Main grade$
Unalloyed quality steels
Alloy quality steels
Steel group (excerpt)
Example
Steel group ! excerpt)
Example
Unalloyed structural steels
S235JR
Rail steels
R0900Mn
Magnetic steel sheet

and strip
M 390-50E
Unalloyed steels for

quenching & tempering
C45
Free cutting steels
10S20
Weldable unalloyed
line-grain steels
S275N
Unalloyed press. vessel steels
P235GH
Microalloyed steels with

high yield strengths
H400M
Phosphorus alloyed steels

with high yield strengths
H1 80P
Unalloyed high-greda steels

Alloy high-grade ataels
Example
Example
Unalloyed steels for quenc!Wlg

and tempering
C45E
Alloy steels for quenching

and tempering
42CrMo4
Unalloyed case hard. steels
C15E
Case hardening alloy steels
16MnCr5
- heat resistant steels
Unalloyed tool steels
C45U
Nitriding steels
34CrAI Ni7
- high-temperature
steels
Unalloyed steels fOf flame

and induction hardening
C60E
Alloy tool steels

High-speed steels
X40Cr1 4
HSS-5-2-5
11 The main grade "Basic steels" was omitted. All previous basic steels are produced as quality steels.
21 The stainless steels have their own group. They are alloy steels, so they are not classified as quality or high-grade
steels.
121
Mat erials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation syst em
Designation of steels using material numbers

Material numbers
cf. DIN EN 10027 2 (1992-09), replaces DIN 1700711
Steel designations (page 122) or material numbers are used to identify and differentiate stools.
M at eriel number
(with additional symbol +N)
Designation
Designation of
steel (examples):
42CrMo4+N
or
1.722S+N
The material numbers consist of a 6-character number (five numeric characters and a decimal point). They are bet
ter suited for data processing than designations.
I M aterial number I
I
Example:
II
Steel group
num ber
:1 1-172125
I I
Mat erial m ain gro~

1 - Steel
+N
Steel type number
Alloy steels
I
Steel groups21
01.91
General structural steels, R, < 500 Ntmm2
02.92
Other structural steels not specified for

heat treatment with
Rm < 500 N/mm2
I
Steel
group
number
Quality steels
04.94
Eadl steel within a steel group receives

its own type number.
Unalloyed steels
Steel
group
number
03.93
Supplementel symbol
If the material number is insufficient
to clearly describe the steel, the supplemental symbol of the designation is
added (page 125).
Steels w ith C < 0.12% or

R, < 400 N/mm2
Steels w ith 0.12% s C < 0.25% or
400 N/mm2 s Rm < 500 N/mm2
05,95
Steels with 0.25% s C < 0.55% or

500 N/mm2 s Rm < 700 N/mm2
06,96
Steels with C,. 0.55% or

R, z, 700 N/mm 2
07.97
Steels w ith high phosphorus and

sulfur content
High-grade steels
10
Steels with special physical

properties
11
Structural, madline and vessel steels

with C <0.5%
12
Machine steels with C" 0.5%
13
Structural, machine and vessel steels

with special requirements
15- 18
Unalloyed tool steels
Steel groups
Quality steels
08, 98

properties
09, 99
Steels for various areas of application
20- 28
Alloy tool stools
32
High-speed steels with cobalt
33
35
Hig~speed steels without cobalt

Roller bearing steels
36, 37
Steels with special magnetic

properties
38, 39

properties
40- 45
Stainless steels
High-grade steels
Nickel alloys. chemical resistant,

high-temperature
47, 48
Heat resistant steels
49
50- 84
High-temperature materials
85
87- 89
Structural, m achine and vessel

steels with various alloy
combinations
Nitriding steels
High-strength weldable steels
11 The m aterial numbers remained unchanged with the conversion from DIN 17007 to DIN EN 10027-2.
Rm tensile strength
Values for tensile strength Rm and for carbon content C are mean values.
21 C carbon,
122
Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system
1 I
.Jtf\.
r.
1 , ).) ' 1 1; > )S l t)l
Designation by epplic:Mion
The codes lor steels are composed of main and supplemental symbols. Main symbols reflect the application or
chemical composition. Supplemental symbols depend on to the steel or product group.
Example: Pinion shaft
M ain
sy~bol
1;;~ ~
R
IUnalloyed S1Nc:tural steel I
I
...
l
l l Steel g roup I
I DIN EN 10027-1 I I DIN EN 10025-2
_(_
.J.;;..J
1 t?rrMn.L.N 1
C'>I:O: I D .
Designation
according to the
chemical com position (page 1241
OV>
v.. gu
round steel bar
DIN EN 10060
Main symbols for the designation by application

Application
Main symbol II
Application
Main symbol ll
Steele for lleel conetruction
zan
Preetreuing steels
1n0''
Steels for machine construction
JI02I
X&Z"l
Slllels for~ 111111111
_,
Flat rolled productl for cold worlting

Rail steels
28C)&l
Steels for pipet and tuba
311)21
Flat products of high-strength steele
C40()1l
Magnetic steel. lheet and strip
400-110''
Concrete reinforcing lteel8
soozt
Paclcaging steel, sheet and strip
lllilj02I
II
2'
31
4'
51
To iderGfv C8ll ...._ the main symbol il pr-*1 by the letter G.
The main symbol is composed o f the code letter and

a number and may include an additional letter.
Yield strength R. for the smallest product thickness
Nominal value lor minimum tensile strength Rm
As-rolled condition C, 0, X followed by two symbols
M inimum hardness in accordance with Brinell HBW
As-rolled condition C. D, X and m ini mum yield

strength R0 or as-rolled condition CT. OT, XT and
minimum tensile strength Rm
71 Maximum magnetic hysteresis loss in W/kg x 100
and nominal thickness x 100 separated by a hyphen
61
Steels for steel construction

Designation example:
I=:=Klnl
s~
IT
1 =-~:...1
Supplemental symbols
Product group !selection)
Standard
Hot-rolled unalloyed
structural steels
DIN EN
10025-2
Notch impact energy in J at c l c special cold workability

JR I 27 120 I J2 I 27 1-20 1 +AR deliveredinas-rolledcondition
JO 1 21 1 o 1 K2 1 40 1-201 +N normalized
Normalized/normalizing rolled,
grain-refined structural steels
suitable lor welding
DIN EN
100253
N norma.lized or normalizing rolled, notch impact energy values

at-200C.
NL like N, but notch impact energy values at -50 c
Thermomechanically rolled struc- DIN EN

100254
tural steels suitable for welding
thermomechanically rolled, notch impact energy values

at -2o c
like
M, but with notch impact energy values at -50 c
ML
Hot-rolled structural steels with

higher yield strength In the
quenched and tempered state
DIN EN
10025-6
Steels for bright

steel products
DIN EN
102n-1. 2
c special cold workability

+C drawn
+PL polished
+SH peeled
+SL ground
Hot-rolled hollow sections of

unalloyed structural steels and
grain-refined structural steels
DIN EN
10210-1
JR, JO, J2 and K2 as with DIN EN 10025-2

N, NL as with DIN EN 10025-3
H hollow section
quenched and tempered, notch impact energy values at -20"C

OL quenched and tempered, notch impact energy values at -40"C
OL1 quenched and tempered, notch impact energy values at-600C
S235JR+N: Steel-construction steel R, ~ 235 N/mm2 , notch impact energy 27 J at - 20"C, normalized (+NI
123
I DI'J eN 10027 1 /O(h 10
StMis for machine conatructlon

1~:-~ 1
E ~~
IT
1=-~~ 1
Supplementa l symbols
Product group (Miectionl
Standerd
Hot-ro lled unalloyed

structural steels
DIN EN
10025-2
GC
Steels for bright

steel products
DIN EN
102771. 2
Pipes and tubes. seamless,

cold-drawn
DIN EN
10305-1
Seamless tubes made of

unalloyed and alloyed steel
DIN EN
10297-1
special cold workability

+AR delivered in as-rolled condition +N normalized
GC special oold workability
drawn
+Pl polished
+SH peeled
+Sl ground
.c
+A annealed
+N nOfmatized
bright-drawrvllard +LC brigth-drawn/soft

+C
+SR bright-drawn and stress relieved
J2 notch impact energy values at-20 c

K2 notch impact energy values at -40 c
+AR delivered in as-rolled condition +N normalized +OT quenched
and tempered
=> E355+AR: machine construction steel. yield strength R, 355 N/mm 2, delivered In as. rolled condition I +AR)
Rat products for cold wolltlng
~ 1~
Code letter for

fl8t product
for oold wortclng
II
Code
letter
for rolling
X rolling
condilion
notCXXICIIIion
lpeCifled
c cold-rolled
Product group (selectionl
Cold-rolled flat products

made of soft steels
for cold working
Continuously hot-dip finished

strip and sheet made of soft
steels for cold working
0 hot-fOiled
Code number for the

type clllllel, meln
properliel page 141
II
(product-group specific
definition)
.I
Standard
DIN EN
10130
SurfKe type end finish

A Faults not affecting workability and adhesion of surface coating
are permissible.
8 The bener lace must be flawless to the extent that the look of
quality lacquer finish or coating is not affected.
b particularly smooth
9 smooth
m dull
r rough
DIN EN
10327
0 hot-dip coating
Coating (followed by coating mass in glm2, e.g. Z140)
+AZ aluminum-zinc alloy
+AS aluminum-silicon alloy
+ZA zinc-aluminum alloy +ZF zinc-iron alloy
+Z zinc
Coating finish:
N typical zinc flower with +Z
M small zinc flower with +Z

R typical finish with +ZF
Type of surfKe:
B improved finish
A typical finish
best finish
oc04 - A - m: Rat p roduct for cold working (0), cold-rolled ICI, steel type 04 (page 1411, surface type A.
surface finish dull (m)
Ret products made of high-strength steels for cold WOfting
~r~ ~
Code'-!orlllll
product of highSlrength steel for cold
working
Code 1e1tar for rolling CXXICIIIion

X rolling CXXICIIIion not epecified
1 300~~
0 hot-fOiled
T!iOO minimum tansile llnlnglh

~ - 500~
c cold-rolled
Supplemental
symbols
(product groupspecific definition)
Product group (selection!
Standard
Cold-rolled strip and sheet

made of micro-alloy steels
DIN EN
10268
B bak~hardening steel Y high-strength 1-F steel I isotropic steel

P phosphor-alloy steel LA low-alloy/micro-alloy steel
~type end finish
for rolling width< 600 mm as with DIN EN 10139
for rolling width" 600 mm as with DIN EN 10130
HCTSOO - B- g : Cold-rolled flat product made of high-strength steel (H), cold-rolled (CI, minimum tensile strength
Rm : 500 N/mm2 (TSOOJ, surface type B. smooth surface (g)
124
, t :.liN f \ 1 lJl7 1 2005 10
Designation by chemical composition

The main symbols reflect the chemical composition and are created on the basis of four different designation
groups. The supplemental symbols depend on the steel group or product group.
..,..
Example: Pinion shaft
Main:;~~~
symbol
I
I
~~~~~
42C; " '""
I I
JO IN EN 10027-1 I
I
....
I
I
Steel group
DIN EN 10083 1
.J_J
I 1
I C:">""''LADJ
Designation
according to the
application
(page 122)
round steel bar
I
DIN EN 10060
Designation groups, examples and application of the main symbols11

~
Nlllr ............
Nlllr ....
unalloyed ..... with a
-.ge content of
Individual alloying element
ebolle 5%
eulllne . . .
manu- content< 1%
a~
free.cunlng . . .
mllngllneN content .. 1"
C11E
42CIMo4
Xt2DN1M
unalloyed quenched end

ternperedstee18,
unalloyed tooi8184M
AIJII'IIOn~
~-'loy--
quenched and l8mpenld
alloy . . .
tool alloy . . . .
apringlleell
. letter
steel
.................
Appl cetlon-.nplec
Appbdon-.unalloyed c:aae-hardenlng flee.cunlng . . . .
steels,
~~
.._.
heet~higtl-
Content of alloying elements

in percent in the following
onler W-Mo-V-Co
10- 10% tungsten (WI
4 - 4% molybdenum !Mol
3- 3% vanedium lVI
10- 10% cobalt (Co)
temperature 8teels
cold worll lleell

hot wort! .....
H To identify cast steel, the main symbol is preceded by the letter G; to identify powder metallurgical steel. the
main symbol is preceded by the leners PM.
UMIIoyed .,.... with
mane- content< 1 %, ocept tr..cutting stMis
~~
Main symbols
Oodlllelter IC8I1xln lteel)

15 OOdll numbel for the c:8ltlon COf'ltAinl
~- 1!i(100A 0.15'1(,
Refer to such aspects as special applications,
control of the sulphur oontent. special cold
workability, heat treatment states. The definition
of the supplemental symbols varies according
to the steel group (page 125).
=> C45E+S+8C: quenched and tempered unalloyed steel, C content 0.45%. prescribed max. sulphur content lEI. treated
for shearability I+SI, blasted (+SCI (supplemental symbols on page 125, quenched & tempered steels)
Alloy steels.~.,..... unalloyed steels with. mane-- contllllt >1"'
18CrNir7~T
Main IYmbols
18 OOdll number for the a11t1on ~

~ 1&1100 a 0.18%
Cr, Ni, Mo alloying elements
lin the order of their portion)
7-6 Alloy contaniS
Cr..-.,.7/4 a 1.75%
Ni..-.,. 6/<t ;o 1.5%
Mo - low conlent
Refer to such aspects as spedal applications, heat treatment states, quenching

stress. surfaoe finish, degree
of deformation. The definition
of the supplemental symbols
varies according to the steel
group (page 125).
Factcn for alloy COf1l8nt8

Factor
Cr. Co. Mn. Ni. Si. W
4
AI. Be. Cu. Mo. Nb,
10
Pb, Ta, li, V, Zr
Alloying elemenls
c.ee. N, P.S
100
1000
=> 17CrNiMo6-4+TH..SC: Case-hardening alloy steel, C content 0.17% (17), Cr content of 1.5% (6), Ni content
1.0% (4), low Mo content. treated for quenching stress(+TH) and blasted I+BCI
(supplemental symbols on page 125, case-hardening steels)

StHigroup/
product group (selection)
Standard
125
)1r... r r\ 1 JiJ/ r' 1 12U J:) 111
DIN EN
10084
pnHleribed maximum sulphur content

pnHleribed stJiphur content range
normal hardenability +HH restricted hardness tolerance. upper range
+Hl restricted hardness tolerance. lower range
Ttutment conditions:
+A soft-annealed
+S treated for shearability
+FP treated for ferrite-pearlite microstructure and quenching stress
+TH treated for quenching strass
+U untrealed
Surface finish:
+BC blasted
+HW hot worked
+PI pickled
DIN EN
10083 1
10083-2
E. R as with care-hardening steels as per DIN EN 10084 (above)

Treatment c:on<itions
+A soft-annealed +H normal hardenabllity +N normalized
+Hl restricted hardness tolerance. lower range
+HH restricted hardness tolerance, upper range
+OT quenched and tempered +S treated for shearability +U untreated
Surface finish:
+HW hot-worked
+P pi<:kled
+BC blasted
+RM hot-worked and pre-machined
DIN EN
10087
Under normal conditions, no supplemental symbols provided (in

special cases for direct quenching types: +OT quenched and tempered)
E
R
+H
Hot-worked case
hardening steels
(_
1
Hot-worked quenched
and tempered steels
I
Hot-worked freecutting steels
Bright steel products made of

DIN EN
case-hardening steel, quenched & 102n-1
tempered steel, free-wtting steel 102n.3..s
+C cold-drawn
+SL ground
Seamless steel tubes made of

case-hardening steels and
quenched & tempered steels
+AR as rolled
+N normalized
+A soft-annealed
+FP treated for ferrite-pearlite microstructure and quenching stress
+OT quenched & tempered
+TH treated for quenching stress
DIN EN
102971
+SH peeled
+Pl polished
"" 16MnCr5+A: case-hardening alloy steel, C oontenl 0.16% (16), Mn content 1.25% (5), low Cr content, soft-annealed (+AI
Alloy steels, t ha content of at least one alloying element
Main symbols
X code letter for the delignllllon group
4 code number for medium carbon c:ontene
~m 4/100 0.04%
Cr. Ni main alloying e1ement11 (Cr > Nil
1812 alloy contents in%
chromium 18%, niclcel - 12%
Steel group/
product group (selec:tionl
Hot-rolled corrosion-resistant
sheets and strips
Cold-rolled corrosion-resistant
sheets and strips
X2CrNi1 8-9 +AT~20 :
Is..,.,,. 5% (without high-speed steels)
X4CtNi18-12 +20
Standard
DIN EN
10088-2
DIN EN
10088-2
SpecifiCation of heat treatment conditions, the
rolling condition, the type of execution, the
surface finish.
The definition of the supplemental symbols
varies according to the product group.
Supplemental symbols (selection)

Treatment condition
Type of execution/surface finish
+A annealed
+OT quenched &
tempered
+0T650 quenched &
tempered to
R, 650 N/mm2
+AT solution annealed
+P precipitation
hardened
+P1300
precipitation
hardened to
R, = 1300 N/mm2
+SR stress relieved
annealed
+1
1U
1C
1E
1D
1G
hot-rolled products
not heat-treated, not descaled
heat treated. not descaled
heat treated. mechani<:ally descaled
heat treated, pickled, smooth
ground
cold-rolled products
+2
2C. E. D. G as with hot-rolled products
28 likeD but cold-rolled in addition
2R bright-annealed
20 hardened and tempered. scale-free
2H strain-hardened (with different
hardness stages), bright surface
Alloy steel. C content 0.02% (2), Cr content 18%, Ni content 9%, solution annealed (+An.
cold-rolled (+2), hot-treated. pickled, smooth surface IDI
126
Welded constructions in steel

and machine construction,
simple machine parts
Machine parts without heat
treatment. e. g. by hardening,
quenching and tempering
in spheroidized condition
good machinability
hot workable
after surface carburization
surface hard enable
Unalloyed
quality steels
Unalloyed high
grade steels
Alloy steels
Unalloyed
steels
Alloy steels
DIN EN
10083 2
DIN EN
100833
DIN EN
10083-2,
DIN EN
100833
good machinability
hot workable
hardenable (uncertain
results with unalloyed
quality steels)
good machinability
hot workable
direct.l y hardenable; possible
to harden individual work
piece areas, e. g. tooth faces
quenching and tempering of
workpieces before
Alloy steels
DIN EN
10085
in spheroidized oondition
good machinability
hardenable by nitride forming
elements, lowest quenching
distortion
quenching and tempering of
workpieces before nitriding
Unalloyed and
alloy steels
EN
10270
DIN EN
10089
cold or hot workable

high elastic formability
high fatigue strength
11 Product forms:
sheets, strips
wires
Small parts with wear

resistant surface
Dynamically stressed
parts with wear-resistant
surface
Parts with high strength,

which are not hardened
Pans with high strength and
good toughness
Highly stressed parts with
good toughness
Parts with low core strength

but hardening of specific areas
Larger parts with high core
strength and hardening of specific areas
Parts with increased fatigue

strength, pans subject to
Parts subjected to tempera
lures up to sooc
Leaf springs, helical springs,

disc springs, torsion bars
B bars, e. g. flat, square and round bars

P profiles, e. g. channels. angles, tees
Non-heat
treatable st~t!IIS
DIN EN
10087
Free cunlng
case hardened
steels
DIN EN
10087
Free cutting
quenched and
tempered steels
DIN EN
10087
Cold work
steels,
unalloyed
optimal machinability
(short chipping)
non-weldable
might not respond
to heat treatment with case
hardening or quench
and tempering
good machinability
DIN EN non-cutting cold and hot
workable
ISO 4957
lull hardening up to max.
10 mm diameter
Mass produced turned parts

with low strength requirements
Like unalloyed case hardened
steels;
bener
Like unalloyed quenched and
tempered steels; bener
machinability, less fatigue
strength
Low stressed tools lor cutting

and non-cutting forming at
operating temperatures up to
200 C
Cold work
steels,
alloy
DIN EN
1504957
machinable
hot workable
larger case hardening depth,
higher strength, more wear
resistant than unalloyed cold
work steels
Hot work
steels
DIN EN
1504957
machinable
hot workable
hardens over the entire
cross section
Tools lor non-cutting

forming at operating
temperatu res over 200"C
High-speed
steels
DIN EN
1504957
machinable
hot workable
hardens over the
entire cross section
Cutting materials l or cutting

tools, operating temperatures
up to 600"C.
highly stressed forming tools
Ferritic
steels
DIN EN
10088-2,
DIN EN
10088-3
machinable
good cold-workable
weldable
heat treatment does not
increase strength
Low stressed rust-free parts;

parts with high resistance to
chlorine induced stress,
corrosion cracking
Austenitic
steels
DIN EN
100882,
DIN EN
10088--3
machinable
very good cold workability
weldable
no increase in strength
through heat treatment
Non-rusting parts with high

corrosion resistance,
widest application range of all
stainless steels
M artensitic
steels
DIN EN
10088-2,
DIN EN
10088-3
machinable
cold-workable
with low carbon content
weldable
heat treatable
Highly stressed non-rusting

parts, which can also be
quenched and tempered
1l
Product fo rms:
sheets, strip
W wires
Highly stressed tools for cutting and non-cutting forming

at operating temperatures
over200 "C
B bars, e.g.
P profiles,
128
Materials science: 4.3 Steels. St eel types
Selecting structural steels by application

UnellopdatMis
I,
Heat treatment intended

(page 129)
Heat treatment e. g. hardening or J

quenching and tempering not intended1
I
Selection by
~
Main characterisdcs are determined by

J
Eumple: unelloyed struc:1wel steels
Composition
carbon (C)
manganese (Mn)
silioon lSi) oopper (Cul
maximum values in %
(page 130)
Minimum
requirements
Typo of steel,
designation
strength
5185
not specified
strength
toughness
E295, E335,
E360
not specified
strength
toughness
weldability
strength
Mn
strength
Si
S235JR
0.17
1.40
S275JR
0.21
1.50
S355JR
0.24
1.60
0.55
S235JO
0.17
1.40
S275JO
0.18
1.50
S355JO
0.20
1.60
0.55
S450J()21
0.20
1.70
0.55
S235J2
0.17
1.40
S275J2
0,18
1,50
S355J2
0.20
1.60
0.55
53551<2
0.20
1.60
0.55
higher toughness
weldabilfty
Cu
Purity grade
phosphorus (P)
sulphur (51
nitrogen (N)
maximum values in %
Oeoxi
dation
oo11
not specified
0.045
0.045
0.014
FN
0.35
0.035
0.035
0.012
FN
0.55
0.030
0.030
0.012
FN
0.012
FN
0.55
0.030
0.030
0.025
FF
0.55
0.025
O.o25
0.012
FF
0.55
0.025
0.025
FF
highest toughness
weldability
More steel groups, e. g.
1 cold-rolled
flat products
of high-strength steels
flat products for oold working
pressure vessel steels

packaging steel sheet and strip
steels for pipes and tubes
concrete reinforcing steels

prestressing steels
magnetic steel sheet
I
I
Required properties are not achieved
I For selection according to chemical composition, see page 129 I

11 DO type of deoxidation: FN semi-killed steel; FF killed steel with nitrogen binding elements
Additional alloying elements: niobium 0.06% max.; vanadium 0.15% max.; titanium 0.06% max.
21
129
Materials science: 4.3 Steels. Steel types
Selecting structural steels by chemical composition
Cf1
UMI!oyed atMia
page 128
Heat treatment provided,

e.g. hardening 0< quench and tempering
I Selection IIOCOfdlng to c.bon content
heat
treatment
Steel g ro up
or
M.m propet11es- detennlned by
I
Minimum
requirements
no
Oesignation
Cin%
M nin% Siin%
C10
0.10
0.45
----ciS
0.15
0.45
C35
Quenched and
tempered steels C6()
0.35
0.65
0.60
0.75
Case hardened
steels31
Case hardened
heat
steels
treatment
with proven
Quenched and
values
tempered steels
Composition
Purity g rade
carbon (C) manganese (Mnl phosphorus (P)
silicon lSi)
sulfur (S)
other alloying elements (l )
C10E
0.10
0.45
Ci'5E
0.15
0.45
C35E
0.35
0.65
C60E
0.60
0.75
0.40
Lll in% P"""' in% Smax in %
r----r-----
11 L Maximum percentage (Cr + Mo + Nil

21 DO Type of deoxidation: FN semi-killed cast
FN
0.045
0.045
FN
f-FN
f-FN
0.40
DO
f--
0.63
FN
f--
r-----
I
31 The steels C10 and C15 are no longer included in the standard
Deoxid ation
0021
0.035
0.035
FN
f-FN
0.63
f--
Funher requirements
I--
FN
Alloy steels
case hardened steels DIN EN 10084. However, they are still

available from specialty dealers.
Effect of alloying elements (selection)
Propenies influenced
by alloying elements
Tensile strength
Yield slrenglh
Cold workability
- -
Machinability
High-temperature strength
Corrosion resistance
Hardening temperature
Hardenabllity, temperability
Nitridability
0 decrease
- -
Weldability
increase
Hot workability
AI
Impact toughness
Wear-resistance
Alloying elements
v
Mo
Co
Ni
Cr
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
Si
Mn
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
- - - - -

- 0
- no significant effect
Example: Gears, case hardened, rough pans drop forged, reliable heat treatment is required
Wanted: Suitable steels
Solution: Heat treatment (case hardening) provided - case hardened steel, C s 0.2%
The propenies of unalloyed quality and high-grade steels are insuffteient- alloy steels
Increase of hot workability: M n, V; increase of hardenability: Cr. Ni
Steel selection: 16MnCr5, 20MnCr5, 15NiCr13 (page 132)
s
-
0
0
-
-
0
-
130
Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types

Unalloyed structural steels. hot-rolled
Notch
impact
energy
Steel type
1M aterial
Designation nu mber
oon
st
c
cf. DIN EN 10025-2 (2Q05.04), replaces DIN EN 10025

ElongaYield strengtll R,
tion
in Ntmm2for
product thickness in mm at frac- Properties.
ture
application
All
s 16! > 16! > 40 > 63
s 40 s63 s80
%
Tensile
st~gth
Ntmm2
KV
J
Structural end mechine conmuction steels
S185
1.0035
290- 510
185
175
175
175
18
S235JR
S235JO
S235J2
1.0038
1.0114
1.0117
FN
FN
FF
20
0
- 20
27
360-510
235
225
215
215
26
S275JR
S275JO
S275J2
1.0044
1.0143
1.0145
FN
FN
FF
20
0
- 20
27
410- 560
275
265
255
245
23
S355JR
S355JO
S355J2
1.0045
1.0553
1.0577
FN
FN
27
470- 630
355
345
335
325
22
FF
20
0
- 20
S355K2
S450JO
1.0596
1.0590
FF
FF
- 20
0
40
27
470-630
550- 720
355
450
345
430
335
410
325
390
22
17
- -
470- 610
295
285
275
265
20
Non-weldable, simple
steel constructions
Basic machine parts,

weldments in steel and
machine construction;
levers. bolts. axles.
shafts
Highly stressed w eld

ments in steel, crane
and bridge construction
StHis for mechine conmuction
1.0050
FN
E335
1.0060
FN
570-710
335
325
315
305
16
E360
1.0070
FN
670-830
360
355
345
335
11
E295
Axles, shafts.
bolts
Wear parts;
pinion gears, w orms.
spindles
11
DO Type of deoxidation: - manufacturer's option;

FF killed cast steel.
FN semH<illed cast steel;
21 Values apply to product thicknesses from 3 mm to 100 mm.
31 Values apply to product thicknesses from 3 mm to40 mm and longitudinal test pieces with Lo 5.65
The steel types listed in the table are unalloyed quality steels ace. to DIN EN 10020 (page 120)
f5;;
(page 190)
Tec:hnlc:el properties
Hot worbbility
Weldability
Steels ol grade groups JR- JO- J2- K2 are weldable

using all processes.
Increased strength and product thickness also increase
the risk of cold cracks.
Steels S 185, E295, E335 and E360 are not weldable,
because the chemical composition is not specified.
The steels are hot workable. Only products which are

ordered and delivered in normal ized (+Nl or normalizing
rolled (+Nl condition must meet the requirements of the
above table. The treatment condition must be specified
at the time of ordering.
Example: S235JO+N or 1.0114+N
Cold worlulbility
The additional C or GC symbol is appended to the designation of a steel type suitable lor cold working (edge I o lding, roll forming, cold-drawing), and these types are also assigned their own material num ber.
Steel types for cold working
Material
Designation number
Suitable for11
F
S235JRC
S235JOC
S235J2C
1.0122
1.0115
1.0119
E295GC
1.0533
11 Forming process:
Msterial
Designation number
...
.
-
F edge folding:
Suitable for 11
S275JRC
S275JOC
S275J2C
1.0128
1.0140
1.01 42
E335GC
1.0543
R roll forming:
Material
Designation number
.. .
.
-
C cold drawing:
Suitable for 1'
S355JOC
S355J2C
S355K2C
1.0554
1.0579
1.0594
E360GC
1.0633
wellsuited
. .
-
- unsuitable
13 1
Weldable fine-grain and quenched & tempered structural steels

Weldable fine-grained structural steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN 10025-3 and DIN EN 100254 (200504).

replaces DIN EN 10113
Steel type
1 M aterial
Designation1 number
DC''
NotcltJmpact
energy /(\1211')Jat
temperatures In
Tensile
strength
R,
Ntmm1
20 1 0
1- 20
Yield strength R,
Elonga
in N/mm2for
tion
nominal thiclcnesses at frac- Properties,
ture
application
linmml
A
s 16
> 16 > 40
%
:s40
:5' 63
Uneloyed C!'*lty steels

S275N
S275M
1.0490
1.8818
N
M
55
S355N
S355M
1.0545
1.8823
N
M
55
47
47
370- 510
370- 530
275
40
470-630
355
345
335
22
40
265
255
24
Aloy hlgh"91'11de ......

S420N
S420M
1.8902
1.8825
N
M
55
47
40
520- 680
420
400
390
19
S460N
S460M
1.8901
1.8827
N
M
55
47
40
550-720
540-720
460
440
430
17
High toughness,
brittle fracture and
aging resistant;
weldments in machin
ery, crane and bridge
construction, automo
tive manufacturing,
conveyors
M thermomechanically rolled
N normalized/normalizing rolled
'' DC Delivery condition:
21 Values apply to V-notch longitudinal test pieces.
Assignment of steels: DIN EN 10025-3 ..... S275N, S355N, S420N, S460N
DIN EN 10025-4 -> S275M, S355M, S420M, S460M
Technic=-! properties
Weldabillty
Tho steels are weldable. Increased strength
and product thiclcness also incr ease the
risk of cold craclcs.
Hot worbblllty
Cold WOfkllbility
Only steels S275N, S355N,

S420N and S480N are hot
workable.
Cold-bending or edge folding is guaran

teed for nominal thicknesses up to
16 mm, if cold-workability is specified
in the order.
Cuenc:hed and tempered sbuc. steels with higher yield strength (selection) cf. DIN EN 10025-6 (2005-02),
Steel type
Oesig
nation ' '
Material
number
54600
S4600L
Notch impact energy

K VinJat
temperatures in
Tensile
strength
Yield strength R,
in N/mm2for
nominal thidmesses
inmm
R,
N/mm2
Elonga
tion
at frac- Properties,
ture
application
>3
<50
>50
< 100
> 100
., 150
A
%
460
440
400
17
- 20
-40
1.8908
1.8906
40
50
30
40
30
55000
SSOOOL
1.6924
1.8909
40
50
30
40
30
590- 770
500
480
440
17
56200
S6200L
1.6914
1.6927
40
50
30
40
30
700-690
620
580
560
15
58900
S6900L
1.6940
1.6983
40
50
30
40
30
94o-1100
690
630
11
59600
S9600L
1.6941
1.8933
40
50
30
40
30
980-1150
960
10
"a
quenched and tempered;

impact values to -40 " C
550-720
High toughness, high

resistance to brittle
fracture and aging
stability;
highly stressed weld
ments in machinery,
crane and bridge
construction, automotive manufacturing, conveyors
OL quenched and tempered, guaranteed minimum values for notched bar
Tec:hnic:al properties
Weldabillty
Hot worbbillty
Cold WOfkability
The steels are not weldable without limitations.

Professional planning of the welding parameters
is required. Inc reased strength and product thickness also increase the risk of cold cracks.
The steels are hot workable up

to tho temperature limit for
stress relief annealing.
Col~bending or edge folding

is guaranteed for nominal
thicknesses up to 16 mm, if
cold-workability is specified
in the()(der.
132
Case hardened steels, unalloyed and alloy

Case hardened steels (selection)
Steel type
Designation 11
Material
number
Hardness HB in
delivery oondition2l
+A
+FP
cf. DIN EN 10084 (200806)

Core propenies aher
case hardeningll
Tensile
strength
Harden
ing
Yield
Elong. method Properties,
I
applications
strength at fracture
R,
R,
N/mm 2
NJmm2
49- 640
295
16
UnaHoy~ caM harden~ .tee1s
C10E
C10R
1.1121
1.1207
131
C15E
C15R
1.1141
1.1140
143
103- 140
590- 780
355
90-125
Alloy caM hardened stMis
Dis
..
..
..
..
17Cr3
17CrS3
1.7016
1.7014
174
700- 900
450
11
28Cr4
28CrS4
1.7030
1.7036
217
156- 207
~ 700
16MnCr5
16MnCrS5
1.7131
1.7139
207
140- 187
780-1080
780- 1080
590
590
10
10
16NiCr4
16NiCrS4
1.5714
1.5715
217
156- 207
"' 900
18CrMo4
18CrMoS4
1.7243
1.7244
207
140- 187
o: 900
20MoCr3
20MoCrS3
1.7320
1.7319
217
145- 185
., 9()0
20MoCr4
20MoCrS4
1.7321
1.7323
207
140-187
880-1180
590
10
17CrNi6-6
22Cr MoS3-3
1.5918
1.7333
229
217
156- 207
152- 201
"' 1100
15NiCr13
10NiCr5-4
1.5752
1.5805
229
192
166-207
137- 187
920-1230
785
10
., 9()0
20NiCrMo2 2
20NiCrMoS2-2
1.6523
1.6526
212
149- 194
780- 1080
590
10
17NiCrMo6-4
17NiCrMoS6-4
20NiCrMoS6-4
1.6566
1.6569
1.657 1
229
149- 201
149-201
154-207
"' 1000
"' 1000
" 1100
--
20MnCr5
20MnCrSS
1.7147
1.7149
217
152- 201
980- 1270
685
18NiCr5-4
14NiCrMo13-4
18CrNiMo7-6
1.5810
1.6657
1.6587
223
241
229
156- 207
166- 217
159-207
"'1100
1030- 1390
1060-1320
785
10
8
Small parts with average
stress;
levers, pegs, bolts,
rollers, spindles, pressed
and stamped ports
.
.
Parts subject to
alternating stresses,
e. g. in gearbox;
gears, bevel and ring
gears, driving pinions,
shahs, propellershahs
..
- .
.
..
- .
.
.
- .
- .
0
Parts subject to highly

alternating stresses,
e.g. in gearbox;
gears, bevel and
ring gears,
driving pinion,
shahs, propellershahs
Parts subject to larger
pinion shahs, gears,

ring gears
dimensions;
11 Steel types with added sulfur, e. g. 16MnCrS5, hav e an improved machinability.

21
31
41
Delivery condition: +A spheroidized; + FP treated for ferrit.e-pearlite m icrostructure and hardness range
Strength values are valid for test pieces with 30 m m nominal diameter.
Hardening methods:
D Direct hardening: The worlcpieces are quenched directly from the carburizing temperature.
S Simple hardening: After carburizing the workpieces are usually leh to coot at room temperature. For hardening they are reheated.
weii-'Sllited o conditionally suitable - unsuitable
For heat treatment of case hardened steels, see page 155
133
Quenched and tempered steels, unalloyed and alloy

Quenched and tempered steels (selection)
ct. DIN EN
10083-2 and DIN EN 10083-3
St rength values f or ro lled diameter din mm

St eel type
Designation
M aterial
number
,.,.
Tensile strength
Rm in N/mm2
> 16
s 40
> 40
s 100
Yield strength Elongation at

Properties,
R, in N/mm 2
fracture
applications
ELin %
> 16 1 > 40
s 40 s 100
> 161 > 40

s 40 s 100
Unalloyed quenched and tampered ~

+N
C22E
1.1151
+OT
1.0501
+N
C35E
1.1181
+OT
C45
1.0503
+N
C45E
1.1191
.. or
C55
1.0535
+N
C55E
1.1203
+Or
C60
1.0601
+N
C60E
1.1221
+OT
28Mn6
1.1170
C35
410
210
210
25
470- 620
290
22
520
520
270
270
19
19
600-750
550 - 700
380
320
19
20
580
580
305
305
16
16
650-800
630 - 780
430
370
16
17
640
640
330
330
12
12
750-900
700-850
490
420
14
15
670
670
340
340
11
11
800- 950
750- 900
520
450
13
14
600
600
310
310
18
18
700-850
650-800
490
440
15
16
600-750
650-800
450
350
400
15
14
17
15
+N
..or
cf. DIN EN 10083-2 (2006-101
410
25
ct. DIN EN
Alloy quenched and tempered staels

38Cr2
46Cr2
1.7003
1.7006
+OT
700- 850
800- 950
34Cr4
37Cr4
1.7033
1.7034
..or
800-950
850- 1000
700-850
750-900
590
630
460
510
14
13
15
14
25CrMo4
25CrMo S4
1.7218
1.7213
+OT
800-950
700-850
600
450
14
15
41 Cr4
41 CrS4
1.7035
1.7039
+OT
900- 1100
800- 950
660
560
12
14
34CrMo4
34CrMoS4
1.7220
1.7226
+0T
900-1100
800-950
650
550
12
14
42CrMo4
42CrMoS4
1.7225
1.7227
+Or
1000- 1200
900- 1100
750
650
11
12
50CrMo4
51CrV4
1.7228
1.8159
+OT
1000- 1200
900- 1100
780
800
700
10
12
30NiCrMo16-S
34CrN iMo6
1.6747
1.6582
..or
1080-1230
1100- 1300
1080-1230
1000- 1200
880
900
880
10
10
11
36NiCrMo 16
30CrN iMo8
1.6773
1.6580
+OT
1250- 1450
1100- 1300
1050
900
10
20MnB5
30MnB5
1.5530
1.5531
+Or
750- 900
800-950
27MnCrBS-2
39MnCrB6-2
1.7182
1.7189
+OT
900-1150
1050- 1250
Parts subject to lower

stresses and small
quench and tempering diameters;
screws, bolts, axles,
shafts, gears
800-1000
1000-1200
550
600
650
750
850
900
700
800
15
13
14
12
10083-3 (2007-Q1)
Parts subject to higher stresses and larger

quenched and tempered diameters;
drive shafts, worms,
gears
Parts subject to high

stresses and larger
quenched and tempered diameters;
shafts, gears, l arger
forged parts
Parts subject to highest stresses and large

quenched and tempered diameters
15
12
11 T treatment condition: +N normalized; ..or quenched and tempered
For unalloyed quenched and tempered steels the treatment conditions +N and +OT also apply to the quality and
high-grade steels, for example for C45 and C45E.
2l Unalloyed quenched and tempered steels C35. C45, C55 and C60 are quality steels, steels C22E, C35E, C45E, C55E
and C60E are produced as high-grade steels.

For heat treatment of quenched and tempered steels, see page 156
134
Nitriding steels, Steels for flame and induction hardening, Free cutting steels
Nitriding steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN 10085 (2001071, replaces DIN 17211
Steel type
Designation
Spheroh;Sized
Material
number hardness
HB
>Yield
Elongation
strengthll at fracturell Properties,
EL
applications
R,
N/mmt
Tensile
strength 1
Rm
N/mmt
980 - 1180
31CrMo12
31CrMoV9
1.8515
1.8519
248
248
1000 - 1200
785
800
34CrAIMo5-10
40CrAIMo7-10
1.8507
1.8509
248
248
800- 1000
900- 1100
34CrA INi7r 10
1.8550
248
850-1050
"
I
I
11
10
Wear parts up to 250 mm thickness

600
720
14
13

High-temperature wear parts up to sooc
650
12
Large parts; piston rods, spindles
11 Strength values: The values for tensile strength R,, yield strength R, and elongation at fracture EL apply to material thicknesses from 40 to 100 mm in the quenched and tempered condition.
For heat treatment of nltriding steels, see page 157
cf. DIN EN 10083 11
Steels for flame and induction hardening (selection)

Steel type
Material
number
Spheroidized
hardness
HB
C45E11
C60E 11
1.1191
1.1221
207
241
..OT
650- 800
800-950
37Cr4
46Cr2
1.7034
1.7006
255
..OT
850-1000
800- 950
41Cr4
42CrMo4
1.7035
1.7225
255
+OT
900-1100
1000-1200
Designation
Tensile
strengthZI
Rm
N/mmt
Yield strength R,
Elonin N/mm2 for nominal gationat
I
thicknesses in mm fracture Properties,
applications
EL
s 16 > 16 > 40
%
s 40 s 100
490
16
430
370
520
450
13
580
Wear parts with high
core strength and good
750
630
510
14
toughness; crank shafts
400
650
550
13
drive shafts, cam shafts,
worms, gears
800
660
560
12
900
750
650
11
11 The previous standard DIN 17212 was withdrawn without replacement. For flame and induction hardenable steels,
see quenched and tempered steels DIN EN 10083-3 (page 133). For unalloyed high-quality steels ace. to DIN EN
10083-2, hardness results are only assured if the steels are ordered with austenite grain size s 5.
21 T treatment condition: +OT quenched and tempered
For heat treatment of steels for flame and induction hardening, see page 156
Free cutting steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN 10087 (1999.() 1)
For product thicknesses from 16 to 40 mm

Tensile
Yield
Elongation Properties,
Hardness
strength
strength at fracture applications
HB
R,
EL
Rm
NJmm2
NJmm2
%
1.0715
1.0718
+U
112- 169
380- 570
Steels unsuitable for heat

treatment
11SMn37
11SMnPb37
1.0736
1.0737
+U
112- 169
380-570
Small parts subject to low

stress; levers, pegs
10S20
10SPb20
1.0721
1.0722
+U
107- 156
360-530
'15SMn13
1.0725
+U
128-178
430-600
35S20
1.0726
+U
154- 201
52D-680
35SPb20
1.0756
+OT
44SMn28
1.0762
+U
44SMnPb28
1.0763
+OT
46S20
1.0727
+U
46SPb20
1.0757
+OT
Steel type
Designation II
M aterial
number
11SM n30
11SM nPb30
600-750
380
16
187- 238
630- 800
700-850
420
16
175- 225
590- 760
650-800
430
13
Case hardened steels

Wear-resistant small parts;
shafts. bolts, pins
Quenched and tempered

steels
Larger pans subject to higher
stress;
spindles, shafts, gears
11 Steel types with lead additives, e. g. 11SMnPb30, have better machinability.

2l T treatment condition: +U untreated; ..OT quenched and tempered
All free cutting steels are unalloyed quality steels. It is not possible to guarantee a uniform response to case
For heat treatment of free cutting steels, see page 157
hardening or quench and tempering.
135
Cold work steels. Hot work steels. High-speed steels

Tool steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN ISO 4957 (2001 02), replaces DIN 17350
Steel type
Designation
Tempering
Hardness Hardening
HB11 temperature QM2l tempe rat. Application examples. properties
J M aterial
max.
c
c
number
Cold wort! stMis. unalloyed

C45U
1.1730
190
800- 830
180- 300
Non-hardened mounted parts for tools,

screwdrivers, chisels, knives
C70U
1.1520
190
790- 820
180- 300
Centering pins, small dies. vise jaws, trim

ming press
C80U
1.1525
190
780- 810
180- 300
Dies with flat cavities, chisels.

cold extruding dies. knives
C105U
1.1545
213
no-800
180- 300
Simple cutting tools, coining dies,

scribers. piercing plugs, twist drills
Cold wort! -'.... lllloy

21MnCr5
1.21 62
215
810- 840
150- 180
Complex case hardened press forms for

plastics; easily polished
60WCrV8
1.2550
230
880- 930
180-300
Cutters for steel sheet from 6 to 15 mm, cold

punching dies, chisels. center punches
90MnCrV8
1.2842
220
790- 820
150- 250
Cutting dies, stamps, plastic stamping

molds. reamers. measuring tools
102Cr6
1.2067
230
820- 850
100- 180
Drills, milling cutters, reamers, small cutting

dies, tuming centers for lathes
X38CrMo16
1.2316
250
1000- 1040
650-700
Tools for process.ing chemically aggressive

thermoplastics
40CrMnNiMo86-4
1.2738
235
840- 870
180- 220
Plastic molds of ali types
45NiCrMo16
1.2767
260
840-870
O,A
160- 250
Bending and embossing tools, shearing

b lades for thidc material
X153CrMoV12
1.2379
250
1020 - 1050
O, A
180-250
Cutting tools sensitive to breaking, milling

cutters, broaching tools, shearing blades
X210CrW12
1.2436
255
950-980
O,A
180- 250
High-performance cutting tools,

broaching tools, stamping tools
55NiCrMoV7
1.2714
250
840- 870
400 - 650
Plastic molds, small and medium sized dies.

hot shearing blades
X37CrMoVS-1
1.2343
235
1020-1050
O, A
550- 650
Die casting molds for light alloys,

extrusion tools
32CrMoV12-28
1.2365
230
1020-1050
O, A
500-670
Die casting molds for heavy non-ferrous

metals. extrusion tools for all metals
X38CrMoV5-3
1.2367
235
1030- 1080
O. A
600-700
High-quality dies, highly stressed

tools for manufacture of screws
HS6-5-2C
1.3343
250
1190- 1230
O,A
540-560
Twist drills, reamers, milling cutters, thread

cutters, circular saw blades
HS&-5-2-5
1.3243
270
1210-1250
O, A
550-570
Highly stressed twist drills, milling cutters,

roughing tools with high toughness
HS104 31 0
1.3207
270
1210- 1250
O,A
550-570
U!the tools for automatic machining,

high cutting capacity
HS2-9-2
1.3348
250
1190-1230
O, A
540 - 580
Milling cutters. twist drills and thread cutters, high

cutting hardness. high-temp. strength, toughness
Hot wort! st....
HlglwpMdst....
11 Delivery condition: annealed

2l OM Quenching medium; W water; 0 oil; A air
For designations of tool steels, see page 125; for heat treatment of tool steels, see page 155
136
Stainless steels
'
Corrosion-resistant steels (selection)
cf. DIN EN 10088-2 and 10068-3 (2005-o9)
Steel type
Designation
D''
Material
number
Austenitic: stHis
X10CrNi18-8
X2CrNi18-9
X2CrNiN 19-11
X2CrNi1 8-10
X5CrNI18-10
X8CrNiS189
X6CrNiTi1 8-10
X4CrNi18- 12
X5CrNiMo17- 122
X6CrNiMoTi17122
X2CrNiMo18- 14-3
X2CrNiMoN 17-13-3
X2CrNiMoN 17-13-5
X1 NiCrMoCu25-20-5
1.43 10
1.4307
1.4306
1.4311
.. .
.. .
..
.
1.4401
1.4571
..
1.4305
1.4541
1.4303
1.4435
1.4429
1.4439
1.4539
mm
si s
..
. ..
..
..
.. .
1.4301
OC21 Thickness
d
.. .
.
..
.. .
.
..
.
Tensile
strength
R,
li,.o.2
Elongation at
fracture
N/mm2
N/mm2
EL
600-950
250
40
40
500-750
195
40
c
p
s 75
520-700
500- 650
220
200
45
s 160
500-700
175
45
c
p
8
75
520- 700
500- 700
220
200
45
s 160
460 - 680
180
45
c
p
s 8
s 75
550-750
540- 750
290
270
40
s 160
550-760
270
40
s 8
s 75
540-750
230
210
45
c
-
s 160
500-700
190
45
s 75
500- 700
190
35
s 160
500-750
190
35
c
p
s 8
s 75
520- 720
500-700
220
200
40
s 160
500- 700
190
40
500-650
220
45
s 160
500- 700
190
45
c
p
s 8
s 75
530- 680
520- 670
240
220
40
45
s 160
500-700
200
40
c
p
s
8
s 75
540-690
520- 670
240
220
40
s 160
500- 700
200
40
c
p
s
8
s 75
550- 700
520- 670
240
220
40
45
s 160
500- 700
200
40
c
p
s 8
s 75
580-780
300
280
35
40
s 160
580- 800
280
35
c
p
:s;
580- 780
290
270
35
40
s 160
580- 800
280
35
:s;
8
s 75
530-730
520- 720
240
220
35
s 160
700-800
200
35
c
p
8
s 75
Properties.
applications
..
'' D Delivery forms: S sheet, strip; B bars, profile

DC Delivery condition: C cold-rolled strip; P hot-rolled sheet
21
Yield
strength
Springs for temperatures

up to 3ooc. automotive
manufacturing
Household containers.
chemical and food industry
Equipment and parts
exposed to organic and
fruit acids
Equipment for the dairy
and brewery industry,
pressure vessels
Deep-drawn parts in the
food industry, easily polished
Pans in the food and dairy
industry
Consumer goods used in
the household, parts in the
photo industry
Chemical industry;
bolts, nuts
Parts in the paint, oil and
textile industry
Parts in the textile,

synthetic resi n and rubber
industry
Parts with improved
chemical resistance for the
pulp industry
Pressure vessels with
increased chemical resistance
Resistant to chlorine
and higher temperatures; chemical industry
Resistant to phosphoric,
su lfuric and hydroc hloric
acids;
chemical industry
137
Stainless steels
Corrosion-resistant steels (continued)
cf. DIN EN 100882 and 100883 (2005091
Steel type
Oil
Material
number
Designation
OC2l Thiclmess
d
mm
Tensile
strength
R,
X2CrNi12
.
.. .
.. .
.
.
.
.
..
1.4003
1.4000
X6Cr13
X6Cr17
1.4016
X2Crl112
1.4512
X6CrMo171
1.4113
X3Crl117
1.4510
X2CrMoTi18-2
1.4521
Rr.u 2
Elongation at
fracture
EL
%
Ntmm2
N/mm
s 8
s 25
450 - 650
280
250
20
18
s 100
450- 600
260
20
:S
400 - 600
240
220
19
400 - 630
230
20
450-600
260
240
20
20
S IB
"-!tic steels
Yield
strength
,.
25
:S
25
Properties.
applications
Automotive end container

manufacturing, conveyors
Resistant to water and
steam; household
equipment, fitting.s
Good cold workability,
able to be polished;
flatware, bumpers
:S
25
:S
100
400-630
240
:S
450-650
280
23
Catalylic converters
450 - 630
260
18
s 100
440 - 660
280
18
Automotive manufac
turing; trim, hub caps
450 - 600
260
20
Welded parts in
food industry
"'
8
12
420-640
420- 620
300
280
20
Bolls, nuts,
heaters
c
c
11 0 Delivery forms: S sheet, strip; B bars, profile

2l MF Mill finish: C cold-rolled strip; P hot-rolled sheet
Martensitic: steels
Steel type
Oil
Designation
X12Cr13
X20Cr13
X30Cr13
X46Cr13
Mat.
no.
1.4021
..
.. .
1.4028
..
1.4006
1.4034
X39CrMo171 1.4122
X3CrNiMo13-4 1.4313
OC2l
.
.
..
..
.
..
c
p
Thick
ness
d
mm
Hll
Tensile
strength
R,
N/mm2
Elonga
tiona I
Properties,
fracture
applications
Rpo.2
EL
2
N/mm
%
Yield
strength
s 75
A
aT650
s600
650 - 850
450
20
12
s 160
aT650
650- 850
4sa
15
8
75
A
ansa
s700
750-950
550
15
10
"'160
aTSOO
800-950
600
12
:S
"'
Resistant to water
and steam, food industry
Axles, shafts,
pump parts,
propellers
"'s
8
75
A
aT800
s740
800-1000
600
15
10
s 160
OTB50
850-1000
650
10
"':S 1608
A
aTBOO
s 780
850-1000
245
650
12
10
Hardenable; table knives

and machine knives
c
-
8
60
A
OT900
s900
900- 1100
280
"'
12
11
Shafts, spindles,
armatures up to 600 oc
75
aT900
900-1100
11
A
aT900
"1100
900-1100
High toughness:
pumps, turbine wheels,
reactor construction
"'
"160
BOO
BOO
320
BOO
12
Bolts, nuts, springs,

piston rods
0 Delivery forms: S sheet. strip; B bars, profile

2) DC Delivery condition: C cold-rolled strip; P hotrolled sheet
3 1 H Heat treatment condition: A solution annealed; ansa- quenched and tempered to minimum tensile strength
Rm ; 750 N/mm2
1)
138
Applications
1-:- -+--.,.---.,---"----:---------,---------i Tension springs,
compression springs,
1-:-:--+-~--:--.,.------:--:--:-------------i torsion springs in equipment and
1-::-:-:--+--:--:--.,----:--:-----::---------------i machine construction,
wire type OH is also suitable
1-- -+ - - - - - - - - - - ----------------i for shaped springs.
Delivery forms
5.0 - 5.5 -6.0 -6.5- 7.0 - 7.5 - 8.0 - 8.5 - 9.0 - 9.5 - 10.0-10.5-11.011.5 - 12.0- 19.0-19.5-20.0-21.0-22.0- 23.0- 27.0 -28.0 -29.0 - 30.0
directional rods
wire coils
139
M aterials science: 4.4 St eels, Finished products
Sheet and strip metal - Classification. overview
Delivery form
Type
Commercial formats
Classifocation ec:cording to
Sheet
L7
Strip
lj b
Usually rectangular plates in

small format: wx I 1000 x 2000 mm
med. format: w xI 1250 x 2500 mm
large format wx I 1500 x3000 mm
Sheet thicknesses: s 0.14-250 mm
Rolled (coils) continuous strip
Slrip thickness s 0. 14- approx.
10mm
Strip width w up to 2000 mm
Coil diameter up to 2400 mm
for feed stock at automatic
manufacturing plants or sheet
metal blanks for secondary
processing
Fllbriartion method
Process
Remarks
Hot
rolled
Sheet thicknesses up to approx.

250 mm. surfaces in rolled condition
or pickled
Cold
rolled
Sheet thicknesses up to approx.

10 mm. smooth surfaces.
tight process tolerances
Cold rolled
with surface
finishing
higher corrosion resistance.

e.g. from galvanizing, organic
coating
for decorative purposes, e. g. with
plastic coating
better workability, e. g. by textured
surfaces
Sheet metal types - Overview (selection)

Main characteristics
Designation. steel types
Standard
Cold-rolled sheet lind strip

cold w orkable
(deep drawing)
weldable
su rface
paintable
Flat rolled products from soft steels
DIN EN 10130
Cold strip from soft steels
DIN EN 10207
Flat products with high yield strengths
DIN EN 10268
Flat products for enameling
DIN EN 10209
Cokkolled sheet lllld strip with...._ finishing

higher corrosion
resistance
possibly better
w orkability
Hot-dip finished sheet and strip
DIN EN 10327
Zinc electroplated flat products

from steel for cold working
DIN EN 10152
Organically coated flat p roducts

from steel
DIN EN 10169-1
Cold-roled sheets lllld strip for pacbging

corrosion resistant
cold wo rkable
weldable
Black plate for manufacture of tinplate
DIN EN 10205
Packaging sheet metal from electrolytically

tinned or chromed steel
DIN EN 10202
Delivery form 11
Sh
I St Ithic!(ness range
. ..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
-
0.35- 3 mm
s10mm
s 3mm
s 3mm
s3mm
0.35- 3 mm
,;3mm
0.14 - 0.49 m m
0.1 4-0.49 m m
Hot-rolled sheet and strip

Same p roperties
as the
corresponding
steel groups
(pages 126. 1271
Sheet and strip from unalloyed and alloy steels.

e. g. structural steels as per DIN EN 10025.
fine-grain structural steel.s as per DIN EN 10113.
DIN EN 10051
case hardened steels as per DIN EN 10084.
quenched and tempered steels as per DIN EN
10083. stainless steels as per DIN EN 10088
high
yield strength
Sheet metal from structural steels with higher

yield strength. quenched and tempered
DIN EN 10025-6
cold
workability
Flat products of steel with high

yield strength
DIN EN 101491
1)
Delivery forms: Sh sheet; St strip
..
.
.
-
sh eet up to
25 mm thickness.
strip up to
10 mm thickness
3-150 mm
sheet up to
20 mm thickness
140
Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Cold-rolled sheet and strip for cold working

Cold-rolled s1rip and sheet from soft steels
Steel type
Material
number
Designation
Type of
surface
cf. DIN EN 10130 (2007021
Tensile
strength
Yield
strength
Elongation
at fracture
R,
N/mm2
R.
N/mm2
EL
%
LBck
Properties,
Application
of flowlines 11
OC01
1.0330
A
B
270- 410
140
280
28
DC03
1.0347
A
B
270- 370
140
240
34
6 months
DC04
1.0338
A
B
270- 350
140
210
38
6months
DC05
1.0312
A
B
270- 330
140
180
40
6 months
DC06
1.0873
A
B
270- 350
120
180
38
unlimited
time
Delivery forms
(standard
values)
Sheet thicknesses: 0.25 - 0.35 - 0.4 - 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.8 - 0.9 - 1.0 - 1.2 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0 mm
Metal sheet dimensions: 1000 x 2000 mm. 1250 x 2500 mm, 1500 x 3000 mm, 2000 x 6000 mm
strip (coils) up to approx. 2000 mm wide
3months
Cold workable, e.g. by
deep drawing, weldable,
surface paintable;
worked sheet parts
in automotive,
general machine and
equipment manufac
turing, in the construction
industry
,, In subsequent non-<:ulting processes, e. g. deep drawing, no flow lines appear within the given time
period. The time period begins at the agreed upon delivery date.
Explanation
Type of sur!Ke
Sur!Ke finish
Description of the surface
Designation
Designation
Average roughness Ra
Finish
Defects, e.g. pores, scoring, may not influenoe the workability and the adhesion of surface coatings.
b
g
very smooth
smooth
Ra :s 0.4 ~m
Ra :s 0.9 ~m
One side of the sheet must be free of defects

so that its surface finish will not influence
quality painting.
m
r
man
rough
0.6 tJm < Ra"' 1.9 tJm

RB> 1.6tJm
Sheet EN 10130- OC06- B - g: Sheet metal from OC06 material, surface type B, smooth surface
Cold-rolled s1rip and sheet

of high yield steels (selection)
Steel type
Oesig
nation
M aterial
number
Tensile
strength
Rm
cf. DIN EN 10268 (2Q06.10)

Yield
strength
Re
N/mm2
N/mm2
Elongation
at fracture Properties,
EL
Application
%
HC180Y
HC220Y
HC260Y
1.0922
1.0925
1.0928
340- 400
350-420
380-440
180- 230
220-270
260-320
36
34
32
Cold workability at high mechanical strength,

sophisticated deep-drawn parts
HC180B
HC220B
HC300B
1.0395
1.0396
1.0444
300-360
320-400
400- 480
180- 230
220-270
300- 360
34
32
26
Good cold workability, increase of the yield strength

through heat treatment after the shaping process;
exterior parts of the vehicle body
HC180P
HC260P
HC300P
1.0342
1.0417
1.0448
280- 360
360-440
400- 480
180- 230
280-320
300- 360
34
29
26
Good cold workability, high impact resistance and

fatigue strength;
parts of the body skin, deep-drawn parts
HC260LA
HC380LA
HC420LA
1.0480
1.0550
1.0556
350-430
440- 560
470-590
260-330
380-480
420-520
26
19
17
Good weldability and limited cold workability,

good impact resistance and fatigue strength;
reinforcing parts of the vehicle body
Forms of
delivery,
surface
finishes
Forms of delivery see DIN EN 10130 (table on top)

Surface finishes: The products are available with the surface finish types A and B in accordance with
DIN EN 10130. For LA types, e. g. HC380LA. only surface finish type A is available.
For rolling width> 600 mm, the surface finishes also comply with DIN EN 10130.
ShHt metal EN 10628- HC380LA - A-m: Sheet metal of material HC380LA. surface finish A. man (m)
141
Cold-rolled and hot-rolled sheet

Hot-dip galvanized strip and sheet
from soft steels for cold wortcing
Steel type
Designation
Material
number
Guarantee
for strenQth
values II
cf. DIN EN 10327 (2004-091

Tensile
strength
Yield
strength
Elongation
at frecture
Rm
R.
EL
N/mm2
Ntmm2
Lack
of flow
lines21
Cold working
grade
DX51D+Z
DX51D+ZF
1.0226+Z
1.0226+ZF
8days
270- 500
22
1 month
machine seamed
quality
DX52D+Z
DX52D+ZF
1.0350+Z
1.0350+Zf
8days
270- 420
140- 300
26
1 month
drawing g rade
DX53D+Z
DX53D+ZF
1.0355+Z
1.0355+ZF
6months
270- 380
140- 260
30
6months
deep drawing grade
DX54D+Z
DX54D+ZF
1.0306+Z
1.0306+ZF
6months
260- 350
120- 220
36
34
6 months
extra deep
drawing grade
DX56D+Z
DX56D+ZF
1.0322+Z
1.0322+ZF
6months
270- 350
120 - 180
39
37
6 months
special deep
drawing grade
Delivery forms
(standard
values)
Sheet thicknesses: 0.25 - 0.35 - 0.4 - 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.8 - 0.9 - 1.0 - 1.2 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0 mm
Metal sheet dimensions: 1000 >e 2000 mm. 1250 >e 2500 mm, 1500 >e 3000 mm, 2000 >e 6000 mm
strip (coilsl up to approx. 2000 mm wide
Explanation
Values for tensile strength R,., yield strength R, and elongation at fracture EL are only
guaranteed within the given lime period. The time period begins at the agreed upon delivery date.
21 In subsequent working, e.g. deep drawing, no flow lines appear within a given period. The time
period begins at the agreed upon delivery date.
'l
Composition, proper1ies end atruc:tiM'H of the c:o.tlng

Designation
+Z
+Zf
Composition, properties
Designation Structure
Coatings of pure zinc, shiny flower patterned surface. protection against atmospheric corrosion
Abrasion resistant coating of a zinc-iron
alloy, uniform man gray surface, corrosion
resistant like +Z
N
M
Zinc flowers in different sizes

Small zinc flowers, often not visible.
Uniform man g ray surface
(texture infonnation only combined with
coating +Zfl
Type of surface
Designation
A
B
c
=>
Meaning
No surface defects are allowed, e.g. dots, stripes
Improved surface compared to A
Best surface, high-quality painting must be assured on one side of the sheet
Sheet EN 10142- DX530+ZF100-R-B: Sheet of DX53D material, coating of
iron-zinc alloy with 100 gtm2, uniform matt gray (RI and improved (81 surface
Hot-rolled sheet and strip
cf. DIN EN 10051 (1997-111
Hot-rolled sheet and strip according to DIN EN 10051 are manufactured

from steels of various material groups, for e>eampte:
Steel group, designation
Materials
Delivery forms
(standard valuesl
=>
Standard
Page
Structural steels
Case hardened steels
Quenched and tempered steels
DIN EN 10025
DIN EN 10084
DIN EN 10083
130
132
133
Weldable fine-grain steels

Heat-treatable structural steels, high yield strength
DIN EN 10113
DIN EN 10137
131
131
Stainless steels
Pressure vessel steels
DIN EN 10088
DIN EN 10028
136
Propenies and
applications of the
steels are g iven on
the pages for the
individual steel.
Sheetthicknesses: 0.5- 1.0-1.5- 2.0 - 2.5-3.0 - 3.5 - 4.0 - 4.5 - 5.0 - 6.0 - 8.0 - 10.0 - 12.0 - 15.0 18.0-20.0 - 25.0 mm. Sheet and strip dimensions see DIN EN 10142.
Sheet EN 10051-2,0 x 1200 x 2500: Sheet thickness 2,0 mm, sheet dimensions 1200 x 2500 mm
Steel EN 10083-1 - 34Cr4: Carbon quenched and tempered steel 34Cr4
142
ffiffiJ.'tl- 1111~-'i (jl
Seamless tube for

d
outside d iameter
s wall thickness
m' linear mass density
w. axial section
modulus
lx axial gaometrical
m oment o f inertia
1- - -
i.iiU:.IM ~"' I
hUI
,....;.L.!; ..,
.. ,
cf.
m'
kglm
cm3
em
541<5.0
541<8.0
54 X 10.0
7.70
11.56
13.82
6.04
9.07
10.85
8.64
11.67
13.03
23.34
3 1.50
35.18
60.3x8
60.3x 10
60.3x 12.5
13.14
15.80
18.n
10.31
12.40
14.73
15.25
17.23
19.00
45.99
5 1.95
57.28
7.42
8.59
10.94
70x8
70 )( 12.5
70 X 16
15.58
22.58
27.14
12.23
17.73
21 .30
21 .75 76.12
27.92 97.73
30.75 107.6
4.74
5.53
7.20
10.54
12.29
16.01
82.5x8
82.5x 12.5
82.5x 20
18.72
27.49
39.27
14.70
21 .58
30.83
31.85 131.4
42.12 173.7
51 .24 211 .4
7.58
10.13
11.25
19.34
25.84
28.68
88.9x 10
88.9x 16
88.9x 20
24.79
36.64
43.29
19.46
28.76
33.98
44.09
57.40
62.66 278.6
m'
kgtm
cm3
w.
1,.
em
26.9 )( 2.3
26.9 )( 2.6
26.9x3.2
1.78
1.98
2.38
1.40
1.55
1.87
1.01
1.10
1.27
1.36
1.48
1.70
35x 2.6
35x4.0
35x6.3
2.65
3.90
5.68
2.08
3.06
4.46
2.00
2.72
3.50
3.50
4.76
6.13
40x4
40x5
40x8
4.52
5.50
8.04
3.55
4.32
6.31
3.71
4.30
5.47
44.5 X 4
44.5x5
44.5 X 8
5.09
6.20
9.17
4.00
4.87
7.20
51x5
51x8
51x 10
7.23
10.81
12.88
5.68
8.49
10.11
Material,
annealing
condition
outside diameter
wall thickness
s cross-sectional area
w. axial section
modulus
fx axial geometrical
moment of inertia
-I--" d
~~~:~
[Annealing-~~ "
E235, E275, E315

E355K2. E420J2
+AR or+N
+N
unalloyed C22E,C45E,C60E
alloy 41Cr4, 42CrM04
+N or +OT
+OT
Quenched and
tempered steels
I C10E,
. steel, unall., alloy

r
....,..,.._.....
steels,
15E,
r
pages
{2003-02)
II/
s2
cm
kglm
cm3
em
10 )( 1
10 )( 1.5
10 x2
0.28
0.40
0.50
0.22
0.31
0.39
0.06
O.Q7
0.09
0.03
0.04
0.04
12 )(1
12x 1.5
12x 2
0.35
0.49
0.63
0.27
0.38
0.49
0.09
0.12
0.14
15 X 2
15 )( 2.5
15 X 3
0.82
0.98
1.13
0.64
0.77
0.89
20 X 2.5
20x4
20x5
1.37
2.01
2.36
25 X 2.5
25 X 5
25 X 6
30 X 3
30 )( 5
30x6
cm2
m'
kglm
cm3
em
35x 3
35x 5
35x8
3.02
4.71
5.53
2.37
3.70
4.34
2.23
3.11
2.53
389
5.45
3.79
0.05
0.07
0.08
40x4
40x5
40x8
4.52
5.50
8.04
3.55
4 .32
6.31
3.71
4.30
5.47
7.42
8.59
10.94
0.24
0.27
0.29
0.18
0.20
0.22
50x5
50x8
SOx 10
7.07
10.56
12.57
5.55
8.29
9.87
7.25
9.65
10.68
18.11
24.12
26.70
1.08
1.58
1.85
0.54
0.68
0.74
0.54
0.68
0.74
60x5
60x8
60 )( 10
8.64
13.07
15.71
6.78
10.26
12.33
10.98
15.07
17.02
32.94
45.22
51 .05
1.n
3.14
3.58
1.39
2.46
2.81
0.91
1.34
1.42
1.13
1.67
1.78
70x5
?Ox 10
70x 12
10.21
18.85
21 .87
8.01
14.80
17.17
15.50
24.91
27.39
54.24
87.18
95.88
2.54
3.93
4.52
1.99
3.08
3.55
1.56
2.13
2.31
2.35
3.19
3.46
80x8
80 X 10
80 )( 16
18.10
21.99
32.17
14.21
17.26
25.25
29.68
34.36
43.75
118.7
137.4
175.0
trf
w.
lx
dxs
Steel group
Surfaces
Unalloyed sti\JCtiJral
steels. free cutting
steels, quenched and
temper~ steels
Tubes with smooth interior

and exterior surfaces.
surface roughness
Ra s 0,41Jm
; of steels,
'pages 126
v,_,.,,..,,,.
Explanation
lx
Steelrype, example s
dxs
Materials,
surface,
annealing
condition
w.
Machine construction unalloyed

steels
alloy
ou,.....ou~~
-w~ 1 steeJtube, ---~
dxs
Steel group
I Case
d
s
' 10297-1 (2003-06)
cm2
cm 2
d'ICS
"'I
Ia. ::r::l .,
II
+A spheroidized;
+C cold-rolled;
w.
lx
IAnnealing cononon"
+Cor
+AOr+N
+AR condition after hot woricing;

+OT quenched and tempered
+N normalized;
143
Hot-rolled steel profiles

Cross-section
~
~
Round steel bllr
d 8-200
Square steel bar
a 8-120
"'I
I I
gp
g3
g
TI
~
1l
Designation.
dimensions
Ret steel bllr

b X S 10 X 5 tO 150 X 60
Square
tube
8= 40- 400
Rectangular
tubes
ax b
50 x 25 to 500 x 300
Standard,
page
DIN EN
10060
page 144
DIN EN
10059
page 144
DIN EN
10058
page 144
DIN EN
10210.2
page 151
DIN EN
10210.2
page 151
Circular tube
DIN EN
Dx s
1021().1
21.3 x 2.3 to 1219 x 25
Equal leg
tee
b= h = 30- 140
Steel channel
h = 30-400
DIN EN
10055
page 146
DIN
1026-1
page 146
according to EURONORM 53-62: IPS = HE to 8, IPBI
Designation,
dimensions
Cross-section
TI
b3
Z profile steel
h -30-200
Equ.lleg
steelllflgle
B
20- 250
Unequal leg
steel angle
ax b
30 X 20 to 200 X 150
TI
Narrow I-beam
I series
I3
Medium width I -beam

IPE series
TI
TI
I3
Standard,
page
DIN
1027
DIN EN
10056-1
page 148
DIN EN
10056-1
page 147
DIN
1025-1
h =S0 - 160
h 80-600
Wldeibeam
IPS series 11
h - 100-1000
Widelbeam
light duty
IPBI series 1l
DIN
10255
page 149
DIN
1025-2
page 150
DIN
10253
page 149
h = 100- 1000
Wldelbeam
reinforced design
IPBv series 11
h= 100-1000
=HE to A, IPBv HE to M
DIN
1025-4
page 150
144
Steel bar, hot-rolled

Hot-rolled round steel bar
Diameter d
lnmm
cf. DIN EN 10060 (200402), replaces for DIN 10131

Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025 or quenched and
tempered steel acoording to DIN EN 10083
Matllri81:
TyPe of delivery: Manufactured lengths (M) "' 3m< 13m, normal lengths (F) s 13m :t 100 mm.
precision lengths (E)< 6 m :t 25 mm, 1:6 m < 13m :t 50 mm
10- 12 - 13 - 14 - 15 - 16 - 18 - 19 - 20 - 22 - 24 - 25 - 26 - 27 - 28 - 30 - 32 - 35 - 36 - 38 - 40 42 - 45 - 48 - 50 - 52 - 55 -60-63- 65 - 70-73-75-80 - 85-90-95-100 - 105 - 110 - 115 120 - 125- 130 - 135 - 140 - 145 - 150 - 155- 160 - 165 - 170 - 175 - 180 - 190- 200 - 220 - 250
Diameter d
lnmm
limit
deviat.i ons
inmm
Diameterd
inmm
limit
deviations
inmm
Diameterd
inmm
limit
deviations
inmm
Diameter d
inmm
Limit
deviations
lnmm
10- 15
:t 0.4
36- 50
>< 0.8
105- 120
:t 1.5
220
:t3.0
16-25
"'0.5
52-80
1.0
125- 160
26- 35
:t 0.6
85-100
:t 1.3
165- 200
:t 2.5
250
:t4.0
=>
Round bar EN 10060 - 40 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S235JR; Hot-rolled round steel ba r.

d 40 mm, normal length 6000 mm, made of S235JR
Hot-rolled square steel bar
Length of side 8
inmm
Length of side 8
inmm
cf. DIN EN 10059 (2004-02), replaces DIN 1014 1
M aterial:
Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025
Type of delivery: Manufactured lengths (M ),. 3m< 13m, normal lengths (F) s 13m :t 100 mm,
precision lengths (EJ < 6 m :t 25 mm, ~ 6 m < 13m" 50 mm
8 - 10-12-13- 14- 15-16-18-20-22-24-25-26-28-30-32-35-40-45-50 -5560 - 65 - 70-75 - 80 - 90 - 100 - 110 - 120 - 130- 140- 150
Limit
Limit
limit
Length of side 8
Length of side 8
Length of side 8
deviations
deviations
deviations
mmm
inmm
inmm
inmm
inmm
inmm
8- 14
:t 0.4
26- 35
:t0.6
55-90
15-25
:t 0.5
40- 50
:t0.8
100
=>
Nominal width w
inmm
Nominal thick
nesssinmm
Limit
deviations
inmm
%1.0
110- 120
:!:
1.3
130- 150
:t 1.8
1.5
Square bar EN 10059- 60 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S235JR: Hot-rolled square steel bar,
8 = 2.36 in, normal length 6000 mm. made of S235JR
Hot-rolled flat steel bar
2.0
Material:
cf. DIN EN 10058 (2004021. replaces DIN 1017 1

Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025
Type of delivery: Manufactured lengths (MJ z: 3m< 13 m, normal lengths (F) s 13m :t 100 mm,
precision length (EJ < 6 m 25 mm, ,. 6 m < 13m :t 50 mm
10 - 12 - 15- 16-20-25-30-35-40-45-50-60-70-80-90- 100-120-150
5 - 6-8- 10 - 12 -1 5 - 20-25 - 30 - 35 - 40 - 50 - 60-80
Allowable deviations to nominal width w

Nominal width w
Limit deviations
Nominal width w
inmm
inmm
inmm
10- 40
:t 0.75
85- 100
:!:
1.5
45-80
1.0
120
:t
2.0
Limit deviations
inmm
Nominal width w
inmm
Limit deviations
150
:t2.5
Nominal thick
ness sin mm
Limit d eviations
in mm
Allowable deviations t o nominal thidcness s

Nominal thick
ness sin mm
5-20
Umit deviations
inmm
:!:
0.5
Nominal thick
ness sinmm
25- 40
Limit deviations
inmm
1.0
50 - 80
in mm
:t
Flat steel bar EN 10058 - 20 x 5 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S23SJFI: Hot-rolled flat steel bar,
b ~ 20 mm, s ~ 5 mm, nonmallength 6000 mm, made of S235JR
1.5
145
Materials science: 4.4 St eels, Finished products
Steel bars, bright

Common dimensions of bright s1eel bars (selection)
Nominal cllrnenslontl
o..Jgrmlon
Width w, height h In mm
w
h
w
h
Flat steel bar
@3
5
6
8
10
2222-
12
14
15
16
3
4
6
8
2222-
10
10
12
12
18
20
22
25
2222-
12
16
12
20
28
32
36
40
2222-
20
25
20
32
45
2233-
50
56
63
32
32
32
40
70
80
90
100
4555-
40
25
25
25
Nominal thicknesses h in mm: 2 - 2.5 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 8 - 10 - 12 - 15- 16- 20 - 25 - 30 - 32 - 35 - 40

Square steel bar
Side length ll in mm
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
2
2.5
3
3 .2
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
@
polished round steel bar
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
17
19
21
22
24
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
common delivered diameters

common diameter gradation
50
63
41
46
65
70
75
80
100
70
27
30
32
50
36
36
55
60
90
95
100
80
85
27
28
29
30
32
34
35
36
38
58
40
42
45
48
50
52
55
60
63
65
70
75
80
85
160
180
200
90
100
110
120
125
130
140
150
I 1 mm to 13 mm I > 13 mm to 25 mm I > 25 mm to 50 mm
1 mm
5mm
I O.Smm
I
I
cf. DI N EN 10278 (1999-12)
Delivery conditions
Co de
Finished condition!
+C
cold drawn
+SH
peeled
I
I
+SL
g round
I
I
+Pl
polished
Rou nd EN 10278 - 20 h9 x m ill length 6000 EN 102n-3 - 44SMn2B+C - Ciass 3: Round bright steel bar, d= 20 mm,
Tolerance class h9, mill length 6000 mm, free cutting steel 44SMn28, cold drawn, surface quality class 3
cf. DtN EN 10277-1 to -5 (1999-10)
Material groups nd .signed delivery conditions
Delivery conditions 1l
Material groups
..
..
.
.
+SH
Steels for general engineering use
Free culling steels
Free culling case hardened steels
Free cutting quenched and temp. steels
Unalloyed case hardened steels
Case hardened alloy steels
Unalloy ed quenched and tempened steels
Quenched and tempered alloy steels
1l
36
40
45
Diameter d in mm
round steel bar
22
25
28
Side length s in mm
Hexagonal bar steel
16
18
20
..
.
.. . . .
. .. .. . . . .
+C
+C+OT +0T +C +A+SH
+A +C
+FP +SH +FP +C
Explanation pages 124 and 125
cf. DIN EN 10278 (1999-12)
length types and length limit deviations

Length type
Lengthinmm
Manufactured length 3000- 9000
limit deviations in mm
Order information
:!:500
length
Mill length
3000 - 6000
0/ +200
Precision length
up to 9000
by agreement. but min.
e. g. mill length 6000

;t
length and limit deviation
146
M ateri als science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Structural Tee, Steel channel

Equal leg TM, hot-rolled
cf. DIN EN 10055 11995-12)
1
~
'..J
t.
I~
-c:IN
nation
40
50
60
70
b=h
30
35
40
50
60
70
80
80
100
120
140
100
120
140
T
30
35
Dimensions
inmm
2.26
2.97
3.n
5 .66
7.94
10.6
13.6
20.9
29.6
39.9
r= s
r, = ~
Fo r th e bending axis
x- x
xaxis
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
11
13
15
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025, e. g . S235JR
Distance
o fthe
crrY-
s= t
axial section modulus

Deliv ery type: Lengths to order with a usual limit deviation of

.t 100 mm o r a reduced limit deviation .t 50 mm.
.t 25 mm, :1: 10 mm
~t
""
Desig
Mat8flal:
..1
~zt.~~~:*x
x- - ~j:.:
T ~~
lA
second momenl of Inertia
Tracing dimension
accord, to DIN 997
y- y
w.
e,.
em
em
cm3
an
cm3
0.85
0 .99
1. 12
1.39
1.66
1.94
2 .22
2.74
3.28
3.80
1.72
3.10
5.28
12.1
23.8
44.4
73.7
179
0.80
1.23
1.84
3.36
5.48
8.79
12.8
24.6
42.0
64.7
0.87
1.04
2.58
6.06
12.2
22.1
37.0
88.3
179
0.58
0.90
1.29
2.42
4.07
6.32
9.25
17.7
29.7
472
366
660
w,
w.
m'
kg1m
1.n
2.33
2.96
4.44
6.23
8.23
10.7
16.4
23.2
31.3
ly
330
34
38
cl . DIN 1026-1 (2000.03)
~
<:::
Material:
~at.-+1
~
9' t'\.
ir+.l'd,
30x 15
30
40 x 20
40
50x25
50
60
300
350
400
b
15
33
20
35
25
38
30
45
50
55
65
75
90
100
100
110
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025, e.g. S235J O
r1 = t
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
7.5
8.5
10
10
14
14
4.5
7
5.5
7
6
7
6
8
8.5
9
10 .5
11.5
14
16
17.5
18
h,
12
10
18
11
crrY-
200
232
2.21
5.44
3.66
6.21
4.92
7.12
6.46
11.0
13.5
17.0
24.0
32.2
48.3
58.8
276
324
91.5
25
20
35
46
64
82
115
151
r2 ... ..!..
n .3
m'
By
r3 s 0,3
For the bending axis
y- y
x- x
yaxis
kg1m
1.74
427
2.87
4.87
3.86
5.59
5.07
8.64
10.6
13.4
18.8
25.3
37.9
46.2
60.6
71.8
to the
I
Ois1ance
lr
Dimensions
inmm
h
30
30
40
40
50
50
60
80
100
120
160
200
260
Deliv e<y type: Manufactured lengths 3m to 15m; normal lengths up to 15m

o: 50 mm; slope angle at h s 300 mm: 8%; h > 300 mm: 5%
J_
Designation
second moment of inertia
i
'-
x- lf-- - x
.,:t..
400
40
45
60
70
75
Tee profile EN 10055 - T50 - S23SJR: Structural steel tee, h =50 mm, from S235JR
"< +r.-+z
100
120
160
200
260
300
350
mm
4.3
4.3
6.4
6.4
8.4
11
11
13
17
21
35
45
60
70
80
Steel channel, hot-rolled
80
d,
"":!
mm
17
19
22
30
mm
17
19
21
30
1,.
an
em
0.52
1.31
0.67
1.33
0.81
1.37
0.91
1.45
1.55
1.60
1.84
2.01
2.36
2.70
2.40
2.65
2.53
6.39
7.58
14.1
16.8
26.4
31.6
106
206
364
925
1 910
4820
8030
12840
20350
cm3
lv
an
w.
em'!!
1.69
0.38
0.39
4.26
5.33
2.68
3.97
1.14
0.86
7.05
6.68
3.08
6.73
2.49
1.48
10.6
9.12
3.75
10.5
4.51
2. 16
26.5
19.4
6.36
41.2
29.3
8.49
60.7
432
11.1
116
85.3
18.3
191
148
27.0
371
317
47.7
495
535
67.8
734
570
75.0
1020
102
846
Channel DIN 1026- U100 - S235JO: Steel channel. h = 100 mm. from S235JO
I
Tracing
dimensions
DIN997
w,
d,
mm mm
10
20
11
20
16
20
18
25
30
30
35
40
50
55
58
60
4.3
8.4
6.4
8.4
8 .4
11
8.4
13
13
17
21
23
25
28
28
28
147
Steel angle
Unequlllleg steel engle, hot-rolled (selection)
,.
L
20 X
20 X
20 X
25 X
30 X
30K
30 X
40x
40x
SOx
SOx
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e. g. S235JO
Oellve<y~:
From 30 x 20 x 3 to 200 x 150 x 15, In manufactured leng ths

"' 6 m < 12m. normal lengths a 6 m < 12 m :t 100 mm
.._f
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
5
6
6
8
6
8
7
30
30
40
40
20 3
20 4
20 4
25 4
30 4
30 5
30 5
40 5
40 6
50 5
50 6
50 6
50 8
40 6
40 8
60 7
50 6
50 8
65 7
65 8
65 10
75 B
75 10
75 12
80 8
so 10
so 12
75 8
75 10
75 12
45
50
60
60
60
65
70
65
65
75
75
75
75
90
90
100
100
100
100
'1 .. t
Distances
to axes
60K
60K
60x
65x
?Ox
75x SOx
75
75x SOx
75
BOx 40x
so
BOx 40x
80
BOX 60x
80
100x SOx 6 100
100X' SOx B 100
100 x 65 X 7 100
100,x 65 X B 100
100x 65x 10 100
100x 75 X B 100
100 X 75 X 10 100
100x 75 )( 12 100
120
SOx 8 120
120x SOx 10 120
120x SOx 12 120
125 X 75 )( B 125
125 X 75 X 10 125
125 X 75 X 12 125
135 X 65 X 8 135
135 X 65 X 10 135
150 x 75 X 9 150
150 x 75 )( 10 150
150x 75 )( 12 150
150 )( 75x 15 150
150 )( 90x 12 150
150x 90x 15 150
150x 100x 10 150
150 x 100x 12 150
200 )( 100 )( 10 200
200 X 100 X 15 200
111
Material:
Oimen
sions
lnmm
30x
30x
40 x
40 )(
45 X
SOx
A --xf}_J
-~b
Oesig
nation

rrl linear mass density
5 aosssectional area
I
)r~1
cf. DIN EN 1()()56.1 (1998-101
8
10
9
10
12
15
12
15
10
12
10
15
m'
crn2
kghn
1.43
1.86
2.26
2.46
1.12
1.46
1.77
1.93
2.25
2.96
3.36
3.76
4.46
4.35
5.41
2.87
3.78
4.28
4.79
5.68
5.54
6.89
7.19
9.41
6.89
9.01
9.38
8.71
11.4
11..2
12.7
15.6
13.5
16.6
19.7
15.5
19.1
22.7
15.5
19.1
22.7
15.5
19.1
19.6
21 .7
25.7
31.7
27.5
33.9
24.2
28.7
29.2
43.0
5.65
7.39
5.41
7.07
7.36
6.84
8.97
8.77
9 .94
12.3
10.6
13.0
15.4
12.2
15.0
17.8
12.2
15.0
17.8
12.2
15.0
15.4
17.0
20.2
24.8
21.6
26.6
19.0
22.5
23.0
33.8
e,
em
0.99
1.03
1.47
1.36
1.48
1.73
2.17
1.96
2.00
1.99
2.23
2.44
2.52
2.85
2.94
2.51
3.51
3.60
3.23
3..27
3.36
3.10
3.19
3.27
3.83
3.92
4.00
4.1 4
4.23
4.31
4.7B
4.88
5.26
5.30
5.40
5.52
5.08
5.21
4.81
4.89
6.93
7.16
By
em
'
an"
0.48
0.62
0.74
0.74
0.68
0.97
1.0 1
1.25
1.25
1.21
1.29
3.59
3.89
5.78
9.36
15.6
17.2
20.1
23.2
33.4
40.5
52.0
44.9
57.6
59.0
89.9
116
113
127
154
133
162
189
226
276
323
247
302
354
291
356
455
501
588
713
2.12 627
2.23 761
2.34 553
2.42 651
2.01 1220
2.22 1758
For the bending axis

y- y
lv
"'It
1.25
1.59
1.51
1.55
1.63
1,87
1.95
2.03
1.87
1.95
2.03
1.68
1.76
1.84
1.34
1.42
1.57
1.61
1.69
1.81
x-x
0.50
0.54
0.88
0.96
1.52
1.05
1.13
,.. .. t
cm3
an"
0.62
0.81
1.42
1.47
1.91
2.86
4.07
4.25
5.03
5.14
7.01
8.01
10.4
0.44
0.55
0.60
1.16
2.05
2.51
2.63
6.11
7.12
11.9
14.2
14.4
18.4
0.29
0.38
0.39
0.69
0.91
1.11
1.14
2.02
2.38
3.19
3.78
3.81
4.95
8.73
7.59
2.44
11.4
9.61
3.16
10.7
28.4
6.34
13.B
15.4
3 .89
1B.2
19.7
5.08
16.6
37.6
7.53
42 ..2
18.9
8.54
51 .0
10.5
23.2
19.3
64.1
11.4
14.0
23.8
77.6
90.2
16.5
28.0
27.6
13.2
80.8
34.1
98.1
16.2
40.4
114
19.1
29.6
11.6
67.6
36.5
82.1
14.3
43.2
95.5
16.9
45.2
8.75
33.4
41.3
54.7
10.8
46.7
77.9
13.1
5 1.6
85.6
14.5
61.3
99.6
17.1
75.2 119
21 .0
63.3 171
24.8
77.7 205
30.4
54.2
199
25.9
64.4
233
30.7
93.2 210
26.3
137
38.5
299
Treeing dimetl$ion
IIOOOid. 10 DIN 997
w,
Wz
d,
12
12
12
15
17
17
17
22
22
30
30
8.4
8.4
11
11
13
13
17
17
17
21
21
21
23
23
23
23
mm mm mm mm
17
17
22
22
25
30
35
35
35
35
40
40
40
45
45
45
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
65
65
L EN 1()()56.1 - 65 x 50 x 5 - S235JO: Unequal leg steel angle, a 65 mm, b 50 mm.

1 5 mm, from S235JO
--
--
80
80
80
105
105
105
105
105
105
105
105
150
150
30
30
22
22
35
30
30
35
35
35
40
40
40
45
45
45
40
40
40
35
35
40
40
40
40
50
50
55
55
55
55
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
28
28
28
2B
2B
28
28
28
28
28
148
M aterials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products
Steel angle
Equal leg steel angle, hot-rolled (selection)
-~
.- ~
~ ~ :~r ~-+-K
~A!
f)-j
...
W2 >..,
i1
L
20x 20x 3
25 )( 25 X 3
25x 25 X 4
30 X 30x 3
30 X 30x 4
35 X 35 X 4
40x 40x 4
40 X 40x 5
45 X 45 X 4.5
50 X SOx 4
50 X 50 X 5
50 X SOx 6
60 X 60x 5
60x SOx 6
60x 60 X 8
65 X 65x 7
70 X 70 X 6
70 X 70 X 7
75 X 75 X 6
75 X 75 X 8
80 X BOx 8
80 X 80 X 10
90 X 90 X 7
90 X 90x 8
90x 90x 9
90 X 90 X 10
100 X 100 X 8
100x 100 x 10
100x 100x12
120x 120x 10
120 X 120 X 12
130x 130 x 12
150x 150x10
150x 150x 12
150 X 150 X 15
160 X 160 X 15
180 X 180 X 18
200 X 200 X 16
200 X 200 X 20
200 X 200 X 24
250x 250x 28
Dimensions
inmm
IJ
20
25
25
30
30
35
40
40
45
50
50
50
60
60
60
65
70
70
75
75
80
80
90
90
90
90
100
100
100
120
120
130
150
150
150
160
180
200
200
200
250
second moment o f inenia
Mate<lal:
~
Oesig
nation
cf. DIN EN 10056-1 11996-10)
3
3
4
3
4
4
4
5
4.5
4
5
6
5
6
8
7
6
7
6
8
8
10
7
8
9
10
8
10
12
10
12
12
10
12
15
15
18
16
20
24
28

Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 100252, e. g. S235JO
Delivery type: From 20 x 20 x 3 to 200 x 250 x 35, in manufactured lengths

'"6 m <12m, normal lengths z: 6 m <12m :t 100 mm
I
s
crrll
1.12
1.42
1.85
1.74
2.27
2.67
3.08
3.79
3.90
3.89
4.80
5.69
5.82
6.91
9.03
8.70
8.13
9.40
8.73
11.4
12.3
15.1
12.2
13.9
15.5
17.1
15.5
19.2
22.7
23.2
27.5
30.0
29.3
34.8
43.0
46.1
61.9
61.8
76.3
90.6
133
'1 "'
'2 .. J.
Distances For the bending axis

to
x - xandy - y
axes
m'
e
t. = ly
W. = Wv
llglm
em
em'
cm3
0.882
0.598
0.39
0.28
1.12
0.723
0.80
0.45
1.45
0.762
1.02
0.59
1.36
0.835
1.40
0.65
1.78
0.878
1.80
0.85
2.09
1.00
1.18
2.95
2.42
1.12
4.47
1.55
2.97
1.16
5.43
1.91
3.06
1.25
7.14
2.20
3.06
1.36
8.97
2.46
3.77
1.40
11.0
3.05
4.47
1.45
12.8
3.61
4.57
1.64
19.4
4.45
5.42
1.69
22.8
5.29
7.09
1.n
29.2
6.89
1.85
33.4
6.83
7.18
6.38
1.93
36.9
7.27
7.38
1.97
42.3
8.41
6.85
2.05
45.8
8.41
8.99
2.14
59.1
11.0
9.63
12.6
2.26
72.2
11.9
2.34
87.5
15.4
9.61
2.45
92.6
14.1
10.9
2.50
104
16.1
12.2
116
2.54
17.9
13.4
2.58
127
19.8
12.2
2.74
145
19.9
15.0
2.82
177
24.6
17.8
2.90
207
29.1
18.2
3.31
313
36.0
42.7
21 .6
3.40
368
23.6
472
50.4
3.64
23.0
4.03
624
56.9
27.3
4.12
737
67.7
33.8
4.25
898
83.5
36.2
4.49
1100
95.6
145
48.6
5.10
1870
162
2340
48.5
5.52
59.9
5.68
199
2850
71.1
5.84
3330
235
104
7.24
7700
433
I
Tracing dimension
accord. to DIN 997
w,
W:!
d,
mm
mm
mm
12
15
15
4.3
6.4
6.5
8.4
8.4
11
11
11
13
13
13
13
17
17
18
22
22
25
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
40
40
40
40
45
45
50
50
50
50
55
55
55
50
50
50
60
60
60
60
65
65
65
70
75
LEN 10056-1 - 70 x 70 x 7 - S235JO: Equal leg steel angle, a = 70 mm, t = 7 mm.

from S235JO
--
--
--
--
80
80
90
105
105
105
115
135
150
150
150
150
17
17
17
21
21
21
23
23
23
23
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
149
Materials science: 4.4 Steels. Finished products
Medium width and wide 1-beams

Medium width 1-beams UPEI. hot-rolled (selection)
"'
r-:-
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235JR
Mat erial:
--x
):
a xial section modulus
m' linear mass de nsity
second moment of inen ia
"' ...
!..
5 cross-sectional a rea
~ It-
...
cf. DIN 1025-5 (1994-03)
Delivery type: Standa rd lengths, 8 m to 16 m :t 50 mm with h < 300 mm,
8 mto 18 m :t 50 m mwith
h~
300mm
w-~
Designa tion
For the bending a xis

y- y
m'
w,
5
I.
w.
ly
kglm
em
mm
b
s
I
r
cm2
cm3
crir'
100
4.1
5.7
7
10.3
8.1
171
34.2
15.9
5.8
30
55
120
64
4.4
6.3
7
13.2
10.4
318
53.0
27.7
8.7
36
73
4.7
7
16.4
12.9
541
44.9
12.3
140
6.9
n .3
40
160
20.1
15.8
109
68.3
16.7
44
869
82
5.0
7.4
9
180
91
5.3
8.0
9
23.9
18.8 1320 146
101
22.2
50
1940 194
142
100
22.4
28.5
200
5.6
8.5
12
28.5
56
240
120
6.2
9.8 15
39.1
30.7 3890 324
284
47.3
68
270
135
6.6
10.2
15
45.9
36.1 5790 429
420
62.2
72
7.1
10.7
15
42.2 8360 557
80.5
53.8
300
150
604
80
360
170
8.0
12.7
18
72.7
57.1 16270 904
1040
123
90
1320
400
180
8.6
13.5 21
84.5
66.3 23130 1160
146
96
500
200
10.2
16.0 21
116
90.7 48200 1930
2140
214
110
156
122
600
220
12.0
19.0 24
92080 3070
3390
308
120
IP<ofile DIN 1025 - S235JR - IPE 300: Medium width 1-beams with parallel flange surfaces.
h 5 300 mm, from S235JR
IPE
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
270
300
360
400
500
600
Wide 1-beams light duty UPEII. hot-rolled (selection)
_r+-1_
- -~
s
x-
.c:
f- - x
"'"'
b '
I
Designation
IPBI
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
400
500
600
800
Tracing dimension
accord. to DIN 997
x-x
Dime nsions in mm
"'~
-,
I
96
114
133
152
171
190
230
270
310
390
490
590
790
b
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
300
300
300
300
300
s
5
5
5.5
6
6
6.5
7.5
8
9
11
12
13
15
Mater-ial:
Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e. g. S235JR
Delivery type:
Standard lengths, 8 m to 16m :t 50 mm with h < 300 mm
Dimensions in mm
h
second moment of inen ia
I
I
8
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
12
13
15.5
19
23
25
28
r "' 3 s
I
For the bending a xis
y- y
Tracing dimension
accord. to DIN 997
x-x
cm2
m'
kglm
21.2
25.3
31.4
38.8
45.3
53.8
76.8
97.3
124.0
159.0
198.0
226.0
286.0
16.7
19.9
24.7
30.4
35.5
42.3
60.3
76.4
97.6
125.0
155.0
178.0
224.0
8.4
8.4
11
13
13
13
17
21
23
25
28
28
28
cf. DIN 1025 2 (1994-3)
5 cross-sectional area
I
d,
mm
I.
crir'
349
606
1030
1670
2510
3690
7760
13670
22930
45070
86970
141200
303400
~
72.8
106
155
220
294
389
675
1010
1480
2310
3550
4790
7680
em
lv
134
231
389
616
925
1340
2770
4760
6990
8560
10370
11270
12640
26.8
38.5
55.6
76.9
103
134
231
340
466
571
691
751
843
I-profile DIN 1025- S235JR - IPSI320: Wide !-beams light duty from S235JR
Designation according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 320 A
w,
56
66
76
86
100
110
--
"'7
94
110
120
120
120
120
130
"'3
35
45
45
45
45
45
40
d,
13
17
21
23
25
25
25
25
28
28
28
28
28
150
Wid e 1-beams
Wide I -beams (IPBI. hot-rolled (selection)
....,
--!EJ!_.
Materiel:
-A-~ l/ - I
I ,. ,. ..,! ,..,) t
b
Designation
b
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
400
500
600
800
300
300
300
300
300
'"
a >Cial selection modulus

linear mass d ensity
unalloyed structura l stee l DIN EN 10025-2, e. g . S235JR
Delivery type: standard lengths, 8 m to 16 m ,. 50 mm at h < 300 mm,

8 m to 18 m 50 m m at h " 300 mm
'1 "' 2 .
Dimensions in mm
IPB
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
400
500
600
800
r-=_ X
X ~
<::
";-
cf. OtN 1025-2 (1995-11)
6
6.5
7
8
8.5
9
10
10.5
11.5
13.5
14.5
15.5
17.5
10
11
12
13
14
15
17
18
20.5
24
28
30
33
cm 2
26.0
34.0
43.0
54.3
65.3
78.1
106
131
161
198
239
270
334
I
For the bending a>Cis
y- y
K- K
m'
w.
lx
kg/m
em
20.4
450
26.7
864
33.7
1510
2490
42.6
51.2
3830
61.3
5700
83.2
11260
103
19270
127
30820
155
57680
187
107200
212
171000
262
359100
lv
em
cm3
89.9
167
144
318
216
550
311
889
426
1360
570
2000
3920
938
1380
6590
1930
9240
2880 10820
4290 12620
5700 13530
8980 14900
w.
cm3
33.5
52.9
78.5
111
151
200
327
471
616
721
842
902
994
~
l "''
r~
~- X
--
"' "'2
axial selection modulus
unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g . S235JR
i U:
lwl! l f
Designation
Materia~
cf. OtN 1025-4 (1994-()3)
Delivery type: standard lengths, 8 m to 16m ,. 50 mm at h < 300 mm,

8 m to 16m " 50 mm at h " 300 mm
~I
L}
ETE
second moment ot inertia
''I ; 1"':-1
!_
x-
<::
w,
!-profile DIN 1025- S235JR- IPB 240: Wide !-beam with parallel flange faces, h 240 mm, made of S235JR,
designation according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 240 B
Wide I -beams. reinforced version (IPBvl hot-rolled (selection)
IPBv
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
400
500
600
800
Tracing dimension
according to DIN 997
d,
""1
"!!
mm mm mm mm
13
56
66
17
21
76
86
23
100
25
110
25
25
96
35
- 110 45 25
120
45
28
120 45
28
- 120 45 28
120 45
28
- 130 40 28
Di'T'ensions in rpm
h
120
140
160
180
200
220
270
310
359
432
524
620
814
106
126
146
166
186
206
248
288
309
307
306
305
303
12
12.5
13
14
14.5
15
18
18.5
21
21
21
21
21
20
21
22
23
24
25
32
33
40
40
40
40
40
, ... 5
cm2
53.2
66.4
80.5
97.1
113
131
200
240
312
319
344
364
404
Forthe bending axis

y- y
X- K
m'
I,
kg/m
em
41 .8
1140
52.1
2020
63.2
3290
76.2
5100
88.9
7480
103
10640
157
24290
189
39550
245
68130
250
104100
270
161900
285
237400
317
442600
w.
em3
190
283
41 1
568
748
967
1800
2550
3800
4820
6180
7660
10870
ly
em
399
703
1140
1760
2580
3650
8150
13160
19710
19340
19150
18280
18630
w.
em\
75.3
112
157
212
277
354
657
914
1280
1260
1250
1240
1230
Tracing dimension
according
to DIN 997 in mm
WJ_
d,
IN2
60
13
68
17
76
21
86
23
100
25
110
25
- 100 35 25
- 116 45 25
126
47
28
- 126 47 28
- 130 45 28
- 130 45 28
- 132 42 28
w,
- -
! -profile DIN 1025 - S235JR- IPBv 400: Wide !-beam, reinforced version, made of S235JR. designation
according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 400 M
151
Tubes
....
..p
..p
'I
r- .
x-
-~
t2 i
I'
- -x
.,
x-
Material:
'
i
--1
- r2 1
-x
.,
b "'
otN EN 10210 and DIN EN 10219 also contain circular tubes,

along with square and rectangular tubes.
Hot worked square and rectangular tubes

Nominal
dimens ion
8)(8
ax b
mm
40 )( 40
SOx 50
60x60
50><30
60><40
80><40
100 X 50
~
Unalloyed structural s teel DIN EN 10025
Delivet)l type: DIN EN 10210.2

manufactured lengths 4 m to 16m, profile
dimensions ax a 20 x 20 to 400 x 400
DIN EN 10219-2
manufactured lengths 4 m to 16m, profile
dimensions ax a 20 x 20 to 400 x 400
cf. DIN EN 10210.2 (199711)
Area morJ:)ents and section moduli
Unear
mass denCross
lor the bending axes
Wall
K - J(
y- y
thickness
sity
section
m'
s
r.
w.3
ly
s
2
em~
kg/m
cm
ern
cm
em
mm
4.89
9.78
4.89
3.0
3.41
4 .34
9.78
5.91
4.0
4.39
5.59
11.8
5.91
11.8
17.5
6.99
2.5
3.68
4.68
17.5
6.99
4.35
20.2
8.08
20.2
8.08
5.54
3.0
12.1
3.0
5.29
6.74
36.2
12.1
36.2
15.1
45.4
4.0
6.90
8 .79
45.4
15.1
8.42
10.7
53.3
17.8
53.3
17.8
5.0
3.96
3.0
3.41
4.34
13.6
5.43
5.94
4.72
4.0
4 .39
16.5
6.60
7.08
5.59
4 .35
5.54
26.5
8.82
13.9
6.95
3.0
7.19
4.0
32.8
10.9
17.0
8.52
5.64
17.1
22.2
11.1
4.0
6.90
8.79
68.2
20.1
12.9
5.0
8.42
10.7
80.3
25.7
14.2
9.87
12.6
90.5
22.6
28.5
6.0
27.9
46.2
18.5
4.0
8.78
11.2
140
21.7
10.8
13.7
167
33.3
54.3
5.0
Tube DIN EN 10210-60 x 60 x 5- S355JO: Square tube, a ~ 60 mm, s = 5 mm,
made of S35SJO
Cold worked, welded, square and rectangular tubes
w.
for torsion
lp
em4
15.7
19.5
27 .5
32.1
56.9
72.5
86.4
13.5
16.6
29.2
36.7
55.2
65.1
73.4
113
135
WP.
cm3
7.10
8.54
10.2
11 .8
17.7
22.0
25.7
6.51
7.77
11.2
13.7
18.9
21 .9
24.2
31.4
36.9
cf. DIN EN 10219-2 (199711)
Area moments and section moduli

Nominal
Unear
dimension
for torsion
mass denCross
lor the bending axes
Wall
8xa
K-K
y- y
sity
section
thickness
ax b
m'
s
ly
lp
s
r.
w.
cm'l
em~
mm
cm 4
kg/m
cm 2
em
em3
cm4
mm
1.81
1.81
4.54
2.75
2.0
1.68
2.14
2.72
2.72
3.16
2.10
5.40
3.20
2.5
2.03
2.59
3.16
2.10
30x 30
3.58
6.15
2.36
3.01
3.50
2.34
3.50
2.34
3.0
3.47
11.3
5.23
2.0
2.31
2.94
6.94
3.47
6.94
8.2.2
4.11
13.6
6.21
4.11
8.22
2.82
3.59
2.5
40><40
4.66
15.8
7.07
3.30
4.21
9.32
4.66
9.32
3.0
5.54
19.4
8.48
4 .20
5.35
11.1
5.54
11.1
4.0
22.0
140
33.0
7.07
9.01
87.8
22.0
87.8
3.0
27.8
180
41 .8
4.0
9.22
11.7
111
27.8
111
80x80
49.7
11.3
14.4
131
32.9
131
32.9
218
5.0
1.34
2.36
1.68
2.14
4.05
2.02
1.34
3.45
2.0
2.72
4.69
2.35
1.54
1.54
4.06
40x20
2.5
2.03
2.59
5.21
1.68
1.68
4.57
3.00
3.0
2.36
3.01
2.60
11.2
4.25
5.41
25.4
8.46
13.4
6.72
29.3
3.0
31.0
10.3
16.3
8.14
36.7
13.7
60x40
4.0
5.45
6.95
42.8
15.6
9.21
6.56
8.36
35.3
11.8
18.4
5.0
13.1
17.6
8.78
43.9
15.3
3 .0
5.19
6.61
52.3
16.2
2 1.5
10.7
55.2
18.8
4 .0
6.71
8 .55
64.8
80x40
65.0
21 .7
10.4
75.1
18.8
24.6
12.3
5.0
8.13
21.7
10.8
59.0
19.4
3.0
6.13
7.81
92.3
18.5
13.3
74.5
24.0
4.0
7.97
10.1
116
23.1
26.7
100 X 40
15.4
87.9
27.9
12.4
136
27.1
30.8
9.70
5.0
Tube DIN EN 10219 -60 x 40 x 4- S355JO: Rectangular tube, a a 60 mm, b = 40 mm,
=
s ~ 4 mm, made of S35SJO
w.
w.
152
Materials science: 4.4 Steels. Finished products
linear mass density and area mass density

Unear mass density11 (Table values for steel with density q
d diameter
a length of side
7.85 kgldm3)
SW widths ll<:ross flats
Steel wire
m'
mm
kg/1 000 m
0.10
0.062
0.55
0.16
0.158
0.60
d
mm
Roundsteelbw
m'
m'
m'
kg/1000 m
mm
kg/1000 m
mm
kg/m
mm
m'
kg/m
1.87
1.1
7.46
0.055
18
2.00
60
22.2
2.22
1.2
8.88
0.099
20
2.47
70
30.2
m'
mm
kg/m
0.20
0.247
0.65
2.60
1.3
10.4
0.154
25
3.85
80
39.5
0.25
0.385
0.70
3.02
1.4
12.1
0.222
30
5.55
100
61.7
0.30
0 .555
0.75
3.47
1.5
13.9
0.395
35
7.55
120
0.35
0.755
0.80
3.95
1.6
15.8
10
0.617
40
9.86
140
0.40
0.986
0.85
4.45
1.7
17.8
12
0.888
45
12.5
150
139
0.45
1.25
0.90
4.99
1.8
20.0
15
1.39
50
15.4
160
158
0.50
1.54
1.0
6.17
2.0
24.7
16
1.58
55
18.7
200
247
Rat steel bet
m'
mm
kg/m
6
8
10
12
88.8
121
Hexagonal steel bet
a
mm
m'
kg/m
mm
0.283
20
3.14
40
12.6
0.502
22
3.80
50
19.6
0.785
25
4.91
60
28.3
1.13
28
6.15
70
38.5
m'
kg/m
sw
m'
kg/m
sw
m'
sw
m'
mm
kg/m
mm
kg/m
0.245
20
2.72
40
10.9
0.435
22
3.29
50
17.0
10
0.680
25
4.25
60
24.5
12
0.979
28
5.33
70
33.3
mm
14
1.54
30
7.07
80
50.2
14
1.33
30
6.12
80
43.5
16
2.01
32
8.04
90
63.6
16
1.74
32
6.96
90
55.1
18
2.54
35
9.62
100
78.5
18
2.20
35
8.33
100
68.0
Unear mass density of special profiles

Page
Profile
Tee
EN 10055
146
Tubes
EN 10210.2
Angles, equal legs
EN 10Q56.1
148
Tubes
EN 10219-2
151
Angles, unequal legs
EN 10Q56.1
147
Aluminum round bars
DIN 1798
169
Profile
Page
151
Steel channel
DIN102S.1
146
Aluminum square bars
DIN 1796
169
!-beams IPE
DIN 10255
149
Aluminum flat bars
DIN 1769
170
!beams IPB
DIN 1025-2
149
Aluminum round tube
DIN 1795
171
!-beams, narrow
DIN 1025-1
150
Aluminum channel
DIN9713
171
Area mass density11 (Table values for steel with density u = 7.85 kg/dm3)
ShMt
sheet thickness
m area mass density
m
kg/m2
mm
0.70
5.50
1.2
0.80
6.28
1.5
11.8
3.93
0.90
7.07
2.0
15.7
4.71
1.0
7.85
2.5
19.6
mm
0.35
2.75
0.40
3.14
0.50
0.60
11 Table
m
kg/m 2
kg/m 2
mm
9.42
mm
m"
kg/m 2
mm
m"
kg/m 2
mm
m
kg/m 2
3.0
23.6
4.75
37.3
10.0
78.5
3.5
27.5
5.0
39.3
12.0
4.0
31 .4
6.0
47.1
14.0
110
4.5
35.3
8.0
62.8
15.0
118
94.2
values can be calculated for a different material by taking a ratio of its density to the density of steel
(7 ,85 kg/dm 3).
Example: Sheet metal with s = 4.0 mm of AJMg3Mn (density 2.66 kg/dm3). From the table: m" = 31.4 kglm2 for steel.
AIMg3Mn: m" = 31.4 kgtm2. 2.66 kg/dm3n.8s kgldm3 = 10.64 kg/mz
153
Materials science: 4.5 Heat treatment
Iron-Carbon phase diagram
1400
1300
1200
austenite
ledeborite + cementite
I+ gr.philel 11
6.67
eutectoid
steel
eutectic mixture
cast iron
11 For iron types with a C oontent over 2.06% least iron) and additional Si content, a portion of the unalloyed pre-
cipitates in the form of graphite.

Mioostructures ol UNllloyed steel
Carbon content nd c:ryst..ine structure

Etc:hant: 3% nitric acid /alcohol solution
Magnification approx. 500 : 1
800
:;;
c.
E 700
temperature
ranges:
600
stress relief anneal

recrystallization anneal
I
ferrite +
500
0
0.2
pearlite pearlite+ cementite

0.4
0.6
0.8
carbon content
1.0
1.2% 1.4
0.8%C
pearlite
1.3 % C
pearlite + grain
boundary cementite
Heat and hold at annealing temperature

-structural transformation (austenite)
Controlled cooling to room temperature
- fine-grained normal strUCiure
To normalize coarse grain structures

in rolled, cast, welded and forged
products
Heat to annealing temperature, hold at tern To improve cold workability, machin

perature or cycle anneal
ability and hardenabillty;
- spheroiditing of the cementite
can be used for all steels
Cool down t.o room temperature
..t
l~---.>-<--.>. .~
!~---~---~
~
~
! ~---~~~-~
Heat and hold at annealing temperature

(below structure transition)
- stress relief by plastic
deformation of the workpieces
Cool down to room temperat.ure
To reduce internal stresses in welded,

cast and forged parts;
can be used for all steels
Heat and hold at hardening temperature

- structural transformation (aust.enitel
Quench in oil, water, air
- brittle hard, fine structure (martensite)
Temper - transformation of martensite,
higher toughness. working hardness
For parts subject to wear stress. e. g.

tools, springs, guideways, press
forms;
steels suitable for heat treatment with
C > 0,3%, e. g.
C70U, 102Cr6, C45E, HS6-5-2C,
X38CrMoV5-3
Heat and hold at hardening temperature

-structural transformation !austenite)
Quench in oil, water, air
- hard, brittle, fine-grain structure (marten
site), for larger sized parts fine
core structure (bainite)
Temper at higher temperatures than for
hardening
- martensite reduction, fine structure, high
strength with good toughness
Usually used for dynamically loaded

workpieces with high strength and
good toughness, e. g. shafts, gears,
Calburize machined workpieces on the

surface layer
Cool to room temperature
- normal structure (ferrite, pearlite,
carbides)
Harden (for procedure see hardening)
-surface hardening: heat to surface
hardening temperature
core hardening: heat to hardening
temperat.ure of the core area
For workpieces with wear-resistant

surfaces, high fatigue strength and
good core strength, e.g. gears. shafts,
bolts;
surface hardening: high wear-resist
a nee. low core strength
core hardening: high core strength,
hard brittle surface;
case hardened steels, see page 133,
free cutting steels, see page 134
Anneal usually finish-machined workpieces

in nitrogen-producing atmospheres
- formation of hard, wear-resistant and
temperature-resistant nitrides
Cool in still air or in
nitrogen Slream
For workpieces with wear-resistant

surfaces, high fatigue strength and
good temperature-resistance, e.g.
valves, piSion rods, spindles;
nitriding steels, see page 134
screws;
quenched and tempered steels,
see page 133.
nitriding steels, see page 134,
steels for name and induction
hardening, see page 134,
steels for heat-treatable springs,
see
138
155
Tool steels, Case hardened steel s

Heat treatment of unalloyed cold work steels
Steel type
Designation
cf. DIN EN ISO 495712001 02)

Surface hardness
in HRC ..
Full
after
after
Case
Cooling
harden. harden. hard tempering21 at
medium
depth 'l up to0 ening 100 200 300
mm
mm
Spheroidizing
Material
number
Hardening
TemperaHot
Tempe- ~ardne$$
wor1<ing
ture
HB
rature
temperature
"C
max.
"C
C45U
C70U
1.1730
1.1520
C80U
C90U
C105U
1.1525
1.1535
1.1545
1000- 800 680- 710
207
183
B00-820
790- 810
1050-800
1050- BOO
1000-800
192
207
212
780- 800
no- 790
680- 710
c c c
no-790
water
3.5
3.0
15
10
water
3.0
10
58
58
54
48
64
63
60
53
64
64
64
64
64
60
54
54
65
61
62
56
,, For diameters of 30 mm.

21 The tempering temperature is set according to the application and the desired wor1<ing hardness. The steels are
normally delivered spheroidized.
Heat treatment of alloy cold work steels.

hot work steels and high-speed steels
Steel type
Hot
Material wor1<ing
number temperature
c
Designation
105V
X153CtMoV12
1.2834
1.2379
X210CrW12
90MnCrVB
102Cr6
cf. DIN EN ISO 495712001 021
Spheroidizing
tempe- Hardn.
rature
HB
c
mal<.
Hardening
Surface hardness in HRC ..
after
after tempering 21at
tempecooling
rature1l
medium harden- 200 300 400 500 550
c
c
ing
"C
c c
1050-850
710-750
800- 850
212
255
780-800
1010-1030
water
air
1.2436
1.2842
1.2067
1050-850
800-840
680-720
7 10- 750
255
229
223
780-800
830 - 850
60WCrVB
X37CrMoV5-1
1.2550
1.2343
1050-850
1100- 900
710-750
750-800
229
229
900-920
1010-1030
HS6-5-2C
HS104-3-10
HS29-1-8
1.3343
1.3207
1.3247
1100-900
no-840
269
302
277
1200-1220
oil,
1220-1240
hot
1180- 1200 bath. air
64
56
61
59
65
65
62
62
62
60
56
62
60
58
53
52
64
66
66
62
68
63
96- 980
64
oil
oil
48
58
62
36
58
56
56
52
40
40
58
50
50
42
43
52
53
53
54
46
52
62
61
62
62
62
61
65
66
68
67
69
57
61
40
48
65
1l The austenitizing time is the holding time at hardening temperature, which is appro ~e. 25 min for cold work steels
and approx. 3 min. for high-speed steels. Heating is performed in stages.
21 High-speed steels are tempered at least twice at 540-57o c. Holding time at this temperature is at least 60 min.
Heat treatment of case hardened steels

Steel type1l
Designation
End quench test

Hardness HAC at distance of:
Material Carburizing Core harden. Surf. harden. Temper- Quenctting
ing
Temp.
number temperature temperature temperature
max. 21 3mm 5mm 7mm
medium
"C
"C
"C
C10E
C15E
1.1121
1.1141
17Cr3
16MnCr5
1.7016
1.7131
20MnCr5
20MoCr4
1.7147
1.7321
17CrNi6-8
15NiCr13
1.5918
1.5752
830- 870
840- 880
20NiCrMo22
18CrNiM o7-6
1.6523
1.6587
860-900
830- 870
1l
21
ct. DIN EN 10084 (2008.Q6)
Hardening
water
880- 920
860-900
880- 980
780- 820
150- 200
oil
880
870
47
47
44
870
910
49
49
49
870
880
920
860
The same values apply to steels with controlled sulfur content, e. g. C10R. 20MnCrS5.
For steels with normal hardenability I+H) at a distance of 1.5 mm from the end face.
40
44
33
41
48
44
46
47
47
47
46
48
48
48
45
47
49
48
48
48
45
48
48
46
41
42
156

Heat treatment of unalloyed quenched and tempered steels
Stool types21
Normaliz
lng
cf. DIN EN 10083-2 (2006-10) 11
End quench test

Quenching and tempering
Hardness HRC at
hardening depth in mm31 Hardening Quenching medium Tempetlng5
1
3
c
c
5
Designation
Material
number
C22E
1.1151
880- 940
860- 900
water
550- 660
C35E 1l
C40E
C45E'l
1.1181
1.1186
1.1191
860- 920
850- 910
840- 900
870
870
850
48- 58
5 1- 60
55- 62
33- 55
35- 59
37 - 61
22- 49
25- 53
28- 57
840- 880
830- 870
820- 860
water or oil
550 - 660
csoe'11
csse
830-890
825- 885
820 - 880
850
830
830
56- 63
58- 65
60- 67
44-61
47-63
50- 65
31-58
33-60
35- 62
810- 850
810-850
810- 850
oil or water
550-660
C60E
1.1 206
1.1203
1.1221
28Mn6
1.1170
850 - 890
850
45- 54
42- 53
37 - 51
840 - 880
water or oil
540- 680
Heat treatment of quenched and t empered aUoy steels (selection)

Steeltypes2l
Surface
Designation Material hardnessel
number
HRC
38Cr2
46Cr2 1l
1.7003
1.7006
54
34Cr4
37Cr4 1l
41Cr4 1l
1.7033
1.7034
1.7035
51
53
25CrMo4
34CrMo4
42CrMo4 11
1.7218
1.7220
1.7225
50CrMo41l
51CrV4
39NiCrMo3
1.7228
1.81 59
1.6510
End quench test

Hardness HRC at
hardening depth in mm3l Hardening"1 Quenching medium Tempering5l
c
1.5
5
15
c
51-59
54 - 63
37-54
- 35
40- 59
22- 39
830-870
820- 860
oil or water
oil or water
850
49-57
51 - 59
53-61
45-56
48- 58
50- 60
27-44
31 - 48
32- 52
830-870
825- 865
820- 860
water or oil
oil o r water
oil or water
540- 680
850
44-52
49- 57
53-61
40- 51
48- 57
52-61
27-41
34- 52
37-58
840-900
830- 890
820-880
water or oil
oil or water
oil or water
540-680
850
58- 65
57-65
52-60
57- 64
56-64
50-59
48- 62
48-62
820- 870
820-870
820-850
oil
oil
oil or water
540-680
43-56
50-58
48-56
50-57
50-58
48-56
48-56
48-57
46-55
47- 55
830-860
830-860
865- 885
oil or water
oil or water
air o r oil
540-660
540- 660
550- 650
850
53
58
cf. DIN EN 100833 (2007 01 I II
540-680
850
1.5532
850
52-60
50-59
31-47
840-880
water/oil
400-600
33MnCrB5 2 1.7185
880
48-57
47-57
41-54
860-900
oil
400- 600
34CrNiMo6 1.6582
30CrNiMo8 1.6580
36NiCrMo16 1.6773
38M nBS
11
0 1N 17212 steels for name and induction hardening" was withdrawn without replacement. More information about
steels for flame and induction hardening on page 133 and 134 in the section "Quenched and tempered steels".
21 Identical values apply to the high-grade steels C35 to C60 and steels with controlled sulphur content, such as C35R.
3J Hardenability requirements: +H normal hardenability
41 The lower temperature range applies to quenching in water, the higher range to quenching in oil.
51 The tempering time is 60 minutes minimum.
6l Minimum surface hardness of the steel after flame or induction hardening.
Hardenability and hardening depth of quenched and tempet"ed steels (scatter bands)
10 1-r-
:z2Z
C35E
60
~sol~
-~ 401~~
~ 3o x~ ~
.:n o0
10
__
:z2Z
\ :\
60
50
40
50
~~~
5 10 15 20 25 30
30
200
L
--~ ~~
:z2Z 51CrV4+HH
10
60 ~~
~
71>--.
37Cr4+ HH
37Cr4 + HL
~ 51CrV4+HL
!-' ~ ~ ")('
~~
40
30
200
10 15 20 25 30 35
hardening depth - -
~~
'b 0, ~
5<5
'-po-..::.: ~ ~ r'~
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
157
Nitriding steels, Free cutting steels, Aluminum alloys

Heat treatment of nitriding steels
Steel type
Designation
24CrM o13-6
31CrMo12
32CrAIMo7 10
31CrMoV9
33CrMoV129
34CrAINi7-10
41CrAIMo7-10
40CrMoV13-9
34CrAIMo5-10
Material
number
1.8516
1.8515
1.8505
1.8519
1.8522
1.8550
1.8509
1.8523
1.8507
cf. DIN EN 1008512001.01)
Heat treatment before nitriding

Spheroid.
Hardening
Tempering
Tempera Quenching tempera
temperature
ture 3JJ
medium
turell
650-700
650- 700
650-750
680- 720
680- 720
650-700
650- 750
680-720
650-750
870- 970
870- 930
87o-930
870 - 930
870- 970
870 - 930
870- 930
870 970
870-930
Nitriding treatment II
Gas
nitriding
Nitrocar
burizing
Hardness51
HV1
800
-
800
oil or
water
580-700
570 - 650
500- 600
950
950
950
11 The nitriding time is a function of the desired nitriding hardness depth.

21 A ustenitizing time atleaSl 0.5 hours.
31 Tempering time at least 1 hour.
41 The tempering temperature should not be less than 500C above the nitriding temperature.
51 Hardness of the nitrided surface.
Heat treatment of free cutting steels
cf. DIN EN 100871199901)
Free cutting cue Mrdened steels

Steel type
Designation
10S20
10SPb20
15SMn13
Material
number
1.0721
1.0722
1.0725
Carburizing
temperature
880-980
Core hardening Surface harden.

t.emperature
temperature
880-920
780-820
Quenching
medium1l
Quench. and
temp. temperat.
Quenching
medium ll
Tempering
tem perature2l
water. oil,
emulsion
150-200
Free cutting quenched e nd tempered steels

Steel type
Designation
Material
number
Hardness
temperature
1.0726
35S20
860-890
35SPb20
1.0756
water
or oil
36SM n14
1.0764
850-880
1.0765
36SMnPb14
540-680
38SMn28
1.0760
850-880
38SMnPb28
1.0761
oil or
44SMn28
1.0762
water
44SMnPb28
1.0763
840-870
46S20
1.0757
11 The choice of quenching medium depends on the shape of the workpiece.
31 Values apply to diameters 10 < d s 16.
Quenched and tempered3l
R,
Rm
N/mm 2
N/mm 2
430
630- 780
15
460
460
14
700 - 850
15
16
480
12
490
21 Tempering time at least 1 hou r.
Hardening of aluminum alloys

AlloyENAW
Designation
Material
number
AICu4MgSi
AICu4SiMg
AIMgSi
AI MgSi1MgMn
AIZn4,5Mg1
AI Zn5,5MgCu
AISi7Mg11
2017
2014
6060
6082
7020
7075
420001
Solution
A rtificial aging
Type of age annealing emperature holding
hardening21 temperat ure
time
oc
h
c
T4
T6
T4
T6
T6
T6
T6
5-8
500
525
Natural
aging time
days
100- 300
8-24
5- 8
470
525
Aluminum casting alloy EN ACAI Si7Mg or EN AC 42000.

21 T4 solution annealed and naturally aged; T6 solution annealed and artificially aged.
-4
Age hardened
Rm
N/mm 2
390
420
130
280
210
545
250
12
8
15
6
12
8
1
158
M aterial science 4.6 Cast iron
Designation system for cast iron materials

Designations and material numbers
cf. OIN EN 1560 (199Hl81
Cast i ron materials are referenced either with a designation or a material number.
Example:
Cast iron with flake graphite, tensile strength Rm 300 N/mm2
o..&gn.tion
ENGJL-300
M aterial designations have up to six characters without spaces,

beginning with EN (European standard) and GJ (cast iron; I iron)
Designtion
EN
EN
EN
EN
EN
EN
EN
GJ
GJ
GJ
GJ
GJ
GJ
GJ
350
H8155
3SQ.22U
~
360-12
HV6001XCr141
XNiCuCr15+2
~
or
...
Cast iron with flake graph ite

Cast iron with flake graphite
Cast iron whh spheroidal graphite (ductile Iron)
Malleable cast iron- blackheart
Malleable cast iron - whiteheart
Wear-resistant cast iron
Austenitic cast iron
MecNnic8l properties or
c:hemic:lll compoeltion
(numberS/letters)
A austenite
F
P
M
L
ferrite
pearlite
Medwlic8l properties
minimum tensile strength R, in N,lmm2
350
martensite
350-22 additional elongation at fracture EL in%
ledeburite
quenched
T quenc:hed and
tempered
B not
decerburi~eel
w decarburiled
T..t specimen cast separat ely
east-on
taken from the casting
0 rough
ca8ting
H hellltreated
CMtlng
W weldable
Z additional
requirements
HB155 max. hardness

Chemic:8l composition
Data are based on steel designations,
see page 125
M at erial numbers have sev en ch aracters without spaces,

beginning with EN (European standard) and J (iron; I iron)
Cast iron with flake graphite and hardness as characteristic spheroidal

graphite casting w ith east-on test specimen, characteristic Rm
Malleable cast iron without special requirements, characteristic Rm
.......
(number)
tensile
strength
2 hard..-s
3 chemical
composition
Every cast iron material

is assigned a two-digit
number.
A higher number indicates a higher strength.
II
no special requirements
1
2
3
4
separately cast test specimen
7
8
9
rough casting
hell! truted casting
additional requirements
east-on test specimen

test specimen taken from the casting
tough- at room temperature
5 toughness at low temperature
6 specified weldability
159
Material science 4.6 Cast iron
Classification of Cast Iron Materials

Type
Examples/
Standard
material number
Tensile
strength
Rm
Properties
Application examples
N/mm2
Cntlron
with flake
graphite (gray
iron)
DIN EN
1561
EN-GJL- 150
IGG-15)11
EN.JL1020
100
to
450
Very good cestability,

good compression strength,
damping capacity,
emergency running
properties. and good
corrosion resistance
For complex workpieces

with m any contours;
very versatile in its applications.
M achine frames.
gear housings
with spheroidal
graphite
DIN EN
1563
EN-GJS-400
IGGG-40)11
EN.JS1030
350
to
Very good castability,

high strength even with
dynamic loading,
surface hardenable
Wear stressed
workpieces;
clutch parts, fittings.
engine/motor construction
Very good caSiability, high

strength without expensive
alloying additions
Automotive parts,
engine/motor construction,
gear housings
800
to
1400
Heat treatment and controlled cooling produce bainite and austenite for high
strength and good tough
ness
Highly stressed parts, e. g.

wheel hubs, gear rings, ADI
castings21
with vermicular
graphite
ISO
16112
ISO
16112/JV/300
900
300
to
500
bainitic
cast Iron
DIN EN
1564
EN-GJS-800-8
EN.JS1100
wear-resist.a nt
castings,
white cast iron
DIN EN
12513
ENGJNHV350
EN.JN2019
> 1000
Wear-resistant due t o
martensite and carbides,
also alloyed with Cr and Ni
Wear-r esistant cast iron,

e.g. dressing rolls,
dredging shovels,
impellers for pumps
Melluble cast iron

decerburized
(whiteheart)
DIN EN
1562
EN-GJMW-350
(GTW-351 11
EN-JM101 0
270
to
570
Decarburization of the surface by t emper ing. High

strength and toughness,
ductile
True t o shape, thin-w alled,

impact-loaded parts;
levers, brake drums
not
decarburized
(blackheart)
DIN EN
1562
EN-GJMB-450
(GTS-45) 11
ENJM1140
300
to
800
Cluster g raphit e in entire

cross-section due to malleablizing. High strength
and t oughness in larger
wall thickness
True t o shape, thick walled,

impact stressed parts;
levers, universal joint y olces
lor general
use
DIN EN
1029331
GE240
1.0446
380
to
Unalloyed and low alloy

cast steel for general use
Minimum mechanical values

from - to c to 3ooc
with improved
weldability
DIN EN
10293'1
G20Mn5
1.6220
430
to
Lower carbon content with

manganese and microalloy
Welded assembly construction,

fine-grain structural steels with
larger wall thickness
quenched and
tempered
cast steel
DIN EN
1029351
G30CrMoV&4
1.n2s
500
Fine q uenched and ternpered structure with high

toughness
Chains,
plating
for pressure
vessels
DIN EN
10213
GP280GH
1.0625
Types with high strength

and toughness at low and
high temperatures
Pressure vessels for hot or

cold media, h igh t emperature resistant and tough at
low temperatures; rustproof
Resistant to chemical attack

and corrosion
Pump impellers in acids,

duplex steel
Resistant to scaling gases
Turbine parts,
furnace grates
Cntsteel
600
650
to
1250
420
to
960
stainless
DIN EN
10283
GX6CrNi26-7
1.4347
heat-resistant
DIN EN
10295
GX25CrNiSi16-9
1.4825
450
to
1100
40010
550
11 previous designation
21 ADI - Austempered Ductile Iron
31 Replaces DIN 1681 41 Replaces DIN 17182 51 Replaces DIN 17205
160
Material science: 4.6 Cast iron
Cast iron with flake graphite, Cast iron with spheroidal graphite
Cast iron with ftake graphite (gray ironl
Tenlile strength
cf. DIN EN 1561 (199708)
R, lclenllfylng dlerac:t. lslk:
Type
H...tneu HB Identifying cNnctM'istlc
rt"ensile strengm
W all
thickness
M at erial
number
mm
Ntmml
ENGJL 100
EN-GJL 150
EN.JL1010
EN-JL1020
5 - 40
2.5-300
ENGJL-200
EN-GJL-250
EN.JL1030
EN.Jl1040
ENGJL-300
ENGJL350
EN.JLIOSO
ENJL1060
.,.,
Wall
thickness
TYPO
R,
Designati on
Brinell
hardness
Designation
M aterial
nu mber
mm
HB30
100-200
150- 250
EN-GJL-HB155
ENGJLHB175
EN.JL2010
EN.JL2020
40- 80
40- 80
max. 155
100- 175
2.5- 300
5-300
200 - 300
250- 350
ENGJLHB195
ENGJL HB215
EN-JL2030
EN.Jl2040
40 - 80
40 - 80
120-195
145- 215
10- 300
10- 300
300-400
350-450
EN-GJL-HB235
ENGJLHB255
EN-JL2050
EN-J L2060
40 - 80
40 -80
165- 235
185- 255
ENGJL-100: Cast iron w i th flake graphit e (gray

iron), minimum t ensile strength R, 100 N/mm1
ENGJL-HB215: Cast iron w i t h fl ake graphite (g ray

iron), maximum Brinell hardness 215 HB
Properties
Good castability and machinability, vibration damping, corrosion resistance, high compression strenglh,
good sliding p roper1ies.
Machine f rames, bearing housings, p lain bearings, pressure-resistant pans. turbine housings.
Hardness as c haracteristic property provides information on t he machinability.
Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite
cf. DIN EN 1563 (2005 10)
Tenlile strength R, Identifying dlerecteristic

Type
Designation
Mat erial
num ber
Tensile
strenglh
Yiel d
strenglt1
R,
RpQ.2
N/m m 2
Ntmm 2
Elongation
EL
"'
EN-GJS350-22-LT11
EN GJS35022 RT21
ENGJS-35022
EN-JS1015
EN.JS1014
EN.JS1010
350
350
350
220
220
220
22
22
22
EN-GJS-400-18-LTI I
EN GJS-40Q.1S.RT21
EN-GJS-400-18
EN-GJS-400-15
EN.JS1025
ENJS1024
EN-JS1020
EN.JS1030
400
400
250
250
250
18
18
18
15
ENGJS-450-10
EN-GJS.50Q-7
EN-GJS-600-3
ENJS1040
EN.JS1050
EN.JS1060
450
ENGJS.70Q-2
EN-GJS.Boo-2
ENGJS.90Q-2
ENJS1070
EN.JS1080
EN-JS 1090
ti LT for low temperat ures
400
400
250
Proper1i es,
application ex amples
Good machinability,
low wear resistance;
housings
Good machinability,
10
500
600
310
320
370
fittings, press f rames
700
420
800
480
600
2
2
2
Good surface hardness;

gears, steering and clutch parts.
chains
900
average wear resistance;
21 RT for room temperature
EN-GJS-400-18: Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite, minimum tensile strength
elongation at fracture EL 18%
R, = 400 N/mm 2;
Herdness HB .s identifying dlerac:t. istic

Type
Designat ion
Material
number
Tensile
strength
R,
N/mm2
EN-GJS.HB130
EN -GJS.HB150
EN-GJS HB155
EN.JS2010
EN.JS2020
EN-JS2030
350
EN-GJS-HB185
EN -GJS-HB200
EN-GJS-HB230
EN-JS2040
EN.JS2050
ENJS2060
450
EN-GJS.HB265
EN-GJS-HB300
EN -GJS.HB330
EN-JS2070
ENJS2080
EN-J$2090
Yield
strenglh
/lpo.2
Ntmml
Brinell
hardness
HB
250
< 160
130- 175
135- 180
310
320
370
160- 210
170- 230
190- 270
700
420
800
480
600
225- 305
245-335
270-360
400
400
500
600
900
220
250
Properties,
application examples
By specifying hardness values the pur

chaser can better adapt process param eters to m achining of the cast parts.
Applications as above.
EN-GJS.HB130: Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite, Brinell hardness HB 130. maximum hardness
161
Material science: 4.6 Cast iron
Malleable cast iron, Cast steel

Malleable cast iron11
Type
Designalion
Ma10rial
number
ct. DIN EN 1562 12006081

Tensile
strenglh
Rm
Ntmm2
O.C.rburizlng annNied malluble cast Iron

EN-GJMW-3504
ENGJMW-400-5
EN-GJMW-4507
EN-GJMW-550-4
Yield
Elongalion BtineU
strength al fracture hardness
Rpo.2
N/mm2
Properties,
appllcal ion examples
HB
(~ maluble cast Iron)
EN-JM1010
EN JM1030
EN-JM1040
EN-JM1050
350
450
550
220
260
340
ENGJMW-36012 EN.JM1020
360
190
400
EL
=> ENGJMW-350-4: Whiteheart malleable cast iron. Rm
4
5
7
4
230
220
250
250
12
200
350 Ntmm 2, EL
AU types have good castability and

good machinability.
Workpieces with low wan thickness,
e.g. levers. chain links
Especially wen suhed for welding.
4%
Non-decarburlzlng annuled malleable Iron ~ maiiHble cast Iron)

ENGJMB3006
ENJM1110
EN-GJMB-35010
EN-GJMB-450-6
EN-GJMB-5005
ENGJMB550-4
ENJM1130
EN-JM1 140
EN-JM1150
EN-JM1160
ENGJMB6003
EN-GJMB-6502
EN-GJMB-7002
ENGJMB8001
ENJM1170
ENJM1180
EN-JM1190
EN.JM1200
350
450
500
550
200
270
300
340
10
6
5
4
600
650
700
800
390
430
3
2
2
1
300
530
600
- 150
High pressure tightness
-150
150-200
165- 215 AU types have good castability and
180- 230 good machinability.
Workpieces wilh high wan thickness.
195- 245 e. g. housings, universal join! yokes
210-260 pistons
240- 290
270- 320
EN.GJMB-350-10: Non-decarbuming annealed malleable cast iron, Rm 350 Ntmm 2, EL 10r.
II Previous designations: page 159
Cast steel for general applications (selection)

Tensile
strength
Type
ct. DIN EN 10293 (2005-{)6)11
Yield Elonga!ion
strength
Notch
impacl
energy
Properties,
application examples
EL
N/mm2
Rpo.2
Ntmm2
380-530
200
240
300
25
22
15
27
31
27
For workpieces with average

dynamic loading;
wheel spiders. levers
450-600
480- 620
760-960
240
300
24
20
15
70
60
60
Improved weldability;
composite welded structures
1.1165
1.5410
1.7230
520- 670
600- 750
s2o- no
260
500
480
18
18
10
27
60
35
For workpieces with high dynamic

loading;
shafts
1.6570
1.4931
850-1000
740- 880
540
16
15
50
27
For corrosion-protected workpieces

with high dynamic loading
Rm
Designation
Material
number
GE2002l
GE24Q21
GE3Q021
1.0420
1.0445
1,0558
450- 600
600- 750
G17MnS3l
G20Mn52l
GX4CrNiMo16-5-131
1.1131
1.6220
1.4405
G28MnG2l
G10MnMoV6-J3l
G34CrMo43 l
G32NiCrMo8-5-431
GX23CrMoV12 131
540
700
K.,
ll DIN 17182 steel cast types wilh improved weldability and toughness was withdrawn withoul replacement
normalized
31 quenched and 1empered
21
Cast steel for pressure vessels (selection)

Type
Designation
Material
number
GP240GH
G17CrMo5-5
1.0619
GX8CrNi12
GX4CrNiMo16-5-1
1.4107
1.4405
ct. DIN EN 10213 12004-031
Tensile
Yield
Elongation
strength II strengthII at fracture
1.7357
Rm
Notch
impact
Properties,
energy K., application examples
RpG.l
EL
Ntmm2
N/mm2
420
490
240
315
22
20
27
27
540
355
540
18
15
45
760
Values for a wall thickness up to 40 mm
60
For high and low temperatures, e. g.

steam lurbines, super heated steam
armatures. also corrosion resistanl
162
Material science: 4.7 Foundry technology
Patterns. Pattern equipment and core boxes
=,J '.~1 ;~ 1 ~
Materials end grades
Type of material
Application
Max. production run

for molding
Wood
Plastic
Metal
Plywood, particle board or

sandwich board, hard and
softwood
Epoxy resins or
polyurethane w ith
fillers
Cu. Sn, Zn alloys

AI alloys
Cast iron or steer
Recurring Individual pieces

and smaller lots, row precl
sion requirements;
normally hand molding
Jobbing w ork and 110lume

production with higher
sion requirements;
hand and machine molding
approx. 750
approx. 10000
Moderate to large volumes

with high precision
requirements;
machine molding
Ra 3.2-6.3 ~m
Mold
Tinmm
Light
lloy
eatings
Basic color for areas that
should remain unmachined
on the casting
Areas to be machined on the
casting
Locations of loose parts
and their anachments
Locations of
chill plates
Risers
163
Material science: 4.7 Foundry technology
Shrinkage allowances. Dimensional tolerances, Molding and casting methods

Shrinkage allowances
..__ .. ,.
ShrirUge
Cast iron
1.0
0.5
1.2
2.5
1.6
0.5
with flake graphite

with spheroidal graphite, annealed
with spheroidal graphite, not annealed
austenitic
malleable cast Iron, decarburizing anneal
malleable cast Iron, no decarburi2ing anneal
cf. DIN EN 12890 (2000-061

Slwinbge
.__In%
OttMr c.tlno IMt.....
Austenitic manganese cast steel

AI, Mg, CuZn alloys
CuSnZn, Zn alloys
CuSn alloys
Cu
Dimensional tolerances end machining alowanc:es, RMA
Ex.mples of tol.,.ance specifiCations in drawing:
1. ISO 8062-CT12RMA6 IHl

Tolerance g rade 12, material allowance 6 mm
2.0
2.3
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.9
Cast steel
R
F
CT
RMA
2. Individual tolerances and machining allowances are given
cf. DIN ISO 8062 (1998-08)

rough casting - nominal dimension
dimension after finishing
casting tolerance grade
total casting tolerance
material allowance for machining
directly after a dimension.
R =F + 2 RMA + T/2
Casting tot..Nominal
dimensions
inmm
Total casting tolerance T in mm

for casting tolerance grade CT
.;;10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.09 0.13 0.18 0.26 0.36 0.52 0.74
8
1.0
9
1.5
10
2.0
> 10-16
0.10 0.14 0.20 0.28 0.38 0.54 0.78 1.1
1.6
2.2
> 16-25
0.11 0.15 0 .22 0.30 0.42 0.58 0.82
1.2
1.7
2.4
> 25-40
0.12 0.17 0.24 0.32 0.46 0.64 0.9
1.3
1.8
2.6
3.6
> 40- 63
0.13 0.18 0.26 0.36 0.50 0.70 1.0
1.4
2.0
2.8
4.0
> 63-100
0.14 0.20 0.28 0.40 0.56 0.78 1.1
1.6
2.2
3.2
4.4
> 100- 160
0.15 0.22 0.30 0.44 0.62 0.88 1..2
1.8
2.5
3.6
11
14
18
22
12
16
20
25
> 160- 250
> 250-400
> 400-630
> 630- 1000
13
14
15
16
3.0
4.4
- - -
3.2
4.6
10
12
5
5.6
6
7
11
14
10
12
16
11
14
18
10
12
16
20
1.4
2.0
2.8
4 .0
0.40 0.56 0.78 1.1
1.6
2.2
3.2
4.4
6.2
0.64 0.90 1.2
1.8
2.6
3.6
10
14
18
22
28
2.0
2.8
11
16
20
25
32
- -
12
4.2
5
5.6
0.24 0.34 0.50 0.70 1.0
11
2.8
1.0
1.4
Molding and casting methods

Method
Appbtlon
Advantages and
c.tlng material
Relatlw dimM>-
Achievable
sional -.ncy'l
innvn/mm
ln !Jm
roughnHa ,..
Hand
molding
large castings.
small lots
GJL, GJS, GS,

GJM,Aiand
Cu alloys
0.00 - 0.10
40- 320
Machine
molding
small to medium
dimensionally accurate, GJL, GJS, GS,
sized parts. volume good su rface
GJM, AI alloys
0.00-0.06
20- 160
Vacuum
molding
medium to large
parts. volumes
dimensionally accurate, GJL. GJS, GS,

GJM,AJ and
good surface,
high investment costs
Cu alloys
0.00-0.08
40-160
Shell
molding
small parts.
large volumes
dimensionally accurate, GJL. GS.

high mold costs
AI and Cu alloys
0.00- 0.06
20- 160
Investment
casting
small parts,
large volumes
complex parts,
high mold costs
GS, Alalloys
0.00- 0.04
10-80
Die casting
small to medium
sized parts.
large volumes
dimensionally aCCtJrate
even with thin walls,
fine-grain structure.
high investment costs
hot chamber.
Zn, Pb. Sn, Mg
cold chamber:
Cu. AI
0.00- 0.04
10-40
all sizes. expensive.

low dimensional
accuracy
H The ratio of large.s t relative deviation to the nominal dimension is called the relative dimensional accuracy.
164
Material science: 4.8 Light alloys
Aluminum, Aluminum alloys - Overview

A lloy
group
M aterial
number
Main charecteristics
Main areas of application
Product shapes11
PLWe aluminum
AI
(AI content
>99.00%1
AW1000
to
AW1990
(Series1000)
page 166
very good cold wortcability

weldable and brazable
difficult for cuning machining
corrosion resistant
anodized for decorative
purposes
Containers. conduits and

equipment for the food and
chemical industry. electrical
conductors. reHectors, trims.
license plates in automotive
manufacturing
Aluminum, Wt'Ought 81umlnum Mloys. non-heat treatable (selection)

AIMn
AIMg
AW-3000 cold workable

weldable and solderable
to
AW-3990 good machinability in
(Series 3000) work-hardened condition
Compared to Series 1000:
higher strength
improved lye resistivity
Roofing, siding. and supporting

structures in the construction
industry, parts for radiators and air
conditioning units in automotive
manufacturing,
drink and food cans
in the packaging industry
AW-5000 good cold workability w ith high

work hardening
to
AW-5990 limited weldability
(Series 5000) good machinability in work-hardened condition and with higher
alloy contents
weather and saltwater resistant
Ughtweight material for superstructures of commercial vehicles,

tank and silo trucks.
metal signs, traffic sign,
rolling shutters and doors,
windows, doors, hardware in the
construction industry, machine
frames. parts in the construction of
jigs and fixtures and mold making
AIMgMn
good cold workability with high

work hardening
good weldability
good cutting machinability
saltwater resistant
I
AIZnMgCu
. ..
.. .
.. .
page 167
good cold and hot workability

corrosion resistant
good weldability
good cuning machinability in
heat treated condition
Load-bearing structures in the

construction industry,
windows. doors,
machine beds,
hydraulic and pneumatic parts;
with Pb, Sn or Bi additions:
very good cutting machinable free
cutting alloys
o 2)
o 21
o 2)
AW-2000
to
AW-2990
(Series 20001
high-strength values
good high-temperature strength
limited corrosion resistance
limited weldability
good cutting machinability in
Ughtweight material in automotive

and aircraft construction;
with Pb. Sn or Bi additions:
very good cutting machinable free
cutting alloys
o 21
o 21
o 21
AW-7000
highest strength of all AI alloys
to
best corrosion resistance
in artificially aged condition
AW-7990
(Series 7000) limited weldability
good cutting machinability in
11 Product forms: S sheet; B bars; T tubes

2)
AW-6000
to
AW-6990
(Series 6000)
I
A ICuMg
page 166
Aluminum, wrought llluminum Mloys. heat treatable (selection)

AIMgSi
IB IT
Free machining alloys are only delivered as bars or tubes.
High-strength lightweight material

in aircraft industry. machine con
struction. tools and molds for plastic molding, screws. extruded parts
.. .
165
Aluminam, wrought aluminum alloys: Designations and material numbers

Designations for aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys
cf. DIN EN 573-2 (1994121
The designations apply to wrought products. e. g. sheet, bars. tubes, wires and for wrought parts.
Designation examples:
EN AW AI 99,98
. AI Mg1SiCu .
Chemical composition, purity

EN European standard
AW Aluminum wrought product.s
Al99.98
Mg1SiCu
--
pure aluminum, degree of purity 99,98% AI

1 'Yo Mg. low percentage of Si and Cu
Material condition (excerpt)

Condlllon
cf. DIN EN 515 (1993-12)

Meaning of the
material conditions
Symbol Meaning o f the symbol
manufaclured
condition
Wrought products are manufC>Ctured without specifying mechanical

limits, e.g. tensile strength, yield strength, elongation at fracture
Wrought products
without secondary
operations
spher
oidized
0
01
02
Spheroidizing can be replaced by hot working

Solution annealed, cooled slowly to room temperature
Thermomechanically formed, highest workability
To restore worka
bility after cold
working
Work
hardened
H12
to
H18
Work hardened with the following hardness grades:

H12
H14
H16
H18
1/ hard
112 hard
3/ hard
hard
H111
H112
Annealed with subsequent slight work hardening

Slight work hardening
To assure guaran
teed mechanical
values,
e.g. tensile strength
yield strength
Heat
treated
I
I
t.
Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally age hardened, not redressed
Quenched like T1, cold worked and naturally aged
Solution heat treated. cold worked and naturally age hardened
T1
T2
T3
T3510
T3511
Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally aged

like T3510, redressed to hold the limit deviations
T4
T4510
Solution annealed, naturally age hardened

Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally age hardened, not redressed
T6
T6510
Solution annealed, artifiCially aged

Solution annealed, stress relieved and artifiCially aged, not redressed
TS
T9
To increase in ten
sile strength, yield
strength and hard
ness, reduction of
the cold workability
Solution annealed, cold worked, artifiCially aged

Solution annealed, artificially aged, cold worked
Material numbers for aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys
cf. DIN EN 573-1 (1994 12)
Material numbers apply to wrought products, e.g. sheet, bars, tubes. wires and for wrought parts.
ENAW 1~r
Oe$ignation examples:
5154
I
lEN European standard
AW A luminum wrought products
Indicates that country-specific limits deviate

from the original alloy.
I
Alloy modillcations
Alloy groups
Number
Group
Number
Group
pure AI
AICu
5
6
AIMg
AIMgSi
3
4
AIMn
A lSi
7
8
AIZn
other
0
1-9
--
Original alloy
Alloys that deviate
from the original alloy
Type number
Within an alloy group, e. g.
AIMgSi, each type is assigned
its own number.
166
Aluminum, wrought aluminum alloys

Aluminum and wrought aluminum ..oys,
non-heat treatable (selection)
Designation
(material
number)11
Al 99.5
( 1050A)
Delivery
forms21
R
A1Mn1Cu
(3003)
AIMg1
(5005)
AI Mg2Mn0.3
(5251)
AI Mg3
(5754)
A IMg5
(5019)
AIMg3Mn
(5454)
AI Mg4.5Mn0.7
(5083)
11
Equipment manufacturing,
pressure vessels.
signs,
packaging,
trim
0 , H111
0,5 - 1,4
1,5 - 2,9
3,0 - 5,9
65- 95
65- 95
65- 95
" 20
.. 20
o: 20
22
26
p
2
2
F, H112
0. H111
H14
" 200
.: 60
"' 10
>: 95
95 - 130
130- 165
>: 35
o: 35
>: 110
25
25
6
0, H111
0.5 - 1.4
1.5 - 2.9
3.0-5.9
90- 130
90- 130
90- 130
" 35
o: 35
>: 35
19
21
24
F.H112
O, H111
H14
s 200
.. eo
.: 40
.. 95
95 - 130
130- 165
oo 35
,. 35
,. 110
25
25
6
0, H111
0.5- 1.4
1.5 - 2.9
3.0 - 5.9
95- 135
95-135
95- 135
"35
" 35
oo 35
17
20
23
p
l
F, H112
0, H111
H14
"200
s eo
s 40
"100
100- 145
o: 140
o: 40
J< 40
o: 110
18
18
6
0 , H111
0.5- 1.49
1.5- 2.9
3.0 - 5.9
100- 145
100-145
100- 145
,. 35
o: 35
19
20
22
p
l
F, H112
0. H111
H14
" 200
s 80
s 30
o: 160
150-200
200- 240
0, H111
0.5-1.4
1.5 - 2.9
3.0- 5.9
160-200
160- 200
160- 200
~:60
.. so
.. so
14
16
18
p
2
F, H112
0 , H111
H14
s 150
s eo
s25
" 180
180-250
240- 290
" 80
,.eo
"180
14
16
4
0. H111
0.5-1 .4
1.5 - 2.9
3.0- 5.9
190- 240
190- 240
190- 240
,. eo
.. eo
.. eo
14
16
18
F, H112
0, H111
H14
s 200
s80
s 40
" 250
250- 320
270- 350
" 110
"110
" 180
14
16
8
Optical equipment,
packaging
F. H112
O, H111
s 200
.. 200
200- 275
10
18
0, H111
21S-275
215- 275
215- 275
,. as
,.as
13
15
17
Container construction,
including pressu re vessels,
conduits,
t.a nk and silo trucks
O.S-1.4
1.S- 2.9
3.0 - 5.9
.. as
.. as
.. as
F, H111
O,H111
H12
.:200
seo
s30
" 270
270-350
.. 280
" 110
"110
.. 200
12
16
6
.- .
.- .
..-
Rrn
N/mm 2
Yoeld Elong. at
strength fracture Applications,
EL
Examples
1\.o..z
N/mm2
%
>: 20
Tensile
strength
>:60
60-95
100- 135
z
z
Thickness/
diameter
mm
.. 200
.. eo
.. 40
.- .
Material
condition'
F. H112
0 . H111
H14
AIMn1
(3103)
DC3
cf. DIN EN 485-2 (2()()4.09),

DIN EN 754-2. 7552 (200806)
2
2
2
2
>: 70
~: 35
~:60
o: 60
" 160
25
25
6
29
16
17
5
extruded parts,
vehicle superstructures,
heat exchangers
Roofing,
facedes,
load-bearing structures
in metal working
Roofing,
facades,
windows, doors,
hardware
Equipment and devices for

the food industry
aircraft industry,
body parts,
mold making
Mold making and

construction of j igs and fix
lures. machine frames
For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without the addition eN AW-.
Delivery forms: R round bar; S sheet. strip
31 DC Delivery condition: p extruded; 2 drawn; w cold-rolled
41 Material condition, see page 165
21
167
Wrought aluminum alloys

Wrought aluminum alloys.
heat treatable (selection)
Designation
(materiel
number)ll
AI Cu4PbMgMn
(2007)
AICu4PbMg
(2030)
AIMgSiPb
(6012)
AICu4SiMg
(2014)
A1Cu4Mg1
(2024)
AIMgSi
(6060)
AISi1MgMn
16082)
Delivery
formsll
R
...
AI Zn5Mg3Cu
(7022)
. -
21
31
41
a 370
a 370
p
z
z
T4, T4510
T3
T3
s 80
s 30
30- 80
" 370
p
z
:< 150
s 80
:< 80
:t
31 0
>: 200
" 310
a 100
TS. T6510
T3
T6
0 . H111
s 200
:< 80
s 80
s 250
a 380
a 380
" 290
., 220
12
8
12
s 220
s 220
s 220
s 140
s 140
s 140
12
13
16
z T3
z
T4
~: 340
~: 370
:t
340
a 250
., 240
" 220
8
7
6
" 250
a 240
220
8
7
6
~: 260
8
10
8
:t
~: 260
s 135
Free cutting alloys,

also good machinability
at high machining
outputs, e. g. for
turned pans, milled pans
Pans in hydraulic.
pneumatic,
automotive and aircraft
manufacturing,
load-bearing structures in
metal manufacturing
0.5- 1.4
1.5- 2.9
3.0- 5.9
p
z
z
O, H111
T3
T6
s 200
10- 80
s 80
so250
;o 425
:. 425
:< 150
" 290
" 315
12
9
5
0.5- 1,4
1.5 - 2.9
3.0 - 5.9
s 220
s 220
s 220
s 140
s 140
s 140
12
13
13
T4
s 150
.:80
s 80
:< 120
;o130
.. 215
s 60
;o65
" 160
16
15
12
Windows, doors, vehicle

superstructures, machine
beds, optical equipment
.:200
s 80
s ao
"160
.. 205
" 310
" 110
ot 110
" 255
14
14
10
0.5 - 1.4
1.5 - 2.9
3.0-5.9
s 150
s 150
"150
s85
s 85
.:85
14
16
18
Hardware, pans in mold

making and manufacturing
of jigs and fixtures,
machine beds, equipment
in the food industry
s 50
s 80
"350
.. 350
"290
" 280
10
10
0.5 - 1.4
1.5 - 2.9
3.0-5.9
s 220
s 220
s 220
s 140
s 140
s 140
12
13
15
s80
s 80
i: 490
;o460
.. 420
,38()
7
8
3.0-12
12.5-24
25- 50
;o450
;o 450
, 450
"370
"370
.. 370
8
8
7
"'200
s 80
s80
s 275
oo 540
" 455
s 165
.. 485
a 385
10
7
10
0.4-0.75
0.8 - 1.45
1.5 - 2.9
,. 275
" 275
"275
" 145
" 145
"145
10
10
10
z T4
z
T6
O, H111
z T4
z T6
w
T6
z T6
T6, T6510
T6
T6
p
z
0 , H111
Rm
N/mm2
Yield Elong. at
strength fracture Applk:ation,
EL
Examples
Rpo.2
NJmm2
%
s 80
:< 30
30- 80
Tensile
strength
T4, T4510
T3
T3
ThicknesS/
diameter
mm
p
z
z
11
.- .
-
AI Zn5.5MgCu
(7075)
AI Zn4.5Mg1
!7020)
M ateria.!
OC3 condit.ion
41
cf. OtN EN 485 2 1200409),

DIN EN 754-2, 755-2 (2008.00)
T6
TI3
Pan s in automotive and

aircraft manufacturing,
loadbearing structures in
metal working
Pans in automotive and air

craft manufacturing,
machine beds,
superstructures of rail cars
Pans in hydraulic,
pneumatic and aircraft
manufacturing,
screws
Pans in automotive
and aircraft manufacturing,
mold making and
manufacturing of jigs and
fixtures. screws
For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without the addition "EN AW".
Delivery forms: R round bar; S sheet. strip
DC Delivery condition: p extruded; z drawn; w cold-rolled
Material condition, see page 165
168
Aluminum casting alloys

Designation of aluminum castings
cf. DIN EN 1780-1 ... 3 (2003-01), DIN EN 1706 (1998.06)
Aluminum castings era identified by designations or material numbers.

Design.tion
Designation
eMampln :
European standard
Aluminum casting
l EN
AC
Material number
EN AC 5130215(-
!~~
K - casting method
F - material condition
liable below)
1
Chemical oornpMitlon
I
1
Alloy percentage
No.
Group
AIMg5
AISi6Cu
5%Mg
6% Si, additions of Cu
21
41
AICu
AISiMgli
46
47
AISi9Cu
AISI(Cu)
AICu4Mgli
4% Cu. additions of
Mg and Ti
42
44
A1Si7Mg
AISi
51
71
AIMg
AIZnMg
0
l
No.
Group
Within one alloy group each

type has its own number.
MR. . . condition
ea.ting method
Type number
Alloy g,.,.,.,.
Example
Letter
K - casting method
F - materiel condition
(table below)
Casting method
letter
F
Sand casting
Permanent mold
casting
Die casting
Investment casting
Meaning
Casting condition. without subsequent processing

Spheroidized
T1
T4
Controlled cooling after pouring, naturally aged

Solution annealed and naturally aged
T5
T6
Controlled cooling after pouring, artificially aged

Solution annealed and artifocially aged
cf. DIN EN 1706 (1998.()6)
Strength values in casting condition (F)

Designation
(material
number)II
ACAIMg3
IAC~51000)
C21
s
K
ACAIMg5
IAC-51300)
AC-AIMgS(Si)
IAC-51400)
ACAISi12
IAC-44100)
ACAISi7Mg
IAC-42000)
ACAISi 121Cul
IAC-47000)
ACAICu4li
IAC-21100)
11
K
K
K
l
K
l
K
K
Hardn. Tensile
Mll strength strength
HB
Rm
N{mm2
Y"l81d
Rpo.2
N/mm2
Properties"l
Elongation
at fractur e
EL
%
Application
Corrosion resistant,
polishable,
anodized for decorative
purposes; fittings
household appliances.
ship building,
chemical industry
F
F
50
50
140
150
70
70
3
5
F
F
55
60
160
180
90
100
3
4
F
F
60
65
160
180
100
110
F
F
F
50
55
60
150
170
160
70
80
80
4
5
1
T6
T6
T6
75
90
75
220
260
240
180
220
190
2
1
1
F
F
50
55
150
170
80
90
1
2
T6
TS
95
95
300
330
200
220
3
7
Resistant to weather
Influences. for complex,
thinwalled and pressure
tight parts;
pump and motor housings,
cylinder heads, parts in air
craft manufacturing
Highest strength values,

vibration and high temp.
resistance; simple castings
For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without "EN ".
e.g. ACAIMg3 instead of EN ACAIMg3 or AC-51000 instead of EN AC-51000.
21 C casting method (table above)
31 M material condition (table above)
4 1 C castability, P pressure tightness, M machinability; very good, o good, - conditionally good
169
Aluminum profiles - Overview. Round bars. Flat bars

Aluminum sections, Overview
Fabrication,
dimensions
Illustration
Round billS
(I[
Standard
Round tubell
extruded
d3- 100mm
DIN EN
755-3
drawn
d 8-320mm
DIN EN
754-3
extruded
s~ 10- 220 mm
DIN EN
755-4
drawn
DIN EN
7544
rn
orr
seamless extruded
d 20- 250 mm
DIN EN
755 7
cold-drawn seamless
d 3-270mm
DIN EN
754-7
extruded
a15-100mm
DIN EN
7544
extruded seamless
a 15-250mm
ba10-100mm
DIN EN
755-7
cold-drawn seamless
a 15- 250mm
ba10-100 mm
DIN EN
754-7
Squ-.tubes
SqureNrs
[]
Fabrication,
dimensions
Illustration
Standard
s~3-100mm
R.tbwt
Aft tubes
sf
extruded
w 10- 600mm
S 2-240mm
DIN EN
755-4
drawn
w= 5 - 200 mm
S 2- 60mm
DIN EN
7544
ShMt .net strip
Lprofles
rolled
s0.4-15mm
DIN EN
485
c~
sharp corners or
round corners
h 10-200mm
DIN
1771'1
sharp corners or
round comers
h=15 - 100mm
DIN
9714 11
T-
sharp corners or
round corners
h= 10- 160mm
TI
DIN
9713"
II Standards were withdrawn without replacement.
Round bars. Rat bars. drawn
ct. DIN EN 754-3, 7544 (1996-01), DIN 1798". DIN 1796"
m' linear mass
density
W axial section modulus
I axial moment
of inertia
d,a
mm
:....
'@
m~
:....
a
m'
kgfm
cm
I, =lv
W"=Wv
cm3
cm4
10
12
16
0.79
1.13
2.01
1.00
1.44
2.56
0.21
0.31
0.54
0.27
0.39
0.69
0.10
0.17
0.40
0.17
0.29
0.68
0.05
0.10
0.32
0.08
0.17
0.55
20
25
30
3.14
4.91
7.07
4.00
6.25
9.00
0.85
1.33
1.91
1.08
1.69
2.43
0.79
1.53
2.65
1.33
2.60
4.50
0.79
1.77
3.98
1.33
3.26
6.75
35
40
45
9.62
12.57
15.90
12.25
16.00
20.25
2.60
3.40
4.30
3.31
4.32
5.47
4.21
6.28
8.95
7. 15
10.68
15.19
7.37
12.57
20.13
12.51
21 .33
34.17
50
55
60
19.64
23.76
28.27
25.00
30.25
36.00
5.30
6.42
7.63
6.75
8.17
9.72
12.28
16.33
21.21
20.83
27.73
36.00
30.69
44.98
63.62
52.08
76.26
108.00
Materials
II
s2
Wrought aluminum alloys, see pages 166 and 167.
DIN 1796 und DIN 1798 were replaced by DIN EN 7543 or DIN EN 7544. The
DIN EN standards contain no dimensions. However, dealers continue to offer DIN
1798 and DIN 1796 round and square bars.
0 round bars; 0 square bars
170
Mat erial science: 4.8 Light alloys
lilf:lltr.JI-'tiiUJ
Flat bars, drawn
m' linear mass
density
8 distance to edge
W a~ial section modulus
I
a~ial moment
o f inertia
~!_~
'"'
l"
...
>,
"'
EcJve
<max
m':n
mm
s 10
0.6
-> 10 - 30
1.0
> 30- 60
2.0
"'
w><h
mm
Ill: I
lllll'ijcf. DIN EN 754-5
cm 2
replaces DIN 176911
rrl
e.
r.
em
By
em
w.
kg/m
cm3
em
Wv
ems
lv
em
10 ><3
10 )( 6
10 ><8
0 .30
0.60
0.80
0.08
0.16
0.22
0.15
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.015
0.060
0.106
0.0007
0.018
0.042
0.033
0.100
0.133
0.016
0.050
0.066
15 X 3
15 )( 5
15><8
0.45
0.75
1.20
0.12
0.24
0.32
0.15
0.25
0.4
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.022
0.090
0.230
0.003
0.027
0.064
0.112
0.225
0.300
0.084
0.168
0.225
20" 5
20" 8
20 )( 10
1.00
1.60
2.00
0.27
0.43
0.54
0.25
0.4
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.083
0.213
0.333
0.020
0.085
0.166
0.333
0.533
0.666
0.333
0.533
0.666
20" 15
25 )( 5
25" 8
3.00
1.25
2.00
0.81
0.34
0.54
0.75
0.25
0.4
1.0
1.25
1.25
0.750
0.104
0.266
0.562
0.026
0.106
1.000
0.520
0.833
1.000
0.651
1.041
25 " 10
25" 15
25" 20
2.50
3.75
5.00
0.67
1.01
1.35
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.25
1.25
1.25
0.416
0.937
1.666
0.208
0.703
1.666
1.041
1.562
2.083
1.302
1.953
2.604
30>< 10
30 )( 15
30" 20
3.00
4.50
6.00
0.81
1.22
1.62
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.500
1.125
2.000
0.250
0.843
2.000
1.500
2.250
3.000
2.250
3.375
4.500
40" 10
40" 15
40><20
4.00
6.00
8.00
1.08
1.62
2.16
0.5
0.75
1.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
0.666
1.500
2.666
0.333
1.125
2.666
2.666
4.000
5.333
5.333
8.000
10.666
40" 25
40><30
40><35
10.00
12.00
14.00
2.70
3.24
3.78
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.0
2.0
2.0
4.166
6.000
8.166
5.208
9.000
14.291
6.666
8.000
9 .333
13.333
16.000
18.666
50)( 10
50)( 15
50><20
5.00
7.50
10.00
1.35
2.03
2.70
0.5
0.75
1.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
0.833
1.875
3.333
0.416
1.406
3.333
4.166
6.250
8.333
10.416
15.625
20.833
50><25
50><30
50 ><35
12.50
15.00
17.50
3.37
4.05
4.73
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.5
2.5
2.5
5.208
7.500
10.208
6.510
11.250
17.864
10.416
12.500
14.583
26.041
31.250
36.458
50 ><40
60 >< 10
60>< 15
20.00
6.00
9.00
5.40
1.62
2.43
2.0
0.5
0.75
2.5
3.0
3.0
13.333
1.000
2.250
26.666
0.500
1.687
16.666
6.000
9.000
41.668
18.000
27 .000
60><20
60><25
60><30
12.00
15.00
18.00
3.24
4.05
4.86
1.0
1.25
1.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.000
6.250
9.000
4.000
7.812
13.500
12.000
15.000
18.000
36.000
45.000
54.000
60 ><35
60><40
80 10
21.00
24.00
8.00
5.67
6.48
2.16
1.75
2.0
0.5
3.0
3.0
4 .0
12.250
16.000
1.333
21 .437
32.000
0.666
21.000
24.000
10.666
63.000
72.000
42.666
sox 15
80 )( 20
80>< 25
12.00
16.00
20.00
3.24
4.52
5.40
0.75
1.0
1.25
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.000
5.433
8.333
2.250
5.333
10.416
16.000
21 .333
26.666
64.000
85.333
106.66
80 >< 30
80><35
80><40
24.00
28.00
32.00
6.48
7.56
8.64
1.5
1.75
2.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
12.000
16.333
21 .333
18.000
28.583
42.666
32.000
37.333
42.666
128.00
149.33
170.66
100><20
100 )( 30
100 )( 40
20.00
30.00
40.00
5.40
8.10
10.8
1.0
1.5
2.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
6.666
15.000
26.666
3.666
22.500
53.333
33.333
50.000
66.666
166.66
250.00
333.33
I M aterial
IWrought "I""';"" "" alloys,
. pages
II DIN EN 754-5 contains no dimensions. Specialized dealers still offer flat bars in dimensions according to DIN 1769.
171
Material science: 4.8 light a lloys

1mmrn tftm!!lttimilir:lr:w f;
Round tubes,
..
outside diame1er
wall thickness
s cross-sectional
area
m ' linear ma ss
density
W axial section
modulus
I
axial moment
of inenla
d
s
~
I\
-r! -
....,
IIIII
tr.
(1998 10), replaces
d.
"'
d >< s
mm
m'
kg/m
w.
t.
em
cm 2
m'
kg/m
w.
em'
d><s
mm
t.
cm 2
cm3
em
10 )( 1
10" 1.5
10 X 2
0.281
0.401
0.503
0.076
0.108
0.136
0.058
O.o75
0.085
0.029
0.037
0.043
35 )( 3
35 )( 5
35" 10
3.016
4.712
7.854
0.814
1.272
2.121
2.225
3.114
4.067
3.894
5.449
7.118
12 X 1
12 )( 1.5
12 )( 2
0.346
0.495
0.628
0.093
0.134
0.170
0.088
0.116
0.136
0.053
0.070
0.082
40>< 3
40><5
40>< 10
3.487
5.498
9.425
0.942
1.484
2.545
3.003
4.295
5.890
6.007
8.590
11.781
16>< 1
16 )( 2
16 X 3
0.471
0.880
1.225
0.127
0.238
0.331
0.133
0.220
0.273
0.133
0.220
0 ..273
50><3
50 X 5
50 X 10
4.430
7.069
12.566
1.196
1.909
3.393
4.912
7.245
10.681
12.281
18.113
26.704
20 X 1.5
20 )( 3
20 )( 5
0.872
1.602
2.356
0.235
0.433
0.636
0.375
0.597
0.736
0.375
0 .597
0 .736
55)( 3
55><5
55 X 10
4.901
7.854
14.137
1.323
2.110
3.817
6.044
9.014
13.655
16.201
24.789
37.552
25 )( 2
25 )( 3
25 "5
1.445
2.073
3.142
0.390
0.560
0.848
0.770
1.022
1.335
0.963
1.278
1.669
60><5
60>< 10
60>< 16
8.639
15.708
22. 117
2.333
4.241
4.890
10.979
17.017
20.200
32.938
51.051
60.600
30 )( 2
30 )( 4
30 )( 6
1.759
3.267
4.524
0.475
0.882
1.220
1.155
1.884
2.307
1.733
2.826
3.461
70><5
70>< 10
70>< 16
10.210
18.850
27.143
2.757
5.089
7.331
15.498 54.242
24.908 87.179
30.750 107.62
Material
e. g . a luminum alloys. non-heat trea ta ble. see page 166

a lu minum alloys. heat-neatable. see page 167
" D!N EN 754-7 contains no dimens ions. Specialized dealen; still offer round tubes in dimensions according to DIN 1795.
Extruded channel _....., ...

w w idth
h height
s cross-sectional
area
m' linear mass
density
W axia l section
modulus
1 axial moment
of inenia
i'y
...
'I
I t
X +-X <:
.:
~- 'I
~
"' w I
t
mm
"'
r,
I rz
'2
3. 4
mm
2.5
mm
0.4
5, 6
0.6
8,9
0.6
I (1981091 11
"'
h>< w >< s >< t

mm
m'
kg/m
s,.
By
cm2
w.
em
em
cor
lx
em
Wy
cm3
cm4
20 X 20 X 3 )( 3
30><30 >< 3 >< 3
35 >< 35 >< 3 >< 3
1.62
2.52
2.97
0.437
0.687
0.802
1.00
1.50
1.75
0.780
1.10
1.28
0.945
2.43
3.44
0.945
3.64
6.02
0.805
2.06
2.91
0.628
2.29
3.73
40 >< 15><3 >< 3

40 >< 20 >< 3><3
40X30 >< 3 >< 3
1.92
2.25
2.85
0.518
0.608
0.770
2.0
2.0
2.0
0.431
0.610
3.62
2.04
2.59
7.24
4.07
5.17
2.49
0.810
1.30
2.49
0 .349
0.795
2.52
40X30 >< 4X4

40 >< 40 >< 4><4
40><40 >< 5 >< 5
3.71
4.51
5.57
1.00
1.22
1.50
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.05
1.49
1.52
4.49
5.80
6.80
8.97
11.6
13.6
3.03
4.80
5.64
3.17
7.12
8.59
50 x 30x3><3
50 >< 30 >< 4><4
50><40 ><5><5
3.15
4.91
6.07
0.851
1.33
1.64
2.5
2.5
2.5
0.929
1.38
1.42
4.88
7.83
9.32
12.2
19.6
23.3
2.91
5.65
6.54
2.70
7.80
9.26
60 x 30><4 >< 4
60><40X4 >< 4
60 >< 40x5x5
4.51
5.31
6.57
1.22
1.43
1.77
3.0
3.0
3.0
0.896
1.29
1.33
7.90
10.1
12.0
23.7
30.3
36.0
4.12
6.35
7.47
3.69
8.20
9.94
80 x 40 x 6 ><6
80><4Sx6x8
100X40X6X6
8.95
11.2
10.1
2.42
3.02
2. 74
4.0
4.0
5.0
1.22
1.57
1.11
20.6
27.1
28.3
82.4
108
142
10.6
13.9
12.5
20.6
21.8
13.8
100><50><6><9
120x55><7 9
140 X 60 X 4 X 6
14.1
17.2
12.35
3.80
4.64
3.35
5.0
6.0
7.0
1.72
1.74
1.83
43.4
61 .9
56.4
217
295
350
19.9
28.2
24.7
34.3
49.1
45.2
-"1Mn<::;n ";
ly
AIMg$i1; A!Zn4.5Mg'
n DIN 9713 was withdrawn without replacement. Specialized dealers still offer cha nnels
according to this standard.
172
Magnesium alloys, Titanium, Titanium alloys

Wrought magnesium alloys (selection I
Designation
Material
number
Delivery
form11
8
MgMn2
MgAI3Zn
3.3520
3.5312
MgA16Zn
3.5612
MgAI8Zn
3.5812
Mll
Bar diameter
mm
F20
F24
s80
s80
200
240
F27
s80
270
195
10
F29
F31
s 80
s80
290
310
205
215
10
6
...
. .
cf. DIN 9715 (1982-o8)

Tensile
Yield
Elong. at
strength strength fracture Properties.
application
R,
EL
Rs.o.2
N/mm2 N/mm2
"'
145
155
Corrosion resistant
weldable, cold workable;
c ladding, containers
15
10
Higher strength. limited weld

ability; lightweight material
in automotive, machine and
aircraft manufacturing
1l Delivery forms: 8 bars, e. g. round bars; T tubes; D stamped pan

21 M material condition F20 - Rm 10 20 200 NJmm2
Magnesium casting alloys (selection I

MateMaterial
rial- Hardness
Designation11 numberll M21
condiH8
tiofl3l
MCMgAI8Zn1
MC21110
r.
MCMgAI9Zn1
MCMgAI6Mn
MCMgAI7Mn
MCMgAI4Si
MC21120
MC21230
MC21240
MC21320
cf. DI N EN 1753 (1997-oB)

Tensile
strength
Elong. at
fracture
NJmm2
Yi.e ld
strength
Rs.o.2
NJmm2
2
8
R,
EL
"'
Properties,
application
F
T6
50- 65
50-65
160
240
90
90
K
K
D
F
T4
F
50-65
50-65
60- 85
160
160
200- 250
90
90
140- 160
s7
55-70
60- 90
160
240
90
150
6
2
55-70
60- 90
65-85
160
240
200-260
110
150
140-170
2
2
1-6
High-strength,
good sliding properties,
weldable;
automotive and aircraft
manufacturing,
armatures
55- 70
60-75
55-80
190- 250
200- 260
200-250
120- 150
130- 160
120- 150
4-14
3 - 10
3 - 12
Fatigue resistant dynam

ically loadable, high tem
perature resistant, gear
and motor housings
T6
K
K
D
F
T6
D
D
D
F
F
Very good castability,

dynamically loadable,
weldable;
gear and motor
housings
11 For simplification, designations and mat.erial numbers are wrinen without the " EN-" prefix,
e.g. MCMgAIBZn1 instead of ENMCMgA18Zn1.
21 M casting method: S sand casting; K permanent mold casting; D die casting
31 Material condition, see designation of aluminum casting alloys, page 168
ntanium. titanium alloys (selectionI

Designation
Material
number
111
112
113
3.7025
3.7035
3.7055
111Pd
112Pd
3.7225
3.7235
TIAI6V6Sn2
3.7175
11AI6V4
3.7165
ToAJ4M04Sn2
3.7185
Delivery
form11
cf. DIN 17860 (1990 11)
Sheet
Hardthickness
ness
s
HB
mm
Tensilestrength
R,
NJmm2
Yield Elong. at
strength fracture Properties,
EL
application
Rs.o.2
NJmm2
"'
. .
0.4-35
...
120
150
170
290-410
390- 540
460-590
180
250
320
30
22
18
0.4-35
120
150
290-410
390- 540
180
250
30
22
<6
6-50
320
320
"1070
"1000
1000
950
10
8
<6
6 -100
310
310
;, 920
;,900
870
830
8
8
6 - 65
350
"1050
1050
...
...
...
11 Delivery forms: S sheet and strip; 8 bars. e. g. round bars; T tubes
Weldable, solderable,
glueable, machinable,
cold and hot workable,
fatigue resistant,
corrosion resi.s tant;
weight saving designs
in machine construction,
electrical engineering,
precision engineering,
optics and medical technology, chemical indus
try, food industry, aircraft manufacturing
M aterial science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
173
Overview of the heavy non -ferrous metals

Heavy non-ferTOus metals have a density fl > 5 kg/dm3 However, in technical literature Q., 4.5 kg/dm3 is also used
as limit for non-ferrous metals.
Construction materials In machine and plant construction: copper, tin, zinc, nickel, lead and their alloys
Metals used for alloys: chromium, vanadium, cobalt (for effects of alloying metals, see page 129)
Precious metals: gold, silver, platinum
Pure metals: Homogeneous structure; low strengths, lesser imponance as a construction material; usually used
based on material typical propenies, e. g. good electrical conductivity.
Heavy non-ferrous metal alloys: Improved Jl(operlies compared to base metals, such as higher strength, higher hard
ness. better machinability and corrosion resistance. construction materials for various application. Classified accord
ing to manufacture into wrought alloys and casting alloys.
Overview of common heavy non-ferrous metals and alloys

Metal. alloy
Main eharac:teriltlcs
Applicetlon examples
CoweriCu)
High electrical conducdvity and thermal conductivity, inhibits bacteria, viruses and molds, corrosion resistant, good appearance, easily recyclable
Pipes in heating and plumbing equipment,

cooling and heating coils. electrical wiring,
electrical pans. cookware. building facades
CuZn
(brass)
Wear-resistant, corrosion- resistant, good hot

and cold workability, good machinability, polish
able. shiny golden, medium strengths
Wrought alloys: deep-drawn pans, screws,

springs. pipes. instrument parts
Casting alloys: armature housings,
plain bearings, precision mechanical parts
CuZnPb
Very good machinability, limited cold workability, Automatic screw machine parts, precision
mechanical parts, fittings, hot-pressed parts
very good hot workability
CuZn
multi-alloy
Good hot workability, high strengths,

wear-resistant, weather-resistant
Armature housings, plain bearings, flanges,

valve parts, water housings
CuSn
(bronze)
Very corrosion-resistant, good sliding properties.

good wear-resistance, strength resulting from
cold working is highly variable
Wrought alloys: hardware, screws,

springs, metal hoses
Casting alloys: spindle nuts,
worm gears, solid plain bearings
CuAI
High strength and toughness. very corrosion

resistant, salt water resistant, heat resistant.
highly cavitation resistant
Wrought alloys: highly stressed lock

nuts, ratchet wheels
Casting alloys: armatures in the chemical
industry, pump bodies, propellers
CuNi(Zn)
Extremely corrosion resi.stant, silvery

appearance, good machinability, polishable,
cold workable
Coins, electrical resistors,

heat exchangers, pumps, valves in
salt water cooling systems, ship build ing
Zinc (Zn)
Resistant to atmospheric corrosion
Corrosion protection of steel parts
ZnTi
Good workability, joinable by soft soldering
Roofing, gutters, downspouts
group
ZnAICu
Very good castability
Thin walled, finely articulated die castings
Tin (Sn)
Good chemical resistance. non-toKic
Coating of steel sheet
SnPb
Low viscosity
Soft solder
SnSb
Good dry running properties
Small, dimensionally precise die castings,

plain bearings with average loading
Nickel (Ni)
Corrosion resistant high temperature resistant
Corrosion protection layer on steel parts
NiCu
Extremely corrosion resistant and high temp. resist. Equipment condensers, heat exchangers
NiCr
Extremely corrosion resistant and very high temper

ature resistant and nonscaling, e. g. age hardeoable
Lead (Pbl
Shields against x-ray and gamma rays, corrosion Shielding, cable sheathing,
tubes for chemical equipment
resistant. toxic
PbSn
Low viscosity, soft. good dry running properties
Soft solder, sliding sheaths
PbSbSn
Low viscosity, corrosion resistant good running

and sliding properties (low friction)
plain bearings, small, dimensionally precise die

castings such as pendulums. parts for measuring
equipment, meters
Chemical installations, heating tubes.

boiler internals in power plants, gas turbines
'
174
Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
Designation of heavy non-ferrous metals

Designation system (excerpt)
cf. DIN 1700 (1954-07)11
Example:
NiCu30fe F45
Mllnufec:ture, ..,pieetlon
E
G
GC
GO
GK
GZ
~-T.-
Electrical material
Sand caSling
Continuous casting
Die casting
Permanent mold casting
Centrifugal ca.s ting
Solder
Welding filler alloys
Chemicel~
Example
Comment
NiCu30Fe NiCualloy,
30% Cu. trace iron
SnBOSb
SnSb alloy, 80% Sn,

approx. 20% Sb
11 The standard has been withdrawn. However the material designations are
still used in individual standards.
Designation system for copper alloys

EKamples:
Culn31SI
Culn38Pb2
s.-w properties
F45 minimum tensile strength
Rm 10 45 N/mm2
450N/mm2
a
age hardened
g
annealed
h
hard
ka
naturally aged
cold worked
ku
ta
partially age hardened
wa artificially aged
wu hot worked
zh
drawn hard
cf. DIN EN 1982 12Q08.081 and 1173 (200808)
R620
c.tlng mechod
CuSTPb2r-~
GS Sand casting
GM Permanent mold casting
GZ Centrifugal casting GC Continuous casting
GP Die casting
Chemal composition
Example
Meaning
CuZn31Si
Cu alloy, 31 o/o Zn, trace Si
CuZn38Pb2
Cu alloy 38% Zn, 2% Pb
CuSn11Pb2
Cu alloy 11 %Sn, 2% Pb
Product form
Material in the form of caSlings

Material in ingot form
Wrought alloys (without code letter)
Material condition (Miec:tlon)

Example
M eaning
Example
Meaning
A007
D
Elongation at fracture EL = 7%
Y450
M
Yield strength R0 = 450 N/mm 2

Manufactured condition, without specified
mechanical properties
H160
Vickers hardness HV = 160
R620
Minimum tensile strength Rm = 620 N/mm
Drawn, without specified

mechanical properties
Materiel numbers for copper end copper alloys
cf. DIN EN 141 2 (1995121
cv.:~~ T
EKample:
~ Number between 000 and 999 without
Material g roup
letter
Material group
Copper
Copper alloys, percentage of the
alloying element< 5 %
Copper alloys, percentage of the
alloying elements" 5%
Copper-aluminum alloys
Copper-nickel alloys
Copper-zinc alloys
Copper-tin alloys
Copper-zinc binary alloys
Copper-zinc lead alloys
Copper-zinc multi-alloys
C Cast material
B Material in ingots
W Wrought material
Code letters for rMterial groups

Letter
A or B
CorD
E or F
G
specified meaning (sequential number)
J
K
lor M
NorP
RorS
Material numbers for castings of zinc alloys
z p 0~1 0
Example:
.l
IJ
Zinc alloy
Casting
cf. DIN EN 12844 ( 1999-01)
AI content
04 4% aluminum
Cu content
1 = 1%copper
Content of the next higher

alloying element
0 = next higher alloying
element<1%
175
Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals
Copper alloys
Wrought copper aHoys
Deelgnation,
Materiel
Bars
c~
nufnber11
D"
mm
HB
Tenllle
Yield Bong. at
strength SVengdl "-cttn Ptopertiee,
8pplic:atlon examples
EL
R,
1\.u
N/mm2
N/mm1
Copper-zinc aUoys
CuZn28
(CW504U
CuZn37
(CW508L)
CuZn40
(CW509l)
A310
A460
4-80
4 - 10
310
460
120
420
H085
H145
4 -80
4 - 10
85- 115
~ 145
A310
A440
2- 80
2- 10
H070
H140
4 - 80
4-10
A340
H080
2- 80
"'
CuZn38Mn1AI
(CW716A)
Very good cold workability, good

hot workability, machinable,
very easily polished;
instrument parts, bushings
310
120
30
440
400
70- 100
~ 140
--
--
Very good cold workability, good

hot workability, machinable,
very easily polished; deep-drawn
parts, screws, springs, press ro llers
340
260
25
Very good hot workability,

machinable; rivets, screws
250
22
12
Good cold workability; hot workable,

machinable, good sliding properties;
sliding parts, bearing bushings.
guides
~80
cf. DIN EN 12163 (199804)
A460
AS30
5- 40
5- 14
4SO
530
330
H115
H140
5- 40
5-14
115- 145
~ 140
A490
A550
5- 40
5-14
490
550
210
280
18
10
H120
H150
5-40
5- 14
120- 150
~ 150
A460
A540
5- 40
5-14
--
460
540
270
320
20
8
5- 40
5-14
110-140
:!: 150
CuZn40Mn2Fe1
(CW72.3A)
H110
H150
12163 (1998-04)
27
Copper-zinc alloys (multi-alloys)

CuZn31Si
(CW708A)
ct. DIN EN
Good hot workability, cold

workable, machinable, sliding
properties, weather resistant;
sliding elements. guides
Good hot workability, cold workable,
machinable, average strength,
weather resistant;
equipment manufacturing,
architecture
ct. DIN EN
Copper-zinc..Jead alloys
12164 (2()()()..09)
CuZn36Pb3
(CW603N)
A340
A550
40-80
2- 4
90
150
340
550
160
450
20
Excellent machinability, limited cold

workability; automatic lathe parts
CuZn38Pb2
ICW608N)
A360
A550
40- 80
2-6
90
150
360
550
150
420
25
Excellent machinabifity, good cold and

hot workability; screw machine parts
CuZn40Pb2
ICW617N)
A360
A550
40- 80
2-4
90
150
360
550
150
420
20
Excellent machinability, good hot

workability; stamping blanks, gears
A340
A550
2-60
2- 6
230
45
H085
H180
2- 60
2- 6
85- 115
~ 180
A390
A620
2- 60
2- 6
H090
H185
Copper-tin alloys
CuSn6
(CW452K)
CuSn8
(CW453K)
CuSn8P
(CW459K)
cf. DIN EN 12163 (1998-04)

340
550
High chemical resistance,

good strength;
springs, metal hoses, pipes and
bushings for suspension bodies
500
390
260
550
45
620
2-60
2- 6
90-120
:!: 185
--
High chemical resistance,

high-strength, good sliding
properties; plain bearings, rolled bear
ing bushings, contact springs
A390
A620
2 - 60
2-6
--
390
620
260
550
45
H090
H185
2- 60
2-6
90-120
:!: 185
--
--
Excellent sliding properties, high

wear-resistance, endurance strength;
highly stressed plain bearings in auto
motive and machine manufacturing
11 Material numbers according t o DIN EN 1412, see page 174.

21 C Material condition according to DIN EN 1173, see page 174.1n manufactured condition M all alloys can be delivered up to diameter D ; 80 mm.
31 D Diameter for round bars, width across flats for square bars and hexagonal bars, thickness for flat bars.
176
Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-f errous metals
Copper and refined zinc alloys

DellgMtlon,
Meteriel
number,,
c~
a....
0 31
mm
H8
Tenlile
Yield Elong. llt
stnngtfl stnngtfl frKture Ptopenies,
EL
lpplicatlon examples
R,
R,.o.z
N/mm2 N/ mm2
"'
Copper-aluminum alloys
CuAI10Fe3Mn2
ICW306GI
CuAI10Ni5Fe4
ICW307GI
R590
R690
10- 80
10- 50
590
H140
H170
10- 80
10- 50
R680
R740
10- 80
H170
H200
10- 80
690
330
510
12
6
140- 180
2: 170
680
740
480
530
10
8
170- 210
2:200
--
380
38
640
270
550
-400
650
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys
CuNi12Zn24
(CW430JI
CuNi18Zn20
(CW409Jl
ct. DIN EN 12163 0998411

Corrosion-resistant, wear-resistant,
fatigue-resistant, high-temperature
resistant; screws, shafts, gears, worm
gears, valve seats
Corrosion resistant, wear-resistant,
nonscallng, fatigue resistant high temperature resistant; capacitor bases,
control parts for hydraulics
cf. DIN EN 12163 0998041
R380
A640
2- 50
2-4
H090
H190
2- 50
2-4
90- 130
2: 190
R400
R650
2-50
2- 4
H100
H200
2- 50
2-4
100- 140
2: 200
Extremely good cold workability,

machinable, easily polished;
deep-drawn parts, flatware, applied
arts, architecture, spring contacts
280
35
Good cold workability, machinable,

non-tarnishing, easily polished;
membranes, spring contacts,
flatware
580
11 Material numbers according to
DIN EN 1412. see page 174. 21 C Material condition according to DIN EN 1173, see page 174
31 D Diameter for round bars. width across flats for flat bars and hexagonal bars, thid<ness for flat bars.
Cast copper alloys
ct. DIN EN 1982 (1998-121
Tenlile
Dellgnlltlon,
Mllteriel number1 1
stNngth
Yield stnngtfl
Elong.et
hdLn
A
Nlmm2
N~
CuZn15AsC
ICC760Sl
160
70
20
"
45
Excellent soft and hard solderability,

salt water resistant; flanges
CuZn32Pb2-C
(CC750Sl
180
70
12
45
Good machinability, resistant to industrial water up to 900C; armatures
CuZn25AI5Mn4Fe-C
ICC762Sl
750
450
180
CuSn12-C
(CC483Kl
260
140
80
High wear-resistance;
spindle nuts, worm gears
CuSn 11Pb2-C
(CC482K)
240
130
80
Wear-resistant, good dry running

properties; plain bearings
CuAI10Fe2-C
ICC331Gl
500
180
18
100
Mechanically stressed parts;

levers, housings, bevel gears
CuAl 10Ni3Fe2-C
ICC332Gl
500
180
18
130
Corrosion stressed parts;

armatures, propellers
CuAI10Fe5Ni5-C
(CC333Gl
600
250
13
140
Strength and corrosion

stressed parts; pumps
R,
HB
Properties. ~ion
Very high strength and hardness,

good machinability; plain bearings
1) Material numbers according to DIN EN 1412. see page 174. More cast Cu alloys for plain bearings, see page 261 .
Strength values apply to separately san<k:asttest specimens.
ct. DIN EN 12844 (1999-01)
High-gr ade cast zinc aHoys

ZP3 IZP0400)
ZP5 (ZP0410)
ZP2 (ZP0430)
ZP8 (ZP0810l
ZP12 lZP1110)
ZP27 (ZP2720)
Very good castability; preferred alloys

for die castings
10
5
83
330
200
250
335
370
270
220
5
8
102
100
Good castability; very good

machinability, universally applicable
400
425
300
300
5
2.5
100
120
Injection, blow, and deep-d raw molds

for plastics, sheet metal working tools
280
92
177
Material science: 4.10 Other materials
Composite materials, Ceramic materials

Composite materials
Composite
m eterie I
a...
Fiber
met.
content
riel,,
TeNI!e Elong. et ModukJa

ol
...
s.vlce
ee.ticity
tempe-
oe
tR
Density ~h
Appliclltion -pies
gtcrn
N/ mml
N/ mml
retwe
up to 'C
EP
60
365
3.5
Shafts, joints, connecting bars,

ship hulls, rotor blades
UP
35
1.5
130
3.5
10800
50
Containers, tanks, pipes,

dome lights, body parts
PA66
35
1.4
16021
531
5000
190
Lerg~area. stiH housing parts.

power plugs
PC
30
1.42
3.531
6000
145
Housings for printers. comput ers,

t elevisions
PPS
30
1.56
140
3.5
11200
260
Lemp sockets and coils

in electrical equipment
PAl
30
1.56
205
11700
280
Bearings, valve seat rings,

seals, piston rings
PEEK
30
1.44
155
2.2
10300
315
Light construction matenals n

aerospace applications, metal
substitut e
CFRP
PPS
30
1.45
190
2.5
17150
260
UkeFRP-PPS
(Carbon
fiber
reinforced
plastic)
PAl
30
1.42
205
11700
180
Like FRP-PAI
PEEK
30
1.44
210
1.3
13000
315
Like FRP PEEK
FRP
(Fiberglass
reinforced
plastic)
ll
9021
11 EP
UP unsaturated polyester
PAl polyamideimide
21 ov yield stress
3l ts elongation at yield suess
epoxide
PPS polyphenylene sulfide
PA66 polyamide 66, semkrystalline

PEEK polyetheretherketone
PC pclycarbonate
Ceramic: materials
Rex...t Modukls Coefficient
Density .nng1h
Maten.l
Neme
Oesig-
I!
Db
ol.._
of
ee.ticity expllnSion
Properties.IIPPiicetion - p i e s
nation
g/crn'
N/ mml
N/mm2
C130
2.5
160
100000
0.000005
Hard, wear-resistant. chemical and heat resistant,

high insulating resistance;
insulators, ca1aly1ic converters, refractory housings
C799
3.7
300
300000
0.000007
Hard, wear-resistant, chemical and heat

resistant;
ceramic inserts. wire drawing d ies, biomedicine
z~
5.5
800
210000
0.000010
High stability, high strength, heat and chemical

resistant. wear-resistant;
drawing dies, extrusion dies
Silicon
carbide
SiC
3. 1
600
440000
0.000005
Hard, wear-resistant, thermal-shock resistance,

corrosion-resistant even at high temperatures;
abrasives, valves, bearings, combustion chambers
Silicon
nitride
Si3 N
3.2
900
330000
0 .000004
High stability. thermal-shock resistance.

high strength; cutting ceramics, guide and runner
blades for gas turbines
AIN
3.0
200
300000
0.000005
High thermal conductivity, high electrical

insulation property;
semiconductors, housings, heatsinks, insulating parts
Aluminum
silicate
1/1(
Alu
minum
oxide
Zirconium
oxide
Alu
minum
nit ride
178
Material science: 4.10 Other materials
Sintered metals
Designation system for lintered metals
cf. DIN 309 10-1 (1990-101
Sint A 1 0 sintered smooth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Designation e:umple:
[~~~~~~---;====:T~_jTI ~
I Sintered metal I
2. 2nd number
for systematics
further differentiation
without
1. 1st number for chemical compoeition

Volume ratio
Code Ioner
R. in %
Area of application
Number Chemical composition

mass fraction in%
AF
<73
752.5
plain bearings
0
1
2
Sintered iron, lint. ot.... Cu < 1% with or without C

Sintered steel. 1% to 5% Cu. with or without C
Sintered ot.... Cu > 5%. with or witholll C
80 2.5
plain bearing.s
Formed parts with
sliding properties
Sinted
with or without Cu or C, other
alloying elements< 6%, e. g. Ni
85 2.5
plain bearing, formed parts
9(h2.5
Formed parts
Sinted ot.... with or without Cu or C, other

alloying elemems > 6%, e. g. Ni, Cr
Sintered
Cu > 60%, e. g. slntered CuSn
94 ,. 1.5
Formed parts
>95.5
Aijer
Sintered forged
formed parts
Treatment condition of the material

sintered
calibrated
heat treated
5
6
7
8,9
ot..._
...,ys.
Sintered nonferrous heavy metals, except for no. 5

Sintered light alloys, e. g. slmered aluminum
Reserved numbers
Treatment condition of the surface
steam treated
sintered forged
isostatically pressed
sintered smooth
calibrated smooth
sized and coined smooth
Sintend rneUia (selection, soft magnetic sintered metals not included!

Oesian--
tlon
..........
.......
Tenoile otnongt11
~ N/mml
a-nical compoeition
80-200
40-160
SintAOO
>25
>60
Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1%
SintA20
>40
>25
>18
>150
Sintered steel, C < 0.3%. Cu 15- 25%
>70
Sintered bronze, C < 02%, Sn 9-1 %, rem. Cu

Sintered bronze. C02-2%. Sn 9 - 11 %, rem. Cu
>30
>40
>80
>150
SintC 00
>30
>45
>90
>150
Sint.C 10
>60
>200
Sinlered steel, C < 0.3%, Cu 1- 1,5%
SintC 40
>100
>35
>300
>140
Sinteredsteel, Cr 16-19%, Ni 10-14%, Mo 2%
SintC 50
SintOOO
>50
>250
Slnt-010
>300
Sintered iron, C < 0.3 %, Cu < 1%

Sinlered steel, C < 0.3%, Cu 1- 5%
Sint-AF40
Sint-AF50
SintA50
SintA51
Sint-800
SintB 10
Sint-850
SintD 30
>80
>110
Sint-0 40
>100
Si1tEOO
SintE 10
Sint-E 73
Sint-FOO
Sint-F 31
>60
Sintered steel, Ct t6-t9%. Ni 10-14%

Sintered bronze, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu

Sintered stee~ C < 0.3%, Cu 1-5%
Sintered bronze, C < 02%, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu
Sintered bronze, C < 02%, Sn 9 -11 %, rem. Cu
>550
>450
Sintered st.eel, C < 0.3%, Cu 1-5%, Ni 1- 5%
>60
> 100
>200
Sintered iron. C < 0.3 %, Cu < 1%

Sintered steel, C < 0.3%, Cu 1- 5%
>55
>140
>200
>600
>180
>no
>350
Sintered st.eel, Ct 16-19%, Ni 10-14%, Mo2 %
machined
surface treated
cf. DIN 30910-2- 6 (1990 101
Properties.
~ e:umples
Filter parts for gas and

liquid filters
Bearing materials with
exceptionally large pore volume for the best emergency
running properties; bearing
liners, bearing bushings
Plain bearings with very
good dry running properties,
low stressed formed parts
Plain bearings, formed parts
with average stress with
good sliding properties; auto
parts, levers, clutch parts
Formed parts for higher
stresses; wear-resistant
pump pans. gears. some are
corrosion-resistant
Sintered aluminum Cu 4-6 %
Formed parts for precision

engineering, for household
appliances, for the electrical
industry
Sinter forged steel, containing C and Mn

Sinter forged Sleet, containing C. Ni, Mn, Mo
Sealing rings, flanges for

muffler systems
179
Material science: 4.11 Plastics
Overview of plastics
Adllant-vn:
Ditactvant-vn:
low density
electrically insulating
heat and sound absorbing
decorative surface
economical forming
weather and chemical resistance
lower strength and heat resistance in

comparison to metals
some are combustible
some are nonresistant to solvents
limited material reutilitation
Processing
Hot workable
Weldable
Generally glueable
Machinable
Not workable
Non-weldable
Glueable
Machinable
Not workable
Non-weldable
Glueable
Machinable at low tempera
tures
Fabrication
Injection molding
Injection blow molding
Extruding
Pressing
Transfer molding
Injection molding. molding
Pressing
Injection molding
Extruding
Recycling
Easily recyclable
Not recyclable,
possible reuse as filler
Not recyclable
Struc:bn
Amorphous thennoplatrtiea
thermo
thormo
elastic:
plast1<
VISCOUS
/-
Filamentary macromolecules
without cross-linking
Semi-crystalline thermoplastic
c::
c
c==:J
Crystalline areas have

greater cohesive forces
temperat~
T_ .
c onje<tton molding,
tens~
~xtrusi on
hard
strength
range of use
elongation at fracture
-----------
0';-T"'-'"""
'
20"CSO"C
temperature T- - -
Filam entary elastomers
brittle
--
hard
rubber-e{astic
---
e(ongat~t_!:.a~.:_ range of use
Macromolecules in random
condition with few cross-linkages
~
a
e
a 'w'ttd1ng tange; b hot-working; ~
Filamentary t hermoset plastics
M acromolecules with
many cross-links
~
;;;
0( 20(
temperature T- - -
180
Mat erial science: 4.11 Plastics
111- ~t..~
...
..........
.........
j G;tJil 1111 M II l l t: I(:.Jj~ll
..
DeslgMewllng
nation
'(2002061
IType''
ASS
Acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene
AMMA Acrylonltrile-metltyt
Deolst- Merilv
Type' l
rl8tlon
PAK
PAN
PST
P8
Polyactytate
PoivactYionitrile
Polybutene
lo.
DeslgMeenlng
nation
lrvpe'
T
T
T
T
PTFE
PUR
PVAC
PVB
Polytetrafluoroethylene
Polyurethane
Polyvinyl acet ate
Polyvinyl butyral
T
T
T
T
PVC
PVOC
PVF
PVFM
Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvlnylidene chloride
Polyvinyl fluoride
Polyvinyl formaldehyde
T
T
T
T
T
0
T
T
CAB
CF
CMC
Acrylonitriie-Styrene-aorylate T
Cellulose acetate
T
CellulOse acetate butyrate
T
Cresol-formaldehyde
0
cellulose
[MNM
PC
PCTFE
PE
PET
PF
PV1(
CN
CP
EC
EP
Cellulose nitrate
Cellulose propionate
Ethyl cellulose
Epoxide
Polyisobutene
PMMA Polymethylmetltacrytate
POM Polyoxymethylene;
Polyformaldehyde
T
T
T
SAN
SB
Sl
SMS
Styrene-acryloni trile
Styrene-butadiene
Silicone
T
T
0
T
EVAC
MF
PA
Ethylene-vinyl acetate
Melamine formaldehyde
Polyamide
pp
T
T
T
Uf
UP
Urea-formaldehyde
Unsaturated polyester
VInyl chloride-ethylene
0
0
T
ASA
CA
modified
IMNM
I M~
E
0
T
PS
PSU
Polvcarbonate
Polydtlorotrifluoroethylene
Polyethylene
Polyethyleneterephtltalate
Phenol formaldehyde
Polypropylene
Polystytene
Polysultone
I materials;
v~~~
vee
plastics;
' "'
Code letters for........,,_....., of ..,.a.~,....,.._ ......

CLtl
Specill
properties
block, brominated
chl orinated; e<ystalline
density
c
0
E
roamed;
elastomer
CL 11
F
H
I
l
M
Specill
(2002061
Specill
CL' I properties
properties
N
0
p
fleKible; liquid
high; homo
impact tough
linear, low
moderate, molecular
PVC..P: "'-'y .,.,,,~ "v"u~,
'' code letter
...
filkn and
w
X
temperature
ultra; no plasticizers
very
weight
crossllnl<ed,
.v.
, density
U Of~"'f'g "g
1for
properties
normal; novolak
oriented
plasticited
raised; resol; hard
saturated; sulphonated
.D.
Code letters and
Specill
CL11
-- -
cf. DIN EN ISO 1043-2 (2002041
tfc.~
Designation
Material
Boron
Carbon
0
E
Aluminum trihydrate
Clay
Desig
nation
Mate.-ial
Designation
Material
Designation
Material
Glass
Calcium carbonate
Mica
Talc
Silicate
Wood
Cellulose
Aramid
not specified
Mineral. metal 2'
Synthetic materials
other
Desig
nation
Shape, structure
Designation
"
' ,.,....t~epe '
Designation
B
Shape, structure
Shape, structure
Designation
N
p
nonwoven (thin)
vv
veneer
paper
woven
not specified
Shape, structure
pearls, balls,
beads
ground stock
whiskers
chips, shav ings
knitwear
roving
powder
laminates
peelings. flakes
yarn
fibers
matted, thick
spun yarn, cord
other
GF: glass fiber; CH: carbon whisker; MD: mineral powder
11 The materials can be further designated, e.g. by its chemical symbol or another symbol from relevant inter
national standards.
21 For m etals {M ) the type of metal must be specified by the chemical symbol.
181
Identification, Distinguishing characteristics

Methods for identifying plastics
Roatlng . . .
Pla61icll
Solution density
in glem3
0.9 - 1.0
1.0 - 1.2
1.2- 1.5
floating
........
Solubllty In
PB, PE. PIB. PP
Thetmosets and
ABS, ASA. CAB, CP.

PA. PC, PMMA.
PS,SAN,SB
PTFE are no1 sol~r

ble.
CA. PBT, PET,

POM, PSU. PUR
1.5- 1.8
Organically filled
molding material
1.8 - 2.2
PTFE
Vlllllll ...
~of the specimen Is
cloudy
transp8l'enl
CA. CAB. 0::

EP. PC, PS,
PMMA. PVC,
SAN
ABS,ASA.
PA. PE,
POM. PP.
PTFE
Other thermoplastics are soluble Touch

In certain solvents;
e.g . PSis soluble in Waxy to the touch:
benzene or acePE, PTFE, POM, PP
tone.
....,when
"-'*~
Thermopl. soften and melt

Thermosets and elastomers
decompose without softeoing
llwnlng . . .
flamecolor
fire behavior
SOO( formation
odor of the smol<e
Distinguishing characteristics of plastics

DeelgnMJon11
ABS
Deneity
a/em'
.. 1.05
8umlng betiMor
Ott.. ctw-llc:s
Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells like

coal gas
Tough elastic, is not dissolved by carbon

tetrachloride, sounds dull
CA
1.31
Yellow, sputtering flame, drips, smells like

dist illed vinegar and burnt paper
Pleasant to the touch, sounds dull
CAB
1.19
Yellow, sputtering fleme, drips burning,

smells like rancid butter
Sounds dull
MF
1.50
Very flammable, chars with white

edges, smells like ammonia
Very brittle, rattling sound

(compare to UF)
PA
- 1.10
Blue flame with yellow edges, drips

in fibers, smells like burnt hom
Tough elastic, not brittle, sounds dull
PC
1.20
Yellow flame, goes out after flame is

removed, soot s, smells like phenol
Tough hard, not brittle, rattling sound
PE
0.92
Light flame with blue core, drips off burning,

odor like paraffin, smoke hardly
visible (compare with PP)
Wax like surface, can be scratched with I he

fingernail, not brittle, working
temperature> 230 c
PF
1.40
Very flammable, yellow flame, chars,

smells like phenol and burnt wood
Very brit11e, rattling sound
PMMA
1.18
luminous flame, fruity odor,

crackles. drips
Clear when uncolored, sounds dull
POM
1.42
Bluish flame. drips, smells like

formaldehyde
Not brittle, rattling sound
pp
0.91
Light flame with blue core, drips off burning,

odor like paraffin, smoke hardly
visible (compare with PEl
Cannot mark with fingernail,

not brittle
PS
1.05
Yellow flame, soots strongly, smell.s sweet

like coal gas, drips off burning
Brittle, sounds like tinny metal, is dissolved

by carbon tetrachloride among others
PTFE
2..20
1.26
Nonflammable, strong odor when red hot
Waxy surface
PUR
PVC-U
PVC.P
~o.o5
1.38
Yellow flame, very strong odor

Very flammable. extinguishes after the flame
is removed, smells like hydrochloric acid, chars
1.20-1.35 Can be more flammable than PVC.U, depending

on plasticizer. smells like hydrochloric acid, chars
Polyurethane, rubber elastic

Polyurethane foam
Rattling sound (U hardl
Rubbery flexible, no sound IP ; soft)
SAN
1.08
Yellow flame. soots strongly, smells

like coal gas, drips off burning
Tough elastic. is not dissolved by carbon

tetrachloride
SB
1.05
Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells like

coal gas and rubber, drips off burning
Not as brittle as PS. is dissolved by

carbon tetrachloride among other things
UF
1.50
Very flammable, chars with white

edges, smells like ammonia
Very brittle, rattling sound

(compare to MFl
UP
2.00
luminous flame. chars. soots, smells

like styrene, glass fiber residue
Very brit11e, rattling sound
11
Compare to page 180
182
Material science: 4.1 1 Plastics
Thermoplastics (selection)
Abbrwi8tlon
o-ily
Detlgnetion
Traderwme
ASS
AcrylonitrileTerluran.
bU1adiene-styrene Novodur
PA6
Potyamide6
PA66
Polyamide 66
PE-HO
Polyethylene,
high density
Ourethan.
Maranyl,
Resistane.
Ultramid,
Rilsan
T...._
.vengtt~1 1
--
Working
lmpKt
toughnela ~ong-t.rmZ~ AppllcMion IC8mPin
glr:m'
N/ ,..,.,.,.
mJ/,..,.,.,.
"C
.. 1.05
35- 56
80n.f.31
85- 100
1.14
43
n.f.31
80-100
1.14
57
21 41
80-100
0.96
20-30
n.f.ll
80-100
0.92
B-10
n.f.ll
60-80
Hos1alen,
Lupolen,
Vestolen A
Telephone housings,
instrument panels.
surfboards
Gears,
plain bearings,
screws.
cables.
housings
Battery cases.
fuel containers.
garbage cans.
pipes,
cable insulation,
films,
bottles
PE-LO
Polyethylene.
low density
PMMA
Polymethyl
methacrylate
Plexiglas.
Oegalan,
Lucryl
1.18
70- 76
18
70- 100
Optical lenses,
warning lights,
dials,
lighted letters
POM
Polyoxymethylene;
Oelrin,
Hostaform,
Ultraform
1.42
50- 70
100
95
Gears,
plain bearings,
valve bodies,
housing parts
PP
Polypropylene
Hostalen PP.
Novolen,
Procom.
Vestolen P
0.91
21 - 37
n. f.31
1()()-110
PS
Polystyrene
Styropor,
POiystyrol,
Vestyron
1.05
40-65
13- 20
55- 85
Packaging material,
ftatware,
film cartridges.
insu lating boards
PTFE
Polytetraftuorethylen
Hostaflon,
Teflon.
Fluon
2.20
15- 35
n. f.31
280
Maintenance free
bearings.
piston rings,
seals. pu mps
1.20
- 1.35
20-29
241
60- 80
1.38
35-60
n.f.31
<60
23- 25
85
Graduated dials.
battery housings,
headlight housings
55-75
Television housings.
packaging material,
clothes hangers,
distribution boxes
PVC-P
PVC-U
Polyvinylchloride,
Hostalit,
plasticized
Vinoflex,
Vestolit.
Polyvinyl chloride Vinnolit,
no plasticizers
Solvic
SAN
Styreneacrylnitrile
copolymer
Luran,
Vestyron,
Lustran
1.08
78
SB
StyrenebU1adiene
copolymer
Vestyron,
Styrolux
1.05
22-50
II Values depend on temperature and test speed.

21 Duration of temperature application has a significant effect.
3J n. f. ;o no fracture of the specimen
41 Impact toughness
40 n. f.31
Heating ducts.
washing machine
parts,
fittings,
pump housings
Hoses,
seals,
cable sheathing,
pipes,
fittings,
containers
183
Designation of thermoplastic molding materials

Polyethylene PE
Polypropylene PP
cf. DIN EN ISO 18721 (1999-101

ct. DIN EN ISO 1873-1 (1995-121
Desig natio n system

Name
Standard
block:
number block
Example:
Thermoplastic
ISO 1873
Data block
1
II
II
Data block
2
PP-R
EL
Data block
3
II
Data block
4
II
Data block
51l
2)
06-16-003
IS0 8773
Data~1
In data block 1 the molding material is designated by its abbreviation PE or PP after the hyphen.
For polypropylene the additional information follows: PP-H homopolymers of the propylene, PP-8 thermoplastic,
impact tough PP (so-called block~opolymerf; PP-R thermoplastic, static copolymers of the propylene.
Data~ 2
Intended applielltions and/

proceulng methods f PE and PP
Important propet'ties. additives and coloring

fCKPEand PP
Sym-
SymPositions 2 t.o 8
bol
bol
Position 1
SymPosition 1
bol
Symbol
Positions 2 to 8
Blow molding
Calendering
L
M
Monofilam. extrusion
Injection molding
A
8
Process stabilizer
Anti-blocking agent
L
N
light stabilizer
Natu ral colors
E
F
Extrusion
Extrusion (films)
0
R
Stamping
Rotomolding
Arlifoclal color
Powder
Impact tough
Mold release agent
General use
Coating
s
X
Powder sintered
Unspecified
E
F
Blowing agent
Fire extinguisher
Cable insulation
Fiber productionll
Pellets
Thermal aging stabilizer
Sliding and lubricating agent

Increased transparency
Cross-linkable
Increased elec1r. conductivity
Static inhibitor
Data~ 3
Density of PE In kg/m3
Symbot
00
03
08
above- to
Symbol
above- to
- 901
901 - 906
906- 911
02
06
10
- 400
400-800
800- 1200
23
911 - 916
916- 921
921-925
27
33
40
925-930
930- 936
936-942
45
50
57
62
942-948
948- 954
954- 960
960
13
18
Modulus of elasticity
for PP in MPa (N /mm2)
1200- 2000
16
2000- 3500
28
40
3500
Impact toughness for PP in kJfrnl
-3
02
05
3-6
09
15
25
35
Melting maw flow r~ In g/10 min

Conditions for PE
Temp.
Load
in OC
In kg
E
190
190
190
190
0
T
G
0.325
2.16
5.00
21 .6
6-12
12- 20
20-30
30
Sym-
forPP and PE
bot
above- to
000
001
-0. 1
0.1 - 0.2
0.2- 0.4
003
006
012
022
0,45
090
200
400
700
0.4- 0.8
0.8-1 .5
1.5 - 3.0
3.0- 6.0
6- 12
12- 25
25- 50
50
Data blodl4 for P and pp

Position 1: Symbol for filler/reinforcer grade
Symbol Material
B
K
L
M
Symbol Material
Boron
Carbon
Glass
Chalk
Cellulose
Mineral, metal
Position 2 : Symbol for physical form

Symbol Form
Symbol Form
Pearls, balls
Powder
Fiber
Lamina
Flakes
Not specified
G
H
Ground stock
Whiskers
Other
Synthetic,
organic
Talcum
B
0
Wood
Not specified
Other
Position 3: Mass percentage ol the filler material
=>
1'
ThermoplastH: ISO 1873-PP-H, M 4().{)2~. Tn40: Polypropylene molding material, homopolymer,

fabricated by injection molding. modulus of elasticity 3500 MPa; Impact toughness 3 kJtm2, melting mass
flow rate 4.5 g/10 m in. filler 40% talcum powder
Data block 5 optional - entry of additional requirements
21 2 commas - data block missing
3J only for PP
184
Thermoset molding materials, laminated material

Designation and properties of thermoset plastic molcing materials
Type
DIN 77082
(old stan
dard)
Type
ISO 14526
cf.
page 180
Resin
Fillef-
Flexural
strength11
Impact
toughness 11
Water
absorpdon
Nlmm2
kJ/m2
mg
Poul'llble phenolic plastic molding materials IPF PMCI

31
51
84
0: ~ 4.5
M :z:S.O
" 100
0:~40
0:~ 4.5
s 150
M:z: SO
M :z: 5.0
30% wood flour

20% mineral flour
M:~so
Pf (Lf20+
M025)
20% cellulose fibers

25% mineral flour
20% synthetic chips
0:~35
0: ~ 5.5
M:z: 4S
M :z: 6.S
40% (to 50%1 flaky

organ. synthesis product
0:~30
M:o: 45
40%(to60%)
mica fibers
Q:.,30
M :z: 40
0: ~ 7.0
M :z:9.0
0: .,2.5
M : z:3.5
Pf ISC20+
LF 15)
74
cf. DIN EN ISO 14526-3 (200008)
Pf(W030+
M020)
PftSS40
toSSSO)
Phenolic
(forma Idehyde)-resin
tPFI
0:~40
13
PFIPF40
to PF601
83
Pf tlf20+
M025)

25% m ineral fibers
Q:.,35
M:z: 45
M :z: 6.0
Pf (Gf20+
GG301
20% fiber glass

30% glass grist
O:z: SO
M:;o 60
O:z:6.0
M :z: 7.0
12
o:.,s.s
" 150
s 200
s30
"150
s 30
PMC ISO 14526 - PF(WD30+MD20), M : Pourable molding compound IPMCI, phenolic (formaldehyde)
resin IPFI. approx. 30% of wood flour (W030), approx. 20 % of mineral flour (M020); recommended
machining process: injection molding IM)ll
""'
Urea formaldehyde molding mllterials IUF PMCI and

cf. DIN EN ISO 14527312()()().08)
urea/melamine formaldehyde molding materials IUFIMF-PMCIIUF/MF-PMCI
131.5
r
Uftl010+
M030),X,E21
131
UF(l010+
MD30)
130
UF(W030+
M020)
UF/MF
{LF20+S10)
Urea
!formalde hyde)
resin
(UFI
Urea/mefamine
(formal dehyde) resin
20% cellulose powder

30% mineral flour
O:i<45
M:z: 55
0: ., 5.0
M :z: 7.5
" 150

30% mineral flour
O:;o4S
M :, s5
0: ,s.o
M :.,7.5
" 150
30% wood flour

20% mineral flour
0:~35
0: ., 4.5
M :,.S.O
s 200
M: ;o40
O: z: 6.5
M:-
" 100
20'Yo cellulose fibers

10% organic
synthesis product
PMC ISO 14527 - UFILD20+MD20), M : Pourable molding compound IPMC), urea formaldehyde resin
{UF), approx. 20% of cellulose powder ll020), approx. 20% of mineral flour I MD20); recommended
machining process: injection molding {M)ll
'*
Laminated matM'ials3l
ct. DIN EN 60893 (20()4.. 12)

Typea of reinlordng nwterilils
Aallntypea
Type of resin Designation
EP
MF
PF
UP
Sf
PI
Nominal
thicknesses
tin mm
Epoxy resin
Melamine (formaldehyde) resin
Phenolic tfonmaldehyde) resin
Unsaturated polyester resin
Silicone resin
Polyimide resin
Abbreviation Designation
cc
Cotton fabric
Cellulose paper
Combined reinforcing material
Glass fiber fabric
Fiber glass mat
Wood veneer
CP
CR
GC
GM
wv
0.4; 0.5; 0.6; 0.8; 1.0; 12; 1.5; 2; 2.5; 3; 4; 5; 6; 8; 10; 12; 14; 16; 20; 25; 30; 35; 40; 45; 50; 60; 70; SO; 90; 100
Board EC 60893- 3-4- PF CP 201, 10 x 500 x 1000: Board made of phenolic (formaldehyde) resirVcellulose
paper IPF CP 201) according to IEC standard"'60893-3-4 with t= 10 mm, w= 500 mm,l= 1000 mm.
11 0 a compression molding compound; M injection molding compound

21 X= machining process not specified; A = free of ammonia; E specific electric properties
3 1 Applications: insulators for electrical equipment, for instance. or bearing liners, rollers and gears for machine construction
4 1 IEC International Electrotechnical Commission (international standard)
185
Elastomers. Foam materials

Elastomers lrubbtwl
T..,.
AIJbre.
via-
Dellgnetion
BR
Butadiene
rubber
co
Eplchlorhydrin
rubber
CR
tlon11
Bong: lit Worldng

o.n.lty str.ngth2l
l'nlper1ils.
frKtunt ~
..,.._tlon enmples
~
oc
g/cm'
N/~
High abrasion resistance;
tires, belts. V-belts
0.94
2 (18)
450
1.27
- 1.36
5 (15)
250
Chlo roprene
rubber
1.25
11 (251
400
- 30 to +110
Oil and acid resistant, very flammable,

seals, hoses. V-belts
CSM
Chlorosullonated
polyethylene
1.25
18 (20)
300
- 30 to+120
Aging and weather resistant, oil resistant;

insulating material, molded goods, films
EPOM
Ethylenepropylene rubber
0.86
4 (25)
500
Good electrical insulator, not resistant

- 50 to +120 against oil and gasoline; seals, pro files.
bumpers, cold water hoses
1.85
2 (15)
450
Abrasion resistant, best thermal resistance;

- 10t0+190 aerospace and automotive industries;
rotary shaft seals, 0-rings
lsobutene
Isoprene
rubber
0.93
5 (21)
600
Weather and ozone resistant;

- 30to +120 cable insulation, automotive hoses
IR
Isoprene
rubber
0.93
1124)
500
-60to+60
NBR
Acrylonitrile
butadiene
rubber
1.00
61251
450
Abrasion resistant. oil and gasoline resistant

- 20 to +110 etectr. conductors, ().rings, hydraulic hoses,
rotary shaft seals. axial seal
NR
Natural rubber
lsoP<ene rubber
0.93
22127)
600
- 60 to +70
Low resistance to oil, high strength;

truck tires, spring elements
PUR
Polyurethane
rubber
1.25
201301
450
-30 to +100
Elastic, wear-resistant; timing belts,

seals, couplings
SIR
Styrene-Isoprene
rubber
1.25
1 (8)
250
Good electr. insulator, water repellent

- 80 to +180 ().rings, spark plug caps, cylinder
head and joint sealing
0.94
5 (251
500
-30 to +80
FKM
IIA
SBA
Fluoro rubber
Styrene-Butadiene
rubber
1l cf. OIN ISO 1629 (1992-03)
- 60 to +90
Vibration damping, oil and gasoline

- 30 t0+120
resistant; seals, heat
- 10t0+120
resistant dampers
Low resistance to oil, high strength;

truck tires, spring elements
low resistance to oil and g asoline;

tires, hoses, cable sheathing
21 Value in parentheses with additive or filler reinforced elastomer
Foa m materials
cf. OIN n2611982-05)
Foam materials consist of open cells, closed cells or a mixture of closed and open cells.
Their raw density is lower than that of the structural substance. A distinction is made between hard, medium hard,
soft, elastic, soft elastic and integral foam material.
..,_
~
Rew l'nllteriel beM of the

foem mlltel'iel
Cell structure
Polystyrene
Polyvinylchloride
Hard
Polyethersulfone
Polyurethane
Phenolic resin
111
Predominantly
closed
cell
Urea-formaldehyde resin
Polyethylene
Open cell
Predominantly
Medium Polyvinylchloride
closed
hard
cell
Melamine resin
to soft
Polyurethane polyester type
elastic
Open cell
Polyurethane polyether type
11
....,.,.,_
Mex. wootdng
n..m.l
oc
conduciMty
W/IK ml
15-30
75 (100)
0.035
2- 3
50-130
60(80)
0.038
<1
45-55
180(210)
0.05
15
20-100
80 (1 50)
0.021
1-4
40 - 100
130 (250)
0.025
7- 10
5-15
90 (100)
25-40
up to 100
50- 70
- 60to +50
0.036
1-4
10.5- 11.5
up to 150
0.033
approx. 1
20-45
- 40 t0+100
0.045
o-ity
kg/m'
l ong-term working temperature, short-term in parentheses
0.03
0.036
W11ter8blolptlon In 7 days
Vol.~
20
1-2
186
Plastics processing
Injection molding and extrusion
...
Injection molding
~ln"C
Abbrevlltlon
Injection .,.....
Extrulion
lnber
~
~
Shrinkage
In %
Tolenlnce group11few
Gen01-IOM
wittl
toledeviation
rncee Serles 121 Series22
.....
soo.-
Me*!
PE
160- 300
20- 70
500
190- 230
1.5 - 3.5
150
140
130
pp
170- 300
20 - 100
1200
235-270
0.8 - 2 3'
150
140
130
0.2- 0.5
130
120
110
2104 '
~nc
PVC, hard
170-
30- 60
1000- 1800
170- 190
PVC. soft
170- 20041
20- 60
300
150- 200
1- 2.5
PS
180- 250
30- 60
180-220
0.3- 0.7
130
120
110
SB
180- 250
20- 70
180- 220
0.4- 0.7
130
120
110
SAN
200-260
40-80
180-200
05- 0.6
130
120
110
ABS
200- 240
40- 85
800- 1800
180-220
0.4- 0.7
130
120
110
PMMA
200- 250
50- 90
400- 1200
180- 250
0.3- 0.8
130
120
110
PA
210-290
80-120
700-1 200
230-275
1-2
130
120
110
POM
180- 230"
50- 120
800-1700
180- 220
1- 3.5
140
130
120
PC
280-320 41
80-120
>800
240- 290
0.7- 0.8
130
120
110
PF5l
90- 110 41
170- 190
800-2500
0.5-1.5 31
140
130
120
MF6l
95-110 41
160-180
1500- 2500
0.6- 1.7 31
130
120
110
UF51
95- 110
150- 160
1500-2500
0.4-0.6
140
130
120
11 See table below

2' Series 1: Can be maintained without special effort. Series 2: Requires high finishing effort
41 With screw injection molding machine
31 Transverse and longitudinal shrinkage may differ
51 With organic filler material
6l With inorganic filler material
Tolerances for plastic molded parts

Tolenlnce
group
._.
fromt.ble
cf. DIN 169011198211)

NomiMI climenslon range over - up to in mm
Cod&-
~etter11
0- 1
1- 3
3-6
6-10 10-15 15-22 22-30 30-40 40-53 53-70 70-90
90120
120160
General tolerances
150
A
B
%0 ..23 %0.25 :t0..27 :t0.30 :!:0.34 :!:0.38 :!:0.43 :!:0.49 :!:0.57 :!:0.68 0.81 :!:0.97 :!:1.20
:t0.13 , 0.15 :!:0.17 :!:0.20 :!:0.24 :!:0.28 :!:0.33 :!:0.39 :!:0.47 :!:0.58 :!:0.71 :t0 .87 :!:1.10
140
A
B
:!:0.20 :!:0.21 :t0.22 ,0.24 :!:0.27 :!:0.30 :!:0.34 :!:0.38 :t0.43 0.50 :!:0.60 :!:0.70 :!:0.85
:!:0.10 :!:0.11 :!:0.12 ;~;0.14 :0.17 :!:0.20 :!:0.24 :!:0.28 :!:0.33 :!:0.40 :!:0.50 :!:0.60 :!:0.75
130
A
B
:!:0.18 c!:0.19 c!:0.20 :!:021 :!:0.23 :!:0.25 !:0.27 :!:0.30 :!:0.34 :!:0.38 ,.0.44 :!:0.51 : 0.60
:!:0.08 :0.09 :!:0.10 :!:0.11 :t0.13 :!:0.15 !:0.17 :!:020 :!:0.24 :!:0.28 :!:0.34 :!:0.41 :!:0.50
140
A
B
0.40
0.20
0.42
0.22
0.44
0.24
0.48
0.28
0.54
0.34
0.60
0.40
0.68
0.48
0.76
0.56
0.86
0.66
1.00
0.80
1.20
1.00
1.40
1.20
1.70
1.50
130
A
B
0.36
0.16
0.38
0.18
0.40
0.20
0.42
0.22
0,46
0.26
0.50
0.30
0.54
0.34
0.60
0.40
0.68
0.48
0.76
0.56
0.68
0.68
1.02
0.82
1.20
1.00
120
A
B
0.32
0.12
0.34
0.14
0.36
0.16
0.38
0.18
0.40
0.20
0.42
0.22
0.46
0.26
0.50
0.30
0.54
0.34
0.60
0.40
0.68
0.48
0.78
0.58
0.90
0.70
110
A
B
0.18
0.08
0.20
0.10
0.22
0.12
0.24
0.14
026
0.28
0.18
0.30
0.32
0.36
020
022
026
0.40
0.30
0.44
0.34
0.50
0.40
0.58
0.48
Tolerances for dimensions with deviations
0.16
1l A For dimensions which do not depend on mold dimensions; B For dimensions which depend on mold dimensions
187
Material science: 4.1 1 Plastics

t;,JJtJH;,Jt:.ttllt:~~r. .."ttl*-'11iilil[l)ilrniTi~:rnmllltlitmmml
u:- &.
'""""'"
Abbr..
vllltlon
....
--~plastics
o..lgnetion
;:;
Spec:l.t prOf*1lea
Application eumplea
10
- 20 to 260"C,
shortterm to
300"C
.u.
strength
and chemical resistance. low
strength, hardness and
ooeff~eient of friction
Bearings, seals, coatings, highfrequency cable, chemical

equipment
-N,~' from t.o
~olytetr~-
PTFE
WOftllng
tempent\n
trade name
"Teflon
PEEK
Polyotherctherketone
97
- 65 to 250' C,
short-term to
300 ' C
High-temperature strength
and chemical resistance, good
sliding behavior
Bearings, gears, seals, air and

space travellinstead
of metals)
PPS
Polyphenylensulfide
70
- 200 to 220' C,
short-term to
260 ' C
High strength, hardness, stiff

ness, high chemical, weather
and radiation resistance
Pump housings,
bearing bushings, space travel,
nuclear power stations
PSU
Polysulfone
- 40 to 1soc .
140- 240 short-term to
High strength, hardness, stiffness, high chemical and radiation resistance. clear
M icrowave dishes, spools,

circuit boards, oil level indicators, needle bearing cages
PI
Polyimide
trade name
vespel"
- 240 to 360' C,
75- 100 short-term to
400 ' C
High strength in large

temperature range,
radiation resistant, dark, nontransparent
Jet engi_nes, aircraft noses,

piston rings, valve seats, seals,
electronic connection
components
.....
zooc
,.,.J'_...,,_
Polyblends I also known as blends" ) are mixtures of different thermoplastics. The special properties of these copoly
mers result from numerous possible combinations of the properties of the original materials.
Abbr..
Special
o..lgnation
Compoooents
SIB
Styrene/butadiene
90 % polyStyrene,
10% butadiene rubber
ASS
Acrylonitrile/butadiene/ 90 % Styrene-acrylonitrile,
styrene
10% nitrile rubber
PPE+
PS
Polyphenylenether +
Polystyrene
PC+
ASS
Polycarbonate +
various
Acrylnitrile/Butadiene/
compositions
Styrene
viatlon
PC+
PET
Polycarbonate + Polyethyleneterephthalate
Den-'ty
kg/ elm'
Glass fiber
2.52
GF
Aramide
fibers
1-45
Af31
Carbon
fiber
CF
1.6 - 2.0
Brinle hard, at low temperatures not impact tough
Stacking boxes, fan

housings, radio housings
Brinle hard, impact tough

even at low temperatures
Telephones, dash-boards,
hubcaps
High hardness, high cold

various compositions;
impact toughness to
possibly can be reinforced
-40"C. physiologically
with 30% glass fiber
harmless
different
compositions
J fibers
o..lgnation
ApplicMion eamples
properties
Tensile
strength
N/rnrnZ
3400
3400
-3800
1750
- 50002)
_.
......
Radiator g~ill, .computer

parts, medical equipment.
solar panels,
trims
High strength, hardness,

toughness. dimensional
stability under heat.
impact tough, shock-proof
Instrument panels,
fenders, office machine
housings, lamp housings
in motor vehicles
Exceptional impact tough

ness and shock resistance
Motorcycle helmets,
automotive parts
Elongation
"
4.5
2.0-4.0
0.35- 2.121
Spec:iel~
Application eumples
Isotropic'' g~<><! streng~. high Body parts, aircraft manufacturing, sailboats

temp. strength,
'"
Highly stressed light parts,
Ughtest reinforcing fiber,
ductile, ft-acture tough, strongly crash helmets,
1
anisotropic 1, radar-penetrable bulletproof vests
Parts for racing cars, sails for
Extremely
highstrength, light, corrosion resist racing yachts,
aerospace applications
ant, good electr_ conductor
Thermosets (e.g. UP and EP resins) and thermoplastics with high working temperatures (e.g. PSU. PPE. PPS. PEEK.
P1) are used as embedding materials (so-called mMrixJ.
11 Isotropic the same material properties in all directions; anisotropic material properties in the direction of the
fibers are different from those transverse to fibers
Depends significantly on the fiber defect sites occurring during the manufacturing process
31 Trade name "Kevlar
21
188
Standard tensile test specimens are polled to

fracture.
Determination of material characteristic

values, for example
The changes in tensile force and strain are

measured and ploned on a graph. This is con
verted to a stress-strain curve.
- calculation of static load strength

- prediction of forming behavior
- obtaining data for machining processes
Indenter ball is loaded with standardized

test load F
- test load depends on ball diameter D and
on the material group
- Degree of loading, see page 192
Indentation diameter dis measured
Hardness is determined based on the test
load and the surface area of indentation
Hardness test, e.g. on st~s. cast iron

materials, non.ferrous metals, which
c---
Indenter (diamond cone, carbide ball) is loaded

with minor test load - measurement baseline
Impact with major test load
.... permanent deformation of the tes1 piece
Removal of the major load
Hardness is displayed direclly on the test
device and is based on the depth of penetra
lion h
- are not hardened

- have a metallic bright testing surface
- are softer than 650 HB
Hardness testing by different methods, e. g.

on steels and non-ferrous metals,
- in soft or hardened condition
- with small thicknesses
Methods HRA. HRC:
hardened and high-strength metals

M ethods HRB, HRF:
soh steel, non-ferrous metals
The diamond pyramid is loaded with

variable loads
-test load is a function of parameters such
as test piece thickness or grain size in
matrix structure
The diagonals of the indentation are measured
Hardness is determined based on the test
load and surface area of indentation
Universal method for testing

- soft and hardened materials
- thin layers
- individual microstructural components of
metals
Diamond pyramid is loaded with variable

loads
- test load is based on parameters such as
test piece thickness or grain size
The load is logged continuously as a
function of penetration depth
Method for testing all materials, e.g.

- soft and hardened metals
- thin layers, also carbide coatings and paint
coating
- individual microstructure components
- ceramic, hard material, etc.
Martens hardness is determined dwing

loading
The test ball is loaded with initial load

- measurement baseline
Impact with established test load
- test load must produce a penetration
depth of 0.15-0.35 mm
The penetration depth is measured after 30 s
loading time
Ball indentation hardness is determined
Testing of plastics and hard rubber.

Ball indentation hardness provides compari
son values for research, development and
quality control.
189
The testing device (durometerl is pressed on

the test piece with contact pressure F
The spring loaded indenter penetrates
into the test piece
Worldng time 15 s
The shore hardness is displ. directly on the device
Cylindrical specimens are loaded in standard

ized equipment until fractured due to shearing
- for strength calculations of shear loaded
pans, e.g . pins
Breaking strength is determined from the
maKimum shearing force and cross-sectional - to predict cutting forces in forming
area of the test specimen
Notched test specimens are subjected to

bending load by pendulum impact and are
fractured
Notch impact toughness energy required
to deform and fracture the test specimen
Sheet metal clamped on all sides is

deformed until crack formation by a ball
The deformation depth until crack propaga
lion is a measure of deep drawing capability
- For testing of sheet metal and strip for

their deep drawing capability
- Evaluation of the sheet surface for
changes during cold working
Cylindrical specimens with polished surface

are alternately loaded with constant mean
stress Om and variable alternating stress
amplitude
until fracture. The graphical
representation of the series of tests yields
the Wohler (5-N) curve
Used to determine material properties with

dynamic loading, e.g.
- fatigue strength, fatigue endurance and
fatigue strength under alternating stresses
- endurance limit
a,._
- Nondestructive testing of parts, e. g. for

A transducer sends ultrasonic signals
through the workpiece. The waves are
cracks, cavities, gas holes, inclusions, lack
reflected by the front wall, the back wall and
of fusion, differences in microstructure
by defects of a certain size
- To determine the type of defect, the size
and the location of the defect
The screen of the testing device displays the
- To measure wall and layer thicknesses
echoes
The test frequency detenmines the detectable
defect size which is limited by the grain size
of the test specimen
Etching metallographic test specimens (microsec

lions) develops the microstructure which can then
be observed under the metallographic microscope.
Specimen preparation:
Removal - avoid structural transformation
Embedding - sharp edged microsections
Grinding
- removal of layers of deformation
Polishing - high surface quality
Etching
- structural development
- To check the crystalline structure

- To monitor heat treatments, forming and
joining processes
- To determine grain distribution and
grain size
- Defect testing
190
Material science: 4.12 Material testing
Tensile test, Tensile test specimens

Tensile test
cf. DIN EN 10002- 1 (2001 121

EL elongation at fracture
F tensile f oroe
Strns-lltreln diagram
with distinct yield point,

e.g . fw 8oft lltMI
strain
in % -
r
EL
So
initial cross section

of the lest specimen
smallest test
specimen cross
section after fracture
normel strain
r
reduction of area at
fracture
o, tensile stress
Rm tensile strength
R, yield strength
Rp0.2 yield strength at
0 .2% strain offset
v, yield strength ratio
s..
Fm maximum force
Fe force at yield
strength limit
Fp0.2force at yield
strength limit
at 0.2% strain offset
Lo initial gage length
Lu gage length
aher fracture
do Initial diameter of
the test specimen
Tensile t est specimens

Normally, round I)<Oportional bars with an initial gage
length of Lo = 5 do are used.
Unmachined specimens are allowed with
- uniform cross sections, e.g. lor specimens of sheet
metal, profiles, wires
- cast test specimens, e. g. of cast iron materiels or
nonl errous casting alloys
Elongation et fracture EL
If tensile test specimens are used that contract during
the test, the initial gage length Lo has an effect on the
elongation at fracture EL
Smaller initial gage length
fracture EL
Yoeld lltrength ratio:
Lo -
greater elongation at
v. s R, (l~l'o.2l/Rm
It provides information about the heat treatment con

dition of the steels:
02
EL
strain c in % -
normalized
V, .. 0.5-{).7
quenched & tempered V, .. 0.7- 0.95
Tensile test specimens
S'"l
I
I
I
I
F
So
- -
Tensile strength
Rm ~
So
Yoeld lltrength
Fe
Ro - -So
Yoeld stNngth lit

0.2 ~ lltrein offset
Rpe.2
Fpe.2
s;-
Ie-J;;
I
I
Notmallltrein
L-~
100%
Elongation et fracture
I.
EL -
100%
Reduction of -
at fraction
fz-So~Su
100%
cf. DIN 50125 (2004..()1)
Round ....- tMt epimel with wnooth cylndrical anda. IIMtpaa A and B
Shape A
.L~J"'".--'"-
Tensile lltress
So~
1---
do
Lo
4
Shape Ad,
I Lo=Sdo
1---L,_,- - -l
L,
ShapeS
ShapeE
ShapeE
~
L,
L,
10
12
14
20
24
25
30
30
40
48
50
60
60
70
72
84
Shape A:. Machined test spe

cimens for c lamping in the
t ensioning wedge
6
8
10
12
15
17
80 95 115 140 160 185 SNipe B: Machined test spe
cimens with threaded heads
M8 M10 M12 M16 M18 M20 produce more precise mea50 60 75
90 110 125 surement of the elongation
36
t.
65
M6
40
10
10
10
40
15
20
60
27
22
70
25
80
8
30
12
25
90
33
38
Lo
L,
115
Shapes, application
35
15
45
135
Shapes, application
Flat specimens with heads

for t ensioning wedges,
29 33
tensile test specimens of
50
80 90 105 115 strips, sheets, Oat b ars and
140 210 230 260 270 profiles
ShapeC
ShapeD
ShapeF
Machined round test specimens with shouldered ends

Machined round test specimens with conical ends
Unmachined sections of round bars
ShapeG
Shape H
Unmachined sections of flat bar steel and profiles

Rat specimens for testing sheets with thicknesses between 0.1 and 3 mm
Tensiletestspecirl*l DIN50125 -A10x50: Shape A<:(,= 10 mm, Lo =50 mm
191
Shear test. Notched bar impact bending test. Cupping test

Shear test
cf. DIN 50141 (2008-07), withdrawn

Fm maximum shear force
~ initial diameter of
the test specimen
specimen length
So
initial cross section

of the test specimen
r t8 shear strength
Shear strength
The test is carried out on tensile test machines with

standardized shear devices.
5'-'test~
10
12
16
-0.020
- 0.370
-0.030
- 0.390
-0.030
- 0.345
- 0.040
- 0.370
- 0.013
- 0.186
- 0.016
- 0.193
- 0.016
- 0.193
50
50
50
50
110
110
110
Limit
- 0.020
deviations -0.370
50
Charpy impact test
cf. DIN EN 10045 (1991-041

KU Notch impact energy in J, measured on a test specimen with U -notch
KV Notch impact energy in J, measured on a test specimen with Vnotch
Test specimen
Tho test specimen mUSt be completely machined. Fabrication of the test material
should alter the material's micrOS1ructure as little as possible. No notch should be
visible with the naked eve at the notch root which runs parallel to the notch axis.
Test apeeimen cross section
~J-.il
~ trrll
55
40
10
10
Normal test specimen
55
40
10
10
0.25
DVM test specimen"
55
40
10
10
1.0
Normal test specimen
Explanation
Erichsen cupping test
die
punch
45
KU = 115 J :
Normal test specimen with Unotch, Notch

impact energy 115 J, work capacity of the
pendulum impact tester 300 J
85 J : Normal test specimen with Vnotch, Notch
impact energy 85 J, work capacity of the pen
dulum impact tester 150 J
cf. DIN EN ISO 20482 12003-12), replacement for DIN 50101 and 50102
IE Erichsen cupping depth value in mm D hole diameter of the die
F sheet metal holding force in kN
d ball diameter of the punch
length of the test sheet
thickness of the test sheet
w width of the test sheet
Test specimens
The test specimens must be flat and not have any burrs. Before clamping, the
sheets are to be lightly greased over with a graphite lubricant.
Abbreviation
sheet metal
holder
1.0
" Deutscher Verband ffir MaterialprUfung

(German Association for Material Testing!
KV150
test specimen
Test dimension in mm or degree (0 )

b
h
lw
hk
Notch
shape
Designation
Tool dimensions
d
F
D
mm mm kN
Test specimen dimensions

w
t
I
mm
mm
mm
IE
27
20
10
I~
20
10
,.so
,.so
,.so
,.so
0.2 - 2
40
IE21
21
15
10
.. w
55- 90
0.2-2
11
10
;ob
30- 55
IE11
IE= 12 mm: Erichsen cupping depth
2- 3
0.1-1
Application
Standard test
Tests on
thicker or
narrower
strips
12 mm, standard test
192
Hardness test by Brine II

. . . . . . test by Brinell
-f;
~~t I ~
,,
~!
__...,
d,
: i -;
distance from edge in mm
"'
inmm
Test conditions
Impression diameter
0.24 D s d s 0.6 D
Minimum test specimen thickness s ~ 8 h
Distance from edge a " 3 . d
Test specimen surface: metallic bright
r.i . .:
7 1 li
test load in N
ball diameter in mm
diameter of the impression in mm
individual measurement values of the
impression diameter in mm
depth of impressio.n in mm
minimum lhid<ncss of the test specimen
D
d
d 1
f--L-.
(!t"t ~
cf. DIN EN ISO 6506-1 (2006-031
..;;
:.
Oesignetion exmples:
Impression diameter
d - d, +d2
2
Bfinell hrdness
HBW
0.204 F
n D (D -JDLd2)
180 HBW 2.5/62.5
~J'T'T
Herdn- vlue
Indenter
!WI
dlwneter
Test tore. F
Impact time
Brinell hardness 180

Brinell hardness 600
W carbide ball
2.5mm
1mm
62.5 9.80665 N 6 12.9 N

30 . 9.80665 N s 294.2 N
Unspecified:
Value entry:
10 to 15 s
25s
Degree of loading, ball diameter, test loads and test materials

Degree of
loading
0.102 F/02
Test load F inN

with ball diameter 011 in mm
1
2.5
5
10
Test range
BrineII
hardness
HBW
Materials
Steel. nickel and titanium alloys
Cast iron
Copper, oopper alloys
,; 650
~ 140
>200
30
294.2
1839
7355
29420
15
14710
Ught metal, light metal alloys
>35
< 140
> 35
35 - 200
10
98.07
612.9
2452
9807
Cast iron
Ught metal. light metal alloys
Copper. copper alloys
49.03
306.5
1226
4903
Copper, oopper alloys

Light metals, light metal alloys
< 35
35-80
< 35
2.5
24.52
153.2
612.9
2452
Ught metals, light metal alloys
9.807
61.29
245.2
980.7
lead, tin
" Small ball diameters for fin9ilrained materials, thin specimens or hardness tests in the outer layer. For hardness tests
on cast iron, the ball diameter Omust be ;o 2.5 mm. Hardness values are only comparable if the tests were carried out
with the same degree of loading.
Minimum thickness s of the specimens

Ball diamete r
Oinmm
1
2
2.5
5
10
11
Minimum thickness sin mm for impression diameter d" in mm

0.25 0.35 0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.5
2.0
2.4
3.0
0.13 0.25 0.54 0.8
3.5 1 4.o 1 4.5 1 5.o 1 5.5 1 6.o

Example: o ~ 2.5 mm, d 1.2 mm
- minimum specimen thickness
s 1.23mm
0.23 0.37 0.67 1.07 1 6

1.46 2.0
0.58 0.69 0.92 1.67 2.45 4.0
1.17 1.84 2.53 3.3414.2815.36 16.59 1 8.0
Table fields without thickness indicated lie outside of the test range 0.24 . D" d" 0.6 . D
193
Hardness test by Rockwell, Hardness test by Vicl<ers

Hardness test by Rockwell
Hardness test
1st step
2nd step 3rd step
. ...
F
cf. DIN EN ISO 6508-1 (2006-03)
F0 minor load in N
F1 major load In N
h permanent indentation depth
inmm
s test specimen thickness
tJ distance from edge
reference plane for measurement
Rockwell hardness HRB, HRF
HRB, HRF = 130-
h
0.002mm
65 HRC
70 HRBW
r - -- _ J
T'--,--
1\
90
h
0.002mm
Detlgnation examples:
100 r--r--v--,.--.---r- ,
\ ~ f- -
80
HRA,HRC = 100 -
Test conditions
Surface of specimen is ground to
Ra 0.8- 1.6 1Jm. The machining of the
specimen must not result in any
changes to the microstructure.
Distance from edge a~ 1 mm
" I
I
I
Rockwell hardness HRA. HAC
Test method
65
70
HAC Rockwell hardness - C.

test with diamond cone
HRBW Rockwell hardness - B.

test with carbide ball
Test method ..,pications (selection)

Method Indenter
HRA
20
Diamond cone,
"HAc cone angle 120"

0 0.5 I 1.5 2 mm 3
mrnimum test ~
specimen thickness
HAS
Carbide ball (W)
'HRF 1.5785mm
Fo
F,
inN
inN
Measurement
range from - to
98
490.3
20-BSHRA
98
1373
20 - 70HRC
98
882.6
20-100 HRB
98
490.3
60 - 100 HRF
Hardness test by Vickers
Hardened steel,
highSlrength
metals
Soh steel,
non-ferrous metals
cf. DIN EN ISO 65071 (200603)
F
d
Application
test load in N
diagonal of the indentation in mm
test specimen thickness
distance from edge
Test conditions
Surface of specimen is ground to
Ra = 0.4- 0.8 IJm. The machining of
the specimen must not result in any
changes to the microstructure.
Distance from edge a"' 2.5 d
Vockers hardness
HV = 0.1891 dF2
. . __
___,
Designation examples:
540HV1 /20
650HVT T
t~:
H H\r+-+\-+f--1-----1
> 500 fX
...c
~tz~+o
~
~~
250 l---t-\9-\-l- \-tiA-- -1
"E 100 '--....,.---'l---LI, --"---":-...J

2 O.o1 0.025 0.1 025 1 25 10
min. test specimen thickness - -
Vickers hardn. 540

Vickers hardn.
650
Test load F
Working time
1 9.80665 N 9.807 N
5 9.80665 N = 49.00 N
Value entry
Unspecified:
Test coodtio!IS and irpplied loadl b
20s
10to 15 s
the VICkers~ test

HV5
Test condition
HV100
HVSO
HV30
HV20
HV10
Test load in N
980.7
490.3
294.2
196.1
98.07
49.00
Test condition
HV3
HV2
HV1
HV0.5
HV0.3
HV0.2
Test load in N
29.42
19.61
9.807
4.903
2.942
1.961
194
Martens hardness, Conversion of hardness values

Martens hardness by penetrant testing
indenter 136.- .
test
F
h
~~
"'
t est load In N
depth of penetration in mm
specimen thicknm;s in mm
0.1 N
2N
l OON
Aluminum
0. 13
0.55
4.00
St eel
0.08
0.30
Carbide
0.03
h,..,
,i
Designation:
I
I
I Manens hardness I
2.20
0.10
0.80
I ~jll 4~ ,. 5700 Ntmm2
Application of load
I l Mart- hetdn. value I
0.5N
l 20 s
w ith in20 s
2N :s F :s 30kN
Nano range
h :s 0.21Jm
(F~
98N)
255
285
320
350
385
80
90
100
110
120
95
105
114
415
450
480
510
545
130
140
150
160
170
124
133
143
152
162
575
610
640
675
705
180
190
200
210
220
171
181
190
199
209
740
770
800
835
865
230
240
250
260
270
219
228
238
247
257
900
280
930
965
1030
1095
290
266
276
285
304
323
300
320
340
76
86
Tensile
strength
Rockwell hardness
HRC
HRA
20
22
24
26
27
29
30
32
34
Universal hardness test, e. g. for all metals,

plastics, carbides, ceram ic m aterials;
micro and nano ranges: thin layer m easurement,
microstructure components
Conversion tables for hardness values and tensile strength 1 '

Brinell
hardness
HBlO
15700 N/mm 2
Applications
F < 2 N or H > 0.2 11m
N/mm 2
M acro range
HV
I Test dur1dion
Micro range
Rm
26.43 . h2
Conditions
VICkers
hardness
HM =
Test load F
Test range
Tensile
strength
Average roughness Ra at F
Material
'I ]A
ITestmothod
Mertens hardness
Testspedmen~
Test chwactoristlc:s
h-
cf. DIN EN ISO 145n (2003-05)
61
62
62
63
64
65
65
66
66
HRS21 HRF21
-48
56
87
Rm
N/mm2
cf. DIN EN ISO 18265 (200402)

Rockwell hardVICkers
Srinell
hardness
ness
hardness
HV
HBJO
(F i: 98 N )
HRC HRA
360
380
400
420
440
342
361
380
399
418
37
39
41
43
45
69
70
71
437
456
466
46
48
48
50
51
74
75
75
76
76
62
91
67
94
1155
1220
1290
1350
1420
71
75
79
82
85
96
99
(101)
(104)
( 106)
1485
1555
1595
1665
1740
460
480
490
510
530
504
87
90
92
94
95
( 107)
(109)
1110)
( 111)
( 112)
1810
1880
1955
2030
2105
550
570
590
610
630
523
542
561
580
599
52
54
55
97
98
100
(101)
( 102)
( 113)
(114)
(115)
2180
618
650
670
690
720
760
58
59
60
61
( 104)
(105)
-:.
800
--
83
--
--
--
840
880
920
940
485
--
56
57
63
64
72
73
n
78
78
79
80
80
81
81
82
83
83
84
65
66
85
66
66
85
86
11 Ap plies to unalloyed and low alloy steels and cast steel. Special tables of this standa rd are t o be used for
quenched and tempered, cold worked and high-speed steels, as w ell as for v arious carbide types . Considerable
dev iations are to be expected f or high-alloyed and/or w ork-hardened steels.
21 The v alues in parentheses lie outside of the measurement range.
195
Testing of plastics: Tensile properties. Hardness testing

Determination of the tensile properties on plastics
Typic:alatreMstnoln
curves
t~
~ withToJut
r / ........
I'
yield
point
eru t113
strame - Test apecim.ns
~
G s!
tg
~,
change in length with

yield strength
gage length
Tensile strength
initial c ross section
OM
tensile strength
uv
yield strength
eM maximum elongation Yield strength

tv yield strain
Test speed
inmm/min
For each property, e.g. tensile strength, yield strength.

yield strain, at least live test specimens must be tested.
Application
- thermoplastic injection molded and extrusion
molding materials
- thermoplastic slabs and films
- thermoset molding materials
- thermoset slabs
- fiber reinforced composite materials, thermoplastic
and thermoset plastic
I ay =~
IeM =~
I A~FV
Maximum elongation
100%
. 100%
Yield strain
y
a nee
mm
50l:0.5
50l:0.5
20l:0.5
50>:0.5
mm
4:0.2
4 :<0.2
;,2
,,
50 l: 0 .5
:<20% h
" 1
s 1
" 1
100 1 200 >: 10% b
mm
10 >:0.2
10>: 0.2
4 >:0. 1
2 "' 0.1
10- 25
25.4>: 0.1
6 :t 0.4
50
Test Spedmens
Test lpedmen acconling to

DIN EN ISO 5272 lot- moldlnil met.W.
DIN EN ISO 5273 fM films
lA
18
SA
4
58
2
5
Toler Type
Test lfl"d
=>
Lo
So
1+1'-!-1---,::::oool--9
t11, evz
20
yield stress
tJ.4v
on 1_
/
{/ f" ductile
"' Ot<l
maximum force
A4M change in length with

maximum load
~~; ~ brittle
Fv
cf. DIN EN ISO 527 1 (1996-041
10
Lo
10 "' 0.2
25 >: 0.25
Tensile test ISO 527-2/1A/50: Tensile test according to ISO 5272; specimen type lA; test speed 50 mm/min
Hardness test on plastics
cf. DIN EN ISO 2039 1 (2003.()6)
F0 preload 9.8 N
Fm test load
Ball indentation test
F..,
depth of penetration
distance from edge
specimen thickness
Test Specimens
distance from edge a"' 10 mm, minimum specimen thick.ness s "' 4 mm
Ball indentation hardness H in N/mm 2 for indentation depth h in m m
0.16
0. 18
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
Test load
Fm inN
""l
:;
\.
Test
skecimen
49
22
19
16
15
13
12
11
10
132
59
51
44
39
35
32
30
27
25
24
358
160
137
120
106
96
87
80
74
68
64
961
430
310
320
290
260
234
214
198
184
171
Ball indentation hardness ISO 2039-1 H 132: H 31 N/mm2 at Fm 132 N
Hardness test by Shore on plastics
cf. DIN EN ISO 868 (2003.()61
FA contact pressure in N
F test load
depth of penet.r ation
s specimen thickness
a distance from edge
Test Specimens
Distance from edge a"' 9 mm. minimum specimen thickness s" 4 mm
Indenters for
ShoreD
Test
method
Fmax
Application
in Ill
~
0 ~~ I-----AD----+--~7-~~-__
,_o__
50
L __ _
;:-:
_Lnif__Shore
s _ho
_ re
__h
_a_ro
_ n_e_ss
__w_i_th_T_y_pe
__A
D--is_<_2_o
hardness
with Type
is> 90________~
85 Shore A: Hardness value 85; test method Shore A
196
Material science: 4.13 Corrosion, Corrosion protection
Corrosion
Electrochemical series of metllls
In galvanic corrosion !he same processes oocur as in elec:lrical elements where the base metals are corroded. The
voltage produced between rwo dissimilar metals under influence of a conducting liquid (elec:lrolyte) ca n be !aken
from the standard potentiels of the electrochemical series. S!andard po!ential refers to the voltage produced between
the electrode material and a platinum elec:lrode immersed in hydrogen.
Passivation (formation of protective layers) alters the voltage between the elements.
Electrode
m aterials
I
I
~
~
.,~
Mg
AI
Mn
- 2.5
-3
~;::
q q
Zn Cr
:1
"'qf"'!
Ni Sn H
q""':
-1
- 0.5
- 1.5
..0.5
0
-2
Standard potentials of the electrode material In volts
.....
ll
Pt
Ag
Cu
+1
+1.5 1
'
increasingly noble
Example: The standard potentials of Cu +0.34 V and AI - 1.7 V yield a voltage of U = + 0.34 V- (-1.67 V) 2.01 V
between Cu and AI.
Corrosion behavior of metllllic materials

~In
Materlela
Corrosion behftior
Unalloyed and
alloy steels
Only resist corrosion in dry

areas
Stainless
steels
Resistant, but no1 against

aggressive chemicals
Aluminum and
AI alloys
Resistant, except the AI

alloys containing Cu
Copper and
Cu alloys
Resistant, especially
Cu alloys containing Ni
following environm..,.
Dfy
Country
Industrial
s..
Salt
ambient air
air
air
air
water
v
v
v
v
v
v
e resistan1
() fairly resistant
0 non-resistant
e to!)
e
toO
0 unusable
Corrosion protection
Preparation of metal . . . , _ t..fore coating
Processing step
Purpose
Process
Mechanical cleaning
and creating a good
surface for adherence
Removal of mill scale, rust and

dirt
Grinding, brushing, blasting with

water jet mixed with silica sand
Chemical cleaning and

creating an optimal
surface finish
Removal of mill scale. rust and grease

residues
Roughing or smoothing the surface
Etching with acid or lye;

degreasing with solvents;
chemical or electrochemical polishing
...
Preventative actions for corrosion protection

Actions
Examples
Select suitable materials
Stainless steel for parts for preparation in the

paper production
Observe corrosion protection principles in design
Same material on contact points, insulation layers

between the parts, avoiding gaps
Protective layers: protective oil or lubricant

chemical surface treatment
protec:live paint
Oiling sliding tracks and measu ring tools

Phosphatiting, burnishing
lacquer coat, possible after previous phosphatizing
Metallic coatings
Hot-dip galvanizing,
galvanic metal plating, e.g. chrome plating
Cathodic corrosion protection
Part to be protected, e. g. a ship propeller,

is connected to a sacrificial anode
Anodic oxidation of AI materials
A corrosion-resistant permanent oxide layer is produced

on the part, e.g. a rim
Material science: 4. 14 Hazardous materials
197
Disposal of substances*
Waste management laws
cf. Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act (2001101
lmportent principles of recycling menagernent

Avoid waste, e.g. by in-house recycling management or a low"waS1e product design.
Utilize material waS1e, e.g. by recovery o f raw materials from waS1e (secondary raw materialsl.
Use waste for recovery of energy (energy use). e.g. use as subS1itute fuel.
Waste must be recycled properly without adverse effect on the well being of the general public.
The disposal of waste is subject to monitoring by the responsible authorities (usually the administrative districtI. In
panicular, wastes hazardous to health, air or water, el(plosive, and flammable especially need to be monitored.
The wute producer Is responsible for proper disposal and documentation of disposal.
Exemples ol waste requiring speciel monitoring (1\aurdous ~~ In ~ processing lnctustryll
Disposal
code
Description of the
type of waste
Appearance, description,
source
SpeciallnS1ructions,
actions
150199D1
Packaging containing
hazardous impurities
Barrels, canisters, buckets and

cans contain residues of
paints. lacquers, solvents,
cleaning agents, rust prevents
tives. rust and silicone
removers. spackle, etc.
Emptied, drip free, brush or spatula clean

conditions are not wastes requiring
special monitoring . They are considered
retail packaging. Disposal using the dual
system or in metal bins using a waste
management company. Bins with dried
paint are similar to house-hold commercial
waste.
Spray cans should be avoided if possible;
they must be disposed as hazardous waste.
I
Spray cans with residual
contents
160602
Nickel cadmium
batteries
160604
Alkaline batteries
All batteries containing contaminants are

Rechargeable batteries. e. g.
from drills and sc:rewdrivers. etc. labeled. The dealer must accept their return
at no charge.
Coin cell batteries. mercury
Consumers are required to return them to
containing monocell batteries
the dealer or to a public recycling center.
Non-rechargeable batteries
160603
Mercury dry cells
060404
M ercury containing
waste
(S~H:alled
Fluorescent lamps
"neon tubes" I
can be recycled. Return to dealer or to

waste disposer.
Do not put in glass recycling!
120106
Used machining oils,

containing halogens. no
emulsion
Water free drilling, turning.

grinding and cutting oils.
so-called cooling lubricants
120107
Used machining oils,

Old, water free
halogen free, no emulsion honing oil
110
Synthetic machining oils
Avoid cooling lubricants as much as possi

ble. e.g. by
dry machining
minimum quantity cooling lubrication
Separated collection of different cooling
lubricants. emulsions, solvents. Inquire
with supplier for reprocessing or
combustion (energy recyclingl options.
130202
Non chlorinated machine, Used oil and gear oil,

hydraulic oil, compressor oil
gear and lubricating oils
from piston air compressors
15029901
Vacuumed and filter materials, wipe cloths and pro

tective clothing with hazardous contaminants
For example, used rags, clean Option of using a rental service for cleaning
ing cloths; brushes contami
cloths.
nated with oil or wax, oil
binders. oil and lubricant cans
130505
Other emulsions
Condensation water from

compressors
Use compressor oils with de-emulsifying

propenies; inquire about the option of oil
free compressors.
140102
Other halogenated
solvents and solvent
mixtures
Per H:hloroethane)
Tri (-chloroethene)
Mixed solvents
Recycling by suppliers and test replacement with aqueous cleaning solution.
1)
Cooling lubricants from synthetic oils, e. g. on e$1erbased
Recycling through supplier or a licensed

waste disposal service.
Used oils of known origin may be recycled
by secondary refining or energy recovery.
Do not mi.x with other materialsI
Regulation governing waS1es requiring special monitoring - BestbiiAbN (1999-0 1). Appendix 1: Wastes listed in
the European Waste Catalog (EAK wastel are considered to be especially hazardous. Appendix 2: EAK waste
requiring special monitoring as well as waste types not on the EAK list ( Letter "D" in Disposal codel.
*I According to European Standards
198
Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials
Hazardous materials and material characteristics of hazardous gases

ldentiflc:ation and handling of hazardous materials
Substance
ldent.if~eauon21
Symbol A-phrases
S.phrases
cf. EC Directive R 671548JEECII
Substance
ldentifiC8tion21
Symbol A-phrases
S-phrases
Acetone
F, Xi
11; 36; 66; 67 9; 16; 26
Tetrachlorethane ("Per")
Xn; N
Acetylene
Acrylonitrile
F.F, T,N
5; 6; 12
Kerosine
Phenol
T
T;C
Ammonia
C; N
Phosphoric acid
Arsenic
T; N
Propane
Asbestos
Gasoline
T
T
F; T
45; 48123
45; 65
45; 46; 11;
36138; 481'131
24/25; 65
Lead
compounds
T; N
Chromium
compounds
T; N
61 ; 20/22; 33; 53; 45; 60; 61

62; 50153
49; 43; 50153 53; 45; 60; 61
Benzene
Hydro fluoric acid T+; C

(HF)
(2); 9; 16; 33
45; 11; 23124; 9; 16; 45;

25; 37/38; 41 ; 53; 61
43; 51/53
34; 50
26; 36137139;
61
23125; 50153 20/2 1; 28; 45;
60; 61
53; 45
53; 45
53; 45
40; 51/53
23; 36/37;
61
45
53; 45
23124/25; 34;
48120/21/22;
68
34
24/25; 26;
28; 36/37;
39; 45
23; 45
F+
12
9; 16
Mercury
T; N
Hydrochloric acid c
23; 33; 50153

34; 37
7; 45; 60; 61
26; 45
Oxygen
17
Lubricating grease T
45
53;45
Lubric81ing oil
45
53; 45
26/27/28;
35
49; 38
7/9; 26;
36137; 45
53; 45
Sulphoric acid
35
26; 30;45
Styrene
Xn
10; 20; 36138
23
Ceramic
mineral fibers
Carbon
monoxide
T
F+; T
61 ; 12; 23;
48123
53; 45
Turpentine, oil
Xn; N
10; 20/21;
36/38; 43;
51/53; 65
36137; 46;
61 ; 62
Fiber glass
Xn
38; 40
35137
Trichlorethylene
(Tri)
53;45;61
Nicotine
T+; N
25; 27; 51/53
36137; 45; 61
Hydrogen
F+
45; 36138;
52153; 67
12
9; 16; 33
II As per Art. 1a of the Regulation on Hazardous Materials applicable in Germany since 31 October 2005
2l Cf. R-phrases on page 199, 5-phrases on page 200, Safety signs o n page 342; the slash Vl between the number indicates a combination of A-phrases or S-phrases.
M aterial characteristics of hazardous gases

Gas
Density
ratio to air
Ignition
temperature
305"C
lower I Upper
ignition limit
vol.-% gas in air
With a pressure Pe > 2 bar self-disintegration

and explosion
Loss of breath; danger of suffocation
Narcotic effect; suffocating effect
Acetylene
0.91
Argon
Buta ne
1.38
2.11
incombustible
365"C
1.5
8.5
Carbon dim<ide
1.53
incombustible
Uquid C02 and dry ice lead to serious frostbvte
Carbon monoxide
0.97
605"C
12.5
74
Potent blood poison; damage to vision,

lungs, liver, kidneys and hearing
Hydrogen
0.07
57oc
75.6
Spontaneous combustion with high escaping

speeds; forms explosive mixtures with a ir, 0 2
andCI
Nitrogen
0.97
incombustible
lose of breath in enclosed spaces; danger of

suffocation
Oxygen
1.1
incombustible
Greases and oils react with oxygen explosively;

fire-promoting gas
Propane
1.55
2.1
9.5
470"C
1.5
Additional information
82
loss of breath; liquid propane causes damage

to s kin and eves
199
Hazardous substances, R-phrases*

Hazardous substances adversely affect the safety and health of humans and endanger the environment. They must
be specially labeled (see page 342). The following R PhrasesII are standard phrases and point out the special risks
when handling a hazardous substance. Special safety data sheets for each hazardous substance contain further
extensive information.
RPhrases: Notes on special risks

,
Meaning
..
_.,
cf. RL 6715481EWG 2l (2004-04)

~
MHnin9
R1
Explosive when dry
R34
R2
Risk of explosion by shock. friction,

fire, or other sources of ignition
R35
Causes severe burns
R36
Irritating to the eyes
Extreme risk of explosion by shock. frictlon.

fire, or other sources of ignition
R37
Irritating to respiratory system
R38
Irritating to the skin
R39
Danger of very serious irreversible effects
R3
R4
Forms very sensitive explosive metallic

compounds
R5
Heating may cause an explosion
R6
Explosive with or without contact with air
R7
May cause fire
RB
Conl8ct with combustible material may

cause fire
Causes bums
R40
Limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect
R41
Risk of serious damage to eves
R42
May cause sensitization by inhalation
R43
May cause sensitization by skin contact
R44
Risk of explosion if heated under confinement

May cause cancer
R 10
Flammable
R45
R 11
Highly flammable
R46
May cause heritable genetic damage
Extremely flammable
R48
Danger of serious damage to health by

prolonged exposure
R 12
R 13
Extremely flammable liquid gas
R 14
Reacts violently with water
R 15
Contact with water liberates extremely

flammable gases
R 16
Explosive when mixed with

oxidizing substances
R49
May cause cancer by inhalation
R50
Very toxic to aquatic organisms
R 51
Toxic to aquatic organisms
R52
Harmful to aquatic organisms
R53
May cause long-term adverse effects

in the aquatic environment
R 17
Spontaneously flammable in air

R54
Toxic to flora (plants)
R 18
In use, may form flammable/explosive

vapor-air mixture
R55
Toxic to fauna (animals)
R 19
May form explosive peroxides
R56
Toxic to soil organisms
R20
Harmful by inhalation
R57
Toxic to bees
R21
Harmful in conl8ct with skin
R58
May cause long-term adverse effects

in the environment
R22
Harmful if swallowed
R59
Dangerous to the ozone layer
R23
Toxic by inhalation
R60
May impair fertility
R24
Toxic in contact with skin
R25
Toxic if swallowed
R26
Very toxic by inhalation
R27
Very toxic in contact with skin
R28
Very toxic if swallowed
R29
Contact with water liberates toxic

gases
R30
Can become highly flammable in use
R31
Contact with acids liberates toxic gases
R32
Contact with acids liberates very toxic

gases
R33
Danger of cumulative effects
R61
May cause harm to the unborn child
R62
Possible risk of impaired fertility
R63
Possible risk of harm to the unborn child
R64
May cause harm to breastfed babies
R65
Harmful: May cause lung damage if

swallowed
R66
Repeated exposure may cause skin dryness

or cracking
R67
Vapors m ay cause drowsiness

and dizziness
Possible irreversible damage
R68
II R ~ Risk
3)
21 EU-Directive. Appendix Ill
Combinations of the risk phrases are possible; e.g. R 23/24: Toxic by inhalation and in contact with skin
*) Aocording to European Standards
200
Hazardous substances, S-Phrases*

The following standardized recommended safety measures IS phrases) 11are to be followed while handling hazardous
substances and preparations. By complying with them dangers can be avoided or reduced.
S lsafetyl phrases: Recommended Safety Measures

Sptv-'l
Meaning
Sptv-'1
ct. RL 671548/t:WG 2' (2004-041

Meaning
S1
Keep lod<ed up
S39
Wear eye/face protection
S2
Keep out of the reach of children
S 40
S3
Keep in a cool place
To dean the floor and all objects contam. by this

material, use ... (to be specif. by the manufacturer)
S4
Keep away from living quarters
S 41
Keep contems under .. (appropriate liquid to

be specified by the manufacturer)
In case of fire and/or explosions do not breathe

fumes
S 42
During fumigatlol1/spraylng wear suitable

respiratory equipment (appropriate
WO<ing to be specified by the manufacturer)
S43
In case of fire, use ... (indicate in the space

the precise type of fire-fighting equipment
if water increases risk, add: 'Never use water')
S45
Keep away from food, drink and animal

feeding stuffs
In case of accident or if you feel unwell.

seek medical advice immediately
(show the label where possible)
S 46
S 14
Keep away from ... (incompatible materials

to be indicated by the manufacrurer)
If swallowed, seek medical advice immediately

and show this container or label
S47
s 15
s 16
s 17
Keep away from heat
Keep at temperature not exceeding ...

(To be specified by the manufacturer)
S48
Keep wet with ... (appropriat e material

to be specified by the manufacturer)
ss
S6
Keep contents under . (appropriate I inert gas

to be specified by the manufacturer)
S7
Keep container tightly closed
sa
Keep container dry
S9
s 12
s 13
Keep container in a well-ventilated place
Do not keep the container sealed
Keep away from sources of ignit ion- no smolcing

Keep away from combustible materials
s 18
Handle and open container with care
S49
Keep only in the original container
S20
When using do not eat or drink
sso
Do not mix with ... (to be specified
S21
When using do not smoke
S22
Do not breathe dust
S23
Do not breathe gas/fumes/vapor/spray

(appropriate wording to be specified by the
manufacturer)
S24
Avoid contact with skin
by the manufacturer)
S51
Use only in well-ventilated areas
S52
Not recommended for interior use on large

surface areas
S53
Avoid exposures-41, obtain special

insttUCiions before use
S25
Avoid contact with eyes
S56
S26
In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately

with plenty of water and seek medical advice
Dispose of this material and its container

at hazardous or special waste collection point
S57
S27
Take off immediately all contaminated

clothing
Use appropriate container to avoid51

environmental contamination
S59
S28
After contact with skin, wash immediately with

plenty of ... (to be specified by the manufacturer)
Refer to manufacturer/Supplier for information

on recovery/recyCling
Do not empty into drains
SilO
S29
This material and its container must be

disposed of as hazardous waste
S61
Avoid release to the environment.

Refer to special instructions/Safety data sheets
S62
If swallowed, do not induce vomiting:

seek medical advice immediately
and show this container or label
S63
In case of accident by inhalation: move victim to

fresh air and keep at rest
S64
If swallowed, rinse mouth with water (only if the
S30
Never add water to this product
S33
Take precautionary measures against

static discharges
S35
This material and its container must be

disposed of in a safe way
S36
Wear suitable protective clothing
S37
Wear suitable gloves
S 38
In case of insufficient ventilation,

wear suitable respiratory equipment
II
31
41
)
person is conscious)
S = safety
21 EU- Directive, Appendix N
Combinations of the S phrases are possible; e. g. S 20/21 : when using do not eat. drink or smoke.
51 Contamination. infestation
i. e. d o not expose yourself t o t his hazard
According to European Standards
Table of Contents
201
5 Machine elements
--
iF---3l
5.1
Threads (overview) ..................... . ...

Metric ISO threads .................... . ....
Whitworth threads, Pipe threads . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trapezoidal and buttress threads . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thread tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
202
204
206
207
208
5.2
Bolts and screws (overview) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Designations, strength ...... ....... . ...... ..
Hexagon head bolts & screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other bolts & screws ... ..... .... ... ........
Screw joint calculations .....................
Locking fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Widths across flats, Bolt and screw drive systems
209
210
212
215
221
222
223
5.3
Countersinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Countersinks for countersunk head screws . . . . 224
Counterbores for cap screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.4
Nuts (overview) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Designations, Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hexagon nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other nuts .... ..... .. . ................. ...
226
227
228
231
5.5
Washers (overview) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Flat washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
HV, Oevis pin, Conical spring washers .... ...... 235
5.6
Pins and clevis pins (overview) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Dowel pins, Taper pins, Spring pins . . . . . . . . . 237
Grooved pins, Grooved drive studs, Clevis pins . 238
5.7
Shaft-hub connections
Tapered and feather keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Parallel and woodruff keys .... . ........... ..
Splined shafts, Blind rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tool tapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_ _...)
(..__
239
240
241
242
5.8
Springs, components of jigs and tools

Springs ................ .... ... ..........244
Drill bushings ... .. ....... .... .. ........... 247
Standard stamping parts .. . . ................ 251
5.9
O..ive elements
Belts ....................... ... ... .... ....
Gears .............................. ..... .
Transmission ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Speed graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
253
256
259
260
5.10 Bearings
Plain bearings (overview) .............. .....
Plain bearing bushings .... ............ .....
Antifriction bearing.s (overview) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of roller bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Retaining rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sealing elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lubricating oils ...................... .... ..
Lubricating greases ........................
261
262
263
265
269
270
271
272
202
Machine elements: 5.1 Threads
Types of threads. Overview

Right-hand threads, single-surt
nw...d
.... ......
Code
ThrMcl profile
o.igMtlon
f U IN 707 11q9q 11 I
Nomlnelslua
Appllcetion
DIN 14-M08
0.3 to0.9 mm
Clocks, precision
mechanisms
DIN 13- M 30
1 to68mm
General purpose
(coa rse thread I
DIN 13- M 20 X 1
1to 1000mm
General purpose
(fine threadl
DIN 2510-M 36
12to 180 mm
Bolts/screws with
anti-fatigue shank
DIN 158- M 30 X 2
6to60 mm
Drain plugs and

grease nipples
DIN 158-M 30 x 2 keg
6to60mm
Drain plugs and

grease nipples
DIN ISO 228-G1 112 (internal)

1
DIN ISO 228-G 112A (external) 1s to 6 inches
Parallel
pipe threads
(internal threads)
Rp
Taper
pipe threads
(external threads)
Qt-~16
M etric ISO
trapezoidal
threads
neme
I
Metric threads
ISO threads
Metric threads with

largo clearance i
Metric straight
internal threads
II
60
Metric
taper
external threads
Pipe threads,
straight
Buttress threads
Knuckle threads
Tapping screw
threads
iiZ
&
DIN 2999- Rp 1l2

DIN 3658- Rp
11s
1/
16 to
Does not seal on

thread
6 inch
'Is to 1 1/z inch
Pipe threads.
seals on thread;
forthreaded pipe,
fittings, screwed
pipe joints
DIN 2999-R 11z
1!,
DIN 3658- R 11r1
11s to
Tr
DIN 103- Tr 40 x 7
8to300mm
General purpose as
motion screw
threads
DIN 513-S 48 X 8
10to640mm
General purpose as
motion screw
threads
DIN 405- Rd 40 x 116
8to200mm
General purpose
DIN 20400-Rd 40 X 5
10to300mm
Knuckle threads witt

large thread overlap
ISO 1478-ST 3,.5
1.5to 9.5mm
For tapping
screws
to 6 inches
R
1 112 inches
Rd
ST
Designation of left-hand and multiple start tlveads
cf. DIN 150965-1 (1999-11)
Type of thnNid
Explanation
Left-hand threads
The code designation "LH" is placed after the complete M 30 - LH

Tr40><7 - LH
thread designation ILH = Left-Hand).
Code designation (examples)
Multiple start
The lead Ph and the pitch Pfollow the code designation M 16xf\3P1,.5or
right-hand. thread and the thread diameter.
M 16 x 1'\, 3 P 1,5 (double-start)
Multiple start left " LH" is placed after the thread designation of the multi M 14x f\,6P2-LHor
hand thread
pte start.''
M 14 x 1'\, 6 P 2 (triple-start}-LH
'' For parts which have right-hand and left-hand threads, "RH" (Right-Hand) is placed after the thread designation of
the righthand thread and "LH" (LeftHand) after the left-hand thread. The number of starts for multiple-starts is
found by: no. of starts = lead PtJ pitch P.
203
ThrHdname
Unified National
Coarse Thread
UNC
1/ 4
20 UNC - 2A
150-UNCthread
with 1/ 4 inch
nominal diameter,
20 threadS/inch,
Class2A
ARG,AUS,
CAN, GBR,
IND,JPN,
NOR, PAK,
SWE
and others
Unified National Fine

Thread
UNF
1/.-28
UNC-3A
internal thread
150-UNF threads
with 11. inch
nominal diameter,
28 threadS/inch,
Class3A
ARG,AUS,
CAN, GBR,
INO,JPN,
NOR. PAK,
SWE
and others
Unified National
Extra Fine
Thread
UNEF
1/ 4
32 UNEF -
ISO-UNEF thread
with 1/ 4 inch
nominal diameter,
32 threadS/inch.
Class3A
ARG,AUS,
CAN, IND.
NOR, PAK..
SWE
and others
UNS
1/ 4
27 UNS
UNS threads with

inch nominal
diameter,
27 threadS/inch
ARG,AUS,
CAN, NZL,
USA
NPSM threads
with 112 inch
nominal diameter,
14 threadS/inch
USA, CAN
external thread
p
Unified National
Special Thread,
special diameter/lead
combinations
Straight Pipe
Threads for
Mechanical Joints
1/
4
straight
external thread
American Standard
Taper Pipe Thread
taper
internal thread
American Taper Pipe

Thread, Fuel
NPT
lfa-18 NPT
NPTthread
with% inch
nominal diameter,
18 threadS/inch
BRA, CAN,
FAA, USA
and others
NPTF
1/2-14 NPTF
(dryseal)
NPTF threads
with 1/ 2 inch
nominal diameter,
14 threadS/inch.
(dry sealing)
BRA, CAN,
USA
Acme
1'1.-4 Acme-
Acme threads
w ith 1lf.inch
nominal diameter
4 threadS/inch,
Class 2G
AUS,CAN,
GBR, NZL,
USA
Stub
Acme
1f2- 20Stub
Acme
Stub Acme threads

with 1/ 2 inch
nominal diameter,
20 threadS/inch
CAN, USA
taper
external thread
American trapezoidal
threads
h ~ 0.5 . p
internal thread
American truncated
trapezoidal threads
h~0 .3 p
external thread
cf. Kaufmann, Manfred: wegweiser zu den Gewindenormen verschiedener Uinder

DIN, Beuth-Verlag
21 Three-letter codes for countries. cf. DIN EN ISO 31~ 1 (2008-06)
1)
203 a
Machine elements: 5. 1 Threads
Imperial Threads
Imperial Threads for general purposes
p
lnternal l\read
Major diameter
Pitch
Depth of external thread
Depth of internal thread
Radius at root
Basic pitch 0
Minor 0 of external thread
Minor 0 of internal thread
Tap hole drill0
Thread angle
,~
~"~~~ I~
tl
IE'
I~
1:)
~~
t:i..,
external thread
Threads
Mljor
per inch diamete<
or inches
D
inches
32
8
10
12
32
24
24
20
18
16
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
1/4
S(16
318
7 /16
1{1.
9/16
S(8
3/4
718
1
1118
1 1/4
1 318
11{1.
13/4
2
7
6
6
5
4.5
0.1380
0.1640
0.1900
0.2160
0.2500
0.3125
0.3750
0.4375
0.5000
0.5625
0.6250
0.7500
o.8750
1.0000
1.1250
1.2500
1.3750
1.5000
1.7500
2.0000
Pilch
Pilch
I""'0.0313
0.0313
0.0417
0.0417
0.0500
O.OS56
0.0625
0.0714
0.0769
0.0833
0.0909
0.1000
0.1111
0.1250
0.1429
0 .1429
0.1667
0.1667
0.2000
0.2222
Minot
EX18m81 lnlemal
eli...- !"'--s
d,O,
inchas
0.1177
0.1437
0.1629
0.1889
D.2175
0.2764
0.3344
0.3911
0.4500
0.5084
0.5660
0.6851
D.I!028
0.9168
1.0322
1.1572
1.2668
1.3918
1.6201
1.8557
h3 -
d- P
so
s ;. (~;d3r
Exblmol
lhrMdo
<b
inc:Ns
0.1008
0.1268
0. 1404
0. 1664
0.1905
0.2464
0.3006
inc:Ns
0.1042
0.1302
0.1449
0.1709
0.1959
0.2524
D.3073
0.01920
0.01920
0.02S68
0.02S68
0.03067
0.03411
0.03834
D.3525
D.3602
D.04380
0.4084
0.4633
0.5168
0.6310
0.7427
0.8512
0.9549
1.0799
1.1766
1.3016
1.5119
1.7355
0.4167
0.4723
0.04717
0.05110
0.05576
0.06134
0.06815
0.07668
0.06786
0.06786
0.10225
0.10225
0.12268
0.13630
D.5268
ANSVASME 81.1 (1989)
Threed dl!lCh
ltvD,
0.6418
0.7547
0.8547
0.9704
1.D954
1.1946
1.3196
1.5335
1.7594
tl>r-
H,
inc:Ns
0.01691
0.01691
0.02256
0.022!i6
0.027()6
0.03007
0.03383
0.03866
0.04164
0.04511
0.04921
0.05413
0.06014
0.06766
0.07732
0.07732
0.09021
O.D9021
0.10625
0.12028
- - ,. -1-
Str-
Radius
R
Major
Threads
llize
per inch eli...D
0<~
6
8
10
12
1/4
5/16
318
7116
1{1.
9116
518
3/4
718
1
1 1/8
1 1/4
1318
1 1/2
40
36
32
28
28
24
24
20
20
18
18
16
14
12
12
12
12
12
Pik:h
Pitch
diameter
,_
inches
ina-
0.1380
0.1640
0.1900
0.2160
02500
0.3125
0.3750
0.4375
0.5000
0.5625
0.6250
0.7500
0.8750
1.0000
1.1250
12500
1.3750
1.5000
0.0250
0.0278
0.0313
0.0357
0.0357
0.0417
0.0417
0.0500
0.0500
0.0556
0.0556
0.0625
0.0714
0.0833
0.0833
0.0833
0.0833
0.0833
0.1218
0.1460
0.1697
0.1928
d, c O,
Minot
Exremal
c1J
inches
D.5264
0.1082
0.1309
0.1528
0.1735
D.2075
0.2629
0.3254
0.3780
0.4405
0.4964
0.5689
0.7094
0.8286
0.9459
1.0709
1.1959
1.3209
1.4459
0.5589
0.6756
0.7900
0.9006
1.0258
1.1506
1.2758
1.4006
D.2268
D.2854
0.3479
0.4050
0.4675
0.3299
0.3834
0.4459
0.5024
0.5649
D.6823
OJ9n
0.9098
1.D348
1.1S98
1.2848
1.4096
Drill bit for tap hole

DriU size Decimal
inchas
0.0093
0.0142
0.0179
0.0246
0.0324
o.ooeo
0.0532
0.0786
0.1078
0.1438
0.1642
0.2288
0.3382
0.4666
0.6120
0.7713
0.9781
1.1664
1.4179
1.9171
0.0090
0.0103
0.0111
0.0120
0.0131
0.0144
0.0160
0.0180
0.0206
0.0206
0.0241
0.0241
O.D289
0.0321
2.5207
#36
129
#25
116
#7
F
S(16
u
27/64
31/64
17(32
21(32
49/64
718
63164
1 7/64
1 7fJ2
1 11fJ2
1 9/16
1 25132
equivel.
0.1065
0.1360
0.1495
0.1770
0.2010
0.2579
0.3125
0.3680
0.4219
0.4843
0.5313
0.6562
0.7656
0.6750
0.9644
1.1093
1.2187
1.3437
1.5625
1.7812
ANSVASME 81.1 (19891
Thread~
Extemlll
!"'--s
0,
,_
,_
0.1109
0.1339
0.1562
o.1m
D.2113
0.2674
-s
incJ>2
0.0045
0.0045
0.0060
0.0060
0.0072
Basic sizes for Unified National Fine Threads IUNFJ

No.
-o
0.6134. p
H1 0.5413 P
R 0.1443 P
~ - ~ - d - 0.641l5 . p
d:J - d - 1.1904. p
o, d - 1.0825. p
Stress area
Buic sizes for Unified National Coarse Threads tUNC)

No.
llize
d
p
0.0153
0.0170
0.0192
0.0219
0.0219
0.0256
0.0256
0.0307
0.0307
0.0341
0.0341
0.0383
0.0438
0.0511
O.OS11
0.0511
0.0511
0.0511
H,
inclws
0.01353
0.01504
0.01691
0.01933
0.01933
0.022!i6
0.02255
0.02706
0.02706
0.03007
0.03007
0.03383
D.03866
0.04511
O.D4511
D.04511
O.D4511
0.04511
Stress
Radius
R
inchM
0.0036
D.0040
0.0045
0.0052
0.0052
0.0060
0.0060
0.0072
0.0072
0.0080
0.0080
0.0090
0.0103
0.0120
0.0120
0.0120
0.0120
0.0120
"'"s
inch'
OriN bit for tap hole

Drill size Decimal
equlvat.
0.0103
0.0149
0.0203
0.0262
0.0366
0.0587
0.0686
0.1198
0.1612
0.2046
0.2578
0.3754
0.5127
0.6674
0.8607
1.0785
1.3206
1.5877
133
#29
lf21
#14
I
I
Q
25{64
29/64
33/64
37/64
11/ 16
13/16
59/64
1 3/64
1 11/64
1 19/64
1 27/64
0.1130
0.1360
0.1590
0.1620
0.2720
0.2720
0.3320
0.3906
0.4531
0.5156
0.5781
0.6675
0.8125
0.9219
1.0469
1.1719
1.2968
1.4219
203 b
Imperial Threads
Basic sizes fUtion.l Pipe Tllpel' (M'T)
ANSVASME 81.20.1 - 1983 IR 19921
Thread depth h3 0.8 P

Hight
H 0.865 P
No. alto
lie
R,
~
Minor 0 external threads
Major 0 internal threads
Minor 0 internal threads
Pitch 0
0.12. p
c1J = d - (P+2 a.,)
04 d+2a.:
0 1 d-P
dz= Oz=d- 0.5-P

h:J e H4 0.5 P + Be
w 0.370 P- 0.259 Be
204
Metric threads and fine threads

Metric ISO threads for general purpou epplcadon, basic profiles
;.
inte rnal thread
,,,~
:1; ~
il
...
1.,;-
r;:,
c5'c:5"
,;, ~
exte rnal thre ad
d D
Major diameter
Pitch
Depth o f external thread
Depth o f inte rna l thread
Radius at root
Basic pitch 0
Mi nor 0 o f exte rnal thread
Minor 0 o f internal thread
Tap hole drill 0
Thread a ngle
Stress a rea
cf. DIN 13-19 (1999-111

p
h 3 0 .6134 p
H, 0.5413 P
R 0.1443 - P
~ 0, d - 0.6495 . p
d 3 - d - 1.2269 . p
d - 1.0825 . p
d- P
o,-
so
s - ;-(~ ; ~r
Basic sizes for coarse threads Series 111 (dimenSIOns in mmt

Thrnddeelgnatlon
d:D
Pitch
,.
Pitch 0
dz .. Dz
d,
0,
0.84
1.04
1.38
1.74
2.21
2.68
3.55
4.48
5.35
7.19
9.03
10.86
0.69
0.89
1.17
0.73
0.93
1.22
1.51
1.95
2.39
3.14
4.02
4.77
1.57
2.01
2.46
3.24
4.13
4.92
6.47
8.16
9.85
13.55
16.93
20.32
25.7 1
31.09
36.48
41.87
49.25
56.64
M1
M1.2
M1.6
0.25
0.25
0.35
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M30
M36
M42
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.7
0.8
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
14.70
18.38
22.05
27.73
33.40
39.08
M48
M56
M64
5
5.5
6
44.75
52.43
60.10
M 16
M20
M24
Min 0
ext8mlll inWnel
thrMda thrNda
ct. DIN 13-1 (1999-1 11
Threed dlpth
ext8mlll
thrMda
,.,
inWnel Rounded
thrNda
root
s-
Thl'1!8d
Pltch0
dz=Dz
M 2 X 0.25
M3><0.25
M4><0.2
1.64
2.84
3.87
M 4 X 0.35
M 5x 0.25
M 5><0.5
M6x0.25
M6><0.5
M6><0.75
M8>< 0.25
M8><0.5
M8x 1
3.77
4.84
4.68
5.84
5.68
5.51
7.84
7.68
7.35
0.14
0.14
0.19
0.22
0.24
0.27
0.38
0.43
0.54
0.68
0.81
0.95
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.07
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.46
0.73
1.27
0.75
0.95
1.25
2.07
3.39
5.03
8.78
14.2
20.1
1.6
2.05
2.5
3.3
4.2
5.0
6.65
8.38
10.11
0.15
0.15
0.22
0.25
0.28
0.31
0.43
0.49
0.61
0.77
0.92
1.07
0.18
0.22
0.25
36.6
58.0
84.3
13.84
17.29
20.75
26.21
31.67
37.13
42.59
50.05
57.51
1.23
1.53
1.84
2.15
2.45
2.76
3. 07
3.37
3.68
1.08
1.35
1.62
0.29
0.36
0.43
0.51
0.58
0.65
0.72
0.79
0.87
1.89
2.17
2.44
2.71
2.98
3.25
Threed
Min0
Pltdl0
Mln!l" 0
at. th. int. th.
at. th. int. th. delignetlon
dx
P
o,
d,
dz=Dz d,
0,
1.69
1.73
M 10><0.25 9.84
9.69
9.73
M10 >< 0.5
2.69
2.73
9.68
9.39
9.46
3.76
3.78
M 10 >< 1
9.35
8.77
8.92
M 12 ~<' 0.35 11.77 11.57 11.62
3.57
3.62
4.69
4.73
M 12 x 0.5
11.68 11.39 11.46
4.39
4.46
M 12><1
11.35 10.77 10.92
5.69
5.73
M 16 >< 0.5
15.68 15.39 15.46
5.46
M 16 >< 1
5.39
15.35 14.77 14.92
5.08
5.19
M 16 >< 1.5
15.03 14.16 14.38
7.69
M2Qx 1
7.73
19.35 18.77 18.92
7.46
M20 >< 1.5 19.03 18.16 18.38
7.39
6.92
M24><1.5
23.03 22.16 22.38
6.77
11 Series 2 and Series 3 also have intermediate s izes (e. g. M7, M9, M 14).
ct. DIN 336 (2003-<171
31 ct. DIN ISO 272 (1979-10)
2!
nel wldth
t tp
H,
157
245
353
561
817
1121
1473
2030
2676
Basic sizes for fine threads (dimensions in mmJ

dHignatlon
dx P
Hexago-
0fw
hole 21
mni'
--,....,.
Drll bit
-s
-3.2
4
5
5.5
7
8
10
6.8
8.5
10.2
13
16
18
14
17.5
21
26.5
32
37.5
24
30
36
46
55
65
75
85
95
43
50.5
58
ct. DIN 13-2 - 10 (1999-11)

Threed
delignetlon
Pitch0
dx P
dz=Dz
M24><2
M30>< 1.5
M30 x 2
22.70
29.03
28.70
35.03
34.70
41 .03
40.70
47.03
46.70
55.03
54.70
62.70
M 36 X 1.5
M36x2
M42 X 1.5
M42><2
M48 X 1.5
M48x2
M 56 X 1.5
M56><2
M64 x 2
Mlncw0
ext. th. int. th.
d,
o,
21.55
28.16
27.55
34.16
33.55
40.16
21.84
28.38
27.84
34.38
33.84
40.38
39.55
46.16
45.55
39.84
46.38
45.84
54.16
53.55
61.55
54.38
53.84
61.84
205
Machine elements: 5. 1 Threads
Metric taper threads
..
Metric t aper ext.NI and mating

internal straight screw threads (standard design )11
.,
..,I, I~
I:Q
...,_ _tf'
_f. -----plane
thread axis
---------
Thrud clmensiona
Thned
Threed
dellgnetlon
dx P
M5keg
M6keg
M8 >< 1keg
M 10 X 1 keg
M 12 X: 1 keg
M 10 >< 1.25 keg
M 12 x 1.25 keg
M 12>< 1.5keg
M 14 x 1.5 keg
M 16 '< 1.5keg
M 18 x 1.5 keg
M 20 x 1.5 keg
M22 >< 1.5 keg
M24 " 1.5keg
M26>< 1.5keg
M 30 x 1.5 keg
M 36 >< 1.5keg
M 38 >< 1.5 keg
M42 "1 1.5keg
M 45 x 1.5 keg
M48 >< 1.5keg
M 52 x 1.5 keg
M27><2 keg
M30><2keg
M 33 >< 2 keg
M36 ><2keg
M39><2keg
M42 ><2keg
M45 ><2 keg
M 48 x 2 keg
M52><2 keg
M56><2keg
M 60 >< 2keg
=>
o,<ft
,,
0.52
5.5
..!!..
ins.p ection
plane
Pitch0
Minor0
Height
Thread depth
reference Root radius
plane
>;;
0.66
[)Is..
~
2.5
0 .82
8.5
0.98
3.5
1.01
4.5
12
1.32
13
1.34
~ - d-1.23 . p
H1 0.866 P
~ - 0.613 - P
R 0.144 P
inspection
Thned clmenalona
daO'l dz Dz 11
5
6
8
10
12
10
12
12
14
16
18
20
22
10.5
cJ, - d - 0.650 . p
~ pla11e
DlmenUons in ,.,__plene
T'hr..t
cMpdl
1!, max.
length
Thread dimensions of
e xt...,..l threads
'I
-c;
'
cf. DIN 1581 (1997.()61
24
26
30
36
38
42
45
48
52
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
52
56
60
4.48
5.35
7.35
9.35
11.35
9.19
11.19
11.03
13.03
15.03
17.03
19.03
21.03
23.03
25.03
29.03
35.03
37.03
41 .03
44.03
47.03
51 .03
25.70
28.70
31.70
34.70
37.70
40.70
43.70
46.70
50.70
54.70
58.70
Dimensions in inllpection plene

[)Is..
~
Thread dirNnsl-
4J
d'
d '2
d 's
4.02
2.8
5.05
6.06
8.06
10.06
12.06
10.13
12.13
12.19
14.19
16.19
18.19
20.19
22.19
24.19
26.19
30.19
36.22
38.22
42.22
45.22
48.22
52.22
27.25
30.25
33.25
36.25
39.25
42.25
45.25
48.25
52.25
56.25
60.25
4.5
5.4
7.4
9.4
11.4
9.3
11.3
11.2
13.2
15.2
17.2
19.2
21.2
23.2
25.2
29.2
35.2
37.2
41 .2
44.2
47.2
51.2
25.9
28.9
31.9
34.9
37.9
40.9
43.9
46.9
50.9
54.9
58.9
4.07
4.84
6.84
8.84
10.84
8.59
10.59
10.35
12.35
14.35
16.35
18.35
20.35
22.35
24.35
28.35
34.38
36.38
40.38
43.38
46.38
50.38
24.80
27.80
30.80
33.80
36.80
39.80
42.80
45.80
49.80
53.80
57.80
4.n
6.n
8.n
1o.n
8.47
10.47
10.16
12.16
14.16
16.16
18.16
20.16
22.16
24.16
28.16
34.16
36.16
40.16
43.16
46.16
50.16
24.55
27.55
30.55
33.55
36.55
39.55
42.55
45.55
49.55
53.55
57.55
3.5
6.5
10
Threads DIN 158 - M 30 x2 keg: Metric taper external threads, d = 30 mm. P = 2 mm,
standard design
II For self-sealing joints (e.g. Drain plugs. grease nipples). For larger nominal diameters it is recommended to use
a joint compound to seal in the threads.
3 > Dz Basic pitch diameter of internal thread
21 D Basic major diameter of internal thread
206
Whitworth threads, Pipe threads

Whitworth threads
(not standardized)
Major diamete r
Minor diameter
~///P/.fi~ lntemal
~V: ~ ..... ..,
rS-
'l. thread
~~~'l'/B~
~~ ~~~
':.L
-~
c:l
<::1
s/,s"
lfe
1
/z"
%"
3,4.
7/s"
1'
4.72
6.13
7.49
9.99
5.54
7.03
8 .51
11.35
20
18
16
12
0.81
0.90
1.02
1.36
17.5
29.5
44.1
78.4
15.88
19.05
22.23
25.40
12.92
15.80
18.61
21 .34
14.40
17.42
20.42
23.37
11
10
9
8
1.48
1.63
1.81
2.03
131
196
272
358
55"
Pitch nv..dt 11vud Cote
0
::. depth Hdlon
dz=Oz
N
It, ~
mma
2"
27.10
32.68
37.95
43.57
29.43
35.39
41 .20
47.19
7
6
5
4.5
2.32
2.71
3.25
3.61
577
839
1 131
1491
2'/'
2 112'
3'
3 1/z'
57.15
63.50
76.20
88.90
49.02
55.37
66.91
78.89
53.09
4
4
3.5
3.25
4.07
4.07
4.65
5.00
1886
2408
3516
4888
,3,.
59.44
72.56
83.89
cf. DIN ISO 228-1 (2003-05), DIN EN 10226-1 (2004-10)

Pipe ttveads DIN EN 10226-1
sealed by threads;
straight internal threads. taper external threads
Pipe t hreads DIN ISO 228-1

for joints not sealed by threads;
straight internal and external threads
inrernal- 'l~
thread
r-:::
31.75
38.10
44.45
50.80
1'/
11/ 2'
Pipe threads
.., ""
.;; ..,-
--
h 1 H1 ~ 0.640 P
R 0.137 P
ThrMd
Pitch ThrMdt Thrud Core deslg- Mejor Mincw
0
::. depth . : : : , nation
0
0
d
d:O ~=0.
dz Dz N
It, ~ rnm2
6.35
7.94
9.53
12.70
25.4 mm
P - -
Dlmenolons In mm for extern.! end lntem81 ttveeds
DlmenUons In mm for .m.mal end intMnlll thrMds
.,..
~ Dz d - 0.640 - P
Thread depth
Radius
Thread a ng le
exte rnal thread
ThnNod
deslg- Mejor Minor
n.tlon
0
0
d
d D ~ = 0.
o, .
Pitch diameter
Threads/inch
Pitch
~ ~~~~
~
~"'""~ ~
~
c;.;; ..:;
d D
d, .
d - 1.28 . p
d - 2 . ,,
~~
~V//A'\.."V/
ta
f6l
t:l
external thread
""
//./
1~
<::If
tape r external
thread
././Nf_A/4.4/..z/.
A_~
J ~~...~~ '-~::'--"-. . .''.

.
f-~-- !--t~r~-..J ~!---+--c;-J,
90
""
~ ~~~ ~
straight /
interna l thread
cf. American Taper Standard-Pipe Threads NPT: page 203
Thread clesignlltion
Dill ISO 228-1
DIN EN10226-1
Externlll and
External Internal
Internal thnNids threads
ttveads
55
Pitch
Mejor
diameter ciametet-
~ ~-~
,..,_
\
_,1 :16
u sable thread length
Pitch
cMmeter
Tlweads
per
Profile
height
inch
d: O
dz=Dz
~=0.
h =lt,=~
Usable
length of
external
threads
"'
G 1/,s
G 1/a
G'/
R1/,e
R1/ 8
R'J
Rp 1/,s
Rp 1/ 8
Rp'l
7.723
9.728
13.157
7.142
9.1 47
12.301
6.561
8.566
11.445
0.907
0.907
1.337
28
28
19
0.581
0.581
0.856
6.5
6.5
9.7
G%
G'h
G3/
G1
G1 1/ 4
Gt 1/z
R%
R1/2
3
R /
R1
R1 1/ 4
R1 1/z
Rp%
Rp 1/z
Rp3/
Apt
Rp1 1f.
Rp11/ 2
16.662
20.995
26.441
15.806
19.793
25.279
14.950
18.631
24.117
1.337
1.814
1.8 14
19
14
14
0.856
1.162
1.162
10.1
13.2
14.5
33.249
41 .910
47.803
3t.no
40.431
46.324
30.291
38.952
44.845
2.309
2.309
2.309
11
11
11
1.479
1.479
1.479
16.8
19.1
19.1
G2
G2 1/z
G3
R2
R2 1/ 2
R3
Rp2
Rp2 1/ 2
Rp3
59.614
75.184
87.884
58.135
73.705
86.405
56.656
72.226
84.926
2.309
2.309
2.309
11
11
11
1.479
1.479
1.479
23.4
26.7
29.8
G4
G5
G6
R4
R5
R6
Rp4
Rp5
Rp6
113.030
138.430
163.830
111.551
136.951
162.351
110.072
135.472
160.872
2.309
2.309
2.309
11
11
1.479
1.479
1.479
35.8
40.1
40.1
ll
207
Trapezoidal and buttress threads

Metric ISO trapezoidal screw threads
cf. DIN 103-1 (1977041
Nominal diameter
Single start pitch
and multiple start lead
Multiple start pitch
No. of threads
Major 0 internal threads
Pitch0
Thread depth
1-- -- -,------------- - ---.

Dimension
For pitch P in mrn

2- 5
6- 12
0.25
0.5
0.125
0.25
0.25
0.5
1.5
0.15
0 .075
0.15
14-44
1
0.5
1
d
p
Pn
Pt. : P
d:J
o
~
d - (P+28e)
d+ 2 . Be
d- P
dz
h:J
~ d - 0.5-P
H 0.5 P+ Be
H, . o.s . p
Thread overlap
Crest clearance
Radius
Width of flat
Thread angle
Be
R 1 and R2
W 0.366 P- 0.54 8c
300
T'hrMd clrnlltWona in mm
......._0
T'hrMd
c;~
l'tldl
. . th. Int. th.
dz Dz .,
Tr 10 X 2
Tl'"12x 3
9
10.5
Tr 16 x 4
Tr20 X 4
d x I'
0.
7.5
8.5
8
9
10.5
12.5
1.25
1.75
0.60
0.96
Tr 40>< 7
Tr 44x 7
36.5
40.5
32
36
33
37
41
45
4
4
2.29
2.29
14
18
11.5
15.5
12
16
16.5
20.5
2.25
2.25
1.33
1.33
Tr 48x 8
Tr 52 X 8
44
48
39
43
40
44
4.5
4.5
2.66
2.66
Tr24 x 5
Tr28 X 5
21.5
25.5
18.5
22.5
19
23
24.5
28.5
2.75
2.75
1.70
1.70
Tr 60>< 9
Tr 70 X 10
55.5
65
50
59
51
60
49
53
61
71
5
5.5
3.02
3.39
Tr32
Tr36
29
34.5
25
32.5
26
33
33
36.5
3.5
2.0
1.93
0.83
Tr 80
Tr 90
X
X
10
12
75
84
69
70
78
81
91
5.5
6.5
3.39
4.12
33
31
29
25
30
26
37
37
3.5
5.5
1.93
3.39
Tr 100
Tr 140
12 94
14 133
87
124
88
126
101
142
6.5
8
4.12
4.58
X
X
6
3
Tr 36 x 6
Tr 36 X 10
Metric buttress threads
cf. DIN 513 (1985-041
Nominal thread size

Pitch
Pitch 0 external threads
Pitch 0 internal threads
Axial clearance
External thread depth
Internal thread depth
Radius
Crest width on major 0
Thread angle
internal thread
external thread
ExtemM threads lnterrwl threads
T'hrMd
MIMr Threed MiMr l'llrMd
designation
depth
depth
0
0
d x I'
H,
0.
h:J
.,
Pltd\
dz
~ o
d
p
d:J -
d - 1.736 . p
=d-1.5-P
dz d-0.75 -P
~= d - 0.75 P+ 3.176 a
8=0.1-ff
h:J & 0.8678 . p
H1 =0.75P
R 0.124 - P
W=0.264 P
33"
~
Extern8l threads lnterrwl thruds

Threed
MiMr nw..d Minor Threed
deligMdon
depth
depth
0
0
dx l'
H,
h:J
0.
.,
S 12 X 3
S 16 X 4
6.79
9.06
2.60
3.47
7.5
10.0
2.25
3.00
9.75
13.00
S20x4
S24x5
13.06
15.32
3.47
4.34
14.0
16.5
3.00
3.75
17.00
20.25
s
s
s
s
S28x5
532 x6
19.32
21.58
4.34
5.21
20.5
23.0
3.75
4.50
S36x6
S40x7
25.59
27.85
5.21
6.07
27.0
29.5
4.50
5.25
Pltd\
dz
44x 7
48x 8
31.85
34.12
6.07
6.94
33.5
36
5.25
6.00
38.75
42.00
38.11
44.38
6.94
7.81
40
46.5
6.00
6.75
46.00
53.25
24.25
27.50
s
s
52x 8
60x 9
70x 10
SOx 10
52.64
62.64
8.68
8.68
55
65
7.50
7.50
62.50
72.50
31.50
34.75
$ 90 X 12
$100 X 12
69.17
79.17
10.41
10.41
72
82
9.00
9.00
81.00
91.00
208
Machine elements: 5.1 Th reads
Thread tolerances
Tolerence classes for metric ISO threads
cf. DIN ISO 965-1 (1999-1 1)
Screw thread tolerances are to ensure the function nv..d tell.,_

lntemel thrMd8
Extemel ttwNda
and interchangeability of Internal and external l - - - - - - - - 1-p-it_ch_a_n_d_m_i_n_or--1-p-it_c_h_a_n_d_m_a_jo-r--1
threads. They are dependent on the diameter toler Applies to
diameters
diameters
anoes set in this standard and on the precision of 1 - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - + - - - - - - - 1
the p itch and the thread angle.
Labeled by
upper case letters
lower case letters
The tolerance class (fine, medium and ooarse) is 1 - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - + - - - - - --1
a lso dependent on the surface finish of the Tolerance class
5H
6g
threads. Thick electroplated protective coatings (eKample)
require more clearance (e.g. Tolerance Class 6G) 1-li
:..o_le_ra_.:_nce_g_r_a_d_e_-1_------+----- --1
than bright or phosphatized surfaces (Tolerance (size of tolerance)
5
6
Class 5H).
Tolerance tone
H
g
(position of zero line)
M1 2 x 1 - 5g 6g
M12 - 6g
IVI24 - 6G/6e
External fine threads, nomlnal0 12 mm, pitch 1 mm; 5g- Tolerance class for pitch 0;
6g - Tolerance class for major 0
M16
External coarse threads, nominal 0 12 mm; 6g - Tolerance class for pitch and major 0
Thread fit for coarse threads, nominal 0 24 mm, 6G - Tolerance class of the Internal
threads, 6e - Tolerance class of the external threads
Tolerance class medium 6Hi6g applies to threads without tolerance indication
Tolerance Class 6H/6g

is assigned to the
"medium (general
purpose) tolerance
class and "normal"
engagement length in
DIN ISO 965-1 (see
table below).
L
~ ~
e e
Internal threads, tolerance zone location H
External threads, tolerance zone location g
Umits for external and internal threads (selection)
cf. DIN ISO 965-2 (1999-11)
Internal thrMd8 - Tolerence eta. 6H

Threads
Major
0 0
Pitch0
Minor0 0,
Extanal thrMd8- T~ eta. 6g
Major0 d
Pitch0 ~
Minor0 11
da
min.
min.
max.
min.
max.
max.
min.
max.
min.
max.
min.
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
2.675
3.545
4.480
5.350
2.n5
3.663
4.605
5.500
2.459
3.242
4.134
4.917
2.599
3.422
4.334
5.135
2.980
3.978
4.976
5.974
2.874
3.838
4.826
5.794
2.655
3.523
4.456
5.324
2.580
3.433
4.361
5.212
2.367
3.119
3.995
4.747
2.273
3.002
3.869
4.596
M8
M8 x 1
M10
M10X1
8.0
8.0
10.0
10.0
7.188
7.350
9.026
9.350
7.348
7.500
9.206
9.500
6.647
6.917
8.376
8.917
6.912
7.t53
8.676
9.153
7.972
7.974
9.968
9.974
7.760
7.794
9.732
9.794
7.160
7.324
8.994
9.324
7.042
7.212
8.862
9.212
6.438
6.747
8.128
8.747
6.272
6.596
7.938
8.596
M12
M12 X 1.5
M16
M16 X 1.5
12.0
12.0
16.0
16.0
10.863
11.026
14.701
15.026
11.063
11.216
14.913
15.216
10.106
10.376
13.385
14.376
10.441
10.676
14.210
14.676
11.966
11.968
15.962
15.968
11.701
11.732
15.682
15.732
10.829
10.994
14.663
14.994
10.679
10.854
14.503
14.854
9.819
10.128
13.508
14.128
9.602
9.930
13.271
13.930
M20
M20 X 1.5
M24
M24 X 2
20.0
20.0
24.0
24.0
18.376
19.026
22.051
22.701
18.600
19.216
22.316
22.925
17.294
18.376
20.752
21 .835
17.744
18.676
21.252
22.210
19.958
19.968
23.952
23.962
19.623
19.732
23.5n
23.682
18.334
18.994
22.003
22.663
18.164
18.854
21.803
22.493
16.891
18.128
20.271
21 .508
16.625
18.930
19.955
21.261
M30
M30 x 2
M36
M36 x 3
30.0
30.0
36.0
36.0
27.727
28.701
33.402
34.051
28.007
28.925
33.702
34.316
26.211
27.835
31.670
32.752
26.n1
28.210
32.270
33.252
29.947
29.962
35.940
35.952
29.522
29.682
35.465
35.577
27.674
28.663
33.342
34.003
27.462
28.493
33.118
33.803
25.653
27.508
31.033
32.271
25.306
27.261
30.655
31.955
M3
M4
M5
M6
cf. DIN 13-20 (2000-08) and DIN 13-21 (2005-{)8)
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws
209
The most commonly used

bolts/screws in machine, equipment
and automotive Industry
Fully threAded type:
fatigue strength
Partly threaded and

with coarse threads
ML6-M64
DIN EN
IS04014
Fully threaded with

fine threads
M1.6-M64
DIN EN
IS04017
Partly threaded and

with fine threads
M8x1- M64x4
DIN EN
1508765
Fully threaded with

line threads
M8x1-M64x4
DIN EN
IS08676
With reduced shank
M3-M20
DIN EN
ISO 24015
Waisted bolts; lor dynamic toads. no

nut retention necessary when proper
ly installed
{f*H
Fit bolt
M8-M48
OIN609
Fixing position of parts against

movement. lit shank transmits trans
verse loads
-lf-e+
With larg(l(
width across Oats
M12- M36
DIN EN
14399-4
High-strength structural bolting

assemblies (HV}. with nuts as per
OIN EN 14399-4 (page 230)
{)-Ia-
Fit bolt with large

widths across flats
M12- M30
OIN7999
Friction grip (FG) joints, shear/bearing

stress connection
With hexagon socket. M1.6-M64

with coarse threads
OINEN
IS04762
With hexagon socket. M8x1-M64x4

fine threads
OINEN
ISO 21269
With hexagon socket

and low head
M3-M24
DIN 7984
Slotted
M1.6-M10
OINEN
ISO 1207
Slotted
M 1.6-M10
DIN EN
IS02009
With hexagon socket
M3-M20
DIN EN
ISO 10642
Slotted raised head

countersunk
M1.6-M10
DIN EN
IS02010
Recessed raised head M1.6-M10

countersunk cross
DIN EN
IS07047
Round head screw
DIN
IS07049
-fj=+aa-
te3t--a
-~
Etc
--++
~te-a
...
Countersunk
head screw
ST2.2- ST6.3
DIN
IS07050
Round head
countersunk screws
ST2.2-ST9.9
DIN
ISO 7051
Compared to coarse threads:

smaller thread depth, smaller
pitch, higher load capacity, larger
minimum engagement depth 10
Machine. equipment and automotfve

industry; low space requirements,
head sinkable
With low-profile heed: small height.
low stress
Slotted bolts/screws; small screws.
low stresses
Fine threads: smaller thread depth.
capable of higher loads, larger
minimum engagement depth /0
Variety of applications in machine.

equipment and automotive industry
For screws with hexagon socket:
greater load capacity
For screws with cross r -: Secure
tightening and loosening compared
to slotted screws
Vehicle body and sheet metal manulacturing.

The sheets to be joined have tap
holes. The threads are formed by the
screw. locking fasteners are only
needed lor thin sheets.
21 0
hf:1& fll~IJ ~"1

1
1:r.m.:.w:rn
lllustntlon
l t: lfTilii iliTi1L~'11tl:.t'
Standerd renge
St8nd8rd
Application.~
ST2.2- ST6.3
DIN EN
ISO 15481
Round head counter- ST2.2-5T6.3

sunk with crosslreoess
DIN EN
ISO 15483
Vehicle body and sheet metal

manufacturing
drilling screws bore the tap hole
while being screwed in and form the
threads.
M4-M24
M4-M48
M4-M48
DIN835
DIN939
DIN938
For aluminum alloys

For cast iron materials
For steel
With dog point

and stoned
M1.6-M12
DIN EN
27435
With dog point

and hex socket
M1.6-M24
DIN EN ISO
4028
With cone point

and stoned
M1.6-M12
DIN EN
27434
Compression loadable screws

for securing position of parts.
e. g. levers. bearing bushings. hubs
Set saews are not suitable for power
transmission of torques. e.g. for joining shahs to hubs.
With cone point

and hex socket
Mt.6-M24
DIN EN ISO
4027
With flat point

and stoned
M1.6-M12
DIN EN
24766
With flat point

and hex socket
M1.6-M24
DIN EN ISO
4026
Delign
hom- to
; with tapping threads
Drilling
,.*
Flat head with

cross recess
Studs
page
'tf!E3
' '" 2 . d
' .. 1.25 . d
' - 1 - d
Setscrews
page 220
l[-iB-
-E3~ --}
Drain plugs
page 219
00
Heavy type with

hexagon socket or
hexagon head
M10x1M52x1.5
DIN908
DIN 910
Gearbox manufacturing; Fill. overflow

and drain screws for gear oil; milling
of seating surface necessary
Thread forming screws
Various head forms

e.g. hexagon,
cheese head
page218
M2-M10
DIN 7500-1
For tow loading in malleable

materials. e.g. S235, DC01-DC04,
non-ferrous metals; use without
locking fastener
Eyebolts
n. .;.
..;,
Examples:
page
With coarse threads
11
OtN 580
of bolts and screws

Hexsa-ew
Drain plug
Capsa-ews
I
Type
M8-M100x6
Transport eyes on machines and

equipment; stress depends on the
angle of the applied load. milling of
seating surface necessary
Reference standard.
e.g. ISO. DIN. EN;
Sheet number of
the standard H
ct. DIN 962 (2001 -11)

ISO 4017 - M 12 x 80 - A2-70
DIN 910 -M2C X 1.5 -St
T-~ -TNominal data. e.g.

M ... metric saew thread
12- nominal diameter d
80 -+ shank length I
I
Property class. e.g. 8.8. 10.9,
A270, A4-70
Material. e. g. St steel,
CuZn copper-zinc-alloy
Bolts and screws standardized according to ISO. DIN EN or DIN EN ISO have the
, ISO , their designation. Bolts and screws standardized according to DIN have the abbreviation DIN in their '"'_"'Y"auu
211
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screw s
Property classes. Product grades, Clearance holes, Minimum engagement depth

Property dasses of screws and bolts
Exam ples:
cf. DIN EN ISO 898-1 (1999 11). DIN EN ISO 35()6..1 (199803)
Stainless steels
DIN EN ISO 3506-1
Unalloyed and alloy steels

DIN EN ISO 8981
j~
jrT
I.
Ten.U. atrentth R,
Yleld~ R,
Steel mictos1r.
St... group
Tensh strength R,
Rm 9 . 100 N/mm2
900N/mm2
R0 9 8 10N/mm2
720N/mm2
A austenitic
F ferritic:
2 alloyed with Cr. Ni

4 alloyed with Cr. Ni, Mo
Rm3 70 10 N/mm2
700 N/mm2
Propeny c ' - and mMerial properties
Material property
5.8
Tens. strength R, in N/mm2
R., in N/mm2
Elong. at fr&aure EL in %
Yield strength
11
Property classes for bolts and screws made of

unalloyed and alloyed steels
stainless steels 11
6.8
8.8
9.8
10.9
12.9 A250 A450 A270
500
400
800
640
900
720
1000
1200
500
480
900
1080
210
500
210
10
12
10
20
20
600
Product
g rade
cf. DIN EN ISO 4759 1 (200Hl4)
Toleranees
fine
medium
coarse
Explanation, application
Dimensional, form and positional tolerances for bolts and nuts

with ISO threads are specified in tolerance grades A, B. C
Clearance holes for bolts

Thread
.... H
~
~~
cf. DIN EN 20273 (199202)
Thread
Clearance hole dh 11
Series
d
fine med. coarse
Clearance hole dh 11
fine
Thread
Series
med. coarse
M1
M1 .2
1.1
1.3
1.2
1.4
1.3
1.5
M5
M6
5.3
6.4
M1 .6
M2
1.7
2.2
1.8
2.4
2
2.6
M8
M10
8.4
10.5
9
11
M2.5
M3
M4
2.7
3.2
4.3
2.9
3.4
4.5
3.1
3.6
4.8
M 12
M16
M20
13
17
21
13.5
17.5
22
11
450
13
Material properties apply to threads " M 20.
Product grades for bolts and nuts
700
5.5
6.6
Clearanoe hole dh11

Series
fine med. coarse
M24
M30
25
31
10
12
M36
M42
14.5
18.5
24
M48
M56
M64
58
5.8
7
26
28
33
35
37
43
39
45
42
48
50
52
62
70
56
66
74
66
Tolerance grades for dh; fine series: H12. medium series: H13, coarse series: H14
Minimum engagement depth in blind hole

Area of application
"
~ I ~
~
~ ~i ~ 'Z..
~ ~
@)2
x .. 3 . P (thread pitch)
e1 according to DIN 76,
see page 89
M inimum engagement depth /0 11

for coarse threads and property class
3.6, 4.6
4.8 - 6.8
8.8
10.9
0.8-d
1.2 . d
0.8 d
1.2 d
1.2 . d
0.8 - d
1.2 d
1.2 . d
1.2. d
0.8 d
1.2d
1.0 d
1.0 . d
Cast iron materials
1.3. d
1.5d
1.5 . d
Copper alloys
1.3 . d
1.3-d
1.6. d
2.2. d
AI alloys, age-hardened
0.8-d
1.2-d
1.6 d
AI alloys, not age-hardened
1.2 -d
1.6. d
Plastics
2.5 d
11
=1.25 Engagement depth for coarse threads
R, s 400 N/mm2
Struc. Rm = 400-600 N/mm2
steel R, > 600- 800 N/mm2
Rm > 800 N/mm2
Engagement depth for fine threads /0
212
b
from
L to
3.4
9
4.3
10
5.5
11
6
12
7.7
14
8.8
16
11.1
18
14.4
22
17.8
26
12
16
16
20
16
25
20
30
25
40
25
50
30
60
40
80
45
100
Propetly
classes
WAf
k
125 mm
21 for I 125-200 mm
31 for 1> 200 mm
5.6, 8.8, 9.8, 10.9, A2 70, A4-70
18
7.5
24
10
30
12.5
36
15
46
18.7
55
22.5
65
26
75
30
85
35
16.6
20
22
26.2
27.7
33
33.3
39.6
42.8
50.9
51.1
60.8
60
71.3
69.5
82.6
78.7
93.6
30
38
46
54
60
73
1~
85
97
109
121
137
90
240
110
300
140
360
160
440
180
500
220
500
11 tort <
from
10
50
120
65
160
80
200
66
as per
ag reement
12. 16. 20, 25. 30, 35- 60, 65, 70, 80, 90- 140, 150, 160,
180, 200- 460, 480, 500 mm
<?
Hexagon head bolt ISO 4014- M10 x 60 - 8.8 :
d= M10,/= 60 m m, propeny class 8.8
dw
8
from
to
3.2
1.1
1.4
5
1.7
2.3
3.4
3.1
4.3
4.1
5.5
4.6
6
5.9
7.7
6.9
8.8
8.9
11 .1
11.6
14.4
14.6
17.8
2
16
20
5
25
6
30
8
40
10
50
12
60
16
80
20
100
Propetly
classes
from
L 10
5.6, 8.8, 9.8, 10.9, A2-70. A4-70
18
7.5
24
10
30
12.5
36
15
46
18.7
55
22.5
65
26
75
30
85
35
16.6
20
22
26.2
27.7
33
33.3
39.6
42.8
50.9
51.1
60.8
60
71 .3
69.5
82.6
78.7
93.6
25
120
30
200
40
200
50
200
60
200
70
200
80
200
100
200
110
200
1 - - - - - , . . . - - - - , - - -- l Propeny
as per
agreement
classes
2, 3. 4, 5, 6, 8. 10, 12, 16, 20. 25. 30, 35 - 60. 65, 70, so.
90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200 mm
Hexagon head bolt ISO 4017- M8 x 40 - A4-50:

d a MB. I 40 mm, propeny class A4-50
213
x4
13
5.3
16
6.4
36
15
11.6 14.6 16.6 22.5 28.2 33.6

14.4 17.8 20 26.2 33 39.6
22
from
to
40
80
26
30
38
44
46
18.7
55
22.5
65
26
42.8
50.9
51.1 60
60.8 71 .3
75
30
85
35
69.5
82.6
78.7
93.6
46
52
54
60
73
66
72
85
84
97
96
109
108
121
137
45 50 65 80
100 120 160 200
100
240
120
300
140
360
160
440
200
480
220
500
40, 45, 50. 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200,
220- 460, 480, 500 mm
Hexagon heed bolt ISO 8765-M20 x 1.5 x 120 - 5.6:

d M20 x 1.5, I 120 mm, property class 5.6
from
to
13
5.3
16
6.4
18
7.5
24
10
30
12.5
16
80
20 25 35 40
100 120 160 200
M36 M42
>C3
x3
x3
x4
46
18.7
55
2.2 .5
65
26
75
30
85
35
42.8
50.9
51.1
60.8
60
71 .3
40
200
40
200
420
x2
x2
36
15
40
200
90
69.5 18.1
82.6 93.6
100
480
Nominal
lengths /
16, 20, 25, 30, 35-60, 65, 70, 80, 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200,
220- 460. 480. 500 mm
Property
classes
d s M24>C2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70

d = M30>C2- M36>C2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-50, A4-50
Product grades according to

DIN EN ISO 8765
WAF
WAF
>C1
11.6 14.6 16.6 22.5 28.2 33.6

14.4 17.8 20 26.2 33 39.6
dw
M8
X1
120
500
d "' M42>C3: as per

agreement
Hexagon heed bolt ISO 8676- M8 x 1,5 x 55- 8.8:

d = M8 x 1.5, 1 = 55 mm, property class 8.8
5.5
2
4.4
1
2.8
5.7
8
3.5
6.7
10
4
8.7
13
5.3
11.4
16
6.4
14.4
18
7.5
16.4
24
10
22
30
12.5
27.7
2.6
6
3.5
7.5
4.4
8.7
5.3
10.9
7.1
14.2
8.9
17.6
10.7
19.9
14.5
26.2
18.2
33
b ll
l)21
12
14
16
18
22
28
26
32
30
36
38
44
46
52
20
30
20
40
25
50
25
60
30
80
40
100
45
120
55
150
65
150
k
dw
ds
from
to
20, 25. 30- 65, 70, 75, 80. 90, 100- 130, 140, 150 mm
214
Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screw s
M8
M12
M12
x 1.5
M16
M16
x1.5
M20
M20
x1 .5
M24
M24
x2
M30
MJO
x2
M36
M36
x3
M42
M42
x3
M48
x1
M10
M10
x1
13
5.3
16
6.4
18
7.5
24
10
30
12.5
36
15
46
19
55
22
65
26
75
30
9
14.4
17.8
13
19.9
17
26.2
21
33
25
39.6
32
50.9
38
60.8
44
7 1.3
50
82.6
bll
1)21
14.5
16.5
17.5
19.5
20.5
22. 5
25
27
32
28.5
30.5
35.5
36.5
41 .5
43
48
49
54
56
61
63
68
38
150
45
150
55
150
65
200
70
200
80
200
85
200
Thread d
WAF
k
WAF
~
do k6
M8
Jill
[ from
to
25
80
30
100
32
120
M48
x3
25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38, 40, 42, 45, 48, 50, 55, 60- 150, 160- 200 mm
Hexagon head bolts with large width across flats
for high-strength structural bolting assemblies (HVI
WAF
WAF
k
dw
22
27
8
20.1
10
24.9
23.9
23
[ from
35
(0
WAF
e
bm~n
dw
d.b11
e
b
"'
k
32
13
29.5
36
14
33.3
41
15
38
46
17
42.8
50
19
46.6
60
23
55.9
29.6
28
35
39.6
34
45.2
39
50.9
41
55.4
33
44
66.4
52
95
40
130
45
155
50
165
60
195
70
200
75
200
85
200
21
8
19
27
10
25
34
13
32
36
14
34
41
15
39
46
17
43.5
50
19
47.5
13
22.8
18.5
17
29.6
22
21
37.3
26
23
39.6
28
25
45.2
29.5
28
50.9
32.5
31
55.4
35
40
120
45
160
50
180
55
200
55
200
60
200
65
200
40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65- 180, 185, 190, 195, 200 mm
Property
classes
Product grade C
All bolts: property class 10.9
2 15

~1!J i a..'f HM~ l.in}:li.tr.JI ..'t.tU~'
....
' socket heed cap screws with coarse threads
Valid s ta ndard
DIN EN ISO
Re places
DIN
4762
912
...,
"I~ ,I
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
WAF
k
dt
1.5
1.6
3
1.5
2
3.8
2
2.5
4.5
2.5
3
5.5
3
4
7
4
5
8 .5
5
6
10
6
8
13
8
10
16
b
fori
--
16
20
17
25
18
25
20
22
32
~ 30
~ 30
24
35
28
~: 40
~ 45
I,
for I
1.1
s 16
1.2
s 16
1.4
s 20
1.5
s 20
2.1
s 25
2.4
s 25
3
s 30
3.8
s 35
4.5
s 40
2.5
16
3
20
4
25
5
30
6
40
8
50
10
60
12
80
16
100
from
to
Thread d
WAF
I,
dk
Thread d
Grad e
M1 .6 - M56
8.8, 10.9,
by ov~"~"'
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
M42
M48
MS6
10
12
18
14
16
24
17
20
30
19
24
36
22
30
45
27
36
54
32
42
63
36
41
56
84
48
72
b
for I
36
44
~55
~ 65
, eo
~ 90
72
84
96
108
124
"' 110 "' 120 "' 140 "' 160 "' 180
I,
for I
5.3
s SO
6
s 60
7.5
s 70
9
s 80
10.5
12
s 100 " 110
/ from
to
20
120
25
160
30
200
40
200
Nominal
lengths I
52
60
45
200
45
200
8.8, 10.9,
Property
classes
Product grades (page 211)
I ISO 4762 (2004-061
M1 .6
Thread d
PT"operty
classes
WAF
cf.
A4-50
15
13.5
16.5
" 130 " 150 " 160
60
300
70
300
as per
a greement
2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30 - 65,70, 80-150, 160,

180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300 mm
Cap scnw ISO 4762- M10 x 55- 10.9:
d M10, I 55 mm , property class 10.9
........"'"'''socket head cap screws, low head
...,
"II
I,
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24
WAF
2
2
5.5
2.5
2.8
7
3
3.5
8.5
4
4
10
5
5
13
6
16
8
7
18
12
9
24
14
11
30
17
13
36
12
14
"' 25
16
18
~ 20
~ 30
~ 30
22
"'35
26
"'40
o.SO
1.5
s 16
2.1
s20
2.4
s25
3
s 25
3.8
s30
4.5
5.3
s 35
s45
5
20
6
25
8
30
10
40
12
80
16
100
20
80
b
for/
I,
fori
I
/ from
to
~~a:
Product grades (page 2111
Thread d
Grade
M3 - M24
I (2002121
Thread d
k
~
WAF
80
300
Property
classes
30
38
44
46
,.so
,.]0
,.go
7.5
sSO s60 s80

30
80
40
100
so
100
5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 mm
8.8, A2-70, A4-70
Cap screw DIN 7984- M12 x SO- A2-70:
d M12,/ a SO mm, propertyclassA2-70
216
WAF
k
dk
WAF
b
for /
x1
x1
6
8
13
8
10
16
19
24
36
12
Nominal
lengths/
27
36
54
32
42
63
60
72
84
96
"1 10 o: 120 ;o 140
4.5 4.5 4.5

3
s 40 s 50 s 60 s 70
6
.;70
6
9
9
.; 100 s 110 .; 130
20
100
40
200
28 32 36 44
" 40 ><45 o:55 ;o 65
so
22
30
45
52
.. so , so
20
25
30
120 160 200
45
200
55
200
60
300
so
70
300
300
12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, SO, 90, 100, 110.
120. 130, 140, 150, 160, 1SO, 200, 220, 240, 260, 2SO, 300 mm
as per
agreement
dk
k
3
1.1
3.8
1.4
4.5
1.8
5.5
2
7
2.6
8.5
3.3
10
3.9
13
5
16
6
n
t
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.6
1.6
2
2
2.5
2.4
2
16
3
20
3
25
4
30
5
40
6
50
8
60
so
so
from
10
10
12
for I< 45 mm- threads near to head

for /:. 45 mm- b 38mm
2. 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12. 16, 20, 25-45, 50, 60, 70. SO mm
WAF
2
5.5
1.9
2.5
7.5
2.5
3
9.4
3.1
4
11.3
3.7
5
15..2
5
6
19.2
6.2
8
23.1
7.4
10
29
8.8
12
36
10.2
b
for I
18
"30
20
,.30
22
"35
24
"40
,so
28
32
"55
36
"65
,.so
44
52
100
'
1.5
s 25
2.1
s25
2.4
s30
3
s35
3.8
s 45
4.5
s50
5.3
s60
6
s 70
7.5
s90
8
30
8
40
8
50
8
60
so
10
12
100
20
100
30
100
35
100
da
k
.,.
C)
for I
:om
8.8. 10.9. 12.9

8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90, 100 mm
Product grade A (page 2111
Countersunk head screw ISO 10642 - M5 x 30- 8.8:

d = M5, I 30 mm, property class 8.8
217
CF0$5 reCH5*
forms
Slotted flat head countersunk screws

Flat head countersunk screws with cross recess
cf. DIN EN ISO 2009 (1994-101

cf. DIN EN ISO 7046-1 (1994-10)
Rat head countersunk tapping screws

Raised head countersunk tapping screws
Product grade A (page 21 1)
cf. DIN EN ISO 7050 (1990-081

cf. DIN EN ISO 7051 (1990-081
218
Tap hole diameter d for tapping screw threads 1
Jh
I r::.
11
Holes bored or punched in

S1eel or copper alloy sheet
sinmm
from-to
0 - 0.5
0.6- 0.8
0.9 - 1.1
ST2.2
ST2.9
ST3.5
ST4.2
ST4.8
ST5.5
ST6.3
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.6
2.7
2.8
3.2
3.2
3.7
3.7
4.2
4.9
1.2- 1.4
1.5-1.7
1.8- 2.0
1.8
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.3
3.5
3.5
3.9
3.9
4.0
4.3
4.5
4.6
4.9
5.0
5.2
3.0
3.0
3.5
3,8
3.9
4.0
4.1
4.3
4.6
4.7
5.0
5.3
5 ..3
5.8
2.0 - 2.5
2.6-3.0
3.1-3.5
Thtead
d
Form DE: hexagon head bolt

WAF
-~
k
WAF
DE
Form EE: hexagon socket head

cap bolt
WAF
~JJ
'TI
Form NE: raised countersunk

head bolt with cross
Product grade A (page 211)
dk
6
from
to
WAF
k
do
EE
from
to
d,.
k
f
M2
M2.5
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M10
4
1.4
5
1.7
5,5
2
7
2.8
8
3.5
10
4
13
5.3
16
6.4
2.3
3.4
3.1
4.3
4.1
5.5
4.6
6
6
7.7
6.9
11.1
11.6
14.4
14.6
17.8
3
16
4
20
4
25
30
40
50
10
60
12
80
1.5
2
3.8
2
2.5
4.5
2.5
3
5.5
3
4
7
4
5
8.5
5
6
10
6
8
13
8
10
16
3
16
4
20
4
25
30
40
50
10
60
12
80
3.8
1.2
0.4
4.7
1.5
0.5
5.5
1.7
1
8.4
2.7
1.2
9.3
2.7
1.4
11.3
3.3
1.4
15.8
4.7
2
18.3
5
2.3
NE
20
80
Screw DIN 7500- DE - M8 x 25 - St DE Hex head, d = MS.

I = 25 mm (material: case hardened and tempered S1eel)
219
M3
M4
M5
M6
M8
M8
X1
12
18
14
20
16
22
18
24
22
28
26
32
30
36
8
4
5
10
5
6.5
12
6
7.5
16
8
10
20
10
12
20
30
20
40
25
25
50
60
30
80
35
100
Thread d
"'
bfor I < 125

I < 125
DtN835
DtN938
DIN939
/ from
to
M10 M12 M16

M10 M12 M16
x1.25 x1 .25 x1.5
M20
M20
x1.5
M24
M24
x2
38
44
46
52
54
24
12
15
32
16
20
40
20
25
48
24
30
40
120
50
170
60
200
70
200
60
5.6, 8.8, 10.9
d,
t ,
loading
directions
110
78
(So
vertical
(single line)
M10
x1
M12
x1.5
M16
x1.5
M20
x1.5
M24
x1.5
M30
x1.5
M36
x1 .5
M42
x1.5
M48
x 1.5
M52
x1.5
d,
I
14
17
8
17
21
12
21
21
12
25
26
14
29
27
14
36
30
16
42
32
16
49
33
16
55
33
16
60
33
3
10
10.9
3
13
14..2
3
17
18.7
4
19
20.9
4
22
23.9
4
24
26.1
4
27
29.6
5
30
33
5
30
33
5
30
33
M10
x1
M12
x1.5
M16
x1.5
M20
x1.5
M24
x1.5
M30
x t .S
M36
x1 .5
M42
x1 .5
M48
x 1.5
M52
x1 .5
14
11
21
15
17
15
3
25
18
4
29
18
4
36
20
4
42
21
5
49
21
5
55
21
5
60
21
5
5
5
5.7
6
7
6.9
8
7.5
9.2
10
7.5
11.4
12
7.5
13.7
17
9
19.4
19
10.5
21 .7
22
10.5
25.2
24
10.5
27.4
24
10.5
27.4
Thread d
WAF
;:!:
... - r-:
I'--
"'
WAF
e
16
d,
I
c
WAF
Screw plug DIN 908- M20 x 1.5 - CuZn:

d ~ M24 x 1.5, material: copper-zinc-alloy
220
1
2
1.4
with dog point
~ , ~ :1
z.,
w~
~~
2
8
3
10
3
12
4
16
6
25
8
30
5
35
10
40
12
55
16
60
0.8
1.1
1
1.3
1.5
1.5
2
1.8
2.5
2.3
3.5
2.8
4.3
3.3
5.5
4.3
7
5.3
8.5
6.3
0.3
0.7
0.3
0.8
0.4
1
0.4
1.1
0.6
1.4
0.8
1.6
1
2
1.2
2.5
1.6
3
2
3
2.5
8
3
10
4
12
5
16
6
20
8
25
8
30
10
40
12
50
16
60
0 .8
0 .3
0.7
1
0.3
0.8
1.5
0.4
2
0.4
1.1
2.5
0.6
1.4
3.5
0.8
1.6
4
1
2
5.5
1.2
2.5
7
1.6
3
8.5
2
3.6
2
8
2
10
2.5
12
3
16
4
20
5
25
6
30
8
40
10
50
12
60
Property
classes
45H, AH2H, A2 21H, A321H, A4 21H, AS.21H
Nominal
2. 2.5, 3. 4, 5, 6, 8, 10. 12. 16, 20, 25, 30--50, 55, 60 mm
lengths/
with dog point
with flat point
Property
classes
1.5
1.2
1.7
1.2
2.3
1.5
2.9
2
3 .4
2
4.6
3
5.7
4
6.9
4.8
9.1
6.4
11.4
8
2.5
12
3
16
4
20
5
25
6
30
8
40
10
50
12
60
16
60
20
60
1.5
1.5
1.3
2
1.8
1.5
2.5
2.3
2
3.5
2.8
2.5
4
3.3
3
5.5
4.3
4
7
5.3
5
8.5
6.3
6
12
8.4
8
15
10.4
10
1.5
1.2
1.7
1.2
2.3
1.5
2.9
2
3.4
2
4.6
3
5.7
4
6.9
4.8
9.1
6.4
11.4
8
3
12
5
20
6
25
8
30
8
40
20
16
50
12
60
16
60
20
60
1.5
1.3
2
1.5
2.5
2
3.5
2.5
4
3
5.5
4
7
5
8.5
6
12
8
15
10
1.5
1.2
1.7
1.2
2.3
1.5
2.9
2
3.4
2
4.6
3
5.7
4
6.9
4.8
9.2
6.4
11.4
8
2. 5
12
3
16
4
20
5
25
6
30
8
40
10
50
12
60
16
60
20
60
45H, A112H, A221H, A321 H, A4 21 H, AS.21H

2. 2.5, 3. 4, 5, 6, 8, 10. 12, 16. 20. 25. 30--50. 60 mm
=>
Set screw ISO 4026 - M6 x 25- As.21H:

d= M6,/ = 25 mm, AS stainless steel. property class 21H
221
Fp preload
Applied force per bolt F121 in kN
Load
F applied forte
F, jo~nt clamp
force
F, total bolt toad

f, bolt extension
f 1 Joilt compression
Static
dynamic
~a. ::1co
...e-u
11
21
5.8, 6.8
2.5
1.6
4
2.5
6.3
4
10
6.3
16
10
25
16
40
25
63
40
M5
M6
M6
M5
M5
M8
M8
M6
M5
M10
M8
M8
M8
M12
M10
M10
M8
M16
M16
M12
M10
M20
M20
M16
M12
M24
M24
M20
M16
MS
8.8
10.9
12.9
M4
M4
It is necessary to check the values of the selected bolts in accordance

with VOl Guideline 2230 lor instance.
For waisted bohs select next higher applied force level.
Sh nk bolts
Thread
f 31
Preload
FpinkN
A,.ll
0.08
36.6
M8 x1
8.8
10.9
12.9
39.2
M10
8.8
10.9
12.9
58.0
M10x1 .25
8.8
10.9
12.9
61 .2
M1 2
M12x1 .5
8.8
10.9
12.9
8.8
10.9
12.9
84.3
88.1
0.12
0.14
0.08
12
17.2
25 ..2
29.5
16.5
24.2
28.3
17.9
26.2
30.7
23.1
~.,
~~-~
.,.,.,u
...... u
20.3
29.7
34.8
29.5
43.3
50.7
31.5
46.5
54.4
18.8
27.7
32.4
18.1
26.6
31.1
18.8
27.7
32.4
24.8
36.4
42.6
27.3
40.
47.
29.2
27.3
40.2
47
26.2
38.5
45
36
53
61
46
68
80
51
75
88
29.4
43.2
50.6
28.3
41.5
48.6
37
55
64
49
72
84
39.9
58.5
68.5
38.3 61
56.2 90
65.8 105
117
137
54
80
93
87
128
150
87
128
150
96
141
165
194
285
333
214
314
367
117
207
304
355
229
336
394
128
391
557
182
653
430
615
720
433
482
618
721
675
685
43
63
73.9
48.2
70.8
82.7
8.8
10.9 157
12.9
81
119
140
M16x1.5
8.8
10.9
12.9
88
129
151
M20x1.5
8.8
10.9
12.9
8.8
10.9
12.9
Ay.21
18.6
27.1
31.9
M16
M20
~ in N - m
Preload
FpinkN
Tightening torque
M,in N -m
~~2 ~-ChQv~ere~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--j~~2 ~--~--~----111~1-U"I~

I I ------,~
--~--~
8.8
10.9
12.9
M8
Waisted bolts
Tightening torque
167
245
272
M24
8.8
10.9
12.9
M24x2
8.8
10.9 384
12.9
353
131
186
218
149
212
247
188
268
313
210
300
350
45
43.2
66
63.5
72.3 74.3
75.3 72.4
106
111
130
124
82.2 79 ..2
116
121
141
136
117
121
166
173
194
202
65
96
112
147
216
253
154
2.27
265
297
423
495
138
200
231
320
455
533
512
730
855
545
776
175
250
291
196
280
327
134
190
225
168
238
280
189
268
315
908
80
0.14
0.12
0.12
0.14
12.9
19
22.2
14.6
21.5
25.1
11.8
17.3
20.2
13.4
19.6
23
11.2
16.4
19.2
13.6
20
23.4
17.6
25.8
30.2
19.2
28.2
33
12.7
18.7
21 .9
13.6
20
23.4
17.6
25.8
30.2
19.2
28.2
33
42.4
20.7
30.4
35.6
18.9
27.7
32.4
17.9
26.4
30.8
25
37
43
32
47
55
35
51
60
45.6
22.7
33.5
39.2
20.9
30.6
35.9
19.9
29.2
34.4
27
40
35
51
60
38
56
65
61 .7
30.3
44.6
52.1
27.6
40.6
47.7
26.3
38.6
45.2
43
63
74
60
88
103
65.8
35
52
61
32.6
47.8
56
31
45.7
53.4
48
71
83
58.4
85.8
100
65.5
96.2
113
92
134
157
113
160
188
136
193
225
158
224
263
53.4
78.5
91.8
60.2
88.4
104
51
74.8
87.5
57.4
84-5
99
106
156
182
115
169
197
55
81
95
63
93
108
137
202
236
151
222
260
278
26.6
210
802
743
1~ ~~
1~ 1~~
1224
0.08
25.3
1360
262
295
86
123
144
104
148
173
124
177
207
145
207
242
0.14
0.08
46
69
102
119
150
221
258
166
244
285
304
432
505
355
82
117
137
100
142
166
215
306
358
242
345
402
540
508
594
118
188
196
370
527
617
480
682
800
523
745
871
139
198
230
410
582
682
543
775
905
852
998
395
462
322
460
600
During assembly, the bohs are under tensile and torsional Stress. The tightening torque~ utilizes approx. 90% oft he
yield strength of the bolt material.
11 As stress area
1 f.J = 0.08: bolt MoS-z lubricated
21 A.. waist cross section
f.J a 0.12: boh lightly oiled
f.J =0.14: boh secured with microencapsulated plastic
3l F property class of bolt
222
locking fasteners
A locking fastener is generally not necessary for screw
joints which are sufficiently dimensioned and securely
mounted. The clamping forces prevent the slipping of
the sc~ewed pans or loosening of the bolts and nuts. In
practice a loss of clamping force can still occur due to
the following causes:
Loosening of the screw joint caused by high surface
contact pressures which initiate plastic deformation
!so-ailed settling) and reduce the preload of the
screw joint.
Remedy: As little separation as possible, minimal surface roughness, use of high-strength bolts (large pretoad) .
.,..
0
~
Q.
Unscrewing of the screw joint For joints dynamically loaded transverse to the bolt axis a fully self-actuated unscrewing can occur.
This is remedied with locking elements. These are
divided into three groups based on their effective-
ness.
Ineffective locking elements (e. g. spring lock washers
and tooth lock washers).
Captive fasteners, which allow a partial unscrewing,
but prevent the screw joint from coming completely
apart.
load cycles -
Vibt-etion test DIN 65151 performed on verious lodcing

elements
Tlveadlocking (e. g. glue or corrugated head screws).

The preload remains approximately constant. The nut
or bolt cannot loosen by itself (best method of locking).
The locking behavior of screw joints under transverse

loading on the bolt is tested
ISO 4014-M10.
Ovenriew of lodcing fasteners

Joint
Locking element
Standard
Type, property
Loaded
together,
spring loaded
spring lock washer

spring washer
tooth lock washer
serrated lock washer
withdrawn
withdrawn
withdrawn
withdrawn
ineffactive
ineffective
ineffective
ineffective
Interlocking
lock washer
castle nut with cotter pin
lock wire
withdrawn
DIN 935-1+2
captive fastener
captive fastener
captive fastener
Force-fit
(gripping)
jam nut
bolts and nuts
with gripping
polyamide coating
Blocking
(force-fit and
interlocking)
Bonded
ineffective, loosening possible

DIN267 28
IS02320
captive fastener or slight

anti-rotation lock
bolts with teeth

under the head
anti-rotation lock, not suitable for

hardened pans
detent edged ring

detent washer
self-locking pair
of washers
anti-rotation lock, not suitable for

hardened parts
anti-rotation lock
microencapsulated adhesives
in threads
liquid adhesive
DIN 267-27
anti-rotation lock. sealing joint;

temperature range-50-<: to 1soc
anti-rotation lock
223
Width across flats, Types of bolt and screw drives

Width ec:ross flats for bolts, screws, velves end fittings
m
m
e , = 1.4142 s
s = 0 .7071 e,
I
I
e 2 = 1.1547 s
s = 0.8660 . 8 2
I
I
@j
OJ = 1.0824 $
s = 0.9239 OJ
Width across
flats IYVAA
Nominal size
length of diagonal
Two Square Hexa O<:taflats
gonal gonal
d
Bt
~
9J
d
3.7
4
4.5
e,
3.2
3.5
4
4.5
4.9
5.7
3.5
3.8
4.4
21
22
23
24
25
26
29.7
31.1
32.5
23.4
24.5
25.6
22.7
23.8
24.9
4.5
5
5.5
5
6
7
6.4
7.1
7.8
4.9
5.5
6.0
24
25
26
28
29
31
33.9
35.5
36.8
26.8
27.9
29.0
26.0
27.0
28.1
6
7
8
7
8
9
as
9.9
11.3
6.6
7.7
8.8
27
28
30
32
33
35
38.2
39.6
42.4
30.1
31.3
33.5
29.1
30.2
32.5
9
10
11
10
12
13
12.7
14.1
15.6
9.9
11.1
12.1
32
34
36
38
40
42
45.3
48.0
50.9
35.7
37.7
40.0
34.6
36.7
39.0
12
13
14
14
15
16
17.0
18.4
19.8
13.3
14.4
15.5
41
46
50
48
52
58
58.0
65.1
70.7
45.6
51.3
55.8
44.4
49.8
54.1
15
16
17
17
18
19
21.2
22.6
24.0
16.6
17.8
18.9
55
60
65
65
70
75
77.8
84.8
91.9
61 .3
67.0
72.6
59.5
64.9
70.3
18
19
20
21
22
23
25.4
26.9
28.3
20.0
21 .1
22.2
70
75
80
82
88
92
99.0
106
113
78.3
83.9
89.6
75.7
81.2
86.6
d . DIN 475-1 (1984.01)
length of diagonal
jwldth 8CtOSS
Two Square Hexa flats(WN-1
flats
gonal Nominal size
DIN 475 - WM 16: Width across flats with nominal sizes 16 mm
Table values as per DIN 475 apply to finished stamped wrought products. bolts,
screws, nuts and frttings. Diagonal lengths calculated by the formula e2 1.1547 . s
are larger than the table values. since they are based on the sharp-edged hexagon.
Calculation of regular polygons. page 27.
Screw drive systems

Type
Properties
High torque transmission, no axial
foroe required, relatively economical,
identical tool for bolt and nut, many
variations. tool relatively large
hexagonal head
(f)
*
t<. r\
tJ
sloned
Higher torque transmission than with

hexagon head
tone drive
Uke hexagon head except the torque

transmission is slightly less, requires
less space for tool than with hexagon
head
hexagon socket
tamper resistant
hexagon drive
Type
Very good torque transmission. linle

space required for tool
tone drive
Safety screw. can only be loosened

with a special tool, especially wellsuited as protection against damage
and theft. yet has good torque transmission
Safety screw, can only be loosened

with a special tool, especially wellsuited as protection against damage
and theft, yet has good torque trans
mission
tamper r8SISiant
tOO< drive
Inexpensive and popular, but it is diffi
cult to center the tool. low torque
transmission, high contact pressure
on the loaded driving flats
cross recess
Pozidriv
Higher torque than with stoned bolts

& screws. bener tool centering, lower
contact pressure, available without
diagonal notches and also with cross
recess Phillips fomn H
224
Machine elements: 5.3 Countersinks
Countersinks for countersunk head screws

Countaninb for c:ount8nLw1k-- with 1-..t forma a per ISO 7721 cf. DIN EN ISO 1soe6 12005-051 Replaces DIN 66
Nomlnel sizes
1.6
2.5
3.5
Metric screws
M1.6
M2
M2.5
M3
M3.5
M4
ST4.2
ST2.2
ST2.9
ST3.5
d , H1 3
1.8
2.4
2.9
3.4
3.9
4.5
d,_min.
3.6
4.4
5.5
6.3
8.2
9.4
dzmax.
3.7
4.5
5.6
6.5
8.4
9.6
r, ..
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.6
2.3
2.6
Nominal sizes
5.5
10
M5
Metric screws
M6
M8
M10
ST4.8
ST5.5
ST6.3
ST8
ST9.5
Tapping screws
Tapping screws
d, H13
5.5
6.6
11
~min.
10.4
11.5
12.6
17.3
20
~max.
10.7
11.8
12.9
17.6
20.3
r, ..
2.6
2.9
3. 1
4.3
4.7
Countersink ISO 1506S-8: Nominal size 8 (metric threads M 8 or

tapping screw threads ST8J
Application for.
Graphical representatio n,
see page 83;
I~
Slotted flat head countersunk setews

Cross recessed flat head countersunk screws
Sloned raised head countersunk screws
Cross tee. raised head countersunk screws
Slotted flat head countl!fSUillc lapping screws
Cross rec. flat head counters. tapping screws
Slotted raised head countersunk tapping screws
Cross tee. raised head counters. tapping screws
Cross recessed flat head countersunk tapping setews
Cross recessed raised head countersunk tapping setews
1.&
2.5
4.5
d1 H13n
1.8
2.4
2.9
3.4
4.5
5.5
6.6
7.6
~H13
3.7
4.6
5.7
6.5
8.6
9.5
10.4
12.4
14.4
16.4
u.
r, ~
0.9
1.,
1.4
1.6
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.9
3.3
3.7
Thrud 0
~
Form A and Form F
<
u.
::-==
1H13
FormE
Graphical representation,
see page83;
Forms B, C and D are no
longer standardized
10
12
16
20
22
24
10.5
13
17
21
23
25
~H13
19
24
31
34
37
40
r, ..
5.5
11.5
12
13
d, H1311
a
=>
"'
(/)
Countersink DIN 74- E12: Form E, thread diameter 12 mm

DIN7969
Countersunk head bolts for steel structures
10
12
14
16
20
3.4
4.5
5.5
6.6
11
13.5
15.5
17.5
22
~H13
6.9
92
11.5
13.7
18.3
22.7
27.2
31.2
34.0
40.7
r, "'
1.8
2.3
3.0
3.6
4.6
5.9
6.9
7.8
8 ..2
9.4
Thrud0
u.
d, H1311
0.
.r;
eo 1
75 :t 1
Applic:ationof
FormE for.
.,
DIN 97 and DIN 7997

DIN 95 and DIN 7995
C<>untersunk nat head wood screws

Raised head countersunk wood screws
Thread0
w
Countersink DIN 74 - A4: Form A. thread diameter 4 mm
Applieation of
form A for.
E
0
(l
DIN EN ISO 2009

DIN EN ISO 704&-1
DIN EN ISO 2010
DIN EN ISO 7047
DIN ISO 1482
DIN IS07050
DIN ISO 1483
DIN IS07051
ISO 15482
ISO 15483
ct. OtN 74 (2003-()41
Countersinks for countersunk head screws

90~ 1
=
Application of
Form Ffor:
Countersink DIN 74- F12: Fo rm F, thread diameter 12 mm

Hexagon socket head cou ntersunk screws
DIN EN ISO 10642

(replaces DIN 79911
tl Medium size clearance hole according to DIN EN 20273, page 211
Machine elements: 5.3 Counterbores
hmo maximum height of the washer component

Z
allowance based on thread nominal diameter
(see table)
'' If values km.. and hm.. are unavailable,

values k and h can be used as approximations.
225
M1.6-M64
DIN EN ISO
4032
M8x1- M64K4
DIN EN ISO
8673
M5-M36
DIN EN ISO
4033
M8K1- M36K3
DIN EN ISO
8674
M1.6-M64
DIN EN ISO
4035
Fine threads: higher transmission of
Ioree than coarse threads
M8x1-M64x4
with coarse threads
M3-M36
DIN EN ISO
7040
with fine threads
M8x1-M36x3
DIN EN ISO
10512
with coarse threads
M5-M36
DIN EN ISO
n19
with fine threads
M8x1-M36x3
DIN EN ISO
10513
with large
width across flats.
ooarse threads
M12- M36
DIN EN
14399-4
with flange.
coarse threads
M5-M20
weld nuts,
coarse threads
M3-M16
M8x1 - M 16x1.5
DIN929
M4-M100
M8x1- M100x4
OIN935
M6-M48
M8x1-M48x3
OIN979
0.6K12- 20K280
DIN EN ISO
1234
coarse or
fine threads
low form,
coarse or
Self-locking all-metal nuts with full

loading capacity
Rne threads: greater transmitted
Ioree than for coarse threads
Metal construction: high--strength

custom preloaded joints (HV), with
hexagon head boits DIN EN 14999-4
(page214)
Might be used with large clearance

DIN EN 1661 holes or to reduce contact pressure
fine threads
cotter pins
Self-locking nuts with lull loading

capacity and non-metallic insert. up
to operating temperatures of 120 c
Fine lhre~~ds: greater transmitted
Ioree than for coarse threads
Used in sheet metal structures; nuts

are usually joined to metal sheets by
projection welding
Might be used for axial fixing of

bearings, hubs in safely joints (steering area of vehicles)
Locking with cotter pin and transverse hole in the bolt. At full
load of the bolt. the cotter pin is
sheared off above property class 8.8.
227
Machine elements: 5.4 Nuts
~{t)
t$
Examples:
M4-M36
M8x1-M24x2
DIN 1587
M4-M48
M8x1- M48>C3
DIN 917
MB-M100x6
M20X2M100x4
DIN 582
lock nuts
with fine threads
M10x 1M200x1.5
DIN 70852
lock washers
1()..200
DIN 70952
lock nuts
with fine threads
M1 0X0.7&M115x2
DIN981
IKM~M231
lock washers
Hexagon nut
Castle nut
Hexagon nut
I
I
Type
Reference stan
dard, e.g.
ISO, DIN, EN;
sheet number of
the standard 11
1G-115
IMBG-MB23)
DIN5406
M1-M10
DIN466
M1-M10
DIN467
M6-M30
DIN 1479
Decorative and sealing external joint

closures, protection for threads, protection from injuries
For axial positioning, e. g. of hubs,

with small mounting heights and low
stresses, locking with lock washers
For axial positioning of roller bear

ings, for adjustment of the bearing
clearance, e. g. with tapered roller
bearings that are locked with lock
washers
Used in joints that are opened Irequently, e. g. in manufacturing of jigs

and fixtures, in control cabinets
For joining and adjusting, e.g. of

th readed and connecting bars, with
lefthand and righthand threads;
loc,ked by jam nuts
ISO 4032 - M12 - 8

DIN 929 -M8x1 - St
EN 1661 - M1 2 - 10
T
Nominal data, e.g.
M - metric threads
8 - nominal diameter d
1 - thread pitch P
for fine threads
Property class, e. g. 05, 8, 10

Material, e. g.: St steel
GT malleable cast
iron
,, Nuts standardized according to ISO or DIN EN ISO, have the code ISO in their designation.
Nuts standardized according to DIN, have the code DIN in their designation.
Nuts standardized according to DIN EN, have the code EN in their designation.
228
Machine element s: 5.4 Nuts
Property classes, hexagon nuts with coarse threads

cf. DIN EN 20898-2 (199402),
Property claiMS of nuts
DIN EN ISO 3506 2 (1998-03)

Stalnlas st eels
DIN EN ISO 3506-2
Unalloyed and alloy steels

DIN EN 29898-2
Examples:
nut height m ~ 0.8 d:

nUl height m < 0.8 d:
nut height m,. 0.8 ct.

nUl height m < 0.8 d:
Code
8 propeny class
04 low nuts, test
load . 4 . 100 N/mm2
A 2- 70
rr~~
SIMI~
StMigroup
Code
A austenitic
F ferritlc
1 free machining alloys

2 olloyed with Cr. Ni
4 alloyed with Cr. Ni, Mo
70 proof stress. 70. 10 N/mm2

0351ownut,
proof stress 35 . 10 N/mm2
Allowable combinations of nuts and bolts
Nuts
Propeny class
of the nUl
4.8
cf. DIN EN 20898-2 (1994.02)
Usable bolts up to PfOperty cl&ss

Unalloyed and alloy Steels
SIBinless Steels
5.8 6.8 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9 A2 50 I A270 I A4-50
A470
5
6
allowable combinations
of propeny classes for nuts
and bolts
8
9
10
12
A2 50
A2-70
~oz;-~-
f~~j'. V 1
A4~50
( l _9
A4-70
04,05,
A2.025,
A4.025
~Bolts
Propeny classes for low nuts. The nuts are designed for smaller load
capacity. Botts and nU1s of the same material group, e. g. stainless steel,
can be combined with each other.
Hexagon nuts with coarse threads, Type 11

Valid standard Replaces Thread d
DIN EN ISO OINENI DIN
WAF
4032
24032 934 dw
e
m
1JII
"'
Propeny
classes
M2.5
M3
M4
MS
M6
M8
M1 0
3.2
2.4
4
3.1
5
4.1
5.5
4.6
7
5.9
8
6.9
10
8.9
13
11.6
16
14.6
3.4
1.3
4.3
1.6
5.5
2
6
2.4
7.7
3.2
8.8
4.7
11.1
5.2
14.4
6.8
17.8
8.4
6,8, 10
as per agreement
A270. A4-70
M 12
M 16
M20
M24
WAF
18
16.6
24
22.5
30
27.7
20
10.8
26.8
14.8
33
39.6
21 .5
dw
m
Thread d
M2
Thread d
e
Pro duct grades (page 21 1)
ct. DIN EN ISO 4032 (2001.03)
M1.6
Propeny
classes
18
M30
M 36
M42
M48
M56
36
46
33.3
42.8
55
51.1
65
60
75
69.5
85
78.7
50.9
25.6
60.8
31
7 1.3
34
82.6
38
93.6
45
6,8, 10
A2-70, A4-70
Grade
M 1.6- M 16
M 20- M64
Explanation
as per agreement
A2-50, A4-50
II Type 1: Nut height m <: 0.8. d

Hexagon nut ISO 4032- M10 -10: d = M10, propeny class 10
229
8.8
5.1
11.1
5.7
14.4
7.5
17.8
9.3
20
12
26.8
16.4
33
20.3
39.6
23.9
50.9
28.6
60.8
34.7
9,12
x1
w~
"'
m,1t
m21t
13
11.6
14.4
6.8
7.5
x1
x4
16
14.6
18
24
16.6 22.5
30
27.7
36
33.3
46
42.8
55
51.1
65
60
75
69.5
85
78.6
17.8
8.4
9.3
20
10.8
12
33
18
20.3
39.6
21 .5
23.9
50.9
25.6
28.6
60.8
31
34.7
71.3
34
82.6
38
93.6
45
26.8
14.8
16.4
-.:: "'
14.4
4
20
6
17.8
5
26.8
8
Property
classes
11 low hexagon nuts (nut height
m < 0.8 d) have a smaller load capaci-
ty as type 1 nutS.
Hexagon nut ISO 4035- M16 - A2~:

= M16, property class A2-c35
230
M10 M12
x1
x1.5
M16 M20
)(1.5 x1.5
M24
dw
13
11.6
16
14.6
18
16.6
24
22.5
30
27.7
36
33.3
46
42.8
55
51.1
65
60
76
69.5
76.7
14.4
17.8
5
20
6
26.8
8
33
10
39.6
12
50.9
15
60.8
18
71 .3
21
82.6
24
93.6
28
X1
WAF
1p
~
~ ~
x4
x2
Property
classes
85
as per
agreement
11 Low hexagon nuts (nut height m < 0.8 . d) have a smaller load capacity
of type 1 nuts (page 229).

claSS6S fo r stainless steels: A2.025, A<l-025
7
5.9
7.7
M5
M6
M8
M8
x1
M10
M10
x1
M12
M12
x1.5
M16
M16
x1.5
M20
M20
x1.5
M24
M24
x2
M30
M30
x2
M36
M36
x3
8
8.9
8.8
10
8.9
11.1
13
11.6
14.4
16
14.6
17.8
18
16.6
20
24
22.5
26.8
30
27.7
33
36
33.3
39.6
46
42.8
50.9
55
51.1
60.8
6.8
23.9
10
19.1
29.6
13
Property ct.,
surface
Explanation
Product grades see

DIN EN ISO 4032
50.9
22
55.4
24
66.4
29
->code: tZn
11 for higlrstrenglh structural bolting assemblies (HV) in metal construction. Used
in combination with hexagon head bolts as per DIN EN 14399-4 (page 214).
MS
M6
8
9.8
11.8
10
12.2
14.2
8.8
5
11.1
6
33
20
231
M4
MS
M6
M8
M8
x1
M10
M10
x1
M12
M12
x1 .5
M16
M16
x1.5
M20
M20
x2
M24
M24
x2
7
6.5
3.2
8
7.5
4
10
9.5
5
13
12.5
6.5
16
15
8
18
17
10
24
23
13
30
28
16
36
34
19
7.7
8
5.3
8.8
10
7.2
11.1
12
7.8
14.4
15
10.7
17.8
18
13.3
20
22
16.3
26.8
28
20.6
33.5
34
25.6
40
42
30.5
Thread d
WAF
d,
m
e
h
Pro duct g rad e A o r B

by choice of manufacturer
Thread d
] i
hub
keyway
vert ical
(single line)
under 45
(double line)
M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M35

X1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1 .5 x1 .5 x1.5
M40
x1.5
M48
x1 .5
M55
x1 .5
M60 M65
x 1.5 x1.5
22
18
28
23
32
27
38
44
50
56
65
32
38
43
49
57
75
67
80
71
85
76
6
4.5
1.8
6
5.5
2.3
6
5.5
2.3
7
6.5
2.8
8
8
3.8
8
8
3.8
9
11
4.3
9
11
4.3
24
0.75
29
1
35
1
40
1
48
1.2
59
1.2
67
1.2
79
1.2
83
88
1.2
1.5
1.5
a
w
3
4
3
5
4
5
4
6
5
7
5
7
5
8
5
8
6
10
6
10
6
10
,,
4
1.2
5
1.2
5
1.2
6
1.2
7
1.5
7
1.5
1.5
1.5
10
1.5
10
2
10
2
d,
I
w 1 C11
53
232
.tyJt;rr
M4
M5
M6
Thread d
M8
M8
x1
s
B
M10
M1 0
x1
M12
M12
x1.5
M16
M16
x1.5
M20
M20
x2
M24
M24
x2
M30
M30
16
17.8
12
18
20
15
24
26.8
19
30
33
22
36
39.6
27
46
50.9
33
21 .5
4.5
13
27 .7
4.5
16
33.2
5.5
19
42.7
7
24
d,
c
8
from
to
c1,21 over
to
3
1.6
1.6
3
2
2.5
3..2
2.8
2.5
4
3.6
2.5
5
4.6
2.5
6.4
5.8
3.2
8
7.4
4
10
9.2
4
12.6
11.8
4
16
15
4
6
20
8
25
8
32
10
40
12
50
14
63
18
80
22
100
28
125
36
160
3.5
4.5
4.5
5.5
5.5
7
7
9
9
11
11
14
14
20
20
27
27
39
39
56
6. 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32. 36, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 7 1,
90, 100,112, 125. 140. 160 mm
Explanations
x2
so.
II d Nominal sizes coner pin hole diameter

21 d, applicable bolt diameter
Cotter pin ISO 1234- 2.5x32 - St:
d = 2.5 mm, I= 32 mm, material steel
4
2
5
2.5
5.3
2.5
6.5
3
7.5
3
16
8
3.5
20
10
4
24
12
5
9.5
4
11.5
5
15
6
St(steei), A1-50
18
8
23
10
233
Machine elements: 5.5 Washers
Flat washers, Overview

11
Name
~~-r
Standard
Stainless steel, steel group A2
-1
Nominal sile
(Thread nominal 01
Hardness
grade
M aterial
Overview
Illustration
~
~
Design
Standard range
from-to
Flat washers
with chamfer
Producr grade A21
M5-M64
M'l
Standard
Steel,
stainless
steel
DIN EN
ISO
7090
rablebelow
Flat washers
small series
Product grade A2l
M1.6-M36
St.eel,
stainless
steel
DIN EN
ISO
7092
Design
Standard range
from-to
Illustration
\11

Flat washers
with chamfer,
forHVbolls
M12- M30
+::
page 234
Flat washers
normal series
Product grade C2l
M1.6-M64
Steel
DIN EN
14399-6
Steel
DIN434
DIN435
Steel
DIN EN
28738
page 235
Steel
DIN EN
ISO
7091
Steel
DIN
7989-1
Plain washers for

clevis pins
Product grade A21
d 3-100mm
~
~
page 234
Washers for steel
structures
Product grade
A21,C21
M10-M30
page 234
Standard
page 235
Washers, square,
for channels and
!beams
M8-M27
M il
page235
Conical spring
washers for
screw joints
d;2..J0mm
DIN
6796
Spring
steel
page 235
11
Material is steel with corresponding hardness grade (e. g. 200 HV; 300 HVJ; other materials as agreed upon.
21 Product grades are differentiated by tolerance and by manufacturing process.
Aat washers with chamfer. normal series
-m:. ~
~r-30to
-;;.;
.r--
Hardness grade 200 HV suitable for:

Hexagon bolts and nuts of property classes s 8.8 or s 8 (nut)
Hexagon bolts and nuts made of
stainless steel
Hexagon bolts and nuts of property classes s 10.9 or s 10 (nut)
d . DIN EN ISO 7090 I:Z000.11), replaces for DIN 1251+2

M5
M6
M8
M10
M 12
M 16
10
12
16
20
d1 m in.11
5.3
6.4
8.4
10.5
13.0
17.0
21.0
dzmax.11
10.0
12.0
16.0
20.0
24.0
30.0
37.0
1.6
1.6
2.5
M2.4
M30
M36
M42
M48
M56
M64
Forttv..k
Nominal sile
h'l
For1hi'Mdll
M20
24
30
36
42
48
56
64
d 1 min.'l
25.0
31.0
37.0
45.0
52.0
62.0
70.0
dz max, I I
44.0
56.0
66.0
78.0
92.0
105.0
115.0
10
10
Nominal size
hiI
MaterWZI
Type
Stainless steel
s-1
A2, A4, Fl , Cl, C4 (ISO 3506)31
300HV
200HV (quenched and
200 HV
Hardness grade
tempered)
Washer ISO 7090-20-200 HV: Nominal sile I thread nominal 01 = 20 mm, hardness grade 200 HV, steel
11 These are all nominal dimensions
21 Non-ferrous metals and other materials as per agreement
Jl Compare to page 211
Hardness grade 200 HV suitllble for:

Cap screws with property classes
s 8.8 or of stainless steel
Cap screws with he.x agon socket
and property classes
s 8.8 or of stainless steel
Cap screws with hexagon socket
and property classes
" 10.9
1-..:.:.--- - -1-----+----..;;v;-u.r--t--------------j
:::;)
Wu!Mr ISO 7092-8-200 HV-A2: Nominal size

( thread nominal (/))~ 8 mm, small series,
hardness grade 200 HV, of stainless steel A2
" These are all nominal dimensions

2l Avoid lhis size if at all possible
31
Non-ferrous metals and other materials as per agreement
41 Compare to page 211
Hardness grade 100 HV suitllble for:

Hexagon bolts/screws. product
grade C. with property classes s 6.8
Hexagon nuts, product grade C,
with property classes s 6
t-:.:_____-+__::__L_
_J__:_
_L_
.~__
_~._ _.J.._ _~...-_"i
Machine elements: 5.5 Washers
235
236
Machine elements: 5.6 Pins and clevis pins
Pins and clevis pins, Overview

Designation exemple:
Pins with DINEN main numbers are designated with ISO numbers.
ISO number DIN-EN number- 20000; example: DIN EN 22338 ISO 2338
1' if available
Illustration
J.:..
..;t~lf"'~
e. g. St steel
Stainless steels:
A 1 austenitic
C1 martensltic
Designation,
Standard range
from-to
Stan
dard
Dowel pin.
not hardened
da 1-60 mm
DIN
EN ISO
2338
Taper pin
d 1 0.6-50 mm
DIN EN
22339
Dowel pin,
hardened
d 0.8 - 20mm
DIN
EN ISO
8734
Spring pin
(clamping
sleeves).
slotted
d 1 = 1-50mm
DIN
EN ISO
8752
DIN
EN ISO
13337
Straight grooved
pin with chamfer
DIN
EN ISO
DIN
EN ISO
d 1 = 1.5-25 mm
8740
Tapered grooved
pin
d 1 = 1.5-25 mm
8744
Half length
reversed taper
grooved pin
d 1 = 1.5- 25 mm
DIN
EN ISO
8741
Half length taper

grooved pin
d1 = 1.2-25 mm
DIN
EN ISO
8745
Center grooved
pin,
grooved 113 the
length
d 1 = 1.2-25 mm
DIN
EN ISO
Round head
grooved pi n
cf., a 1.4- 20mm
DIN
EN ISO
8746
Center grooved
pin, with long
grooves
d 1 1.2-25 mm
DIN
EN ISO
8742
8743
Grooved pin with DIN

countersunk head EN ISO
d1 a 1.4- 20 mm
8747
Clevis pins
FonnA
Clevis pins with

out head.
form A without
cotter pin hole,
form Bwith
d 3 - 100 mm
DIN EN
22340
Clevis pins with

head.
form A without
cotter pin hole,
form Bwith
d a 3 - 100mm
DIN EN
22341
237
Taper pin ISO 2339-A- 10x 40 - St: Type A. d =10 mm,

I = 40 mm, of steel
Spring pins (clamping sleeves), slotted, heavy duty

Spring pins (clamping sleeves), slotted. light duty
cf. DIN EN ISO 8752 (199803)

cf. DIN EN ISO 13337 (1998.02)
from
l ro
Nominal
lengths I
4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20. 22. 24, 26. 28. 30, 32, 35, 40,
45-95, 100, 120, 140, 160, 160,200 mm
420 HV 30- 520 HV 30
Materials
Application
'' Only one chamfer is allowed for

spring pins with nominal diameter d 1 ,. 10 mm.
The diameter of the location hole (tolerance class H12) must

have the same nominal diameter d 1 as the mating pin. After
installing the pin in the smallest receiving hole, the slot
should not be completely closed.
Spring pin ISO 8752 - 6 x 30- St cJ, = 6 mm, I= 30 mm,

of steel
238
l from
to
l from
Tapered groove pin
IS08744
20
30
8
20
8
30
8
30
8
40
10
60
10
60
12 14 18 26 26
80 100 160 200 200
8
20
12
30
12
30
12
40
18
60
18
60
22 26 32 40 45
80 100 160 200 200
8
~
8
60
8
60
10 12 14 14 24
80 1001W1W1W
W 30 30
to
Full length taper

grooved pins
ISO 8745
Grooved pins
with round head
[ from
to
ISO 8746
~
iS
Grooved pins with

countersunk head
ISO 8747
Nominal
lengths I
3
6
3
8
3
10
3
12
4
16
6
25
8
30
10
40
12
3
6
3
8
4
10
4
12
5
16
6
20
8
25
8
30
10
40
12
16
40
20
40
16
40
20
40
25
40
Pins: 8, 10- 30, 32, 35, 40- 100, 120, 140- 180, 200 mm
Studs: 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20. 25, 30, 35.40 mm
Clevis:l~r
~ ,-s=r
Clevis pins with head ISO 2341
~
Nominal
lengths
6, 8, 1()...30, 32. 35, ~- 95. 100, 120. 140- 180, 200 mm
1
Clevis pin ISO 2340 - B- 20 1C 100- St: Form B, d = 20 mm,
I 100 mm, of free-coning steel
Nominal
lengthsl
11 gripping length
16, 20, 25, 30, 35- 125, 130, 1~. 150...190, 200 mm
Clevis pin DIN 1445- 12h111C 30 IC 50 - St: d1 = 12 mm, tolerance class h11, / 1 = 30 mm, /2 =50 mm. of 9SMnPb28 !St)
25
239
Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Keys, Gib-head keys
Name
I Material. e. g . steel
I l
Designation,
Standard range Standard
from- to
lllu61ratlon
Designation,
Standard range Standard
from- to
lllustmtlon
Overview of tapered keys
table below
Tapered key
wxh
2x2- 100x50
~~
DIN 6886
FormA:
sunk key
Gob-head
taperad key
[D
wxh
.....1!1~1
I
Overview of feather keys
page 240
FormA
I ~1
Feather key
wxh
2x2- 100x 50
:kl
OtN6887
4x4-100x50
Form B:
driving key
OtN 6BB5
FormA-J
Tapered keys. Gib-head tapered keys
Woodruff keys
DIN6888
wxh
2.5x3.7- 10x16
cf. DIN 6886 (1967-121 or DIN 6887 (1968-041
For shaft
diameter d
over
10
12
12
30
38
44
50
58
85
30
38
44
50
58
65
65
75
75
17
17
22
22
to
85
95
95
110
Tapered keys
w010
h
4
4
5
5
6
6
8
7
10
8
12
8
14
9
16
10
18
11
20
12
22
14
25
14
28
16
4.1
7
5.1
8
6.1
10
7.2
11
8.2
12
8.2
12
9.2
14
10.2
16
11.2
18
12.2
20
14.2
22
14.2
22
16.2
25
2.5
1.2
3
1.7
3.5
2.2
4
2.4
5
2.4
5
2.4
5.5
2.9
6
3.4
7
3.4
7.5
3.9
9
4.4
9
4.4
10
5.4
16
70
20
25
110
32
140
40
160
45
180
56
220
63
250
70
280
80
320
Gib-head tapered h,
keys
hz
Shaft keyway depth
Hub keyway depth
t,
lz
Allow. deviation
t,, tz
Key length 1
from
to
+0.2
+0.1
10"
45
12"
56
90
50
200
Nominal lengths I
6, 8 - 20, 22, 25, 28, 32. 40. 45. so. 56, 63, 70, 80-100, 110, 125. 140, 160-200, 220,
250, 280, 320. 360, 400 mm
length tolerances
Key length I, from- to
6-28
32-80
90-400
Tolerances for
Key length
-(1.2
-(1.3
-(1.5
Keyway length (sunk key)
+0.2
+0.3
+0.5
11
Gib-head key lengths from 14 mm
240
Feather keys, Woodruff l<eys

Feather keys (high form)
FonnA
cf. DIN 6885-1 (1968.()8)
FonnC
FonnB
FonnO
FormE
Form F
Toe.- for t..tt..lceyways

Shah keyway width w
tight fit
normal fit
P9
N9
tight fit
normal fit
P9
JS 9
s 22
s 130
> 130
+0.2
+0.2
+0.3
+0.3
+0.1
+0.1
Alllow. deviatio n for length I
l.englh
for
tolerances
d, over
to
10
12
12
17
10
17
22
2
2
3
3
5
5
t2
1.2
1
1.S
1.4
2.5
1.S
from
to
6
20
6
36
s
45
ll
t,
No m inal
lengths 1
6 - 2S
32 - 80
90 - 400
key
-0.2
-0.3
-0.5
keyway
+0.2
+0.3
65
75
S5
S5
95
95
110
110
130
16
10
1S
11
20
12
22
14
25
14
2S
16
32
1S
6
4.3
7
4.4
7.5
4.9
9
5.4
9
5.4
10
6.4
11
7.4
45
180
50
56
220
63
250
70
280
so
200
320
90
360
50
58
58
12
14
9
5
3.3
5
3.3
5.5
3.S
20
110
2S
140
36
160
30
38
38
44
6
6
10
3
2.3
3.5
2.S
4
3.3
10
56
14
70
1S
90
+0.5
65
75
44
50
22
30
6, 8, 10, 12. 14, 16. 18. 20. 22. 25. 2S. 32. 36. 40, 45, 50, 56. 63, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 125, 140, 160, 180,
200, 220, 250, 280, 320 mm
Feather key DIN 6885 - A - 12 x8 x 56: Form A,
b~
12 mm, h. 8 mm,/ 56 mm
Woodruff keys
cf. DIN 6888 (1956-08)
T . , _ for Woodruff keyw.ys

Shah keyway widthw tight fit
normal fit
P9 (PSI''
N9 (N 8)11
Hub keyway width w tight fit

normal fit
P9 (PS1 11
J 9 (J Sl 11
Allow. devia. fo r
a nd
over
10
to
6
>9
10
+0. 1
+0.1
+0.2
+0.1
+0.2
+0.1
+0.2
+0.2
s S
5
h "'7.5 > 7.5
Shah keyway depth t 1 +0.1

Hub keyway depth t2 +0.1
d,
6
s 9
+0.2
+0.1
10
12
12
17
22
22
30
17
30
38
w h9
2.5
3.7
3.7
6.5
6.5
7.5
6.5
7.5
7.5
11
11
13
11
13
16
10
10
13
16
13
16
19
16
19
22
19
22
28
22
28
32
2S
32
45
r,
2.9
2.5
3.S
5.3
3.5
4.5
5.5
5.1
6.6
8.6
6.2
8.2
h12
1.4
1.7
2.2
2.6
10
10.2 7.S
9.S 12.S
3.4
43.1
11 To lerance class for b roached keyways
241
Splined shaft joints and blind rivets

Splined shaft joints with straight flanks and internal centering
Light
series
Hub
'
J-~
<:::)
-~
'
Nil
--
26
30
32
6
6
7
6
7
11
13
16
18
21
28
,8
Shaft
6
6
8
8
8
32
36
N''
N'l
6
6
6
6
6
14
16
20
22
25
3
3.5
4
42
46
52
50
58
56
62
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
48
46
8
9
10
10
12
72
8
9
10
10
12
6
6
6
8
8
28
32
34
6
6
7
6
7
12
12
14
16
18
10
10
10
10
10
82
92
102
112
125
12
12
14
16
18
36
40
38
42
<:::)
H9
H10
Internal
centering
H7
8
H11
HlO
68
82
92
102
112
78
88
98
108
120
54
60
65
TolenMe eta.. for the ahafl
Heat
treated
dimensions
62
10
10
10
10
10
72
Toa.r- eta.. for ttMt hub

Not heat
treated
dimensions
Medium
series
Light
series
N'l
- - -
23
26
cf. DIN ISO 1411986-12)
Medium
series
H7
Dimen.
Sliding
fit
Type of fit
Transition
fit
Press fit
d10
f9
hlO
all
all
al l
f7
g7
h7
Shaft l or hub) DIN ISO 14 - 6 x 23 x 26: N 6, d 23 mm, 0 26 mm
11 N number of splines
Open end blind rivets with break mandrel and flat head
Open end blind rivets with break mandrel and countersunk head
Blind rivet with flat head
d.
i~l.M ~
Ill.
d,
""
'"'~
mandrel
original
head
d.;
&''
Head 0 (\max.
6.3
8.4
10.5
12.6
Head height k
1.3
1.7
2.1
2.5
2.45
2.95
3.4
3.1
3.2
4.1
4.2
5.1
5.2
6.1
6.2
/,_+3.5
1mox +4
'""'" + 4.5
lmox + 5
Rivet 0 d (Nomin.. lize)
Rivet mandrel 0 d, max.

Riv~ hole 0
min.
Fining length b
Shaft ler'91f'o I
min.
max.
-=--~
set rivet joint
'd.,' _l ll
0.!>-1.5 11
2.0-3.5
1.!>-3.511
1-31)
1.!>-2.5"
3.!>-5.0
2- 5
3-511
2.!>-4.0
2- 3
10
11
!>-7
5.0--6.5
4-6
3-5
12
13
7- 9
6.!>-8.5
6-8
!>-7
16
17
9-13
8.!>-12.5
8-12
7- 11
20
21
13-17
12.!>-16.5
12- 15
11- 15
25
26
17- 22
16.!>-21.0
1!>-20
1!>-20
30
31
2()-25
2()-25
Property
classes
L llowl and H !high) are differentiated by the minimum shear

and minimum tensile forces of the rivet.
Materia1s21
Rivet body of aluminum alloy (AlA)

Riv~ mandrel of steel ! Stl
broken ~ formed
mandrel
head
original
'
~rivet joint
Recommended grip range
head
Blind rivet with countersunk

head
'l>d,
head
4, 1
max.
Ill
_d,
cf. DIN EN ISO 1597712003-04)

cf. DIN EN ISO 15978 12003-08)
=
11
21
Blind rivet ISO 15977- 4 x 12- AIA/St -l: Blind rivet with flat
head; d = 4 mm, / 12 mm, rivet body of aluminum alloy, rivet
mandrel of steel, property class L (low)
Only for flat head rivets ISO 15977

Other standardized material combinations for rivet body/mandrel include:
St/St; AlA/AlA; A2/A2; Cu/St; NiCu/St etc.
242
Metric tapers. Morse tapers, Steep tapers

Morse tepen and metric tepen
ct. OIN 228-1 ( 1987-o5)
FOfm A: Taper shank with tightening thread
FOfm B: Taper shank with tang
~ r--.-.
H~H-
'\S'l
-~ -~
11
~"'
-al ~----~-~~-
! ' }"
a
Form C: Taper sleeve for taper shanks with draw-in threads
Fom1 D: Taper sleeve for taper shanks with tang
-~
~~
E -3 - 1-----k-JRz
25
3"
-~
&J!
I
The Forms AK. BK CK and DK each have a feed for cooling lubricants.
Typeof
--
in
Metric
taper
(ME)
Morse
taper
(MT)
T8pshank
Metric
taper
=
1l
4.1
2.9
23
25
20 0.5
6.2
4.4
32
4.6
34
28 0.5
6.4
1 : 20
1.432
9.045
9.2
6.1
50
56.5
6.7
52
45 1
1 : 19.212
1.491
12.065
12.2
9.4 M6
53.5
3.5
62
9.7
56
47
1 : 20.047
1.429'
17.780
18.0
14.6 M10
t4
64
75
14.9
67
58
1 : 20.020 1.431'
94
20.2
84
72
1 : 19.922
26.5 107
92
1 : 19.254 1.488"
23.825
24.1
19.8
M12
t9. t
81
31.267
31.6
25.9 M16
25.2
102.5
129.5
44.399
44.7
37.6 M20
36.5
63.348
63.8
53.9 M24
52.4 182
80
(MT)
,,
Teper
6.5 117.5
1.438"
6.5 149.5
38.2 135 118
1 : 19.002 1.507'
210
54.8 188 164 1
1 : 19.180 1.493'
80
80.4
70.2 M30
69
196
220
71 .5 202 170
100 100
100.5
88.4 M36
87
232
10
260
90
1.5
120 120
120.6
106.6 M36 105
268
12
300
108.5 276 230 1.5
160 t60
160.8
143
M48 141
340
16
380
145.5 350 290 2
200 200
201 .0
179.4 M48 1n
412
20
460
182.5 424 350 2
240 200 1.5

1 :20
1.432'
Taper shank DIN 228- ME - B 80 AT6: Metric taper shank, Form B. Size 80,
Taper ang.le tolerance quality AT6
Control dimension d1 may lie a maximum distance z in lront of the taper sleeve.
Steep taper shanks for tools and chucks form A
cf. DIN 20801 (1978-12)
No.
11
d,
dza10
c$a
1:4-0.4
/1
at0.2 bH12
V1 .
a
Steep tapef' shank DIN 2080 - A 40 AT4: Form A,
No. 40, Taper angle tolerance quality AT4
243
Tool holding fixtures

Tool holding fixtures join the tool with the spindle of the macl1ine tool. They transmit the torque and are responsible
for precise concentric running.
Type of delign
Metric taper (MEl and Morse taper IMTI

Torque transmission:
foro& fit over the taper surface
machine tool spindle
+ reduelion sleeves fit different taper

diameters
- not suitable for automatic tool change
Metric taper 1 : 20;

Morse teper 1 : 19.002 to 1: 20.047
Steep taper shank ISKI
grooves on taper edge produce interlock.

The steep taper is not meant for transmis
sion of forces. it only centers the tool.
Axial loc;k ing is achieved by the thread or
the ring groove.
loot
spindle
+ DIN 69871-1 suitable for automatic tool

change
Fastening in the machine spindle:

Form A: with draw-in bar
Form B: by front fastener
Taper 7: 24 ( 1 : 3.42.9) according to
DIN254
Taper shank numbers:

ME4; 6
MT 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6
ME 80; 100; 120; (140); 160;
(180); 200
cf. DIN 208G-1 (1978-121and -2 09J9.091and DIN 69871 -1 ( 1995- 10)

mach1ne
cf. DIN 228 1 and -2 ( 1987-05)

Clamping device for conventional drilling and milling.
Use with CNC machine tools,

especially machining centers;
less suited for high-speed cutting(HSC)
Steep taper numbers:
DIN 2080-1 (form A); 30; 40;
45; 50; 55; 60; 65; 70; 75; 80
DIN69871 -1:30;40;45;50;60
- high weight, therefore less suited for

quick tool change with high axial repeating clamping accuracy and for high revolution speeds
Hollow taper shanks (designation HSKI

force-fit using the taper and contact surfaces
drive slots on shaft end produce interlock.
+ low weight, therefore

+ high static and dynamic
rigidity
+ high repeated damping accuracy (3 1Jm)
+ high rotetional speeds
- more expensive than steep taper
cf. DIN 69893-1 and -2 (2003-05)

Safer use with high-speed cutting
Nominal sizes: d 1 ~ 32; 40; 50;
63; 80; 100; 125; 160 mm
Form A; with shoulder and

clamping keyway for automatic
tool change
Fonn C: only manual change is
possible
Taper 1 : 9.98
Shrinkage chucks
Torque transmission like HSK.
aamping the tool by quicll. inductive heating (approx. J40C) of the holding shank in
the shrinkage chuck. A shrinkage joint is
formed by the oversize of the tool (approx.
3-7 11ml after the joining and cooling.
holding
shank
+
+
+
+
transmission of high torques

high radial rigidity
higher cutting values possible
shorter machining times
+ good runout
+ greater running smoothness
+
+
-
available with HSK or steep taper
better surface quality

reliable tool changes
relatively expensive
additional induction and cooling devices
required
Universally applicable in
machine tools with steep taper
or hollow shank tool holders;
suitable for tools with cylindrical shank of HSS or carbide.
Shank diameters: 6; 8; 10; 12;
14; 16; 18; 20; 25 mm
244
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools
Cylindrical helical tension springs

German loop DIN 209~
oi -ai~ ~~~~~
L
L,
Do
Do
r;l\
ell
I s.,
I
L.,.,
0.
t.
wire diameter in mm
outside coil diameter
0. minimum sleeve diameter in mm
free length, with no load on spring ln m m
Lt
length o f spring body w ith no load in m m
Lt,
Lm.x maximum spring length
Fo internal prestress in N
F,_ maximum allowable spring force ln N
R
spring rate in N/m m
maximum allow able spring displacement
Sm
for F..,.. in mm
'-
Tension springs of patented drawn~ ipring steel""wire
F, .
1'
....
cf. DIN EN 1027(}.1 (200 1 121
0.20
0.25
0.32
0.36
0.40
3.00
5.00
5.50
6.00
7.00
3.50
5.70
6.30
6.90
8.00
8.6
10.0
10.0
11.0
12.7
4.35
2.63
2.08
2.34
2.60
0.06
0.03
0.08
0.16
0.16
1.26
1.46
2.71
3.50
4.06
O.o36
0.039
0.140
0. 173
0. 165
33.37
36.51
18.85
19.23
23.67
0.46
0.50
0.55
0.63
0.70
7.50
10.00
6.00
8.60
10.00
8.60
11.10
7.10
9.90
11.40
13.7
20.0
13.9
19.9
23.6
3.04
5.25
5.78
7.88
9.63
0.25
0.02
0,88
0.79
0.83
5.31
5.40
11.66
12.13
14.13
0.207
O.Q78
0.606
0.276
0.239
24.41
68.79
17.78
41.15
55.78
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.25
10.80
10.00
13.50
12.00
17.20
12.30
11.70
15.40
14.00
19.50
25.1
23.0
31.4
27.8
39.8
10.20
9.45
12.50
11.83
15.63
1.2.2
1.99
1.77
2.99
2.77
19.10
28.59
28.63
41 .95
42.35
0.355
0.934
0.454
1. 181
0.533
50.36
28.49
59.22
32.98
74.25
1.30
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.80
11.30
15.00
20.00
21.60
20.00
13.50
17.50
22.70
24.50
23.20
134.0
34.9
48.9
50.2
46.0
118.95
15.05
21 .75
20.00
19.35
5.771
5.44
3.99
3.99
6.88
70.59
66.08
60.54
67.40
100.90
0.32.2
1.596
0.603
0.726
L819
201 .60
38.00
93.72
87.38
51.70
2.00
2.20
2.50
2.80
3.00
27.00
24.00
34.50
30.00
40.00
30.50
27.80
38.90
34.70
45.10
62.8
55.6
79.7
69.8
140.0
25.00
23.10
3 1.25
29.40
86.25
6.88
9.81
9.88
17.77
11.50
101.20
148.00
148.50
233.40
214.20
0.907
2.425
1.056
3.257
0.587
104.00
57.02
131.33
65.85
345.31
3.20
3.60
4.00
4.50
5.00
43.20
40.00
44.00
50.00
50.00
46.60
46.00
50.60
57.60
58.30
100.0
92.1
117.0
194.0
207.0
40.00
37.80
58,00
128.25
142.50
11.88
19.60
24.50
28.00
47.00
238.40
357. 10
436.30
532.30
707.90
1.451
3.735
3.019
1.613
2.541
156.13
90.38
136.43
312.74
260. 12
5.50
6.30
7.00
8.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
80.00
69.30
80.00
92.00
94.00
236.0
272.0
306.0
330.0
156.75
179.55
199.50
228.00
38.00
45.00
70.00
120.00
774.50
968.50
1132.00
1627.00
2.094
2.258
2.286
4.065
351.72
429.00
464.83
370.91
Tension springs of stainless steel spring steel wire11

0.20
0.40
0.63
0.80
1.00
3 .00
7.00
8.60
10.80
13.50
3.50
8.00
9.90
12.30
15.40
1.25
1.40
1.60
2.00
4.00
17.20
15.00
21.60
27.00
44.00
19.50
17.50
24.50
30.50
50.60
8.60
12.70
19.90
25.1
31.4
39.8
34.9
50.2
62.8
117.0
cf. DIN EN 1027(}.3 12001-081
4.35
2.60
7.88
10.20
12.50
0.05
0.121
0.631
0.971
1.411
15.63
15.05
20.00
25.00
58.00
2. 211
4.351
3.211
5.501
19.600
0.99
3.251
9.861
15.67
23.77
35.50
55.72
56.93
84.86
366.50
0.031
0.142
0.237
0.305
0.390
30.54
22.11
38.97
48.19
57.40
0.458
1.371
0.623
0.779
2.593
72.73
37.46
/ 86.19
101.86
133.83
H In addition to the springs listed, o ther sPrings with different outside diameters and lengths are commercially
available for each wire diameter.
245
Cylindrical helical compression springs
r~Fl
e"'
F,
.e
c:
"'
a.
"'
.i:
Spring
ch..a.rlatk:
curve
block
_height
s,
ILl
s2
s,...
0.2
0.5
1.6
2.5
3.2
6.3
2.5
2
1.6
6.3
4
2.5
12.5
8
5
20
12.5
8
25
16
10
32
25
20
16
40
32
25
20
50
40
32
25
63
50
40
32
80
63
50
40
100
80
63
50
Do
0,
min.
2.0
1.5
1.1
5.3
3.1
1.7
10.8
6.5
3.6
17.5
10.3
5.9
22.0
13.4
7.5
28.3
21.6
16.8
12.9
35.6
27.6
21.1
16.1
44.0
34.8
27.0
20.3
56.0
43.0
34.0
26.0
71 .0
55.0
42.0
32.6
89.0
69.0
53.0
40.5
3.1
2.6
2.1
7.5
5.0
3.4
14.4
9.6
6 .5
22.6
14.7
10.1
28.0
18.6
12.5
36.0
28.4
23.2
19.1
44 .6
36.5
28.9
23.9
56.0
45.2
37.0
29.7
70.0
57.0
46.0
38.0
89.0
71.5
58.0
47.5
111
91 .0
73.0
60.0
F....,.
In N
1.00
1.24
1.50
6.6
9.3
10.4
22
33.2
43.8
84.9
135
212
128
198
318
182
233
292
365
288
361
461
577
427
533
666
852
623
785
981
1226
932
1177
1481
1854
1413
1766
2237
2825
q '() (j.
wire diameter
d
Dm
mean coil diameter
od
mandrel diameter
Dol
sleeve diameter
free length, unloaded spring
Total number of coils
4=;. + 2
F,_ maximum allowable spring force at Smox
L..,
max.
1 l 'Jbl" 101
F,, F2 spring force at L 1, L2
L2
~~~
Drn
}0~~
[)I"J
L 1 L2 length of loaded spring at F1 F2

l.mn minimum allowable test length of the spring
L!
t..
5.4
4.0
3 ,0
13.5
7.0
4.4
24.0
13.0
8.5
48.0
24.0
14.5
58.0
30.0
18.0
71.5
49.0
36.0
27.5
82.0
58.5
42.5
33.5
99.0
71.0
53.5
41 .0
120
85.0
64.0
51.0
145
105
80.0
60.0
170
125
95.0
75.0
s 1 s2 spring displacement at F,, F2

Smox maximum allowable spring displacement at Fmax
;.
number o f spring coils
~
R
total number of coils (ends ground)

spring rete in N/mm
=>
;. -3.5
Snwc
3.8
2.4
1.5
9.2
3.3
0.9
14.6
5.7
1.9
35.6
14.0
5.5
43.0
17.5
6.8
52.2
32.2
20.5
12.9
60.8
38.7
23.4
15.0
71 .6
45.8
29.5
18.1
87.7
54.1
34.4
22.3
103
65.0
42.0
24.0
118
76.0
48.0
30.0
Compt'ession spring DIN 2098 - 2 X 20 x 94:

d 2 mm, Dm c 20 mm and y 94 mm
0.26
0.51
1.0
0.73
2.84
11.6
1.49
5.68
23.2
2.38
9.76
37.3
2.98
11.4
46.6
3.48
7.29
14.2
27.8
4.76
9.3
19.4
38.2
5.95
11.7
22.8
47.7
7.27
14.5
28.4
55.4
8.96
18.3
36.7
71.7
11.9
23.2
47.0
95.4
8.2
5.9
4.4
20.0
10.0
6.1
36.5
19.0
12.0
73.5
36.0
21.5
88.5
45.0
26.5
110
74.5
54.0
41.0
125
88.5
63.5
49.5
150
105
79.5
60.5
180
130
95.5
75.0
220
155
115
90.0
260
180
140
110
1.-
; 8.5
5.5
; 12.5
s.-
t..
s.-
6.0
3.8
2.4
14.0
4.9
1.4
23.1
8.9
3.0
55.9
21 .9
8.9
67.1
27.3
10.9
82. 1
50.5
32.1
20.5
95.3
61.1
37.2
23.6
111
69.9
46.2
28.3
135
86.8
54.5
34.8
160
99.0
62.0
39.7
187
111
74.0
46.8
0.17
0.33
0.65
0.46
1.81
7.43
0.95
3.61
14.8
1.52
6.23
23.7
1.90
7.24
29.7
2.22
4.64
9.05
17.7
3.03
5.92
12.4
24.2
3.79
7.41
14.4
30.3
4.63
9.25
18.1
35.3
5.70
11.7
23.3
45.6
7.58
14.8
30.3
60.8
12.4
8 .7
6.4
30.0
15.0
8.7
55.5
28.5
17.0
110
53.5
31 .5
135
68.0
38.5
170
115
81.5
61.0
190
135
94.5
74.0
230
160
120
89.5
275
195
140
110
9.3
5.9
3.6
21.3
7.9
2.2
36.1
14.2
4.4
84.5
33.4
13.6
104
42.5
16.5
129
80.2
50.0
31.7
148
96.2
57.4
36.9
175
110
72.8
43.5
210
133
81.6
52.5
250
155
100
63.2
286
186
112
70.0
0.11
0.21
0,42
0.30
1.17
4.80
0.61
2.33
9.57
0.99
4.0
15.4
1.23
4.69
19.2
1.43
3.0
5.86
11.5
1.96
3.82
8 .0
15.7
2.45
4.79
9.35
19.6
2.99
5.98
11.7
22.9
3.69
7.55
15.1
29.5
4.9
9.58
19.6
39.2
335
235
175
135
390
285
205
160
t..
Sm...
1H 13.7 0.07
12.E 8 .6 0.15
9.
5.4 0.28
44.( 31.8 0.21
2U 11.7 0.79
12.( 3.0 3.27
80 .~ 53.1
0.41
40.! 20.6 1.59
24.( 6.6 6.51
165 129
0.67
78.( 50.0 2.73
45.( 20.2 10.4
195 151
0.83
62.1 3.19
98
24.4 13.0
55
245 187
0.97
165 116
2.04
75.7 3.98
120
88.( 49.9 7.78
275 216
1.33
190 136
2.61
135
83.4 5.45
105
53.4 10.7
335 257
1.65
235 165
3.26
170 104
6.36
130
65.5 13.3
2.03
395 304
280 194
4.07
205 124
7.95
160
79.5 15.5
490 370
2.51
5.13
340 277
250 145 10.3
95.0 20.1
195
570 423
3.34
410 271
6.51
300 169 13.3
230 103 26.7
246
Disc springs
111o "' 'o - , 1
Single apring
~~I
:-c
D,
r>J
D,
Ia)
~/
-;;,c: , ~ .....
c:
l..-0
Q.
Vl
---
stoc.l spring deflection of stack of

disc springs
3J
E~
E~
.......
"'"
..:~
.. ..,
v_
o.
load generated by a single

disc spring
F"""' tolal load generated by stack
of disc springs
n
;
Series A:. herd sprlnga

D0 /t 18; holt 0.4
Di
length of unloaded spring

stack
number of disc s prings in
parallel stack
number of disc springs in
series stack
4!
Series 8: meclum herd springs

D./I., 28; holt 0. 75
F in
s;ll
t
4J
kNII
h12
H12
8
10
14
16
4.2
5.2
7.2
8.2
0.4
0.5
0 .8
0.9
20
25
28
40
10.2
12.2
14.2
20.4
--
25
28
40
45
12.2
14.2
20.4
22.4
1.5
1.5
2.2
2.5
2.05
2.15
3.15
4.1
2.91
2.85
6.54
7.72
0.41
0.49
0.68
0.75
50
56
63
71
25.4
28.5
31
36
3
3
3.5
4
4.3
4 ..9
5.6
6.7
12.0
11.4
15.0
20.5
80
100
125
41
46
51
64
5
5
6
7
8.2
R5
33.7
31.4
48.0
140
160
180
72
82
92
lo
0.6
0.75
1.1
1.25
Fin
kNII
s;ll
r1 1 r~.,
,fJl,,~.~ootJCJ\
Series St8C:k
overall height of the

unloaded single spring
spring deflection of a single
spring
(C)
1
3
4
Spring deflection s - Spring force greph for vrloua disc spring
combinations: (el single spring;
(b) parallel stack of 3 single springs: 3 times force;
(c) series stack of 4 single springS: 4-fold deflection;
(d) series stack of 3 parallel stacks with 2 single
springs each: 3-fold deflection, 2-fold force
Group
inside diameter
thickness of the single
disc spring
spring height (theoretic
spring displacement to flat
position)
lo
(d)
I~
outside diameter
D,
ho
(b)
12
..
o.
I
without contact s urface:

Groups 1 & 2
l'
Spring
Spring force deflection
fiotal =
Fll
Stotal =
sl
i.
Spring length
1Y> = i 'o
Parallel stKk
Spring
deflection
Spring force
I
I
Fiotal = n
Fl l
Stotal =
Spring length
Y> = io+(n-1lt
Series C: soft s prings

Daft .. 40; hoft .. 1.3
lo
Fin
kN11
s;ll
0.15
0.19
0.23
0.26
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.55
0.7
0.9
1.05
0.12
0.21
0.28
0.41
0.19
0 ..23
0.30
0.34
0.2
0.25
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.55
0.8
0.9
0.04
0.06
0.12
0.16
0.19
0.23
0.34
0.38
1.53
0.34
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.35
1.6
1.8
0.75
0.87
1.11
0.41
0.53
0.60
0.5
0.7
0.8
1
1.15
1.6
1.8
2.3
0.25
0.60
0.80
1.02
0.49
0.68
0.75
0.98
1.25
2.85
1.89
1.20
0.21
0.33
0.81
1.00
wC:
.. o
ci S
::> o
" ~
E8
E.,
<D't:
.n"'
"
::!Nc:
u
1.1
1.55
1.5
1.7
2.6
3.0
2.62
3.66
0.86
0.98
0.83
0.98
1.05
1.20
2
2
2.5
2.5
3.4
3.6
4.2
4 .5
4.76
4.44
7.18
6.73
1.05
1.20
1.31
1.50
1.25
1.5
1.8
2
2.85
3.45
4.15
4.6
1.55
2.62
4.24
5.14
1.20
1.46
1.76
1.95
1.28
1.50
1.65
3
3.5
3.5
5
5.3
6
6.3
8.5
10.5
14.2
13.1
30.0
1.73
1.88
2.10
2.63
2.25
2.5
2.7
3.5
5.2
5.7
6.2
8
6.61
7.68
8.61
15.4
2.21
2.40
2.63
3.38
9
10.5
11.1
27.9
41 .1
37.5
3.00
3.38
3.83
3.8
4.3
4.8
8.7
9.9
11
17.2
21 .8
26.4
3.68
4.20
4.65
wO
.,<.>
...,._
a. "0
"
0 ~
o ~
90
5
6
6
Disc spring DIN 2093 - A 16: Series A. outside diameter o. = 16 mm
Spring force F of a single disc with spring deflections ~ 0.75 ho

21 s .. o.75 . ho
3 l Size 3: t> ~14 mm. with contact surface. o. = 125. 140. 160, 180,200,225. 250 mm
H
247
FormA
Forme
''til ~~~~~~~~~
,j:JRi'
y!RzZS(~.JR263)
Hardness 780 + 80 HV 10
Drill bushing DIN 172- A 22

=36mm
36: Form A. d1 = 22 mm,
/1
Form K QuiCk-change bushings for

right hand cutting tools
Form L Removable bushings
(dimensions same as form K)
Hardness 780 + 80 HV 10
Drill bushing DIN 173- K 15 K 22 K 36: Form K,

ct, 15 mm, ~ 22 mm ,/ 1 = 36mm
248
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tool s
Grub screws, Thrust pads, Balll<nobs

Grub ICI'8WS with thrust point
cf. DIN 6332 12003-041
~~
~
M10
M12
M16
4.8
d.!
5.4
7.2
7.2
,,
,,
7.5
10
12
/3
2.5
4.5
4.5
d.o
1%
32
40
50
63
80
24
30
36
33
39
51
65
73
..;
'
M8
"'
,.
Mil
12
Appllaltlon eumplea d8mplngwilh st ar knob H with knurled

nut
DIN6335
DIN6303
M6toM20
M6to M10
witn wing nut

DIN315
M6toM10
%
' '
d,
'
'
30
50 40 60 60 80 60 80 100 80 100 125
20
40
27
47
44
64
40
Is
22
42
30
50 48
68
- - - -
=>
12
80
60
Grub screw DIN 6332- S M 12 x 60: Form S witn

threads d 1 M12, /1 60 mm
II or scallop knob DIN 6336 M6 to M16
Thrust peds
Form S witn snap ring
d)
..::
Vsnap ring
1~
d,
(JRZTs)
thrust points
EHT (450 HV 1) 0.3 + 0.2mm,
surface nardness 550 + 100 HV 10
.......
cf. DIN 6311 12002-061
"'
"'
H12
12
4.6
10
16
6.1
12
20
8.1
15
11
25
8.1
18
32
12.1
40
15.6
Thrust pad DIN 6311 - S 40: FormS, d 1 e 40 mm,

w i th inserted snap ring
"
DIN I332
M6
M8
M10
13
M12
22
15
7.5
12
M16
28
16
16
M20
BaH knobs
FonnC
with threads
cf. DIN 319 12002-04)

Fonn L
with clamping sleeve
~~
FormM
with oonical hole
FormE
with threaded bushing
~~
Gnlb--
lliN7983
Sd 1
a; .~
"'
16
20
25
32
40
50
M4
MS
M6
M8
M10
M12
r,
11
14.5
18
21
13
7.5
12
15
18
1%
16 15 15 15 20 20 20 23 23 20 23 28
11
13
to
12
15 15
15
18
=>
Color:
22.5
10 8
10 12 10 12 16 12 16 20
8 10
10 12
12 16
15 15
20 20
22 22
29
37
46
Ball knob DIN 319 - E 25 PF: Form E, d1 = 25 mm,

of phenolic molding compound PF (thermoset plasticJ_..
Material:
Sd 1
Other forms no longer standardized.
Ball knob of phenolic molding compound PF (ther

moset plastic); threaded bushing of steel (Stl by
choice of manufacturer; other materials by agreement
black
249
+lrlf.
I; -
~
~ -..
.
...
'
ds
Forme
FormK
~
Star knob DIN 6335- A 50 AL: Form A, d 1 50 mm,

of aluminum
11 This size is not available in molding material.

2l Sometimes with insignificant other dimensions; material like
nuted knobs DIN 6336
Auted knob DIN 6336- L 40 x 30: Form L (molding

material I d 1 40 mm, I 30 mm
Forms A toE (metal knobsl as well as K and L (knobs of molding
material) correspond to star knobs DIN 6335.
Materials: Cast iron, aluminum, molding compounds (PF 31 N

RAL 9005 DIN noa-2)
FormA
Seating
pin
Form B
Locating
pin
cylindrical
hardened 53 + 6 HRC
Forme
Locating
pin
truncated
250
e 2 e,
c,"
upto M12x12: ~
8sd1
M12x14and
up:a>d1
!::>
FormB
b, = b2
""'ifrb
,-<:: , :, ;
bl
2
bl
Olher
dimenoians
and indi-
cations
lb lom!A
Forme
FormD
d4 =d3
FormG
d 4 > d3
251
25
20
M 16 >< 1.5
M20>< 1.5
45
2.5
16
68
21
32
25
M 20>< 1.5
M 24 >< 1.5
56
16
79
27
40
32
M24 >< 1.5

M27 >< 2
M 30 >< 2
70
26
93
12
36
I 0/+0.5
Material
WS2l
80
71
80
100
Hss,
62 : 2 HRC
45 : 5 HRC
64 : 2HRC
50 : 5 HRC
Punch DIN 9861 0 - 5.6 x 71 HWS: Form 0 , d 1 5.6 mm,

I 71 mm, of high-alloyed cold-w ork steel
11 Form DA w ith allow able enlargement below the head
21 WS
~ .,
(1. 1-1.8) d, (depending on 0 d,)
alloyed cold-work st eel

31 HWS high-alloyed coldwork st eels
1 HSS high-speed steels
Machined plates for press tools

and for fixtures
d . DIN ISO 6753- 1 (2006-09)
=oo
Machined p late ISO 6753-11 -315 x 200 x 32: Fabricat ed by flame

cutti ng (1),1 = 315 mm, W 200 mm, t = 32 m m
Umit deviations f or
Code
Fabrication m ethod
length I and width w

(w s 630mm)
Note: These surface roug hness

values only apply to milled
edges.
Flame cutting
Beam cutting
+4
+1
M illing
+0.4
+ 0.2
Limit deviations
for thickness t
:2
+0.5
+0.3
252
Machine elements: 5.8 Springs. components of jigs and tools
Pillar die sets

Pillar die sets with rectangular working
surface forms C and CG11 cf. DIN 9812 (1981-121
~-
cj l _~cl
-1- ! Id d1
--1 r ~
....1.
cj
c,
~ >< b,
50
d;a
0..
dz
30
80
19
M20x 1.5
30
80
25
M20 x 1.5
Oz
50
40
90
25
32
M24 X 1.5
56
40
90
32
M24 >< 1.5
56
63
63
:::>
11
50
32
40
100
50
50
100
40
M30 x2
M30x2
125
145
155
215
180
315
225
380
265
395
330
395
;I
c,
d,
50
63
80
rm-
180
160
"lao
200
220
200
220
250
315
Form C without threads; form CG with threads dj
Piller die sets with centraly positioned

pillars and t hick pillar guide plate. form OF
0..
Oz
dz
d;a
M16 X 1.5
40
25
65
16
50
30
80
25
- 25
M20 X 1.5
56
40
90
32
M24 x 1.5
100
,____
125
160
r--200
'"
1!
ll
I ,
..:\
I
i z ( ~
rt-,~-- - --t
'./'
~ {; ~
...
~ "/
~ >< b,
ez bz
80
125
16
~
10
fa
50
19
36
170
135 180
50
- 85
90
25
'---
18
11
40
-190
-100
110
225
32 !--265
80x63
125 >< 80
125" 100
250">< 100
160 )( 125
315 X 125
56
23
11
180
220
45 1--240
Pillar die set DIN 9816 - OF 100 GG: Form OF,

d 1 : 100 mm. cast iron slide guide
190
f-
dz
180
180
265
'
Oz
155
180
245
~d;f~! ~-1 -
~
:;:::
80
225
cf. DIN 9819 (1981 -12)
-:-rl I I
' !d, '
c,
160
:::t::
d,
r-;oo
pillars. forms C and CG31
. . . ..,
I
125
140
Pillar die sets with diagonal
iIdz
I _l -
..:-1
80
95
125
56
330 200
50
100
40 M30X2
63
395 220
Pillar die 5et DIN 9812- 0 160: Form D.
d: 160 mm
21 Form D without threads; form DG with threads dj
I!
I
1 _..:'1~
cf. DIN 981611981 -121
cj I !IId~tt!I
Il
19
r-;oo
170
180
Center piUar d ie Mt DIN 9812 - C 100 x 80:

Form C, s 1 >< b, : 100 mm >< 80 mm
! Id d1
160
160
:4:
I
..J. -
~:'J=e
fl1_
-+---~ ~I
80 >< 63
100 X 63
100 X 80
160 X 80
125 X 100
250 X 100
160 )( 125
315 X 125
200 )( 160
315 X 160
250 )( 200
315 X 250
r'.-j"
Pillar die sets with c:ircular worlclng surfec:e

forms 0 and I)G21
cf. DIN 9812 (1981-121
..:>
190
c,
50
325 255
235
56
280
390
e,
Oz
0..
30
80
40
90
40
90
dz
19
25
25
75 103
160
128
120
148 170
245 158
32 155
180
183
3iO
Pillar d ie 5et DIN 9819 - C 160 x 80 GG:

Form C. a, : 160 mm, b, : 80 mm, cast iron
31 Form C without threads; form CG with threads d-j
254
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
DIN 77531 11988-011
18
4.8
90
12.7
140
16.3
224
22
2.8
13.8
3.5
17.5
4.8
23.8
15
19
25.5
Effective diameter
-
N arrow V-belt DIN 7753- XPZ 710:

Narrow Vbelt. cogged profile.
reference length 710 mm
Driven machines (examples)

Centrifugal pumps, fans, conveyor belts for
Machine tools, presses, sheet metal
Grinding gears, piston pumps, textile and paper machines
Stone crushers, mixers, winches, cranes. excavators
1450
2000
2800
0.93
1.17
1A5
2.36
3.05
3.90
5.19
6.63
8.20
2.02
2.49
3.00
Profile selection for narrow V-belts
6.01
7.60
9.24
10.53
12.85
14.13
1.92
3.02
3.83
4 .86
7.84
10.04
8.64
13.82
17.39
5.19
8.13
10.19
12.56
19.79
24.52
21.42
32.37
37.37
5.19
6.31
7.15
13.66
16.19
16.44
22.02
22.07
9.37
13.22
14.58
11.89
29.46
25.81
31.74
P
power to be transmitted
Prated power rating per belt
N
number of belts
angle factor
Number of belt$
service factor
Example:
Transmission parameters P= 12 kWwith c1 = 1.12;
"1 = 1.4; limon = 160 mm, n,a 950 1/min;f15 ?, N= 7
1. p.
calrulated power p. c2 in kW -
~ 12kW1.4 =
16.8kW
2. From the diagram " 950 1/min and

P ~ = 16.8 kW - profile SPA
3. P,.,ed = 4.27 kW from the table
N = P c, c2 = 12 kW-1 .12 1.4 = .
44
4.
P,.,ed
4.27 kW
5. Selected: N = 5 befts
255
Positive drive belts

Positive drive belts (timing belts)
cf. DIN 7721-1 (1989-06)
Tooth spacing
ht
h.,
T2.5
2.5
1.5
0.7
0.2
1.3
T5
2.7
1.2
OA
2.2
10
5.3
2.5
0.6
4 .5
16
T10
No. of t eeth for

T2.5
T5
64
245
80
98
270
285
114
630
660
49
66
700
720
780
840
78
880
84
91
96
100
900
61
132
168
192
200
500
Non -etandardized tooth fonns
53
56
61
112
122
126
610
40
54
420
455
480
LAHN profile
530
560
30
No. of t eeth f or
T5
T10
Effective
length 1'
48
120
150
160
200
305
330
390
HT profile
Tooth size
Pos itive drive belt width
Code
Effective
length11
Double-elded
Nominal
thickness
63
66
70
144
156
168
72
78
84
88
180
184
920
92
96
960
198
990
'60
Effective diameter
10
10
16
25
25
32
50
Effective No. of t eeth for

length,,
T10
1010
1080
1150
1210
1250
101
108
115
121
125
1320
1390
1460
1560
1610
132
139
146
156
161
1780
1880
1960
2250
178
188
196
225
Belt DIN 7721 -6 T2.5 x 480: W= 6 mm, spacing p = 2.5 mm,

effective length 460 mm, single-sided
The code lener D is added for double-sided positive drive belts.
11 Effective lengths from 10D-3620 mm. in custom-made products up to
25000mm
Timing belt pulleys

Pu lley g roove dimensions
cf. DIN 7721-2 (1989-06)

Pulley
groove
Pulley outer C2l

~for
TlO
T2.5
T5
10
11
12
13
7.4
8.2
9.0
9.8
15.0
16.6
18.2
19.8
36.3
39.5
14
15
16
10.6
11.4
12.2
21.4
23.0
24.6
42.7
45.9
49.1
Pulley
groove
17
18
19
20
22
25
28
Pulley outer C2l

~for
Pulley
groove
T2.5
T5
no
13.0
13.8
14.6
15.4
26.2
27.8
29.4
31.0
52.2
55.4
32
36
58.6
40
48
17.0
19.3
21.7
34.1
38.9
43.7
61.8
68.2
77.7
87.2
Pulley outer C2l

~for
T2.5
T5
TlO
24.9
28.1
31 .3
37.7
50.1
56.4
62.8
7 5.5
100.0
112.7
125.4
150.9
47.2
56.8
66.3
60
72
84
94.6 189.1
113.7 227.3
132.9 265.5
Pulley groove dimensions

Code
11 Form SE for ,; 20 grooves
21 Fo rm N f or > 20 grooves
Pu lly d imensions
T2.5
T5
TlO
1.75
2.96
6.02
1.83
3.32
6.57
Groove height hg
Form N21
FormSE11
0.75
1.25
2.6
2a
1
1.95
3.4
0.6
1
2
Pulley width
w,
without flange w'r
Lener symbols
Beltwidthw
T2.5
4
6
10
5.5
7.5
11.5
10
14
T5
6
10
16
25
7.5
11.5
17.5
26.5
10
14
20
29
16
TlO
25
18
27
34
52
with pulley flange
without p ulley flange
Groove width w,
Form SE 11
FormN21
32
50
with flange
21
30
37
55
256
Straight-toothed spur gears

Unmodified spur gears with straight teeth
Number of teeth
Outside diameter
Root diamet&t
I do d
+ 2 m .. m IN+ 2)
d, =d - 2 (m +c)
Center distanee
Module
Pit.ch
P=n m
d=mN
m module
N, N ,, N 2
no. of teeth
Pit.ch diameter
d, d ,, dz
pitch
diameter
outside
diameter
root
diameter
Clearenee
pitch
c clearance
h whole depth
h. addendum
hd dedendum
a center distance
do. do doz
((., dr~. d,
Ex.a mple:
External spur gear,
m=2 mm; N= 32; c = 0.167 m; d = ?; do?; h 7
d = m N = 2 mm 32 64 mm
c = 0.1 m to 0.3 . m
often c = 0.167 m
h8
Addendum
=m
Oedendum
h = 2m+c
Whole depth
do
d+ 2 m 64 mm + 2 2 mm 68mm
h a 2 m+ C 2 2 mm +0.167. 2 m m 4.33 mm
lrltet"MM teeth
Number of teeth
Outside diameter
Root diameter
Center <htance
d,
=d -
2 (m +c)
a = d2 - d 1 = m (N2 - N 1)
Example:
Internal spur gear, m 1.5 mm; N 80;
C=0.167 m; d= ?; d0 = ?; h = ?
d = m N= 1.5mm. 80 a 120mm
do=d - 2 m = 120mm-2 1.5mm a 11lmm
h =2 m+c =2 1.5 mm+0.1671.5mm 3.25mm
257
Helical gears. Module series for spur gears

Unmodified helical gears
transverse module
real pitch module
transverse pitch
A
real p<tch
A
helix angle !normally fJ 8" 10 25")
fJ
N, N,, N,. no. of teeth
pitch diameter
d, d,.~
outside diameter
do
center distance
8
""
m,
--
fi<Jt~
~~~
Er~i< ~
I
I
I
I
Transverse module
h..,;-
~w
'
Transverse pitch
Nz-_ 'r-~-
Pitch diamet.er
Number ol teeth
In helical gears the teeth run in a screw-like pattern on
the cylindrical wheel body. The tools for manufacturing spur gears and helical gears conform to the real
pitch module.
In the case of parallel shafts the two gears have the
same helix angle, but opposite direction of rotation,
i.e., one gear has a right-hand helix and the other a
left-hand helix ({J1 = - {J2I-
Example:
m _ .!!2!._ _ Pt
1
- cos/3 - n
Pr
Pt = cos/3 =
n mr
cos/3
Nm
d =m 1 N=-- '
cos/3
d n- d
N=- =-
m,
Pt
mr =~ =m1
Real pitch module
cos/3
p, = n m, = p 1 - cos/3
Real pitch
d 0 =d +2 m,
Outside diameter
Helical gear, N 32; 11"1 1.5 mm;

{3 19.5; c 0.167 - m; 11"1 ?; d 0 ?; d ?; h ?
m = m, = 1.5mm = 1.591mm
'
cos{J
do d + 2 - m, 50.9mm + 2 - 1.5mm 53.9mm

d 11"1 - N 1.591 mm -32 = 50.9 mm
h
a = d, + d 2
2
Center distance
cos19.5
2 -m,+ C 2 -1.5 mm + 0.167 - 1.5 mm

=3.25mm
Calculations of whole depth, addendum, dedendum, clearance and root diameter are the same as those for spur
gears with straight teeth (page 256). In the formulae the
module m is replaced by the real pitch module m,.
Module series for spur gurs (Series I)

M odule
Pitch
Module
Pitch
d. DIN 780-1 (1977-05)
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.25
0.628
0.785
0.943
1.257
1.571
1.885
2.199
2.513
2.827
3.142
3.927
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
16.0
4.712
6.283
7.854
9.425
12.566
15.708
18..850
25.132
31.416
37.699
50.265
Classific:ation of tool aet ol8 module side~ cuttwa (up tom= 9 mm)11
Cutter no.
No. of teeth
11
12-13
14- 16
I
I
17- 20
I
I
4
21-25
I
I
5
26-34
I
I
35-54
55-134
8
I
I135 to toothed rack
The manufacture of gears with side milling cutters is not an involute process. Only an approximate involute form
of the tooth flank is produced. Therefore this manufacturing process is only suitable for secondary gears. For gears
with m > 9 mm a tool set with 15 module side milling cutters is used.
258
Bevel gears, Worm drive

Unmodified bevel gears with straight teeth
m
d. d~o ~
~
c:fo1, c:fo2
l:
module
N, N 1, N,. no. of teeth
pitch diameter
~. 6 1, ~2
pitch angle
outside diameter
y 1, y2
tip angle
shaft angle (normally 90"1
Pitch and whole depth narrow to the cone point, so that at

every point of tho tooth width a bevel gear has another
module, outside diameter, etc. The outermost module cor
responds to the standard modulo.
d=mN
Pitch diameter
Outside diameter
d0 = d + 2 m coso
In addition to the dimensions given on the outside

edges, the dimensions in the centers and inner edges
of gear teeth are also impon ant for manufacturing.
Top angle gear 1
tan r 1 =
Example:
Top angle gear 2
Bevel gear drive, m 2 mm; N 1 30; N,. 120;

l: = 90. Calculate the dimensions for turning the
driving bevel gear.
tan&, ; !!_,; ~ ; 0.2500;
Pitch angle gear 1
s,; 14. 04"
N2 120
; rn N1 = 2mm 30 60mm
= d 1 + 2 m . cos.S,
u 60 mm + 2. 2 mm. cos 14.04= 63.118 mm
N 1+ 2 . cost~, 30+ 2 cos 14.04"
tany, N 2 - 2 . sin61 120- 2 sin 14.04 -
d1
d 01
- o.w
r,
N, + 2 cosO,
N2 -2 smO,
= 14.95"
Pitch angle gear 2
Sheft angle
Whole depth, addendum. clearance, etc. are calculated like
spur gears with straight teeth (page 256).
Worm drive
m
d, d 1
do. do~o do2

r1
module
pitch diameter
outside diameter
throat radius
no. of teeth
lead
(axial ) pitch
tip Ql
Worm
Pitch diameter
d 1 =nominal size
Axial pitch- worm
Px=nm
Outside diamet
dot= d, + 2 m
Lead
Pn = Px N, = n m N 1
Worm gear
Example:
Pitch diameter
Worm drive m = 2.5 mm; N1 = 2; d 1 = 40 mm;

N,. 40; d0 , ?; ~ ?; ~ ?; r1 ?; 8 ?
d 01 = d1 + 2rn = 40mm + 2 2.5mm ; 45mm

d 2 = m N 2 = 25mm 40
= 100 mm
do2=d 2 + 2 rn= 100 mm+2 2.5mm = 1C6 mm
d, "'do2+m = 1C6 mm + 2.5mm
= 107.5 mm
'i
8
=~-m= 40mm _ 2.5mm
= 17. 5mm
= d 1 + d 2 = 40 mm+100mm
70
mm
p =n m
Outside diameter
Top diameter
Throat radius
Clearance, whole depth, addendum, dedendum and center
distance like spur gears (page 256).
259
Machine elements: 5.9 Drive element s
Transmission ratios
a.-drives
lingle gear ratio
driving
driven
N,.~Nr, ... no. of teeth

"fl:l. n,; ... speeds
N2, N Na ... no. of teeth
speeds
112. n..
ne ...
Drive fonnula
driven
gears
Gear ratio
initial speed
"'
final speed
total gear ratio
individual gear ratios
"'
;,, iz, ~
Multiple gear ratio
driving
gears
J
J
Example:
Total gear ratio
i 0.4; n 1 180/min; ~ 24; 112 1: N 1 1
n,
18M'nin
112 = j =--a:;!= 450/rmn

N,
:!l..:.!!J
n,
45<1rin 24
18(min
&
60
Torque lor gears, page 'II
Behdrfves
Single gear ratio
da. ~ ...
n,, fl:l. ns ...
d 1
~.
diametersII
speeds
d., ~ ... diameters II
nz. n.. n,; ... speed.s
driving
Jpulleys
driven
Jpulleys
Velocity
Drive formula
initial speed
final speed
total gear ratio
i 1, i2,
~.
v. v1, V:l
Multiple gear ratio
individual gear ratios

circumferential velocity
i =d2 =~=~
d1 n2 n1
Example:
n 1 600/min; ~ 400/min;
d 1 ~ 240mm; i= ?;~ = ?
; = ~ _ 60CVmin _ 1,5 _ .5
1
~ 4!XVmin
1
Total gear ratio
d ~. 60CVmin 240 mm 360 mm

2
~
41XVmin
i = d2 . d4 . ds .. .
d1 d 3 d 5 .
II For Vbelts (page 2541 calculate with the
effective diameter de; for positive d rive

beltS (page 2551 calculate with the number
of teeth on the pulley.
driving
Worm drives
N1 no. of teeth (no. of threads) of the worm
Drive formula
n 1 speed of the worm

~
no. ofteeth ofthe worm gear
112 speed of the worm gear

i g ear ratio
Gear ratio
Example:
i = 25; n, = 1500/min; N1 3;
n..
<
=!!!.
= 1500'min = 60/min
;
25
~. ?
260
M achine elements: 5.9 Drive elements
Speed graph
j ..~
The speed n of a machine tool from the workpiece or tool diamet.er d and the select
ed cutting speed Vc can be determined
on a computer/calculator using the formula, or
graphically using the speed graph.
Speed graphs have the speeds under load which can be set on the machine.
These are stepped geometrically. For infinitely variable drives the calculated speed
can be set precisely.
itd
Speed graph with logarithmically scaled c:oordinatH
!:>~ :- !:>~~~ !:>~ "~!:>~ ~~ ...~ !:> s:. !:l

<-,'<~ ~<>~ '>)<; '\Cij '\'\: ~ '"' ~... o.,I:S '\~ '\';~
800
m/mm
600
soo
300
200
180
160
1,0
vv v
v
20
18
16
14
12
10
1/
!/
v/ v
-"'
L_ /
/_
/
1/
v I/
/
1/
'\<a~
1/
/
v
v v
vv
v
v
1/
v/
/
4
v
vv
/ /
/
/
/
1/
V/ /
/_ /
Vv
so
60
1/
v v/ / v
/
20
30
40
// /
/ /
;;;
c
<-,.!?
~ 2
~~
v
1/
Vv
"'"'~
~
.L
/
80 100
150
200 mm 300
diameter d Example: d = 100 mm; V 0
/
1S
6 1 8 910
/ /
/
/_
1/
v vv
v vv v
vv v
v
5
v
/
v vv
v
v v v v
v v
~~
/
/
-&
~~
vv
v "~""
_;,~
v /
l,g
v ~
/
9
8
1
6
/ v
40
"''"'
./ /
1/
en
so
30
v v
I/
100
90
80
70
~~ 60
/
1/
v
/
vv
/
1/
120
5r
220
QJ
'OO
=220~ ;n=7
mm
220 ~
v
1
1
Calculation: n = - 0 =____.l!l!!l.= 700. 3 ; read from t.he speed graph above: n ~ 7oo nd >t0.1m
min
min
' 00
261
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings
Plain bearings, Overview

Plain beerings1l (Selection by type of lubrication)
Hydrostatic
plain bearings
Hydrodynamic
plain bearings
Dry-running
plain bearings
L!""
~
Suitable for
- low-wear continuous operation
- high speeds
- high Impact loads
1(:~
I
Suitable for
Suitable for
- wear,free continuous operation

- low friction losses
- low speeds possible
Areas of application
-main and big end bearings

-gearboxes
- electric motors
- turbines, compressors
- lifting equipm., agricul. machinery
- maintenance free or low

maintenance operation
- with or without lubrication
- construction equipment
- armatures and devices
-packaging machines
- jet engines
-household appliances
- precision bearings
- space telescopes and
antennae
- machine tools
- axial bearings for high forces
11 Other plain bearings: air or gas and water lubricated plain bearings, magnetic bearings
Properties of plain bearing materials

Designation,
M aterial
number
Elongation limit
R,o.2
N/mm2
Specific
bearing
load
PL11
Nlmm2
Shaft
min.
hard
ness
Sliding
properties
EmerSliding gency
Properties. application
speed running
behavior
Lead end tin c:.1ing elloys
d. DIN ISO 4381 (2001021
G-PbSb15Sn1021
2.3391
43
160 HB
f)
Medium loading;
all purpose plain bearing
G-SnSb12Cu6Pb
2.3790
61
10
160HB
Good impact loading; turbines, compressors, electric machines
d. DIN ISO 43821 and -2 (1992-111
Cest copper elloys end copper wrought e11oys

CuSn8Pb2C
2.1810
130
CuZn31Si1
2.1831
250
58
55HRC
CuPb10Sn10-c21
2.1816
80
18
CuPb20Sns-c
2.1818
60
11
21
280HB
f)
250HB
f)
150HB
High loading, high vertical and

horizontal impact loading
High surface pressures; vehicle bearings, bearings in hot-rolling mills
Suitable for water lubrication,
resistant to sulfuric acid
d. DIN ISO 6691 (2001-051
Thermoplestlcs
PAS
(Polyamide)
12
SOHRC
POM
(Potyoxymethylene
18
SOHRC
11 Bearing force based on the projected bearing surface

21
Low to moderate loading,

sufficient lubrication
Composite material according to DIN ISO 4383 for thinwalled plain bearings
0
e
verygood
0 limited
impact and wear resistant;

bearings in farm machinery
Harder and capable of higher compressive loads than PA; bearings in precision
mechanics, suitable for dry-running
~ good
0 poor
() normal
262
Plain bearing bushings

Bushings made of copper alloys
FonnC
..,
VI
cf. DIN ISO 437911995-10)
..
- ----
'0
FonnF
..,
.., ..,
.....
~
- --
.,;-
VI
~'ti
all
bJs13
f-
chamfers 45
bzs13
b1js13 '
1I
Force fittin3 produoes

tolerance ass H8
Recommended tolerance classes foc mounting dimensions
Location hole
I H7
Shaft
e7 or g7 (depending on
application)
Forme
"'
10
12
15
18
20
22
25
30
35
40
:::::.
dz
51.. 2
dz d) bz
16
18
21
24
26
12
14
17
20
23
25
28
14
16 1
Bushings made of slntered metal

FonnJ
..,....
FonnV
.., ....
')I ;-
----- ~
""
bzjs13
bJs13
bJs13
all chamfers 45
I-
FormV
FonnJ
"'
10
12
15
18
20
22
25
30
35
40
Recommended tolerance dasses for mounting dimensions "">

Location hole
1 H7
Shaft
1-
dz
16
18
21
24
26
32
14
16
19
22
25
27
30
38
35
28
dz
dz
bz
16
18
21
24
26
28
22
24
2
3
3
3
3
3
3.5
4
5
5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
0,8
0.8
32
38
27
30
32
34
39
46
45
41
45
55
50
46
50
60
Diameter range d1 : 1-60
Thermoset plastics
FormR
~1 t,.'f ~l
"'
..:?
,..
'0
-6'
f- -
--Q'-.)
bzjs13
all chamfers 45 bJs13
f - -
22
25
30
35
cf. DIN 1850-5 and~ 11998-07)
dz
d)
16
18
21
24
26
28
20
22
27
30
...J
,...
from 10
to
~ -- '0
b1h13
b1h13
lengths
~
10
15
15
20
20
20
30
30
40
20
20
30
30
30
40
40
50
v_r
bzh13
14
15
18
20 28 35 42
25 32 40 55
>0.21
.Q.2
.0.4
.0.1
.0.&
ToWanca._
Fabrication reNting ....
method
forceflttlne lft
injection
D12
+0.07
0
+0.2 .0.23 .0.30 molded
Tolerance class zb11
machined
C11
8
Adcitional codes for bushin9$ made of !Mrmoset plastics
A
-6'
/300
dz
A--lO~
-o ....,
bz
3
0.3
6
10
3
0.5
3
0.5
10
3
0.5
12
3
0.5
15
32
34
3
0.5
15
4
20
32
38
0.5
44
4
0.5
38
20
45
50
5
0.8
30
Diameter range d 1 for thermosets: 3-250,
for thermoplastics: 6 - 200
Form T
30~
~
10
12
15
18
20
Lengths
~
8
10
16
8
12
20
10
15
25
18
12
30
15
20
25
15
20
25
20
25
30
20
25
30
25
35
40
40
30
50
Umit deviations dz and dt of tolerance classes A and B for

bushing$ made of thennoplastics
Thermoplastics
FormS
Bushing DIN 1850 - V18x 24x 18 - Sint-850:

d 1= 18 mm, dz= 24 mm, b 1 = 18 mm,
sintered bronze Sint B50
Bushings made of thermosets and thermoplastics

FonnP
cf. DIN 1850-3 (1998-07)
,...
l!l
~ ~ .,;-
~---
10
16 20 3
18 22 3
10 15 20
19 1
21 27 3
10 15 20
24 30 3
12 20 30
22 1
15 20 30
26 1.5 26 32 3
23
15 20 30
25
28
28 1.5 28 34 3
32
31 1.5 32 38 4 20 30 40
28
34 36 38 34 38 2
38 44 4 20 30 40
45 50 5 30 40 50
39 41 45 39 43 2
44 48 50 44 48 2
50 58 5 30 40 60
Diameter range d 1: 6- 200
Bushing ISO 4379- F22 x 25 x 30 - CuSn8P: Form F,
d 1 22 mm, dz 25 mm, ~ 30 mm, of CuSn8P
12
14
17
20
14
16
19
22
24
26
30
Lang1N
FonnF
Series 1
dz d) bz
+0.69 +0.90
I
jz
Circular grooves on y Assembly bevel 15 (inst. of 45,

Recommended tolerance dasses for mounting dimensions w
Undercut instead of
outer diameter dz
1 Thermosets 1Thermoplastics
radius R
Location hole
H7
H7
:::::. Bushing DIN 1850 - S20 A20 - PA 6: Form S; d1
20 mm, tolerance cl. A.~ = 20 mm, polyamide 6
Shaft
h7
h9
I
1
Other stand. designs: Wrapped bushings DIN 1494, internal tension bushings DIN 1498, external tension bushings DIN 1499
263
Machine elements: 5. 10 Bearings
Antifriction bearings, Overview

Roller bearings (selection)
For rotation
Radial
load
I Ball bearing I
I
I
I
I
Antlfric:tlon bMrings
Axial and radial

load
Roller bearingl
_A
B_
~uler conUICI bal Cylindrical roller
bearings DIN 628 bearings DIN 541
Axial
load
I Ball bearing I
Angula r ball
Tapered roller
IRoller bearing
A a R
Self-aligning ball Needle bearings

bearing DI N 630
DIN 617
I
J
I Linea r bearings I
I Ball bearing
Deep groove ball Cylindrical roller

Forlinear
movement
jAoller bearlngl
Axial-deep groove Axialcyl. roller

bell bear. DIN 711
bea r. DIN 722
Fourpoint contact Spherical roller

A aa- ~-
Properties of roller bearings

Bearing design 11
lnside 0
High
Radial Axial
loading loading speed
High
Ooiet Application
loads running
Ball bearings
C)
Universal bearings in machine and

autom otive manufacturing
Compensation w ith misalignment
ti)
Only used in pairs, large forces,

aulomotive manufacturing
C)
Large forces, automotive ma nufacturing,

with limited space requirements
C)
C)
Acceptance of very high axial forces,

drill spindles, tail stocl< centers
C)
Very tight spaces, spindle bearing layouts,

gear and roller bearing assemblies
C)
Aa;eptance of very large radial forces,

roller bearing assemblies, transmissions
like Form N, with flanged wheel

additional acceptance of axial forces
C)
High carrying capacity with tight

mounting spaoe
Deep groove ball

bearings
1.5- 600
C)
Self-aligning ball
bearings
5-120
Angular contac1 ball

bearings single-row
10- 170
Angular contact ball

bearings double-row
10-110
Axial deep groove

ball bearings
8 - 360
Four-point contact
bearings
20 - 240
. 2)
Roller bearings
Cylindrical roller
bearings (form N)
17- 240
Cylindrical roller
bearings (form NUP)
15- 240
Needle bearings
90-360
Tapered roller
bearings
15- 360
Axial cylindrical
roller bearings
15- 600
Spherical
roller bearings
60- 1060
C)
()21
Usually mounted in pairs, wheel bearings

in aulomobiles, spindle bearings
Stiff bearing requiring minimal axial

space, high friction
11 For all radial bearings the prefix "radial" is omitted.

2l Reduced suitability with paired mounting
3J Mounted in pairs
Angular displacement thrust bearings,

thrust bearings in cranes
Suitability levels:
e very good
~ good
0 limited
0 no t suitable
C)
normal
264
M achine elements: 5. 10 Bearings
Antifriction bearings, Designation

Designation of antifl iction bearings
Teper~ roller bearin~
Example:
Name
I I
Standard
T]
cf. DIN 623 1 (1993.05)

30208 ~
Prefhc symbol
Basic numbers
cage w ith roller elements

free ring
ring with ro ller set
stainless steel
2Z
E
bearing with tapered bore

bearing with shield on one side
bearing with shield on both sides
reinforced design
bearing with seal on one side
bearing with seal on both sides
highest predsion: dimensional, form and
running
AS
2RS
-~n~
Example of basic numbers:
Bearing series 302
I
Width series 0
I I
I
Diameter series 2
I
Bearing type 3
Dimension series 02
Design
I
I
Borecode
Bore 0
Bore
code
Bore 0
Angular contaCt ball bear., double row
Self-aligning ball bearing
00
10
12
Barrel and spherical roller bearings
01
12
13
65
Tapered roller bearings
02
15
14
70
Deep groove ball bear., double row
03
17
15
75
Axial deep g roove ball bearings
04
20
16
80
Deep groove ball bear.. single row
05
25
17
85
Angular contact ball bear., single row
06
30
18
90
Axial cylindrical roller bearings
07
35
19
95
NA
Needle bearings
08
40
20
100
OJ
Four-point contact bearing
09
45
21
105
10
50
22
110
11
55
23
115
N, NJ, NJP. NN,

NNU, NU, NUP
Cylindrical roller bearings
Dimension series (selection)

Explanation
The dimension plans in DIN 616
contain diameter series in
which each nominal diameter
o f a bearing bore d I shaft
diameter) is assigned a number
of:
outside diameters and
width series (for radial
bearings) o r
height series (for axial
bearings).
Bore code 08
I
Bearing type
Suffix symbol
Suffix symbols (selection)
P2
Prefix symbols
60
cf. DIN 616 (1994-06)
Structure of the <in ~e~ISion series
r.) Fif
Example: Tapered roller beerings tt

Dimension series 02
Bore
code
Bore
0
07
35
08
09
40
45
50
10
72
80
85
90
17
18
19
20
tJ other dimensions, see page 267
265
6315
6316
6317
6318
6319
6320
3318
3319
3320
Angular contact ball bearing DIN 628 - 73098: Angular contact ball bearing
(Bearing type 7), width series 0 11, diameter series 3, bore code 09 (bore diameter
d 9 5 mm 45 mm), contact angle a = 40 (6)
1l In the designations for deep groove and angular contact ball bearings the 0 for the
width series is sometimes omitted according to DIN 623 1.
2l Contact angle a 40"
3l Contact angle not standardized
266
FormN
Form NUP
w
d from 15 to 500 mm
Mounting dimensions according to DIN 5418:

Form N
unflanged
Form NU
with fixed flange
18
19
20
21
22
24
Cylindrical roller bearing DIN 5412- NUP 312 E: Cylindrical
roller bearing of bearing series NUP3 with bearing type NUP.
width series 0. diameter series 3 and bore code 12, reinforced
design
The normal design of the dimension series 02, 22, 03 and 23 were
deleted from the standard with no replacement and then
replaced with the reinforced design (suffix symbol E).
267
Roller bearings
Tapered roller bearings (selection)
d . DIN 720 (197902) and DIN 5418 (1993-02)
IINrillil-*302
Dimenllons
~
w
~
---- t-
1:::)
'15'
't>
~
[
w c
Mounting dimension
d,
o.
0., c,
Co
..
'bo Basic
no.
20
25
30
47 14
52 15
62 16
12 15.25 33.2 27 26 40
13 16.25 37A 3 1 31 44
14 17.25 44.6 37 36 53
41
46
56
43
48
57
2
2
2
3
2
3
35
40
45
72 17
80 18
85 19
15 18.15 51.8 44
16 19.75 57.5 49
16 20.75 63
54
42
47
52
65
3
3
3
1.5 1.5 30207

3
3.5 1.5 1.5 30208
4.5 1.5 1.5 30209
50 90 20
55 100 21
60 110 2.2
17 21.75 67.9 58
18 22.75 74.6 64
19 23.75 81.5 70
57
64
65 120 23
70 125 24
75 130 25
77
20 24.75 89
21 26.25 93.9 81
22 27.25 99.2 86
80 140 26
85 150 28
90 160 30
d,
max min min max min min min max max
1
1
1
30204
30205
30206
74
78
67
74
80
79
63
85 3
88 91
94
96 101 103
4
4
4.5 1.5 1.5 30210

4.5 2
1.5 30211
4.5 2
1.5 30212
74 106 111 113

79 110 116 118
84 115 121 124
4
4
4
4.5 2
5
2
5
2
22 28.25 105
24 30.5 112
26 32.5 118
91 90 124 130 132

97 95 132 140 141
103 100 140 150 150
4
5
5
6
2.5 2
6.5 2.5 2
6.5 2.5 2
95 170 32
100 180 34
105 190 36
27 34.5 126
29 37
133
141
30 39
110 107 149 158 159

116 112 157 168 168
122 117 165 178 177
5
5
6
7.5 3
8
3
3
9
2.5 30219
2.5 30220
2.5 30221
110 200 38
120 21 5 40
32 41
148
34 43.5 161
129 122 174 188 187

140 132 187 203 201
6
6
9
3
9.5 3
2.5 30222
2.5 30224
69
62
1
1
1
69 73
1.5 30213
1.5 3021 4
1.5 30215
30216
30217
30218
Suring Sies 303
cag e
f~~
~"7~ .
~~ ~
lr,..s, ~
II
'-
..,
~
--- --'t>
Mounting dimension
Dirnensiofw
Mounting dimensions
according to DIN 5418:
~r:f
1:::)
In the case of tapered roller bear

ings the cage projects beyond the
lateral face of the outer ring.
The mounting dimensions of DIN
5418 must be maintained so that
the cage does not rub against
other parts.
w c
Basic
o. 0., c, Co 'as
min min max min min min max max no.
'bs
20
25
30
52 15
62 17
72 19
13 16.25 34.3 28
15 18.25 41 .5 34
16 20.75 44.8 40
27
32
37
44
54
62
45
55
65
47
57
68
2
2
3
3
1.5 1.5 30304
3
1.5 1.5 30305
4.5 1.5 1.5 30306
35 80 21
40 90 23
45 100 25
18 22.75 54.5 45
20 25.25 62.5 52
22 27.25 70.1 59
44
49
54
70
77
86
71
81
91
74
82
92
3
3
3
4.5 2
5
2
5
2
50 110 27
55 120 29
60 130 31
23 29.25 77.2 65
71
25 31.5 84
26 33.5 91 .9 77
60 95 100 102
65 104 110 111
72 112 118 120
4
4
5
6
2.5 2
30310
6.5 2.5 2
30311
2.5 30312
7.5 3
65 140 33
70 150 35
75 160 37
28 36
30 38
31 40
77 122 128 130

82 120 138 140
87 139 148 149
5
5
5
8
8
9
80 170 39
85 180 41
90 190 43
33 42.5 120
34 44.5 126
36 46.5 132
95 200 45
100 215 47
105 225 49
110 240 50
120 260 55
d. dt.
d,
max
1.5 30307
1.5 30308
1.5 30309
3
3
3
2.5 30313
2.5 30314
2.5 3031 5
102 92 148 158 159

107 99 156 166 167
113 104 165 176 176
5 9.5 3
6 10.5 4
6 10.5 4
2.5 30316
3
30317
30318
3
38 49.5 ~39
39 51.5 ~48
41 53.5 ~55
118 109 172 186 184

127 114 184 201 197
132 119 193 211 206
6 11.5 4
6 12.5 4
7 12.5 4
3
3
3
30319
30320
30321
42 54.5 165
46 59.5 178
141 124 206 226 220

152 134 221 246 237
8 12.5 4
8 13.5 4
3
3
30322
30324
98.6 83
105
89
112
95
Tapered roller bearing DIN 720-30212: Tapered roller bearing of bearing

series 302 with bearing type 3, width series 0, diameter series 2, bore code 12
268
Machine elements: 5. 10 Bearings
Needle bearings, Lock nuts, Lock washers

Needle bearings (selection)
.......
--
cf. DIN 617 ( 1993-04)
11!'!'!111
1..,
....
-- -
"-It:>
...
42
47
35
55
62
40
45
_I_
Mounting clmenllons
according to DIN 5418:
t~
<:~
!"
.....__
20
25
30
c:o
68
72
50
55
60
80
85
65
70
75
90
100
105
min
a-tng-'" NA49 llellring-'" NAe9

Bnlc:
num~
0.3
0.3
0.3
1
1
1
17
17
17
NA4904
NA4905
NM906
30
30
30
NA6904
NA6905
NA6906
42
48
52
0.6
0.6
0.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
20
22
22
NA4907
NA4908
NA4909
36
40
40
NA6907
NA6908
NA6909
58
63
0.6
1
1
1.6
2.3
2.3
22
25
25
NA4910
NA4911
NA4912
40
45
45
NA69 10
NA69 11
NA6912
1
1
1
2.3
2.3
2.3
25
30
30
NA491 3
NA491 4
NA4915
45
54
54
NA69 13
NA69 14
NA69 15
68
72
80
85
Lock nuts for antifriction bearings (selection)
~
._, '
t=~
I
.,;
.....
Moo"'"'"'mpO~
NA6907 and up:

dou ble row
cf. DIN 981 (1993-02)
d,
Code
d,
dz
4
4
5
KMO
KM1
KM2
M60>< 2
M65 >< 2
M70 x 2
80
85
92
11
12
12
KM1 2
K M1 3
KM1 4
5
6
7
KM3
KM4
KM5
M75><2
M80>< 2
M85 >< 2
98
105
110
13
15
16
K M1 5
KM1 6
KM1 7
7
8
9
KM6
KM7
KM8
M90.x 2
M95><2
M100 x 2
120
125
130
16
17
18
KM1 8
KM 19
KM 20
KM9
KM 10
KM 11
M105 >< 2
M110 x 2
M115 >< 2
140
145
150
18
19
19
KM21
KM 22
KM23
dz
M10 >< 0.75

M12 >< 1
M15 >< 1
18
22
25
M17>< 1
M20 >< 1
M25 x 1.5
28
32
38
MJO x 1.5
M35 x 1.5
M40 x 1.5
58
M45>< 1.5
M50>< 1.5
M55 >< 2
65
70
75
=>
number
25
28
30
Needle bearing DIN 617 - NA4909:

Needle bearing of bearing series NA49 w ith bearing type NA. width series 4. diamet er series 9,
bore code 09
a..ic:
45
52
10
11
11
Code
l.oc:k nut DIN 981 - KM6: l ock nut of d 1 = M 30 x 1.5
d 1 from M 10 to M200
Lock washers (selection)
cf. DIN 5406 (1993-02)
d 1C11
Code
9
9
9
4
4
5
M B12
MB1 3
MB14
104 1.5
112 1.7
119 1.7
9
11
11
5
5
5
MB15
MB16
MB17
90
95
100
126 1.7
133 1.7
142 1.7
11
11
14
5
5
6
MB18
M B19
MB20
105
110
115
145 1.7
154 1.7
159 2
14
14
14
6
6
6
MB21
MB22
MB23
Code
4
4
5
2
2
2
1
1
1.2
5
5
6
49
57
62
1.2
1.2
1.2
45
50
55
69
74
81
1.2
1.2
1.5
=>
l.oc:k washer DIN 5406 - MB6: lock washer of
10
12
15
21
25
28
1
1
1
17
20
25
32
36
42
30
35
40
d,
dz
MBO
MB1
M B2
60
65
70
86 1.5
92 1.5
98 1.5
2
2
3
MB3
M B4
M B5
75
80
85
6
7
7
4
4
4
MB6
MB7
MB8
7
7
9
4
4
4
M B9
M B10
MB11
Htl
d,
H11
tab
.Ol:7
-a~+~~
~~ ~ A
~
Mounting dimensions
~
....
d 1 from 10 to 200 mm
I~ ~
Lt
~~--
d 1 = 30mm
269
Machine elements: 5.10 Bearin gs
Internal and external retaining rings, Circlips

Retaining rings in standard deslgn 11(selection)
m)'11 :::=~ ~~:'~

cf. DIN 471 (1981.()9)
For s"-fb lexterMI)
:;::::~':!~ - .
~ . i!i!!V-~
d4
..
Nomt-
,..
d,
mm
10
12
15
18
20
22
25
28
30
32
35
38
40
42
45
48
50
60
65
70
75
80
90
100
Ring
d)
-.a -.a
..
d)
1
1.8
9.3
9.6
17
1
11
19
1.8
11.5
1
13.8
14.3
22.6
2.2
2.4
17
1.2
16.5
26.2
1.2
18.5
28.4
2.6 19
1.2
20.5
30.8
2.8 21
1.2
23.2
34.2
23.9
3
1.5
25.9
37.9
3.2 26.6
1.5
40.5
27.9
3.5 28.6
1.5
29.6
43
3.6 30.3
1.5
46.8
32.2
3.9
33
1.75 35.2
50.2
4.2 36
1.75 36.5
52.6
4.4 37.5
1.75 38.5
55.7
4.5 39.5
1.75 41.5
59.1
4.7
42.5
1.75 44.5
45.5
62.5
5
2.0
45.8
64.5
5.1
47.0
2.0
55.8
75.6
5.8
57.0
2.5
60.8
81 .4
6.3
62.0
65.5
87
6.6
67.0
2.5
2.5
70.5
92.7
7.0
72.0
2.5
74.5
98.1
7.4
76.5
3.0
84.5 108.5
8.2 86.5
94.5 120.2
96.5
9
3.0
Retainin g ring DIN 471 -40 x 1.75:
d, 40mm.s s 1.75mm
.......
H13
min
mm
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.85
1.85
1.85
1.85
1.85
2.15
2.15
2.65
2.65
2.65
2.65
3.15
3.15
0.6
0.8
1.1
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.7
2.1
2.1
2.6
3
3
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
5.3
5.3
5.3
10
12
15
18
20
22
25
28
30
32
35
38
40
42
45
48
50
60
65
72
75
80
Nomt-
d,
90
100
d 1 in m m
1
1
1
1
1
1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.5
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
10.8
13
16.2
19.5
21 .5
23.5
26.9
30.1
32.1
34.4
37.8
40.8
43.5
45.5
48.5
51.5
54.2
64.2
69.2
76.5
79.5
85.5
95.5
105.5
33
4.9
7.2
9.4
11.2
13.2
15.5
17.9
19.9
20.6
23.6
26.4
27.8
29.6
32
34.5
36.3
44.7
49.0
55.6
58.6
62.1
71 .9
80.6
1.4
1.7
2
2.2
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3
3.2
3.4
3.7
3.9
4.1
4.3
4.5
4.6
5.4
5.8
6.4
6.6
7.0
7.6
8.4
10.4
12.5
15.7
19
21
23
26.2
29.4
31.4
33.7
37
40
42.5
44.5
47.5
50.5
53.0
63.0
68.0
75.0
78.0
83.5
93.5
103.5
H1 3
min
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.85
1.85
1.85
1.85
2.15
2.15
2.65
2.65
2.65
2.65
3.15
3.15
0.6
0.8
1.1
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.1
2.6
3
3
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
5.3
5.3
5.3
Retaining ring DIN 472 - 80 K 2.5:

d 1 80 mm, S 2.5 mm
24-100
H12
10o-300
H13
cf. DIN 6799 (1981-09)

Cirdips
loaded
re la xed
p
n
d 2 from 0.8 to 30 mm
..
dz
Circlips (selection)
Mount ing
dimensions:
n
Slot
a.
Ring
d)
Tolence ~for dz
for dz
3-10
12-22
24-100
d, inmm I
8-22
I
h10
h11
h12
H11
dz
dz
Standard design: d from 3-300 mm; heavy duty design: d 1 from 15-100 mm
Tolerance d -
J:=tn
cf. DIN 472(1981-09)
dl
Slot
a.
For bores tinterNJl
l~
Shaft
d,
from - to
dz
hll
<1.1
loaded
6
7
8
12.3
14.3
16.3
5.26 0.7
5.84 0.9
6.52 1
7- 9
8-11
9 - 12
9
10
12
18.8
20.4
23.4
7.63 1.1
8.32 1.2
10.45 1.3
10 - 14
11-15
13-18
15
19
24
29.4
37.6
44.6
12.61 1.5
16-24
15.92 1.75 20-31
25- 38
21.88 2
Cirdip DIN 6799- 15: dz = 15 mm
n
min
0.74 + 0.05 1.2

0.94
1.5
1.05 ~ 1.8
1.15
1.25
1.35 +0.08
0
1.55
1.80
2.05
2
2
2.5
,---3
3.5
4
270
non->1111ong
-) .~
with
Ra0.2 to
RaO.S
or
Rz1 bts RzS
d1 from 6 to 500 mm
d 1 from 17 to 180 mm
d, from 1.8 to 670 mm,

d, from 1.8 to 7 mm
axially sealing
internally sea~ng
271
Machine elements: 5.10 Beari ngs
lubricating oils
ct. OtN 51502 (1990-08)
Designation of lubricating oils
Dftlonetlon using symbols
Designation using code '-"-'
,, Code letters sl
for lubricating oils
::::>
::::>
TfT
Additional code
letters
I
ISO viscosity
g rade
0
I
Mineral oil based

lubricating oil
Silicon based
lubricating oil
lubr;cating oil OtN 51517- Cl100: Circulating mineral oil based lubricating oil (C), increased corrosion and
aging resistance (L), ISO viscosity grade VG 100 (100)
Lubricating oil OtN 51517- PGLP 220: Polyglycol oil (PG), increased corrosion and aging resistance (L),
increased wear protection (P). ISO viscosity grade VG 220 (220)
Types of lubrication oils
ct. OtN 51502 (1990-08)
Code letters Type o f lubricant and properties
Standard
Application
OIN51501
Once-through and circulati ng

lubrication at oil temperatures up to 50
Bitumen containing lubricating oils

with high adhesion
OtN 51513
Manual, continuous flow and oil bath lubrications, mainly for open lubrication points
Circulating lubricating oil, without

additives
OtN 51517
Plain bearings, antifriction bearings, gears
Mln81oils
AN
CG
Normal lubricating oils without

additives
Sliding track oil with active ingredients

for reducing wear
OIN8659
T2
In mixed friction operations for slideways and

guideways, and for worm gears
Synthlltic liquids
Ester oils with especially low
change in viscosity
Bearings with widely varying

temperatures
PG
Polyglycol oils with high aging

resistance
Bearings with frequent mixed friction

conditions
Sl
Silicon oils with high aging

resistance
Bearings with very high and low

temperatures, very wat er repella nt
Additional code letters
cf. OtN 51502 (1990-08)
Additional
Application and explanation
code letters
E
For lubricants that are mixed with water, e. g. cooling lubricant SE
For lubricants with solid lubricant additive, e.g. graphite, molybdenum sulfide
For lubricants with active ingredients to improve corrosion protection and/or aging
resistance
For lubricants with active ingredients for reducing friction and wear in
mixed friction areas and/or to increase the load capacity
ISO viscosity grade for liquid industrial lubricants

VISCOsity
grade
ISOVG2
ISOVG3
ISOVG 5
ISOVG 7
ISOVG 10
ISO VG 15
Kinetic viscosity
in mm2 /sat
VISCOSity
grade
200C
400C
sooc
3.3
5
8
2.2
3.2
4.6
1.3
2.7
3.7
ISOVG22
ISOVG 32
ISOVG46
6.8
10
15
5.2
7
11
ISOVG68
ISOVG 100
ISOVG 150
13
21
34
ct. OIN 51519 (1998-08)
Kinetic: viscosity
in mm2/s at
200C
400C
sooc
VISCOSity
grade
22
32
46
15
20
30
ISO VG 220
ISO VG320
ISOVG460
68
100
150
40
ISOVG680
ISO VG 1000
ISO VG 1500
60
90
Kinet;c viscosity
inmm2/sllt
20c
40c
soc
220
320
460
130
180
250
680
1000
1500
360
510
740
272
M achine elements: 5.1 0 Bearings
lubricating grease, Solid lubricants
, l
[)l\o~
Jh
l.' 1 l ' l l 1H1
Deslgnlltlon of lubricating greases

Dnlgn8tlon by code '-tters
Dnlgn8tlon by symbols
jT r=c
3
ICode
letter fori IAdditional ; I I
lubncatng
code letters
grease
~ode for
vsoosrv or
consistency
I IAdditionaiiiAdditiomill
letters
code
6 ()
Mineral oil based

Silicon based
lubricating grease lubricating grease
Lubricating grease DIN 51517 - K3N - 20: Lubricating grease for antlfriction and plain bearings IKI based on
mineral oil (NLGI grade 31 (3), upper worldng temperature+ 140"C (N), lower wortdng temperature -20"C (- 20)
Lubricating grease DIN 51517 - KSI3R - 10: Silicon based lubricating grease for antifrlction and plain bearings
IKI ISH, NLGI.grade 3 (3), upper working temperature+ 180C IRI. lower working temperature - 1oc HOI
;o;>
=>
Lubricating greases
Code letters Applicatlon/addltivea
Code '-tters App(leetion
General: antifriction bearings, plain bearing,

sliding surfaces
KP
Like K, but with additives for

reducing friction
KF
Like K, but with solid lubricant

additives
Closed gears
Open gears
(adhesive lubricant without bitumen)
OG
F.or plain bearings and seals

(low requirements)
Consistency11deuification for lubricating greases

NI.GI
Worked penetretJonZI
grade'!
Nl.GI-
445-475 (very soft)

400-430
355-385
000
00
0
Worked penetrwtionZI
grede"
1
2
3
Ntm-
grede"
310-340
265-295
220-250
5
6
Wortted penetretJon21
175-205
130-160
85-1 15 (very firm)
Code for the viscoelasticity

2l Measure of the penetration depth of a standardized test ball in the kneaded (worked) grease
Jl National Lubrication Grease Institute (NLGI)
1l
Additional letters for lubricating greases

Addlt.
Jetter1)
Upper working
temperature
"C
Gr* 2l
Addlt.
lett')
Upper working
tempermn
"C
Grede 2l
Addit.
+60
+60
0 or 1
2 or3
G
H
+100
+100
Oor 1
2 or3
E
F
+80
+80
0 or 1
2 or3
K
M
+120
+120
0 or 1
2 or3
..,,
~en
N
p
R
s
T
u
Upper working
temperature
"C
+ 140
+160
+180
+200
+220
+220
Grede 2l
as per
agreement
11 The number value for the lower working temperature can be appended to the additional code letters;
e. g. -20 for - 2oc

21 Grades for behavior when subjected to water, ct. DIN 51807-1:
0: no ch ange; 1: small change; 2: moderate change; 3: large change
Solid lubricants
lubric:ant
Graphite
Code
Wortdng
tempenrture
Application
As powder or paste and as an additive to lubricating oils and

-18 to +450 c
lubricating greases, not in oxygen, nitrOgen and vacuums
Molyb<fenum
MoS2
As mineral oil-free paste, sliding lacquer or additive to lubricating oils su lfide

- 180to+400"C
Polytetra
fluorethylene
PTFE
-250 to +260 c As powder in sliding lacquer and synthetic lubricating greases and as
bearing material, very low coeffiCient of sliding friction p z 0.04 to 0.09
and lubricating greases. suitable for very high surface pressures
Table o f Contents
273
6 Production Engineering
6.1
Meter._l overhead
In percent of material direct
Production planning
lime accounting according to REFA .......... 282
Cost accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Machine hourly rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
6.3
Machining processes
Productive time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machining coolants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cutting tool materials, Inserts, Tool holders . . . .
Forces and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cutting data: Drilling, Reaming. Turning .......
Cutting data: Taper turning ...... ............
Cutting data: Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cutting data: Grinding and honing ........ ..
glasses
Wear hard
hat
287
292
294
298
301
304
305
307
308
6.4
Material removal
Cutting data .. ............................. 313
Processes ......... ... ................... . 314
6.5
Separation by cutt.i ng
Cutting forces .. ...................... .... 315
Shearing .......... .............. ....... . . 316
Location of punch holder shank .. ............ 317
6.6
Forming
Bending ............. .. ..... ... ........... 318
Deep drawing .................... ... ..... 320
6.7
Joining
Welding processes ........... .... ... .... ..
Weld preparation ... . ......................
Gas welding ........ . .. . ................. .
Gas shielded metal arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Identification of gas cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Soldering and brazing . ... ..................
Adhesive bonding ................ .........
322
323
324
325
327
329
331
333
336
Workplace safety and environmental protection

Prohibitive signs ........................ ...
Warning signs ... ... ...... .... .. .... ......
Mandatory signs. Esc. routes and rescue signs .
Information signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Danger symbols .. ....... ..................
Identification of pipe lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sound and noise ............... ........ ....
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
6.8
Wear safety
274
276
277
279
281
6.2
costs, e.g. purchasing costs,

warehousing costs, etc.
Quality management
Standards, Terminology ...... . . , . . . . . . . .
Quality planning. Quality testing . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statistical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statistical process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Process capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
274
Production Engineering: 6.1 Quality management
Standards ISO 9000.9001, 9004

Standards of the 1509000 family should help organltations o f all types and sizes to implement quality management
systems, to work with existing quality management systems, and to facilitate mutual understanding in national and
International trade.
Quality management standards

Stllndard
DIN EN ISO
9000
cf. OtN EN ISO 9000 (2005- 121. 9001,9004 (2000- 121
Explanetlon, contents
Fundamentels of quality management systems
Principle of quality management
system approach to management
customer focus
leadership
continuous improvement
involvement of people
factual approach to decision making
mutually beneficial supplier relationships
process approach
Fundamentals of quality management systems (OM systems)
reasons for OM systems
evaluation of OM systems
requirements of OM systems and
continuous improvement
products
role of st.atistical methods
progressive implementation of OM systems
OM systems as part of the to tal
process oriented evaluation
management system
quality policies and goals
requirements of OM systems end
role of top management in the OM system
comparative evaluation of organizations
documentation; advantages and types
based on criteria of excellence models
Terminology fw qu81ity ma~ systems
For a selection o f definitions and explanations of terms, see page 275.
DIN EN ISO
9001 1 1
Requi...-nents of a quality management system
This international standard applies to organizations i n any industry or business sector regardless of
products offered. It establishes requirements for a OM system, based on fundamentals outlined in
ISO 9000, If an organization:
must demonstrate capability to offer products which fulfill both customer and
regulatory requirements.
strives to improve customer satisfaction, including the process of continuous improvement of the
system.
Specified requirements can be used for:
internal applications by organizations
certification purposes
contract purposes
The standard is based on a process oriented evaluation, i.e. every activity or sequence of activities
which uses resources to convert input into results is regarded as a process.
Requirements
The organilation must
recognize all necessary processes for the OM system and their use in the organization,
establish the flows and interdependencies of these processes.
establish criteria and methods for ensuring implementation and control of these processes,
ensure availability of resources and information for these processes,
monitor, measure and analyze these processes,
take necessary actions for continuous improvement of these processes,
fulfill documentation requirements for the OM system, and
observe regulations for document control.
11
DIN EN ISO
9004
This standard also replaces previous standards 9002 and 9003.
Guideline for assessing the overall perform.,_, effective,_. and effldenc:y of

quality rna~ systems
The goal of this standard is to improve the organization and to improve the satisfaction of customers
and other relevant parties.
It is not intended for certifiCation or contract purposes.
275
Quality charac:teristlc
Identifying anribute of a product or process. which is utilized in assessing quality based on

the specified quality requirements.
Quantitative (variable) characteristics:
discrete characteristics (whole numbers), i.e. number of holes, piece count
continuous characteristics (measured values), e.g. length, position, mass
Qualitative characteristics:
ordinal characteristics (with ranking), e.g. light blue - blue - dark blue
nominal characteristics (without ranking), e.g. good- bad, blue - yellow
Defect
Rework
Quality
management system
Quality
management
Organization and organizational structures, methods and processes of an operation required

to put a quality management into practice.
All coordinated activities for managing and controlling the quality-related aspects of an
organization by:
establishing a quality policy
quality control
quality assurance
sening quality goals
quality planning
Quality planning
Activities directed toward establishing

es, as well as associated resources for
Quality control
Work activities and techniques to continually

at ions in quality. Consists primarily of
Quality assurance
Performing and generating required documentation for all activities relating to the OM sys
tern, with the goal of creating an atmosphere of trust, both in-house and with the customer,
that
will be fulfilled.
Actions taken throughout the organization to increase product quality.
Document describing the quality policy, quality goals and quality management system of an
organization.
276
Quality planning, Quality control, Quality testing

Quality planning
Rul-.often (for coatsl
100
1st phase
Trend in defect oosts

10
'15~
Costs required to eliminate defects or costs resulting

from defects increase by about a factor o f 10 from
phase to phase in the product life cycle.
2nd phase
1
0.1
product planning
process planning
and development
and production
testing
and customer
E~tample: A tolerance error on a single part can be

corrected during the design phase with n egligible
increase of costs. If the defect is first noticed in pro
duction, much larger costs result. If the defect leads
to problems in assembly or has an adverse Impact
on the functionality of the finished product or even
leads to a recall. enormous costs are Incurred.
Quality control
- - - < " " ~=--
Quality control clrde
human
environ(
~mach\
"
raw parts
~
tes~
product
(/
material
goodj)MS
"
II'
(/
method
~~~
on
lnlpecllon
a..y ~~
on procb;t
~
~I
& amples
Human
qualification, motivation.
degree of utilization
Machine
machine rigidity, positioning

accuracy, wear condition
Material
deviations. material properties.

material variations
Method
work steps. production process.

test conditions
Sull"OUndings
(environment)
temperature, vibrations,
light, noise, dust
Management
poor quality goals or policies
Measurability
measurement inaccuracy
management!
--
Factors causing variance in quality

Factor
Quality testing
cf. DIN 55350-11 (198808)
Concepts
Quality testing
Determine to what eKtent a unit meets specified quality requirements.
Test plan
Test instructions
Define and describe the type and scope of testing. e.g. measuring and monitoring devices.
frequency of testing, test personnel. testing location.
Complete testing
Testing of a unit for all specified quality characteristics, e.g. complete inspection of a
single workpiece regarding all requirements.
100%testlng
Testing o f all units within a test lot. e. g. visual inspection of all delivered parts.
Statistical testing
(sampling test)
Quality testing with the aid of statistical methods. e. g. evaluation of a large quantity
of parts by analyzing a number of sampled parts.
Test lot
(sampling testl
All of the units being tested, e. g. a production of 5000 identical workpieoes.

I
Sample
One or more units which are taken from the population or a subset of the population,
e.g. 50 parts from a daily production of 400 parts.
Probability (Probability of defect)

Probability of a defective part within a defined total number of parts.
p probability in%
m total number of parts
n number of defective parts

E!tample:
Probability
In a crate there are m = 400 parts. where n = 10 parts have a dimensional defect.
What is the probability P of obtaining a defective part when taking one part out
of the crate?
Probability P =
~ 100% e ~ 100% = 2.5%

m
400
P = ~ 100%
m
277
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis of continuous characteristics
Pr-etlon of test deta
vgl. DIN 53 804-1 (2002-04)
Example
Sample size: 40 parts

Test characteristic: part diameter d 8 :t 0.05 mm
Raw data list

Raw data is the documentation of all
M easured part diameter din mm
ob served values from the test lot or
sample in the sequence in w hich they Parts 1- 10 7.98 7.96 7.99 8.01
occur.
Parts 11- 20 7.96 7.99 8.00 8.02
Parts 21- 30 7.99 8.05 8.03 8.00
Parts 31-40 8.02 8-01 8.05 7.94
Tallyaheet
The tally sheet p rovides a clear presen
tation o f the ob served values and
assignment into classes (ranges) of a
specific class interval size.
n
k
R
"I
h)
number o f individual values

number o f classes
class interval
rang e (page 278)
absolute frequency
relative frequency in %
-....~..-
Clesa
no.
7.5
Class interval size
27.5
7.98
Ill
7.98
8.00
Jill lilt I
3
11
8.00
8.02
Jill lilt Ill
13
32.5
8.02
8.04
Jill lilt
10
25
8.04
8.06
II
40
100
lh
(ti- (40 -
6.3 - 6
0.11 mm
>.
.,u
, .,
o =>
.a.,_e
hi =
lJ~
7.94
7.96
7.98
8.00
99.5
99
~
u
c
.,:::>
u
10
5
"
/
1-- ~-
/
/.
1fT
~'
7.96
8.003 -
7.98
8.00
8.02
part diameter d
LLV lower limit value; ULV upper limit value
,_;::-
.;
0
99
99.5
8.04
.!:
90
95
80
I
i
!
I
I
.... -d
0.1 10.05
7.94
70
20
60
1-.! r-
0.5
1
3%
5
10
30
40
50
20
1
0.6%
-- .
I
I
60
40
30
:::>
-- - - f-
70
"'>
~
e.,
~
80
xso
8.08
J(- -
95
~
90
c
--::. 84 13 1- -
~ . 100% I
8.02 8.04 mm
part diameter d -
n = 40
i .., _R
k
Reletive frequency
fr::
k "' .Jn
= - - - 0.018 mm - 0.02 mm
</I U
The probability model of the example

shows that in the entire lot app ro xi
mately 0.6 o/o of parts can be expected
to be too thin and 3 % too thick.
2.5
7.96
Histogram
Example of problem solving using the

graph:
Arithmetic mean x (for fj e 50%1 and
standard deviation s (as difference
68.26 % + 2 between lj = 50 % and
84.13 %):
x .. 8.003 mm; s .. 0.02 m m
- c
Numberofdassas
"'
8.00 8.01 8.01

7.99 8.ot 8.02
8-01 8.02 8.00
~
In %
7.94
c-
7.99 7.99 8.01
"l
Tally~
A histogram is a bar graph for vi sua lizing the distribution o f individual test
data.
In this case specific values can additionally be determined from the samples.
7.96 8.03
7.99 8.02
7.99 7.98
8.00 8-01
<
7.96
i =-
Cumulative frequency curve in

Pf"Obability system
The cumulative frequency curve in the
probability system is a simple and
clear graphical method used to check
for the existence of a normal distribution (page 278).
If the cumulative relative frequency in
the probability system approximates
a straight line, t hen a normal distribution of th e individual values can be
assumed, i.e. a further evaluation can
be conducted per DIN 53 804 1 (page
278).
8.o2
8.02
8.03
7.98
99.9
99.95
mm
8.08
278
Normal distribution
Gaussian distribution
99.73%
95.44%
68.26%
xt
di
-3o
I '\~
.-h._ I
l lnfl&?lon I
pomt
"'-...._
20
-(] +0 +20
Jl
characterist ic value x -
Continuous data values often exhibit a characteristic In their distribu

tion which is approximated mathematically by the Gaussian
normal dimibution model. For an infinite number of individ ual val
ues the probability density of a normal distribution yields the typical
bell curve. This symmetrical and continuous distribution curve is
clearly described by the fo llowing parameters:
The mean JJ lies on the curve maximum and identifies the position o f
the distribution.
The standard deviation o is a measure of the variations, i.e. h ow val
ues deviate from the mean.
11 Cart Friedrich GauB {1777- 18551, German mathematician
+3o
Normal distribution in sampling
curv!l
determmed
from
X&ndS
number of individual values

{sample size)
x 1 value of measurable properties,
e.g. individual value
x,.,. largest measurement value
Kmln smallest measurement value
arithmetic mean
ii median value11, middle value of
measured values arranged in
order of magnitude
s
standard deviation
R
range
D
mode {measurement value
occurring most lrequently
in a test series)
91oc~ probability density
!
IN
tinflection
point
v.
I \~
I
I __) '
lsi
cf. DIN 53804-1 {200204) or DGO 16-31 {1990)
-2s
I +S
+3S
+2s
Xmln
Xrnax
---- x- ....- --l
l
~-o
cha~acteristlc value
Arithmetic
mean21
Standard deviation21
I. s-y
/Dx1- x)2
n-1
I
.
Range
R = Xmax- Xmin
Mean of sample ranges
When evaluating several samples:
number of samples
mean of multiple sample ranges
mean of multiple sample means
mean of standard deviations
R= R, + R2:+Rm
Example: Evaluation of sample values from page 277:

K 8.00225mm
R 0.11 mm
x 8.005mm
11 Median value for

odd number o f individual values:
e.g. x 1; x2 ; x3 ; x.: ><s:
0=7.99mm
even number of individual values:

e.g. x1; x2; x~ x.; xs: ><6:
X= X3
21
s=0.02348mm
X= {Xl + x.l/ 2
Many pocket calculators have special functions for calculating the mean and
standard deviation.
Repeated occurrences of identical measurement values can be represented by a
suitable factor.
Mean of standard
deviations
Normal distribution in an inspection lot

Parameters of the population are estimated using a sampling method based on characteristic values from the sam
pie (confirmatory statistics). To differentiate sampling characteristics clearly from parameters of the population,
other designations are used. These estimated values are distinguished from the calculated process values for a
100% inspection (descriptive statistics) by adding a mark
Characteristic values and designations in quality testing

Sampling test {confirm.tory statistic:sl
Sample
Number of measured values n
Arithmetic mean
Standard deviation
Popul.tion
100"' INpeetion
{<Mscriptive statistics)
Number of measured values m. n
Number of measured values N
Estimated p rocess mean17
Process mean I'
Estimated process standard

deviation o (calculator o 0 _ 1)
Process standard deviation o

(calculator onl
279
Product ion Engineering: 6.1 Quality management
Statistical process control

Quality control cherts
~control
Proeeu control cherts

Process control charts are used for monitoring a
process for changes compared to a target value or a
previous process value. The Intervention and w arning
limits are determ ined by the process estimated value of
a population or a preliminary run.
charts
Acceptance control charts are used to monitor a process

in reference to set specification limits (limit values).
Control limits are calculated as tolerance limits for the
locetion of the process mean and a tolerance range for
process va riance.
Process control charts for quantitative characteristics (Shewhart-control charts)11

Rew deta chert
Control limits
The raw data chan is a docu

mentation of all measuremoot values by entering direclly
on the chart. ~ assumes an approximate normal distribu
tion process and is relatively
complex because of the
number of entries.
)(
Exemple: 5 i ndividual values for each sample
characteristic mean
(mean of the characteris
tic, target value, ideal
value)
UWL
LWL
upper warning limit

lower warning limit
UCL
LCL
USL
upper control limit

low er control limit
upper specifocation limit
LSL
lower specifoeation limit
5.06
5.04
5.02 1>
E
5.00 ~ --l
~E
;)
4.98
4.96
~
4.94
~
;)
...
--
...,
r- -
Sam~le
n um er
USL
UCL
- - I r- ...; f- -
>- UWL
-- -- -- ~;;
-...;
---- r-
LWL
LCL
LSL
5 ...
Median value range chart (i-R-chartl
Mean standard deviation chart (.i+ Chart)
These charts are used to clearly represent production

dispersion without requiring much calculation. They are
suitable for manual control chart management.
These charts are used to show the trend of the mean

and exhibit greater sensitivity than xR-eharts. They
require computer-aided control chart management.
Example:
Example:
Inspect:. characteristic: Cont rol dimension:

d iameter
50.05
Sampl e size
n;5
x,
Control interval
60min
,\
4.98 4.96 5.03 4.97

4.97 4.99 5.01 4.96
5.03 5.02 5.01
XJ 4.99
~ n; E
m>
x4 5.01 4.99 4.99 4.99
~
xs 5.01 5.00 4.98 5.02
~X 24.96 24.97 25.03 24.95
4.99 4.99 5.0 1 4.99
\
R 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.06
\
"'Q) 5.04
UCL .,
=> E 5.02
UWL
~ E
:
-X
'7"'!'c: c: 5.00
4.98
LSL
4.96
:
LCL
~
0.08
UCL
:
UWL
0.06
~ ~- r---x
"'
g>EE 0.04
LWL
"' -c:
a:
0.02
LCL
:
0::
0
Sample no
1
2
3 I 4
g oo
6 00
7 00
Time
8 ""
~ "'
5~ E
X2
"' il)(
--
11
Walter Andrew Shewhart (1891- 1967), American scientist
Inspect. characteristic: Control dimension:

d iameter
50.05
Sample size:
Control intervall:
60 m in
n;5
.,E .,
:; !g E
:n; E
.,>
..
Q)
"E
~E
c: c:
:o.
"'
"E c:
coo
-o:;:;
C:IO
~ ~
"0
Xt
4.98
x2 4.97
4.99
5.01
xs 5.01
X 4.992
s 0.018
5.02
5.01
5.00 r4.99
4.98
0.026
0.0 24
0.022
r0.020
0.018
0.016
XJ
X4
4.96 5.03 4.97

4.99 5.01 4.96
5.03 5.02 5.01
4.99 4.99 4.99
5.00 4.98 5.02
4.994 5.006 4.990
0.025 0.021 0.025
UCL '
UWL
--x
-+- 17'i'-
LWL
LCL
UCL
UWL
-.r,- -:.:'1. ~-+- --x
Sample no.
Tim e
6 ""
LWL
LCL
I
I
2
7 00
3
8 00
4
g oo
I
J
280
Production Engineering: 6. 1 Quality management
Process trend, Acceptance sampling and plan

Proceaa trend
(e.g. from an ; tracel
UCL
?Vt/f1-x
Natural run
2/3 of all values lie in the range
The process is under control and can con

tinue without interruption.
: standard deviation s and all val

ues lie within the control limits.
Exceedi ng the control limits
The values are outside of tho con
trollimits.
RUN lsequentiall
7 or more sequential values lie on
one side of the mean line.
Over.adjusted machine, different material,

damaged or worn equipment
Stop process and 100% inspect parts
since the last sampling
Tool wear, other material charge. new tool.
new personnel
- Tightened observation of the process
LCL
;:a
UCL
fl\----;:;r'!:_-- x
......
Trend
7 or more sequential values show
an increasing or decreasing trend.
LCL
Middle Third
At least 15 consecutive values lie
within : S1andard deviations.
UCL
F/%N:-xLCL
1
Cyclical
The values cross the mean line
periodically.
Wear on tool, equipment or measuring devices. operator fatigue

- Stop process to determine reasons for
adjustment
Improved production, better supervision,
corrected test results
-
Determine how the process was

improved or check the test results
Different measuring devices, systematic

spread of tho data
- Examine manufacturing process for
influences
Acceptance sampling (attribute sampling!
cf. DIN ISO 2859 1 (2004-01)
An attribute inspection is an acceptance sampling inspection in which the acceptability of the inspection lot is deter
mined based on defective units or defects in individual sampling.
The percentage of nonconforming units or the number of defects per hundred units of the lot identifies the quality level. The acceptable quality level is the quality level defined for continuously presented lots; it is a quality level
that is specified by the customer in most cases. The associated sampling instructions are summarized in control
tables.
Acceptance sampling plan for lingle sampling inspection as the normal inspection
(excerpt from a control tablel
Acceptable quality t.w1 AOl (preferT.cl ,..uesl
lot size
0.04
0 .065
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
0.66
1.0
1.5
9- 15
16- 25
13
26- 50
20
13
51-
90
50
32
20
13
20
91 - 150
80
50
32
20
13
32
20
151- 280
125 0
80
50
32
20
50
32
32
2-
281- 500
501- 1200
315
2.5
~
200
125 0
80
50
32
80
50
50
50
200
125 0
80
50
125
80
80
80
80
, _ _ ,~ the
u~batch
fi~ um.>og
'~""'"''of m;, "'"mo. '"'" ~m "";, ,_,. "'"" """"
size: Carry out a 100% inspection.
50 2
Second number: Acceptance numbet number of the accepted delivered defective units
First number: Sample size= number of units to be tested
281
Process and machine capability, Quality control charts

Capability, Quality control charts
During an evaluation of the quality-related capability of a process through capability characteristics (capability Indices), differentiation must be made between shortterm capability (machine capabilityland longterm capability (process capability),
lJt"'--
If C, ~ 1.67 and C,k ~ 1.67, this means that

99.99994 % (range .t 5 s) of the quality characteristics lie within the limits and the mean xlies
at least an amount ol 5 s away from the tolerance
limits.
;;
LLV
ULV
charcteristic value LLV
ULV
x
s
cm - -6 S
Machine capability is an evaluation of the

machine, I.e. whether there Is suffiCient probability
that it can produoa within specified limits given its
normal nuctuations.
toleranoa T~ 10 s
s
Acrit
Machine capability Index
Requirement" e.g.
C, ~ 1.67 and C,k " 1.67.
Process capability Index
lower limit value

upper limit value
arithmetic mean
standard deviation
Acrit
smallest interval between

mean and a tolerance limit
C,. C,0 machine capability index
c =_!__
p
c;,.c,.
esti mated standard deviation
process capability index
T
Cm ~ 6.$ =
0.009 mm;
pi<---
3-a
Requirement II e.g.
ll Customer or contract
specifiC requirements;
in large scale production,
e.g. automotive industry,
tendency to higher requirements. e.g. C," 2.0.
x 79.997 mm
O, l mm
c.,. ~ Acrit a 0.047 mm G 1.74
_0.009 mm a 1.852;
3 -s 3 0.009 mm
The machine capability is below requirements.
ct. OGQ 16-33 (1990); OGQ 11-19 (1994)
Quality control charts for qualitative characteristics

Defact chlrft
Cp " 1.33 and Cpk " 1.33
Example:
Examination of machine capability lor production dimension 80 .t 0.05;
Values from preliminary run:
6.
C _ 6crit
Process capability is an assessment of the manufacturing process, i.e. whether

there Is sufficient probability that it can fulfill specified requirements given its
normal fluctuations.
6krit
mk3-s
Example:
Defect charts record the defective

units, the defect types and their Irequency in a sampling.
I Sam!lle size n = 50
Palt Cover
Defect type
Paint damage
E.x ample of reading from the graph

for F3:
n 9 - 50 450
Dents
Corrosion
Burr
Crad<inas
/W:lle error
defects in% . :Eii - 100%
Bent
Threads missing
=~ -100o/o = 0. 66%
450
Sample
Pareto11 diagram
The Pa reto diagram classifies criteria (e. g. defects) according to type
and frequency and is therefore an
important aid in analyzing criteria
and establishing priorities.
Example for F2:
Percentage of total defects
14
aJS
100% = 40%
11 Pareto - Italian sociologist
no.
I Test interval: 60 min
Frequencyoldelect 1
F1
1
1
F2 1 2
2 1 2 2 2 2
F3
1
1
1
F4 1
F5
1
F6 2
13 1
13 1
2
F7
1
F8
1
4 6 3 3 3 5 4 3 4
11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
D. %
2
14
3
1
1
12
1
1
Perc. of total
0.44
3.11
0.66 ]
0.22
0.22
2.66
0.22
0.22
35
Example:
100
t
i6
-"'
ou
-
Q>
"'-
%
~
60
40
20
0
1/
!/'";
F2
F6
F3
F1
F4
F7
defect types
F8
Example of graphic: representation: Dents (F2) and angle error

(F6l together ma~e up approx. 74% of the total errors.
F5
282
Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning
Job time 1l
Structure of types of time for workers
Basic setup time
lbo
Setup recovery time I

,.,. z. re.~1oo % 1
I Setup time
( 11 It + 111 + fu1
IUnproduc. setup timel
,,. z . tt.f100% 1
Activity time
l~c; '"' + ltf
Floor-to-floor time ~
IH ftc+ fw
Waiting time
lw
Material unpro
due. time tm
Recovery time
r,. . z . tn/100%
Unproductivatime
' z ru/100%
Hllme
per unit work
luw llf+lu+ r,.
Job time
T t,+lp
Production time ~
lp QIuw
r-
1,
Personnei
unproduc. time tp
z percentages of the respective lloortOIIoor time
o..lgn.tion
IExplan8tion with examples
Job time
Time allowed for manufacturing a lot size
'
Setup time
Setup for an entire job

basic setup time r;,.
setup recovery time r,..
setup unproductive time r.,.
Symbol
-~
turn on machine
recovery time aher strenuous changeover
repair of brief machine malfunction
lp
Production time
Time allowed for production of a lot size (without setup)
Ire
Recovery time
Personnel break time to reduce work-related fatigue
'
Unproductive time job-related interruption time 1m ~ unforeseen tool sharpening

personnel interruption time r,
checking work times, taking care of needs
toe
Activity time
Times in which the actual job is processed

assembly or deburring work
variable times lev
fixed times Itt
cycle of a CNC program
lw
Waiting time
Waiting for the next workpiece in the continuous flow production
Job volume
Number of units to be prodlJ()ed for a job (lot size)
--
Example: Turning three shafts on a lathe
Sat up times:
Setup job
Setup of machine
Setup of tool
Basic setup time
tbs
Setup recovery time
t., 4o/oof r;,.
Unproduc. setup time '= 14%offt,.
Setup time
t.= to.+ t,.+ t...
min
4.50
= 10.00
12.50
~
= 27.00
1.08
= 3.78
=31.86
Production times:
Activity time
Waiting time
Floor-to-floor time
Recovery time
Unproductive time
Time per unit work
Production time
'lw"'
ltt=lac+lw
r,. com pens. for in 1w
lu 8% of IH
luwltt+lre+l..
t,.=q fuw
min
14.70
3.75
=
= 18.45
~
1.48
= 19.93
:59.79
Job time T = t. + tp .. 32 min + 60 min= 92 min(= 1.53 hr)

,, According to REFA (Verband fUr Arbeitsgestalrung, Betriebsorganisation und Unternehmensentwicklung e.V.)
International Association for Work Design, Industrial Organization and Corporate Development
283
Utilization time 1I
Structure of the types of times for production resources IPRJ
I
I productive
Main time
tmp ltv+ tn
t
r
PR
basic setup time
,.,.,.
I
I
I r..,.,. . ~tup I1
setu~ime
r.,. ,.,.,. + ' ""'
unproduc.
time
z . lt.f(lOO%
~ floorto:,~r time ~
Aux. time
productive
fep fav + lef
-1
ltn>
Imp~ fop + rid
-1
PRtime
per unit work
t._...p IHP+ t 0 p
I unproductive
time ~
z. rf!PflOO%
Utilization
time
Tu1p t,p + tpp

PR production time
lpP Q IIJWP
t.,p
Idle time
r1d
z percentage rate of the respective floor-to-floor time
Designation
ExpiMWtion with e>camplel
Utilization time
lime allowed for utilization of a production resource for manufacturing

a lot size
""
Production resource
setup time
Setup of production resource for completing an entire job

PR basic setup time fboP
- clamping equipment on a machine
unproductive setup time r.,.p - optimization of CNC program
lpp
Production resource
production time
lime allowed for me production time of a lot size {without setup)
fuP
Production resource
interruption time
lime in which the production resource is not utilized or additionally utilized;

power outage, un-planned repair worll. etc.
t,p
Main
productive time
limes in which the work object is processed according to plan

- manual drilling
variable times r,
fixed times r.t
- cycle of CNC program
t.p
Auxiliary
productive time
Production resources are prep., loaded or emptied for the main productive time
variable times r.,.
- manual clamping
- automatic workpiece change
fixed times laf
fid
Idle time
Process or recovery related down time, e.g. filling of a magazine
Job volume
Number of units to be produced for a job (lot size)
Symbol
TutP
Example: Milling a contact surface on 20 base plates using a vertical m illing machine
~
min Production times:
Setup times:
Read the job order and drawing
Set up and store the surface cutter
Clamp and unclamp the cutter
Set up the machine
4.54
a
3.65
= 3.10
= 2.84
:
Milling= main productive time Imp

Clamp workpiece ;o aux. productive time lap
Transport workpiece= idle time IKt
Prod. res. ftoorto-floor time lftP Imp + IP + rid

Production resources basic setup time tbsP
14.13 Prod. res. unproductive time luP = 10% of ri!P
1.41
Prod. res. unproductive s. time r..,.,. = 10% of 1bsf> =
Prod. resource time per unit luwP lttP + t0 p
Production resowces setup time r.,. fosp + r...,. 15.54 Production resoun:e prod. time tpl' q t...,..p
Utilization time TUtP
=
e
=
=
e
m in
3.52
4.00
1.20
8.72
0.87
9.59
191 .80
=r.,. + ~ ~ 16 min + 192 min = 208 min I = 3.47 hrl
' ' According to REFA (Verband fUr Arbeitsgestaltung, Betriebsorganisation und Unternehmensentwicklung e .V.I
International Association for Work Design, Industrial Organization and Corporate Development
284
Cost accounting
Simple calculation (numerical example)
0wrt~ucf11
Dlnlctc:osts
thcfly~
Notthcfly
atUibutable to tpedfic product
to tpedflc product
Types
of
costs 11
$80000.00 Depreciation
$120 000.00 Salaries (incl.
Material costs
Labor costs
management salaries)
Interest
Other costs
r Overhead
Cost cal
culation
$50000.00
$80000.00
Swehetge in pem~nt of wage

coets
s 220 000.00 . 100%

s 120000.00
183.33%
$40000.00 A surcharge rounded off to

$50000.00 185% is applied to each wage
hour to cover overhead costs.
$220000.00
Rate per hour S/hr 12.00 + 185% S/hr 34.20

(for independent contractor invoices; management salaries profit)
Material costs
of order
Working time 5 hr
x S/hr 34.20
$171 .00
11 Costs must be determined periodically for every operation.
Price without VAT
$295.75
Wage hours 10000 hrs
Labor costslhr S/hr 12.00
$ 124.75
Expanded calculation (schematic)
Material costs
+
MataMI clrect costs
Direct production costs

Production wages attributable to
o ne product
Lf
Machine costs
Depreciation, interest, occupan
cy, energy and maintenanoe
costs
Remaining overhead
Percent of production wages,
e.g. fringe benefits, occupancy,
operating materials, etc.
Equipment costs
Drilling equipment molds etc.
+
Production overfleed 11
Designco$ts
Salaries etc.
+
Procurement costs
+
Material owrhud
Percent of material direct costs,
e. g . purchasing costs, storage
costs, etc.
+
Special tools
Special drills etc.
+
Material costs
11 If no machine hourly rares are

calculated, these are included
in rhe production overhead
and increase rhe surcharge
rare. The overhead surcharge
rates are taken from the opera
tiona/ accounting sheet
Outof house processing

Heat treatment etc.
l
Special direct co$ts of
productiOn
Production co$t$
+
Special direct costs of
production
r
Example:
Manufacturing CO$ts
+
Management and
sales overhead
Percent or manufacturing costs
l
Prime cost
+
Profit
Percent of prime cost
T
Raw price
+
Commissions, discounts,
Percent of sales price
T
Sales price without VAT
Material direct costs

Material overhead 5%
Production wages 10 hr x S/hr 15.Machine costs 8 hr x S/hr 30.Residual overhead 200% of production wages
Special tools
$ 1225.00
$61 .25
$ 150.00
$240.00
s 300.00
s 125.00
Manufacturing costs
Management and sales overhead
12% of manufacturing costs
s 2 10 1.25
Prime cost
Profit addition 10'Yo of the prime cost
$ 2353.40
$235.34
Raw price
$2588.74
s 136.25
$252.15
Commissions 5 % of sales price

Sales price before VAT
$ 2724.99
285
Production engineering: 6.2 Product ion planning
Machine hourly rate calculation

Machine hourty rete Clllculetlon
Average produclion overhead does not take into consideration various machine costs attributable to a specific
product. This type of cost accounting would be misleading.
If machine costs are taken out of production overhead and converted to hours the machine was utilized, this yields
the machine hourly rate.
Compilation of machine costs
Machine costs are:
Calculated depreciation
Linear loss o f value over the servioo life of the
machine relative to replacement cost
Energy costs
Costs incurred by electricity, natural gas. steam or
gasoline consumption
Maintenance costs
Costs for repairs and regular service
Other types of costs
Costs for tool wear, insurance premiums, disposal of
ooolants and lubricants etc.
Calculat ed Interest
Average interest for capital invested for
the machine
Occupancy costs
Costs incurred by floor and traffic
space of the machine
Mec:hine running time, Machine hourty rates

TRT
Tr
Tsr
TsM
~
CMhr
Ct
Cv/hr
aocording to VDI Directive 3258
machine running time in hours/period

total theoretical machine time in hours/period
down times, e.g. work free days, work interruptions
etc., usually in % of Tr
times for service and maintenance, usually in % of Tr
Machine running time
TRT% TT- TsT- TsM
Machine hourly rates
c,
sum of machine costs per period (usually per year)

machine costs per hour; machine hourly rate
machine fixed costs per year; e.g. depreciation
machine variable costs per hour; e.g. electrical consumption
CMhr = - +Cv/hr
TAT
Calculation of machine hourty rete (example)

Tool m achine:
Procurement valueS 160 000.00
Power consumption 8 kW
Occupancy cost.s Slm 2 10.00 x month
Additional maintenance $/hr 5.00
Service life 10 years

Assumed interest rate 8%
Cost per kWh S 0.15
Base charge Slmonth 20.00
Space req. 15m2
Maintenance Slyear 8 000.00
Normal utilization
Actual utilization 80%
TRr = 1200 hr/year !100%)
What would be the machine hourly rate for normal utilization and 80% utilization?
Type of cost
Fixed costs
$/year
c.lallation
procurement value
service life in years
Calculated
interest
1/z procurement value
M aintenance
costs
maintenance factor" depreciation- e.g. 0.5 x S 16 000.00

maintenance is dependent upon utilization.
Energy
costs
inS x interest
100%
Proportional
occupancy costs
$80 000.- X 8%
100%
base charge for power supply stmonth 20.00 x 12 mon.

power consumption " energy costs 8 kW x SlkWh 0.15
space cost rate x space requirement
~ Sfm21o.oo x month" 15m2 x 12 months
Machine hourly rate (C,..,.I at 80 % utilization a
.!d
Trrr+ Cv/hr
_.9._
s 32 440.00
hr + Slhr 6.20 a
1200
0.8 TRy+ G.)hr -
The m achine hourly rate does not include costs for operator.
$ 6400.00
$8000.00
$5.00
s 240.00
$ 1.20
$1 800.00
Total machine costs (CM)

Machine hourly rate (C,..,.l at 100% utilization e
costs
S/hr
s 16 000.00
s 160000.00
Calculated
depreciation
10 years
Variable
$320.00
S/hr 33.23
s 32 440.00
0.8 . 1 200 hr + S/hr 6.20 - $/hr 40.00
$6.20
286
Product ion engineering: 6.2 Production planning
Direct costing l l
Marginal costing (with numerical example)
Contribution m argin
Marginal costing takes the market price o f a product into consideration. The market
price must at least cover variable costs (lower price limit). The remainder is the con
tribution margin. Contribution margins of all products carry the costs of operational
re8diness.
R/pieco
R
CM
CM/piece
c,
market price; revenue per piece

revenue (sales! of product
contribution margin of product
contribution margin per piece
c..p
Bp
CM = R _ _ ...s_
piece
fixed costs
variable costs
profit or gain
break011en point
piece
piece
CM
CM = - - volume
piece
Profit
P= CM-Ct
Variable costs (C,.)ZI
depends on production
110lume
Material costs
Labor costs
Energy costs
Slpiece 30.00 Depreciation

Slpieoe 20.00 Wages
Slpiece 10.00 Interest
Others C
S/piece 60.00 l: Fixed costs
Contribution margin
5000pieces s 110.00 - $60.00
l: Variable costs
No. of pieces
produced
.2
10
:;
Contribution margin (CM)
Rxed costs IC,l

independent of production
volume
CM R/plece- C"/piece
$50000.00
$80000.00
$40000.00
$30000.00
$200000.00
Revenue of $/piece 110.00

must cover all variable costs
first. The remainder is used to
cover total fixed costs a nd
includes pro fit.
- S/piece 50.00
Total contribution margin 5 000 pieces . Sip ieee 50.00 S 250 000.00
r Fixed costs $ 200 000.00
Profit
S 50 000.00
____fJ_
B rea keven pomt p CM/piece
sSlpiece
200 000.00
50.00 e
000 .
poeces
400000
800000
/"'
~ 6000~ ~
point;:;' re/ ,. -: ~
~
~ 400000
a
.. 200000
"/
costs or contri-
>~~'
tOial
costs
/ 118riable costs
~ /L---;----
//
fixed costs
o ~-~--~--~-2000
4000 piec. 6000
o ~-----L------~----~~-
vok.tme -
2000
4000 piec. 6000
IIOiume -
Cost comparison method

In the cost comparison m ethod. the machine or facility that
incu rs the lowest costs for a given production volume
should be selected.
E><ample for 5 000 pieces
Machine 1: C11 =$/year 100 000.-; C" 1 = $/piece 75.00
$/year 100 000.- + S/piece 75 >< 5 000 pieces as 475 000
Machine 2: C12 = $/year 200 000.00; Cyz = $/piece 50.00
$/year 200 000.- + S/piece 50.00 x 5000 pieces = $ 450 000
Machine 1 costs> machine 2 costs
r .
oece count omot
M
ilm
Cn - Cu
= C,.,/piece _ C,dpiece
s 200 ooo.oo - S 100 000.00
""'
$/piece 75.00- $/piece 50.00
=4000
ieces
P
Machine 2 is more economical at volumes above 4000 pieces.
Cost com.,.,Json
600 000
~~ 400000
s
ii
e 2ooooo
A1
piece count limit 1'.\.,
madline 1 costs
v...
!i
'l
$475000.-
machine 1
! machine2
I.
J __ _
Q L--L--~-L--~~--~---
2000
4000
~ume
6000 pieces
11 Direct costing separates costs into fixed costs (costs of operating readiness) and variable costs (direct costs).
Variable costs are calculated for each job and compared to revenue.
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Productive time
287
Turning. Thread cutting

Straight cylindrical turning and facing at constant rotational speed
lp productive time
d outside diameter
d 1 Inside diameter
dm mean diameter"
I
workpiece length
151 starting idle
1.,. overrun idle travel

L travel
feed per revolution
n rotational speed
number of cuts
Vc cutting speed
Productive time
L i
t =p
nf
Calculeting travel L. mean diameter d, 8nd rotatioMIIpHd n

Straight cylindrical turning
without shoulder
floc:ing
Solid cylinder
with shoulder
with shoulder
Hollow cylinder
without shoulder
L
I
L-'
l '"i
i....J
L = ~2 + l..
L a l+lsj
d : d +d, , n = ~
m
2 '
ll dm
'' Use of mean diameter dm leads to higher cutting speeds. This ensures acceptable cutting conditions for small
diameters (inside area).
Example:
Straight cylindrical turning without shoulder, I 1240 mm;
lsi = 10 , = 2 mm; f= 0.6 mm;
; . 2; d= 160 mm;
Vc
=120m/min;
L ?; n ? (for infinitely variable speed adj ustment)

lp a ?
L = I +Is; + ICJi 1240 mm + 2 mm + 2 mm 1244mm
120 ~
n d
n 0.16 m
min
= -e- = ~~ 239 -
Li
tP = ;:;:-; =
1244 mm . 2
1
.. 17. 4 min
239 min 0.6 mm
Thread cutting
tp productive time
P thread pitch
n rotational speed
total travel of thread cutting tool

thread length
lso starting idle
loi overrun idle travel
number of cuts
s
h
ap
Vc
no. of starts
thread depth
cutting depth
cutting speed
Productive time
L i s
t =-p
Pn
Number of cuts
. h
Example:
1= -
Threads M 24; I= 76 mm; Is; = 10
2 mm;
L l+ l,; +l,;a 76mm +2mm +2 mm a 80mm
f= 0.6 mm; Vc = 6 m/min; i = 2; ap = 0.15 mm;

6~
n _ vc
min ':t 80 _ 1_
h = 1.84mm;P=3mm;s = 1;
n d n 0.024 m
min
L= ?; n= ?; i= ?; lp=?
L i s 80 mm 13 1
t = - - -=
4.3min
P
Pn
3mm80 .2_
1 84
i =!!. = mm = 12.2 '< 13
min
ap 0.15 mm
Bp
288
Production engineering: 6.3 M achining processes, Productive time
Turning
Straight cylindrical turning end facing at constant cutting speed
If the rotational speed must be limited for safety reasons by inpuning a rotation
at speed limit lltim- a tu rning diameter of d < transition diameter "' is turned at
constant rotational speed (page 2871.
"'
transition diameter
number of cuts
culling speed
lltim rotational speed limit
productive time
lp
Vc
do
L
Trensition diameter
d,
,..
8p
effective diameter
travel
reed
Productive time
outside diameter
inside diameter
cuning depth
t - nde L i
pVc f
starting idle
overrun idle travel
'""
Number of cub for
:...;:::' '""'"'
2.
1.
8p
--
Celculeting travel L end effective diameter c4

Streight cylindrlcel turning
...:v d.
Feeing
J--11"-......~
d, 1-t---"'k::-~
!ij d, 1-,t---+- "'i
Q;
"C
n,_
n,..,,
rotational speed n -
rotational speed n HollOw c1nder
1.,
1,.
d-d1
L = - - +I,,
2
Example:
Facing;/.;= 1.5 mm; Vc =220m/min; f= 0.2 mm;

i 2; "'m = JOO<Vmin;
?; L e ?; d0 ?; lp a 7
"'=
220000
m~
d,
=-..:....=
=d -~ +I,;= 120 mm-65mm +1.5mm= 29mm

2
2
120mm+65mm
15 mm= 94 mm
+.
2
"94mm.29mm 2
1t de L i
:.:_.:..:..:.:..:.:c.:.,.,:::..:.:.:.:.:.:-=.
- 0. 39 min
v,. (
220000 m~ 0.2 mm
mon
nn;mn3000 1
23.3mm (~>d,)
min
. =-d+d
- + 1sl
2
1
mm
289
Drilling, Reaming, Counterboring, Planing, Shaping

Drilling, reeming, counteninking
lp
Cutt.
0
eo
, 1e
130
140
'
0.3 . d
lsJ
lo,
0.6. d
0.23 . d
0.18 d
'
productive time
tool diameter
bore depth
starting idle
overrun idle travel
lead
L =I+ lc + Is;+ 10 ;
L
f
"
0
travel
feed per revolution
rotational speed
cutting speed
Productive time
number of cuts
drill point angle
Speed
Li
t =-P
L =I + lc +Is;
nf
n =~
1t d
L = I+ 15 ;
Example:
Blind hole or d c 30 mm;
I 90mm; f 0.15 mm;
n 450/min; i 15; is; 1 mm;
o = 130; L = ?; tp = ?
lp
I
lsi
lao
L
w
w.
productive time
workpiece length
starting idle
overrun idle travel
stroke length
width of workpiece
approach w idth
Workpieces without shoulder
L = I + Isi + 10 ;
L =I+ ic + 1,;= 90 mm + 0.23 30 mm + 1 mm 98 mm
Li
tp = nf-
98 mm 15
1
450 -
m in
W0
n
"
v,
W
f
.
- 21 .78mm
0.15mm
overrun wid1h
no. of double strokes per minute
Productive time
cuning speed. approach speed

return speed
planing, shaping wid1h
feed per double stroke
number of cuts
Worllpieces with shoulder
L = I + Is; + 10 ;
W=
W+ Wa
290
Milling
Product ive t ime
1p productive time
~-~-----~~:~~--~~ ~~--r_P_-~L-v__f;--~
I
II
workpiece length
a.,
cutting depth
a,
engagement (milling width)
1,
approach
Feed per revolution of milling cutter
1., overrun idle travel
f=". N
1., staning travel
total travel
cutter diameter
Feed rate
Vt = n f
n rotational speed
Vt = n ft N
feed per revolution
f,
feed pertooth
Rotational speed
N number of teeth
vc culling speed
v,
feed rate
number of cuts
Total tnlvel Land lt8rtlng travel I., in rellmon to the~
.-c:-s
Face milling
Peripheral
face milling
eccentric
centric
L = I + 11 + loi + ls1
L I + 0 .5 d + 10 + lol -/51
L = I + 0.5 d + 11 + loi
1st = 0.5 VrP -
a/
Example:
Face milling (see left illustration): N = 1o. f,
Vc = 30 m/min,/0 = /oi a 1.5 mm, i e 1 CUt
=0.08 mm,
Sought after. n; v1; L; fp

30 - m-
Solution: n
-~-~- 119-" d
0.08m
min
v1 -n f, N- 119 ~ . o.oamm 10 95.2m~

m.n
mn
= 1+ 10 +la~+l.,.
1.,
260
30
mm 0.375. it follows that
80mm
a. < 0.5 d
Ja.d -al = h omm. 80 mm- {30 mmJ2
= 38.7 mm
-260mm+ 1.5mm+ 1.Smm + 38.7 mm 301 .7mm
tP
.!:...:..!. :J:l1.7 mm. 1.

v1
95 2
mm
min
32min
29 1
Grinding
Streight c:ytindrical grinding
tp
n
f
v1
d,
d
ap
I
Wg
lo;
Wkpiece rotational
productive time
travel
number of cuts
workpiece rotational speed
workpiece feed per revolution
feed rate
initial diameter of workpiece
final diameter of workpiece
cutting depth
workpiece length
grinding wheel width
overrun idle travel
grinding allowance
Produ--c_t,_:_:_tl~;~~~~---'1
...
Number of cub
f exteme l straight
for Internal str eight
grinding
grinding
11 2 cuts to spark out, for lower tolerance grades addi
tiona! cuts are necessary
C.lculetlngtrewiL
Workpieces without shoulder
Workplaces
with shoulder
~-~----+~--~
3
L = l - 3~. w.g
L =l-2. w.
3
g
Feed for roughing f = 213 . w0 to 3/4 w0 ;
feed for finishing
f 1/ 4
w0 to 'h. w0
Sutfec:e grinding
rp productive time
1
transverse feed per stroke Number of cuts
workpiece length
11 start. idle, overrun idle travel
no. of strokes per minute
vr feed rate
L travel
No. of strokes
i ,. - + 211
L ___
aP
_ _ ___J
n ,. ..J..
L
___...J
, _____
number of cuts
w w idth of workpiece
w0 overrun width
W grinding width
Bp cutting depth
Productive time
grinding allowance
w0 grinding wheel width
'' 2 cuts to
spark out
C.lculetlng trawl L end grinding widttl W

Workplaces with shoulder
Workplaces without shoulder
L a /+ 2 I;
I; 0.04 I
Transverse feed for roughing
f a 2/ 3
W=w -.!
3 .w.g
w9 to
4/
5
L= l+21;
w9; feed for finishing
I; -0.04 I
f= 1/ 2 w9 to 2t3
w9
W= w - ~-w.
3
9
292
Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes, Machining coolants
Machining coolants for cutting metals

Terminology and applications for machining coolants
Typed mKhlning
coolant
Effect
Group
Inorganic materials
in water
Grinding
Organic or synthetic
materials in water
Machining at high
cutting speed
Emulsions
2%-20% emulsive
(soluble) machining
coolant in water
Good cooling effect, but

low lubrication,
e.g. machining (turning, milling,
drilling) of easy-to-machine
materials, at high cutting speed;
for high working temperatures:
susceptible to bacterial or fungal
attack
Cutting oil
Mineral oils with polar

additives (greases or
synthetic esters) or EP
additives'' to increase
lubricating performance
For lower cutting speed,

higher surface quality, for dif
ficult-tomachine materials;
very good lubrication and
corrosion protection
Solutions/
dispersions
SEMW
machining
coolants
(oil in water)
Appliclltlons
Compotition
SESW
machining
coolants
cf. DIN 51385 (1991-Cl6)

~
"'c:
'a
8
"'c:
~
.a
"t:
~
-j
.."'
!...
c:
"'c:
..!:
SN
machining
coolants
insoluble in
water
11 Machining coolants may be hazardous to health (page 198) and are therefore only used in small quantities.
21 EP =Extreme Pressure; additives to Increase acceptance of high surface pressure between chip and tool
Guidelines for selecting coolants

Manufectwlng .,._s
Steel
c.t lion.
mlllelible cast iron
Cu,
Cudoys
AI,
Mg alloys
Aleloys
Roughing
emulsion,
solution
dry
dry
emulsion,
cutting oil
dry,
cutting oil
Finishing
emulsion,
cutting oil
emulsion,
cutting oil
dry,
emulsion
dry,
cutting oil
dry,
cutting oil
Milling
emulsion,
solution,
cutting oil
dry.
emulsion
dry,
emul,sion,
cutting oil
cutting oil,
emulsion
dry,
cutting oil
Drilling
emulsion,
cutting oil
dry,
emulsion
dry,
cutting oil,
emulsion
cutting oil,
emulsion
dry,
cutting oil
cutting oil,
emulsion
dry,
cutting oil
dry,
cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil
emulsion
dry,
emulsion,
dry,
cutting oil
cutting oil,
emulsion
dry,
cutting oil
cutting oil,
emulsion
emulsion
cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil,
emulsion
Thread cutting
cutting oil
cutting oil,
emulsion
cutting oil
cutting oil
cutting oil,
dry
Grinding
emulsion,
solution,
cutting oil
solution,
emulsion
emulsion,
solution
emulsion
Honing, lapping
cutting oil
cutting oil
Turning
Reaming
Sawing
Broaching
Hobbing,
gear shaping
Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes, Machining coolants
293
Hard and dry machining, High-speed milling, MQCL

Hard turning with cubic boron nitride (CBNI
~
'~
Turning process
Cutting
speed
vcmlmin
Material
hardened steel
HRC
Extemaltuming
4s-58
Internal turning
External turning
> 58-65
Internal turning
Cuning depth
lip
mm
Feed f
mm/revolution
60- 220
0.05- 0.3
0.05- 0.5
60- 180
0.05- 0.2
0.05-0.2
50- 190
0.05- 0.25
0.05- 0.4
50- 150
0.05- 0.2
0.05- 0.2
Hard milling with coated solid carbide (VHMI tools
~~
Material
hardened steel
Cutting
speed
working
engagement
Vo
a,....,.
HRC
m/min
mm
1035
80-90
0.05 d
36- 45
60- 70
0.05 d
46- 54
50- 60
0.05 d
Feed per tooth ~ in mm

for lathe diameter d in mm
2- 8
>8- 12
> 12- 20
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.03
0.04
0.05
High-speed cutting IHSCI with PCO
Material group
~ ~/'
l.JI ... ::0.
-.
-:. /. ~
~:W
Cutter diameter d in mm
Cutting
speed
10
v.
20
m/min
a,
a,
mm
mm
mm
mm
Steel Rm
850- 1100
> 1100- 1400
280- 360
210-270
0.25
0.09-0.13
0.40
0.13- 0.18
Hardened steel
48-55HRC
> 55- 67 HRC
90-240
75- 120
0.25
0.20
0.09-0.13
0.40
0.35
0.13- 0.18
EN-GJS > 180HB
300-360
0.25
0.09 -0.13
0.40
0. 13-0.18
Titanium alloy
90- 270
0.20- 0.25
0.09 - 0. 13
0.35- 0.40
0.13- 0.18
Cualloy
90-140
0.20
0.09-0.13
0.35
0. 13-0.18
Dry machining
Process
Quenched and
tempered steels
Cutting t ool material and machining coolant for:

Iron mat erials
Al materials
Cast iron
High-alloy steels
Cast alloy
Wrouaht allov
Drilling
TiN, dry
TIAJNII, MOCL
TiN, dry
TiAIN, MOCL
TiAIN, M OCL
Reaming
PCD. MOCL
_ 21
PCD, MOCL
TiAI N, PCD.
MOCL
TiAJN, MOCL
Milling
TiN. dry
TIAJN, MOCL
ToN, dry
TiAIN, dry
TiAIN, M OCL
Sawing
MOCL
MOCL
_ 21
TIAJN, MOCL
TiAJN, MQCL
Minimum quantity of machining coolant (MOCl. or MQU3

Dependency of MOCL volume on
m achining method
milling
drilling
grinding
lapping
turning
reaming
honing
Increasing tublicalion requirement
--
11 Titanium aluminum nitride (super hard coating)
Suitability of minimum quantity lubrication

f or the material to be machined
Cualloys
AI alloy castings
Ferritlc steel
Pearlitic steel
Mg alloys
AI wrought alloys
Cast......_
iron materials
Stainless steels
-..
Increasing material suitability
2l Not normally done
31 Generally 0.01- 3 1/hr
294
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Tools
Cutting tool materials

Designation of herd cutting tool materials
Example:
I Code letter (see tho table below)
cf. DIN ISO 513 (2005111
HC - K20
Application group
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::___~C-utt--in_g_m--a7in
r
__
gjr ol u_p___________:::::::::::::::::::~
M (yellow)
Cu ingtool
material group
K11
Components
H (gray)
Applications
Properties
Uncoated hard metal, main component High hot hardness up to

is tungsten carbide (WCI
1 000 "C. high wear resist
ance, high compression
HW Grain size > 1 ~m
strength, vibration
HF
Grain size < 1 1-1m
damping
lndexable inserts for

drilling. turning and
milling tools, also for
solid hard metal tools
HT
Uncoated hard metal of titanium Uke HW, but with high

carbide (l1C), titanium nitride
cutting edge stability,
chemical resistance
(l1N) or of both. also called
cermet.
lndeKable inserts for

lathe and milling tools
for finishing at high
cutting speeds
HC
HW and HT. but coated with

titanium carbonitride mCNI
Increase of wear resistance

without reducing tough
ness
Increasingly replacing
the uncoated hard
metals
CA
Cutting ceramics, primarily of

aluminum oxide IAI20 31
High hardness and hot

hardness up to 1 200 c
sensitive to severe temperature changes
Cutting of cast iron.

usually without cooling
lubricant
CM
Mixed ceramics with aluminum

oxide (Al 2~1 base, as well as
other oxides
Tougher than pure ceramics, Precision hard turning

better resistance to
of hardened steel,
temperature variations
cutting at high cutting
speed
CN
Silicon nitride ceramics, primari- High toughness, high

cutting edge stability
ly of silicon nitride (Si3N.I
Cutting of cast iron at

high cutting speed
Cutting ceramics with alumi

num oxide (Al 20 31, as a main
component. reinforced
Tougher than pure ceramics

due to reinforcement, im
proved resistance against
temperature variations
Hard turning of hardened steel, cutting

at high cutting speed
Cutting ceramics such as CA.

CM and CN, but coated with
titanium carbonitride mCNI
Increase of wear resistance Increasingly replacing

without reducing tough
the uncoated cutting
ness
ceramics
Hard metals
CC
Cutting ceramics
Cubic crystalline boron nitride (8N).

Very high hardness and
also designated CBN or PCB or "super- hot hardness up to
hard cutting tool material"
2oooc. high wear
resistance. chemical
resistance
BL
With low boron nitride content
Dressing of hard materials (HRC > 481 with

high surface quality
With high boron nitride content

BL and BH. but coated
High wear resistance,
very brittle, temperature
resistance up to 600
reacts with alloying elements
Cutting of non-ferrous
metals and AI alloys with
high silicon content
High toughness. high

bending strength, low
hardness, temperature
resistant up to 600 c
For severe alternating

cutting forces. machining
of plastics. for the
cutting of AI and Cu
alloys
c.
Polycrystalline diamond (PCDI

Diamond
II
Tool steel21
OM
Monocrystalline diamond
HS
High-performance high-speed
steel with alloying elements
tungsten (WI, molybdenum (Mo),
vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co),
usually coated with titanium
nitridemNI
1l Code letters according to DIN ISO 513

21 Tool steels are not included in DIN ISO
513 but in ISO 4957
295
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Tools
Cutting tool materials

Qauific:ation and application of hard cutting tool materials
Codelllttet
ooloroode
Application
group
P05
P15
P25
P35
P45
M
yellow
M01
M10
M20
M30
M40
K01
K10
K20
K30
M05
M15
M25
Wear
resistance
All types of steels and cast

steels. with the exception
of stainless steel with
austenitic structure
Austenitic and austenitic

ferritlc stainless steels and
cast steels
Cast iron with flake

and spheroidal graphite
malleable cast iron
Aluminum and other

non-ferrous metals
(e.g. Cu. Mg).
non-ferrous materials
(e.g. GPA, CFAPl
S05
515
525
H
gray
H01
H10
H20
H30
H05
H15
H25
Possible cutting
parameters H
Wor1cpiece - material
M35
K05
K15
K25
K35
cf. DIN ISO 513 (2005-11)
Cutting tool material

properties l
High-temperature special
alloy on the basis of iron,
nickel and cobalt.
titanium and titanium
alloys
Hardened steel,
hardened cast iron
materials, cast iron
for ingot casting
Toughness
Cutting
speed
Feed
~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
w
296
Production engineering: 6.3. Machining processes, Tools
Designations for indexable inserts for cutting tools ' 1 [JIN , ;~:),:''1 l1~
1
Oesignetion examples:
lndexable carbide insert with rounded comers (DIN 4968) without mounting hole
Insert DIN
4968
lndexable carbide inse~ with wiper tdgr
G)
Basic shape
Equilateral, equiangular
and round
Equilateral and
non-equiangular
16 03 08 T
lOt 6i90)
P20
iithor mrnting hole
=:""m'"'_j -llll ~ r~ l ~ -~
H
o oO P
oR
o sD TD
c0 oo 0
e0 so M
(}o v
f oW
o
~so
LD
Non-equilateral and
L
equiangular
A. B. K non-equiangular
CJaso
EJB2o
K ~so
Many company specific shapes are used in addition to standardizied shapes.
Normel deeranc:e angle

an to the Insert
Tolerance class
5 1
Control dim. d
Control dim. m
Insert thickness s
Allow. dev.for
Control dim. d
Control dim. m
Insert thickness s
Facesand
clamping
features
Insert size
1 w
Allow. dev.for
2o
25
3oo
11
special data
"'0.025 1 "'0.013
"'0.025
"'0.013
0.02S
0.005
0.013
:t 0.025
:t 0.025
"' 0.025
"' 0.025
"' 0.09
J
I K
L
M
N
U
:t o.05 ... :t o.15
O.OS ... 0.15
0.16
:t 0.005 I :t 0.013
% O.D25
:t 0.08 ... :t 0.20
"'0.25
:t 0.025
:t 0.09
:t 0.025
"'0.13
c=:J c:::::J
~ c::::::::J
c=J
ODDIJ
I:ID
0:00:0
0:00!0
DiCJ
OlD r:::rc:l
I::JD
oo
H
O:ODD
o:oc:ro
DD
I::JD
Special data
The cutting length is the longer cutting edge for non-equilateral inserts, for round
inserts it is the diameter.
@ Insert thickness
Insert thickness is given in mm without decimal places.
(j) Cutting point

configuration
Code number multiplied by factor 0.1 corner radius rc

A
4s
600
1. Letter sym bol for cutting edge angle x,

of main cutting edge
2. Letter symbol for clearance angle
a'n on wiper edge !corner chamfer)
Cutting point
F sharp
E rounded
T chamfered
I
I
A
3
I B I
I s I
S chamfered
rounded
C
7"
I 0 E F G N P
I ts 20" 2s 30" o 11
K double
chamfered
Cutting direction
R rigl\1 hand cuning
>
Carbide with machining application group or cutting ceramic
L leh hand cuning
1s as so
lp
doub. chamfered
and rounded
N right and teft hand Cutting CneutraH
297
Production engineering: 6.3 M achining processes. Tools
I :JIN :cH3
Designation of indexable and short indexable insert holders
1]1)1)
l 07 1
Holder DIN 4984
I,
- c
R 32 25
M 16
cl ""'"'~
...J
of h older
.:J~
holding method
insert
shape"
design of holder
~~
normal clea r. angle of insert " a. -
]~t
type of holder
height of cutting edge h 1 ~ in mm shank width win mm

length o f holder 11 in mm
indexable insert size11
11 For lndexable inserts, see page 296

Conllgw8tlons
Designation
Insert
holding
Letter symbol
Holding of
indexable insert
Design o f holder
straight
~
offset
&
Type of holder
length
of holder
clamped
from above
clamped from
above and
from hole
clamped from
hole
Side cutting
edge angle Kr
go
75
45"
60"
50"
Type of holder
~ teJ
Letter symbol
63" 72.5
go
~
countersink hole
and screw
107.5 93"
straight
75"
600
offset
Letter symbol
Side cutting
edge angle ~<,
900
90"
75"
45
93
Type of holder
straight
Letter symbol
letter symbol
32
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
125
140
150
160
170
180
200
250
300
350
400
/1
inmm
Letter symbol
/1
inmm
so ss
Forms 0 and S also

available with round
indexable inserts
of basic form R
offset
right holder l
neutral
(both sides)
leh holder N
450 Cust. lengths 500
Holder DIN 4984- CTWNR 3225 M 16: holder with square shank, clamped above (C). triangular
"< = 60" (W), an = 0" (N), right hand (R), h1 = ~ = 32 mm, b = 25 mm, / 1 =
indexable insert
150 mm (M),/3 =16.5 mm (16).
m.
298
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Forces and power
Forces and power in turning and drilling

Turning
Fe cutting force in N
A chip section in mm 7
a, cuning depth in mm
f feed per revolution in mm
h chip thickness in mm
" culling edge angle in degrees ( 0 )
C correction factor for the cutting
speed
lie culling speed in m/min
kc specific cuuing force in N/mm'
(page 299)
Pe culling power in kW
P1 drive power of the machine tool in kW
11 efficiency of the machine tool
Con-ectlon factor C for
the cutting lfi"CI

Cutting speed
lie in rn/min
10-30
1.3
31 - 80
1.1
81 - 400
1.0
Chip Metion
Cutting force
Example:
A shah of 16MnCr5, Bp 5 mm, f = 0.32 mm, lie= 110m/min, " = 75

Sought after: h; kc; C; A ; F0 ; P 1 with 'I 0.75
Solution: h - f . sin"- 0.32 mm sin 75- 0.31 mm
k. - 373SN/mma (see table on page 299),
C 1.0 (see correction factor table)
A Bp. f - Smm 0.32 mm- 1.6mm2
N
F0 A ke C l.6 mm' 3735 mm' 1.0 - 5976N
Q
Chip thickness
= f sinx
Cutting power
p1 -~-~- 5976N 110m -14608W- 14.6kW

1/
'1
0.7560S
Drilling
F. cutting force per edge in N
number of cutting edges (twist drill z 2)
A chip section in mm2
d drill diameter in mm
feed per revolution in mm
f, feed per cutting edge in mm
o drill point angle in degrees ()
h chip thickness in mm
C correction factor for the cutting speed
lie cutting speed in <TVmin
kc specific culling force in N/mm2 (page 299)
Pe cutting power in kW
P1 drive power of the machine tool in kW
'I efficiency of the machine tool
Con-eetlon fector C for

the cutting tpeed
Example:
M ateriai42CrMo4, d = 16 mm,
Ve
=28 <TVmin, f= 0.18 mm, o = 118"
Sought after: h; ke; C; A; Fe; Pe

0 18
Solution: h - ~ . sin . - mm . sin 59" - 0.08 mm
k 0 = 6265 N /mm2 (see table on page 299)
A - ~. 16 mm0.18mm. o.nmm2
4
4
Cutting speed
lie in m/min
10- 30
31-80
1.3
edge
d .f
A =4
Cutting force per cutting edge1)
Fe= 1.2 A kc C
r~~~''"%
C 1.3 (see correction factor table)

F0 - 1.2 A. k0
N
C - 1.2 . o.n mm' . 6265 mm' l.3 - 7037N
Po= ~ . 2 7037N 28m 3284 Nm=3284W =3.3kW

2
60 S2
s
1
l The specific cutting force values k, are assessed in turning tests.

The conversion to drilling is realized via the factor 1.2 in the formula.
1.1
Chip section per cutting
Drive power
P,=~;
299
Specific cutting force

The specific cutting force kc is the the force that is required to separate a chip
with a cross section of A 1 mm from a worl<piece. The values are assessed in
tu rning test.s and form the basis of the calculation of the cutting forces and the
drive power in chip-removing machining processes.
'
r-----1---1
~
h
8p
A : 1mm
\. -- t~.
,_
"
specific cutting force N/mm 2

chip thickness in mm
feed in mm
cutting depth in mm
angle of incidence in degrees ()
The chip thickness h depends on the applied machining process.

C81oulation of chip thicknesses: pages 298 and 300.
Standard values for the specific: cutting force 11

Material
Specifoc cutting force
~ in
N/mm for the chip thickness h in mm
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
MO
1.00
1.50
2.00
5235
E295
E355
3850
5635
4565
3555
4990
4215
3425
4705
4055
3195
4235
3785
3040
3930
3605
2930
3710
3470
2840
3535
3385
2705
3285
3205
2605
3100
3085
2405
2740
2850
2315
2585
2745
2160
2330
2560
2055
2160
2340
CI S, C15E
C35,C35E
C45,C45E
4575
4425
4760
4125
3895
4210
3925
3670
3975
3590
3290
3575
3370
3045
3320
3210
2865
3130
3085
2725
2985
2895
2525
2770
2755
2375
2615
2485
2095
2315
2365
1970
2185
2165
1765
1965
2030
1635
1825
C60,C60E
11SMnPb30
16MnCr5
4750
2675
5950
4365
2460
5265
4190
2360
4965
3895
2195
4470
3700
2085
4150
3555
2000
3915
3440
1935
3735
3265
1840
3465
3 135
1765
3270
2880
1625
2895
2770
1560
2730
2575
1450
2455
2445
1375
2260
20MnCr5
18CrMo4
34CrAIMo5
5775
4955
4930
5135
4575
4360
4855
4405
4115
4385
4110
3705
4085
3915
3435
3860
3770
3245
3690
3655
3095
3435
3480
2870
3245
3350
2710
2885
3095
2395
2730
2975
2260
2475
2780
2035
2295
2645
1890
42CrMo4
50CrV4
102Cr6
7080
6290
5895
6265
5565
4910
5915
5250
4500
5320
4725
3840
4940
4385
4445
3945
2930
4125
3660
2620
3890
3445
3455
2400
3060
3435
4660
4140
3145
2000
3250
2885
1835
2925
2595
1565
2715
241 0
1400
90MnCrV8
X210CrW12
X5CrNi18-10
5610
5155
5730
5080
4565
5190
4850
4305
4955
4455
3875
4550
4195
3595
4285
4000
3395
4085
3850
3625
3235
3935
3005
3705
3460
2835
3535
3 135
2510
3200
2990
2365
3055
2745
2130
2805
2585
1975
2640
X30Cr13
liAI6V4
5155
3340
4565
3025
4305
2890
3875
2655
3595
2495
3395
2385
3235
2295
3005
2160
2835
2060
2510
1985
2365
1780
2130
1635
1975
1540
GJL-150
GJL-200
GJL-400
2315
2805
4165
2100
2495
3685
2005
2360
3480
1840
2130
3130
1730
1985
2905
1650
1875
2740
1590
1790
2615
1500
1670
2425
1430
1575
2290
1295
1405
2025
1235
1325
1910
1135
1200
1720
1065
1115
1595
GJ$-400
GJS-600
GJS-800
2765
3200
5500
2455
2955
4470
2325
2845
4055
2100
2655
3390
1955
2530
2985
1845
2435
2710
1765
2360
2500
1645
2250
2200
1555
2165
1995
1380
2000
1625
1305
1925
1470
1180
1795
1230
1100
1710
1085
AICuMg1
A1Mg3
AC-AISi12
2150
2020
2150
1930
1810
1930
1835
1725
1835
1670
1570
1670
1565
1470
1565
1485
1395
1485
1425
1340
1425
1335
1250
1335
1265
1190
1265
1135
1065
1135
1080
1015
1080
985
925
985
920
865
920
MgAISZn
CuZn40Pb2
CuSn7ZnPb
895
1740
1760
820
1600
1565
785
1535
1480
725
1425
1335
690
1355
1245
660
1300
1175
635
1260
1125
60S
1195
1045
580
1150
990
530
1055
880
505
1015
830
470
945
750
445
895
700
11
The standard values apply to tools with hard metal edges. Tool wear increases the specific cutting force by
approximately 30%. The values specified in the table include this addition. For turning, drilling (page 298) a nd
milling p rocesses (page 3001, the effect of the cutting speed on the standard values for the specific cutting force
is considered via correction factors C in the upper table.
300
Forces and power in milling

Face milling
FMC! rate
Fe cutting force per tooth in N

A
a,
h
(
f,
d
Vc
v,
N
chip section per tooth in mm2

cutting depth in mm
engagement (milling width) in mm
chip thickness in mm
feed per revolution in mm
feed per tooth in mm
Chip a-oss section
per tooth
cutter diameter in mm
cuu lng speed in m/min
feed rate in mm/min
number of teeth
No number o f teeth engaged

angle of engagement in degrees (")
'(J
kc
specific cutting I oree in N/mm2

(page 299)
correction factor for the

cutting speed
Pc cutting power in kW
P, drive power in kW
,,
Cutting I oree per tooth 11
effective power of the machine

tool
Example:
Chip thickness
ford= (1.2-1 .6) 21
Material 16MnCr5; d 180 mm; N 12; Be= 120 mm; ap = 6 mm;

f, 0.10 mm; Ve 85 m/min; 'I 0.8.
Sought after: A ; h;
kc:
Fe;
'(J:
Fe = 1.2 A k, C
N0 ; Pr,; P1
A -a., f, 6mm 0.1 mm - o.6mm2

h -f,- O.l mm
N
kc 4965 mm2 (table on page 299)
Solution:
Numb of teeth
Fe 1.2 A kc C; C - tO (table of correction factors C)

N
Fe - 1.2 0.6 mm2 4965 mm2 1.0 mm- 3575 N
!!... 180 mm .
a0
120mm
1.5; ., . 83" (angle of engagement '(J table)
N 0 N ....!f!._ 12 83" 2.8
'31:11'
P.,
= N
P,
'31:11'
fc Vc 2.8 3575N 8Sm - 14181 Nm - 14.2kW

60s
'1
Cutting power
0.8
Angle of engagement,
d/a0
V>in
.! ~ 14.2kW - n.a kW
d/a0
'(Jin
dla,
tpin
1.20
113
1.35
96
1.50
1.25
106
1.40
91
1.55
80
1.30
100
1.45
87
1.60
77
Con8c1ion factor C
for the cutting speed
83
Cutting speed
v.inm/min
cutter dameter
30-80
1.1
a.
engagement
81-400
1.0
kc (page 299) are assessed in turning tests. The conversi on to milling is

achieved via the factor 1.2 in the formula.
21 In order to ensure favorable cutting conditions. the cutter diameter should be selected in the range
d = (1.2-1.6). a.
11 The values of the specifiC cutting force
301
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Standard values
Drilling
Twist drills of high-speed steel CHSSI
,
V
Typell
Helix angle
cf. DIN 14141 (2006-1 1)
Application
Point engle3l
Univ ersal application for materials

up to Rm .. 1000 N/mm 2 e. g. structural. casehardened. quenched and tempered steels
30-4o
118
Drilling o f brittle. short-ch ipping

nonferrous metals and plastics. e. g.
CuZn alloys and PMMA (Plexiglas)
13-19
118
Drilling o f soft. long-chipping non-ferrous

metals and plastics, e. g. Al and M g alloys, PA
(polyamide) and PVC
40-47
130
I
l'
Hefix
angle2l
1l Tool application g roups fo r HSS tools according to DIN 1835

2l Depends on drill diameter and pitch
31 Standard v ersion
Point angle
Standard values for dnlling with HSS twist drills 1>

Workpieoe material
Material group
Drill diameter din mm
Cutting
speed21
Tensile strenglh
Rm inN/mm2
or
Hardness HB
2-3
Ve
m/min
>3-6
1 >6-12 1 >12- 25 1 >25-50
Feed fIn mm/rev olution
Steels, low s1rength
R,,;BOO
40
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
Steels. high strength
11,> 800
20
0.04
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
Stainless steels
R,"' 800
12
0.03
0.06
0.08
0.12
0.18
Cast iron. malleable cast iron
"' 250 HB
20
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.60
AI alloys
R,"' 350
45
0.10
0.20
0.30
OAO
0.60
Cu alloys
R,"' 500
60
0.10
0.15
0.30
0.40
0.60
Thermoplastics
50
0.10
0. 15
0.30
0.40
0.60
Thermoset plastics
25
0.05
0.10
0.18
0.27
0.35
0.35
Standard values for drilling with carbide drills11
M ateriel group
Drill diameter d in mm
Cutting
speed,,
Workpiece materiel
Tensile strength
RminN/mm2
or
Hardness HB
2-3
Vc
m/min
>3-6
> 6-12 1 >12-25
1 >25-50
Feed fin mmtrevolution
Steels. low strength
Rms 800
90
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Steels. h fgh strength
Rm >800
80
0.08
0.13
0.20
0.30
0.40
Stainless steels
Rm "'BOO
40
0.08
0.13
0.20
0.30
0.40
Cast iron. malleable cast iron
s 250HB
100
0.10
0.15
0.30
0.45
0.70
AI alloys
Rm ,;350
180
0.15
0.25
0.40
0.60
0.80
Cu alloys
R,s SOO
200
0.12
0.16
0.30
0.45
0.60
80
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
80
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
Thermoplastics
Thermoset plastics
Standard values for modified conditions

Standard values for cutting speed and feed are valid fo r moderate usage conditions:
shortdrill
tool life approx. 30 min average strength of material
hole depth < 5 d
Standard values are increased for more favorable conditions.
dl!a'eased fo r unfavorable conditions
11 For cooling lubricants. see pages 292 and 293
21
Values fo r coated drills
302
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes. Standard values
Reaming and tapping

Standard values fOf' reaming with HSS reamers11
Workpiece material
Material group
Cutting speed
Tool diameter din mm
Reaming allow.
ford inmm
"
2-3 1 >3-0 1>6-121 >12- 251 >25-60
to20 >20-50
Tens. strength
R, in N/mm2
or
Hardness HB
m/min
Steels, low strength
R, :S 800
15
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.32
Steels. high strength
Rm> 800
10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Stainless steels
Rms 800
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Cast iron, malleable cast iron
s 250 HB
15
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.32
0.50
AI alloys
Rms 350
26
0.10
0.18
0.30
0.50
0.80
Cu alloys
Feed fIn mm/revolution

0.50
R, " 500
26
0.10
0.18
0.30
0.50
0.80
Thermoplastics
14
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.60
1.00
Thermoset plastics
14
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.60
1.00
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.60
Standard values fOf' reaming with carbide tooling 11

Workpiece material
Material group
Cutting speed
Tool diameter d in mm
Reaming allow.
ford in mm
"
2-3 1 >J.-0 1>6-121 > 12-251 >25-60
to20 >20-50
Tens. strength
R, In N/mm2
or
Hardness HB
m/min
R, "800
15
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.32
0.50
Steels, high strength
Rrn >800
10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
Stainless steels
Rm ~ 800
10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.40
"' 250 HB
25
0.10
0.18
0.28
0.50
0.80
AI alloys
Rm s 350
30
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Cu alloys
Rms 500
30
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Thermoplastics
20
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Thermoset plastics
30
0.12
0.20
0.35
0.50
1.00
Feed fin mm/revolution
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.60
Standard values fOf' tapping and thread fOf'ming ''

Workpiece material
Material group
HSStool
Tens. strength
R, in Ntmm2
or
Hardness HB
Tapping21
Carbide tool
Thread
formi.ng21
Cutting speed Vc m/min
20-30
20 - 30
15- 20
25-35
Rms350
20- 40
30-50
60-80
60-80
Rms500
30- 40
25-35
30-40
50-70
20-30
50 - 70
10- 15
25-35
Rm>800
20-30
Stainless steels
Rm"'800
8-12
s 250HB
AI alloys
1l
2l
m/min
10- 20
Thermoset plastics
vc
15- 20
40- 50
--
Cutting speed
40 - 60
40-50
Thermoplastics
Thread
forming21
Rm s 800
Cu alloys
Tapping2>
For cooling lubricants, see pages 292 and 293

Upper limit values: for material groups with lower strengths; short threads
Lower limit values: for material groups with higher strengths; long threads
303
Turning
Roughness depth depending on tool nose radius and feed
r tool nose radius
R, theoretical
r--
roughness depth
-,--.---.---
a,
feed
cuning depth
Example:
R..
- ~
~
25 IJm; r 1.2 m m ; f 1
r ~ Ja ., .R,
; ~8 1.2 mm 0.02Smm 0.5mm
Roughn. depth
tool
R,
0.4
inllm
1.6
4
10
16
25
0.07
0.11
0.18
0.23
0..28
Theor. rough
EtJ
R,... R,
Nose radius r in mm
o.a j 1.2
Feed flnmm
O. t2
0.10
0.16
0.20
0.25
0.31
0.32
0.39
0.40
0.49
1.6
0.14
0.23
0.36
0.45
0.57
Standard values for turning with HSS tools1121

M aterial group
Woliq>iece material
Tensile strenglh
R,., in N/mm2 or
HardnessHB
Cuning
speed v.
in
m/min
Cutting depth
f
in
mm
mm
0.1- 0.5
0.5- 4.0
Feed
Cuning depth
!'on!>
40- 80
R,.s aoo
Feed
30-60
30- 60
Stainless steels
s 250 HB
20-35
AI alloys
R,., "' 350
120- 180
Cu alloys
R,. s soo
100-125
100- 500
Thermoplastics
Thermoset plastics
80-400
Standard values for turning using coated carbide toofs21

Material group
Workpiece material
Tensile strength
R,., in N/mm2 or
Hardness HB
R,.. s 800
Cutting
speed Vc
in
m/min
In
!'on!>
mm
mm
0.1 - 0.5
0.3-5.0
200-350
100- 200
80- 200
Stainless steels
"'250 HB
100- 300
AI alloys
Rms 350
400-800
Cu alloys
150- 300
Thermoplastics
500-2000
Thermoset plastics
400 - 1000
Application of the cutting data range

Example: Standard values for turning of steels with lower strengths using carbide tools
Vc
350m/min
r . o.smm,
ap;S.Omm
11
finish machining (finishing)

stable tool and workpiece
premachining (roughing)
stable tool and workpiece
Vc ;
200 m/min
f;0.1 mm,
a, 0.3 mm
HSS lathe tools have for the most part been replaced by lathe tools
with carbide indexable inserts.
premachining (roughing!
unstable tool or workpiece
finish machining !finishing)
unstable tool or workpiece
21
Machining coolant, see pages 292

and 293
304
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes. Taper turning
Taper turning
Terminology for tapers
cf. DIN ISO 3040 11991091
D large taper diameter

d small taper diameter
L taper length
taper incline
1 : x taper:
on a taper length o f
the taper diameter
changes by 1 mm.
a taper angle
taper-generating angle
(sening angle)
C taper ratio
x mm
Teper turning on CNC lathes

CNC program according to DIN 6602511 to produce a
workpiece with a taper (see figure):
N10
N20
N30
N40
N50
GOO
G01
G01
G01
G01
xo
Z2
XO
X50
X60
zo
N60
N70
GOt
GOO
X72
X tOO
11 Compare to page
Z-25
Z-40
Approach at rapid speed

Traversing motion to P1
2150
Tool change point
F0.15
Traversing motion over PS
387
Taper turning by setting the compound rest

Example:
Setting angle
D 225 mm, d 150 mm, L = 100 mm;
C225- 1501 mm O.J75

2- 100mm
a = 20.556" = 20"33 ' 22 "
(225 - 1501mm - 0.7S=
100mm
D -d
tan -= - 2
2-L
tan2 2.T
C = D-d =
D- d
tan- = -
2 = 7; C= 7
1 : 1_33
~
~
Taper turning by offsetting the tailstoc:k

tailstock offset
maximum allowable
tailstock offset
workpiece length
lathe axis
Lw
Tailstock offset
Example:
D = 20 mm; d = 18 mm;
L 80 mm; Lw 100 mm
Vy = 7; Vy,_ = ?
D-d t._
Vy = -2- L
Maximum allowable
tailstock offset''
\{,
=(20-18tmm. 100 mm= t . 2Smm

2
BOmm
Vy ,_ S t._ = 100 mm = 2 mm
50
H
50
If the tailstock offset is too large the workpiece cannot be secured between the lathe centers.
< Lw
Tmax - 50
305
Milling
Standard values for miling with HSS milling cutters
Marerial group
Workpiece marerial
Tensile strength
Rm in N/mm 2 or
HardnessHB
Sreels, low slrenglh
Cutting
speed
Vc
lnm/min
Rms800
50-100
Rm>800
30-60
Rmo: 800
15-30
casr iron, m alleable casr iron
s 250HB
25-40
AI alloys
Rms350
50-150
Sreels, high slrength
'
Srainless steels
c;
Cu alloys
Rms500
50-100
100-400
Thermoplastics
Thermoser plastics
Milling cutter
(except for
end mill)
Feed ~inmm
Endmilldinmm
12
20
0.05-0.15
0.06
0.08
0.10
0. 1().{1.20
0.10
0.15
0.20
100-400
Standard values for milling with coated carbide

M aterial group
Workpiece mareriel
Tensile Strength
Rm in N/mm2 or
Hardness HB
Sreels, low srrengrh
Rms 800
Cutting
speed
v.
inm!min
Rm>800
150-300
Srainless sreels
R..,o:800
150-300
CaSt iron, m alleable casr iron
s 250 HB
150-300
AI alloys
R..,s350
40G-a00
Thermoplastics
--
R..,s500
200-400
500-1500
400-1000
Thermoset plastics
Feed ~inmm
End mill d in mm
12
20
0.05-0.15
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.1().{1.20
0.10
0.15
0.20
200-400
Steels, high slrengrh
Cu alloys
Milling cutter
(e>eeept for
endmilll
Increasing the recommended feed per cutting edge ~ for slotting with side milling cutters
of
&I~rut;
Cutting depth a.. based on the milling cutter 0 d

Feed
pertoorh
1/3 d
1/6 d
1/10 . d
increase
1. ~
1.15. 4
1.45 . ~
24
ro be adj usred
0.25mm
0.29mm
0.36mm
0.50mm
1/20d
Meanings of cutting date ranges

Example: Standard values for milling of low-strength sreels using HSS milling cutters
Uppervelws
Vc
100m/min
f, a 0.15 mm
Application
~..--
- finish machining (finishing)

- rigid tool and w orkpiece
V0
premachining (roughing)
- rigid tool and wor1<piece
f, = 0.05 mm
=50m!min
Application
- premachining (roughing)
low rigidity of tool or workpiece
finish machining (finishing)
low rigidity of tool or workpiece
Calculation of feed rete

Vf
f,
feed rate in mm/min

feed per rooth in mm
n rotational speed of milling cutter in 1/min

N number of teeth
Example:
100m/min; d s 40 mm; " . 0.12 mm; N a 10
Vc
100m/min
n = -- = -- - - =796 1/min; v1 =n .t, N =796/min 0.12 mm 10 = 955 mm/min
n d n 0.04m
Vc s
Feed rate
Iv
1=
n ft N
Q)
:'2
..
~0
..
:;
g.,
~:g
J?
t::=
o-
.r.g
(J)-
.s
.,
...,
..
"C
:0
)(
..
"C
C>
:cu
"t:
~5!c
~
u. -
"C
"'
=
>
.,
.,"'
"'
B&
:0
~0>
"C
Q;i!
- "C
"Cc
o.c
<>"
..,u
u.r.
~.,
.,_
~
u-
O>ii
c.=
.s~
)(
..
~li
"'"'
&l:.
't:
~~
&..::
o ..
0:::>
n.r:r
..
c
.g
~
.D
>
307
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes. Indexing
Indexing with a dividing head

Direct indexing
In direct Indexing the dividing head spindle, along with
the indexing plate and workpiece, is tumed by the
desired indexing step. The wonn is disengaged from the
worm wheel.
0 no. of divisions
a angular division
flt, no. of holes in the indexing plate
n, indexing step; no. of hole spacings to be indexed
Indexing step
n="'
0
I
n=a nh
36()"
Example:
Worm disengaged
Indirect indexing
In indirect Indexing the dividing head spindle is driven
by the worm and worm wheel.
0 no. of divisions
a angular division
gear ratio of dividing head
flo indexing step; no. of indexing crank revolutions
for one division
Examplel:
Circles of holes on
lndeJdng plat. .
0;68; la40; flea 1
15 16 17 18 19 20
21 23 27 29 31 33
37 39 41 43 47 49
Example2:
a 37.2; i 40; 11c 7

indexing
crank
indexing
or
f1c =~= 40 ~2 = ~2 = 1~ 8 . ~
31:11'
31:11'
9
9 .5
15
17
28
39
51
plate
19
29
41
53
23
30
42
57
24
31
43
59
26
33
47
61
27
37
49
63
Differential indexing
~o~orm
gear
div1ding head
spindle
In differential indexing the dividing head spindle is

driven with worm and worm wheel like indi rect index
ing. Simultaneously the dividing head spindle drives
the indexing plate using change gears.
0
no. of divisions
a angular division
0'
auxiliary no. of divisions
gear ratio of dividing head
llc
indexing step; no. of' indexing crank revo1U1ions
for one division
N09
no. of teeth of driving gears IN1, N:!J
Ndn
no. of teeth of driven gears IN,, N4 l
For selecting CY the following applies:
0'> 0 : Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate
in the same direction.
0'< 0: Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate
in opposite d irections
If necessary the required direction of rotation is
achieved by means of an idle gear.
Example:
i
indexing
crank
indexing
plate
=40; 0 =97; 11c = 7;
z:.;
40
n. =o:=;oo= 20
40
N.tr. =..!... 10 ' -1)=

N<tn 0 '
100
Ndg = ..!_ . (0' -0)

Ndn 0 '
7; 0 ' selected = 100
(Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate in

the same direction).
No. of teeth on
change gears
1100- 97)=~ 3=~=~

5
40
No. of teeth on
change gears
24
24
28
44
36
40
56
64
72
86
96
84
32
48
80
100
308
Grinding
cuning speed
lie
Surface grinding
~)
Cutting speed
"v
rotational speed of grinding wheel
work-
n,
Feed rate
no. of strokes
d 1 diameter of workpiece
Surface grinding
Cylindrical
grinding
speed ratio
30 m/s;
lie
v,
Q : ~:
d1
111
Standard values for cutting speed

Mat erial
111
m /s
30
30
10
18
25
3l m/s . 60 stmin . 1800 m/min .

90
20 mhnin
20 mhnin
"c feed rate -.,. speed ratio q

v.
"
m / mln
1()....35
1()....35
4
15-40
15-40
80
65
115
30
50
Speed ratio
20 m/min; Q 7
Surface grinclng
Pwipt .al grinclng
~wt.e.llng
v.
Steel
Castlron
Carbide
AI alloys
Cu alloys
=L n s
Vf
Example:
l'l ~ ~
= n . do ng
L travel
pieCe
grinding
Vc
v1 feed rate
n worl<piece rotational speed
Cylindrical grinding
~~
wheel
dg diameter of grinding wheel
"
m/s
25
25
8
18
18
Cylindrical grinclng
Extarnal cyt. grinding
Internal cyl. grinding
q
50
m/min
6-25
6-30
4
24-45
20-45
40
115
20
30
v.
.,
m/s
35
25
8
18
30
m/m in
10
11
4
24-30
16
q
125
100
100
50
80
.,
m /s
25
25
8
16
25
m/min
19-23
23
8
30-40
25
q
80
65
60
30
50
Grinding data for steel a nd cast iron with corundum or silicon carbide grinding wheeb
.a.
Grain
3()-46
46-80
80-120
Rough grind
Finishing
Precision grinding
Grinding alowance
Depth of cut in mm
Rz ln11m
O.!Hl.2
0.02-0.1
O.OO!Hl.02
0.02-0.1
O.OO!Hl. OS
0.002-0.008
3-10
Maximum speed of grinding wheels
1-5
1.6-3
cf. DIN EN 12413 (2007-<)9)
Guide''
Maximum spMCI Vc in m /s for bond ..,_a1

BBFE
M
RRFPLV
Straight grinding wheel
Slationary
pd or ho
50
63 40
25
50
50
40
hand-held grinder
free-hand
50
80
50
80
50
Slationary
pd or ho
80 100 63
63
80
Straight cutting wheel
free-hand
80
hand-held grinder
11 pd positively driven: feed by mechanical means; ho hand operated : feed by operator;
2' Type of bond, see page 309
free hand grinding: grinding machine is guided entirely by hand;
Restrictions for use of grinding tools3' "
d . BGV 01~' (2001-101
Shape of grinclng wheel
VE
VEl
VE2
VE3
VE4
VE5
Type of grinclng machine
Meaning
Not allowed for free-hand or hand operated
grinding
Not allowed for free-hand abrasive cutting
Not allowed fo r wet grinding
Not allowed in enclosed work area
Not allowed without vacuum exhauS1
VE
VE6
VE7
VE8
VE1 0
VE11
MeMling
Not allowed for side wheeling
Not allowed for free-hand grinding
Not allowed with backing pad
Not allowed for dry grinding
Not allowed for free-hand or hand operated abrasive cutting
3l If no restriction is given, the grinding tool is suitable for all applications.
Color stripes for maximum alowable peripheral speeds ;,: 50 m/ s*

Color stripe
Vcmox
in m/s
Color stripe
Vc max in m/S
blue
ye1ow
red
50
63
80
yellow 6 red yell. 6 sr-t red 6 ~

180
225
200
gr--.
100
125
blue 6 blue yellow 6 yell.

250
d . BGV 0124 '
blue 6 yellow blue 6 red
280
140
160
red 6 red
or-> 6 greer
320
360
41 BGV Berufsgenossenschaftliche Vorschrift (Employers' Uability Insurance Association Provisions)
) According to European Standards
(200110)
blue 6 green
309
<
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9 10
Code
dense (nonpo<OUS)
Type of bond
ArNs of application
SF
synthetic resin bond,

fiber reinforced
Nonporous or porous, elastic,

resistant to oil, cool grinding
Rough or cut-off grinding, form grinding with

diam. and boron nitride, high pressure grinding
shellac bond
Sensitive to temperature, tough

elastic, impact resistant
Saw tooth grinding, form grinding, control

wheel for centerless grinding
galvanic bond
light grip due to protruding

grains
Internal grinding of carbide,

hand grinding
metal bond
Nonporous or porous, tough,

insensitive ro pressure and heat
Form and tool grinding using diamond

or boron nitride, wet grinding
MG
magnesite bond
Soft. elastic, sensitive to

water
Dry grinding, knife grinding
PL
plastic bond
Soft. elastic depending upon

plastic and degree of hardening
Plastic abrasive material for finishing,

precision finishing and polishing
RF
rubber bond,
fiber reinforced
Elastic, cold grinding,

sensitive to oil and heat
Cut-off grinding
vitrified (ceramic) bond
Grinding wheel ISO 603-1 1 N-300 x 50 x 76.2- A/F 36 L 5 V- 50: Form 1 (straight grinding wheel), wheel
face N, outside diameter 300 mm, w idth 50 mm, hole diameter 76.2 mm, abrasive A (normal corundu m or
white fused alumina), grain size F36 (medium), hardness grade L (medium), structure 5 vitrified (ceramic)
bond (V), maximum peripheral speed 50 rn/s.
Rough and finish grinding of steels using

corundum and silicon carbide
310
Production engineering: 6.3 Machining processes. Grinding wheels
Selecting grinding wheels

Standard values for selecting grinding wheels !excluding diamond and boron nitride!
Cylindrical grinding
M.twlal
Abrasive
Roughing
RnlsNng with wheel dlametw

up to500 mm
over500mm
Ane finishing
Grain size ~ Grain liD HllldnMa Gnin sl.te HardnMa Grein size
54
46
M-N
L-M
80
M-N
80
K-L
A. C
80
M-N
80
N-0
80
A.C
60
60
80
K
L
46
60
Steel, unhardened
Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy.
Steel, hardened, high alloyed

Carbide, ceramic
Cast iron
Nonferr. met., e.g. AI, Cu. CuZn
60
60
60
60
60
60
Her~
L- M
180
L- M
J-K
M- N
240-500
240-500
H-N
K
L
24()-500
H-N
100
H-N
lntnal cytlndrical grinding

Material
Abrasive
upto 20
Grain sl.te
Grinding wheel diameter in mm

fmm20to 40
from40to80
over80
~ Grain sl.te ~ Grain size HerdnMa Gtlln size Her~
Steel, unhardened
80
60
L-M
54
L- M
46
80
K-L
120
M-N
80
M-N
80
A.C
80
J-K
100
80
60
L
J
Carbide, Cl!Iamic
80
120
120
80
Cast iron
80
L-M
80
K- L
46
Non-terr. met, e.g. AI, Cu, CuZn
80
hJ
120
60
60
J- K
54
Perlphenl '-grinding
M.teriel
Abrasive
Cup wheel
0<300 mm
Stnight grinding wheels

0 > 300mm
0 " 300 mm
Grain sl.te Hardness Grain sl.te ~
46
thJ
Carbide, ceramic
46
Cast iron
Non-terr. met., e. g. AI, Cu. CuZn
46
46
J
J
46
60
60
60
46
60
Steel, unhardened
46
46
J
J
J
J
Abrasive
segments
Grain sl.te ~ Grain size Herd, _
36
46
hJ
46
J
J
60
J
J
1- J
36
J
J
36
hJ
46
24
46
J
J
24
J
J
60
36
Tool grinding
Abrasive
Stl'alght grinding wheels

Dish wheels
Cup
100 0> 100
wheels
0 " 225 0>225
Grain sl.te Grain sl.te ~ Gtoin li2e Gr n.a. Her~ Grlinlize Hardness
M
46
K
80
60
M
80
60
o ..
Tool steel
High-speed steel
60
46
Carbide
80
54
K
K
60
80
46
54
46
46
Cutting on stetionary rnechines

M ateriel
Abrasive
Straight cut~ wtleels " up to 80 m/s Streight cut-off wheels " up to 100m/s
0>200mm
O s SOOmm
0>500mm
O s 200mm
Grain sl.te ~ Grain size Hardness Groin size Herdness Gtain size Hardness
St eel. unhardened
Cast iro n
Non-ferr. met.. e. g. AI. Cu. CuZn
80
60
60
~
~
~
46
46
46
0-R
24
20
24
U-V
20
0-R
U-V
0-R
30
24
Grinding and cutting with hand tools

Material
Abrasive
Cut-off wheels
Rough grinding wheels
v. up to 80 m/s Mounted points
" up to 80 m / s
" up to 45 m /s
Grain size Hardness Grain size Herdness !Groin size Hardness Grain size Hardness
36
24
R
R
R
Steel. unhardened
30
24
24
Steel, corrosion resistant
30
16
24
Cast iro n
A.C
30
20
Non-terr. met .. e. g. AI, Cu. CuZn
A.C
30
20
R
R
0-R
36
30
311
Product ion engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Grinding wheels
Grinding with diamond and boron nitride

Grain designation ranges
cf. DIN ISO 848 (1998-03)

Pfedlion grinding
lAipplng
Rough grind
Finishing
Grain
diamond
designation,, boron nitride
0251-0151
B251-8151
D126-D76
B126-876
Attainable Ra in I'm
.. 0.55-0.50
.. 0.45-0.33
064. D54, 046

B64, B54. 846
.. 0.18-0.15
020, D15, D7
B30. B6
.. 0.05-0.025
,, Mesh size of test sieve In I'm
Standard values for cutting speeds

Proceu
Abr..,.,.
CUttloO lpMd ...

M
8
dry
CBN
D
External cylindrical
CBN
grinding21
D
Internal cylindrical
CBN
grinding
D
Tool
CBN
g rinding
D
Cut-off
CBN
grinding
D
11 Bond types, see page 309
Surface grinding
wet
cky .
30-50
22-50
30-50
22-40
In m /s by bond type11
G
dry
wet
30-60
22- 27
~30
30-60
v
dry
wet
30-60
22-50
3(}-6()
~30
~30
22-40
27-35
30-60
24-40
30-50
30-60
12-18
15-30
8-15
18-27
12- 20
18-40
27-35
22-30
27- 35
30-50
30-40
30-50
15-22
22-50
15-22
15-27
15-30
22- 35
27- 35
30-50
30-60
27-40
30-60
12- 18
22-35
22- 27
18-30
22-40
~ Approx. four times the value for high speed grinding (HSGJ
30-60
25-50
30-60
25-50
30-50
25-50
30-50
Standard values for depth of cut and feed of ciamond grinding wheels
..,_
Faca grinding II
External cyl. grindingII

Tool grinding
Depth per SlrOke in mm for gnln siu

0 181
0126
064
0.02-o.04
o.o1-o.o3
O.Dl-o.o2
0.005-0.01
10-15
0.0-0.02
0.005-0.01
0.3-2.0
0.002-o.007
o.oo2-o.oo5
o.oo1-o.ooo
o.o1-o.o3
0.005-0.015
o.oo2-o.oos
0.5-2.0
0.3-4.0
0.5-3.0
0.01-2.0
Groove grinding
1.0-.S.O
,, Approx. three times the value for high speed grinding (HSG)
Standard values for depth of cut and feed of C8N grincing wheels
..,_
per stroll in
grain
mm for
Depth
Surface grinding
External cyl. grinding
Tool grinding
Groove grinding
CroufMd ......
tive to wheel
width w
Feed
size
m/min
Crossfeed rel
tive to wheel
width w
Feed
11252/8 181
8 151/ 8126
891/876
m/mln
0.03-0.05
o.o2-o.o4
0.005-0,015
0.002-o.1
1.0-10
0.02-o.04
0.02-o.OJ
0.005-0.01
o.o1-o.oo5
1.0-5.0
O.Dl-o.015
O.Q15-0,02
o.oo2-o.oos
0.005-0.015
0.5-3.0
20-30
0.5-2.0
0.5-2.0
0.5-4.0
O.Dl- 2.0
High-performance grincing with CBN grinding wheels
,,._ ,,2 . w
-
,, - ,,, . w
-cf. VOt 341 1 (2000-08)
Grinding processes achieving extremely high material removal rates by utilization of special machines and tools with
increased cutting speeds(> 80 m/s) and appropriate machine coolant. Predominantly used for side and external cylin
drical grinding of metallic materials.
Grinding wheel preperation (c:ondltloning)
Processing step
Action
Goal
Dressing
Truing
Sharpening
Cleaning
Removal of grain and

bond
Reduction of the
bond
No effect on abrasiv e
lay er
Establishing concentricity
and wheel profile
Creating the grinding

wheel surface structure
Remove chips from pores
Maximum elloweble peripheral apeeds in~ grinding

Bond typell
Highest allowable
peripheral speed in m/s
'' Bo nd types, see page 309
140
200
180
280
3 12
Productio n engineering: 6.3 Machining processes, Standa rd values
.,
Honing
Ve
v,
Vp
a
~y1n
Cutting
speed
A contact area of
cutting speed
ho ning stone
axial speed
peripheral speed
F,
radial infeed force
angle of intersection
betw. abrading tratts
n number of honing stones
contact pressure
w width of honing stones

length of honing stones
Example:
Hardened steel. finish honing, vp 7; v. 7; v. 7; a 7
read from table: vP 25m/min; v, 12m/min
":'J+s".'J . 28~
v. = Jvl+ vp2 =$ 12 mt
tan~ = ~ = ~ ~ 0.48;
- --
vP 25nVr'nin
Vp
- v~
m1
I
I
= J va2 + vp2
Vc
Angle of
intersection
tan ~ = Va
2
Vp
Contact pressure
m1n
F.
A
p = ..L
0 . 51.3"
F.
nw l
p = - -'-
Vc
Cutting ..,..clencl m.chinlng allowPeripheral speed

vpinm/min
Material
Machining allowances in mm
for hole diameter in mm
Axial speed
v, in mtmin
Rough honing Finish honing Rough hOning Finish honin~
Steel, unhardened
18-40
20-40
9-20
Steel, hardened
Alloy steels
14-40
23-40
15-40
25-40
5-20
1()-20
Cast i ron
23-40
25-40
1()-20
15-100
10o-500
1()-20
0.02~.05
2-15
0.03-0.15
0.06-0.3
6-20
0.01~.03
0.02~.05
0.03-0. 1
11-20
11- 20
1()-20
0.02~.05
0.03-0.15
0.06-0.3
Aluminum alloys
24-40
9-20
22-40
Honing with diamond gril v0 up to 40 m/min and v, up to 60 m{min; a 60"- 90"
eom.ct pressure of honing t ools

Contact pressure pin N/cm2
Honing process
Ceramic
honing stone
Plastic bonded
honing stone
Diamond
honing stick
Boron nitride
honing stick
Rough honing
5()-250
200-400
30()-700
20()-400
Finish honing
2()-100
40-250
10()-300
10()-200
Selection of corundum, silicon Clllbide, C8N end diemond honing a Tensile

strength
N/mm2
Mate
rial
Steel
Cast
iron
Rz
I'm
rough honing
<500
(unhardened) intermed. honing
finish honing
50()-700
rough honing
(hard ened) intermed. honing
finish honing
rough honing
finish honing
plateau honing11
Non
ferrous
metals
11
Roughness
depth
Process
rough honing
intermed. honing
finish honing
8-12
2-5
0.5-1.5
5-10
2- 3
0.5-2
5-S
2-3
~
6-10
2-3
0.5-1
Honing stone made of

corundum and silicon carbide21
Bond StrucHoning Grain Hard
ness
ture
abrasive size
A
700
R
1
5
A
400
B
1200
M
2
A
A
80
3
400
0
B
5
700
N
3
BO
M
3
v
7
120
K
H
8
900
80
400
0
0
1000
A
A
3
1
5
In plateau honing the peaks of the material surface are removed.
CBN or diamond
Grain size
01 26
054
015
B76
B54
630
091
046
025
064
035
0 15
21 see page 309
Selec1ion of honing _ , . m.de of diemond end albic boron nitride ICBNI

Abrasive
Natural diamond
M aterial
Steel, carbide
Synthetic diamond
CBN
I Cast iron. nitrided steel, non-ferrous metals, g lass, ceramic I Hardened steel
313
Production engineering: 6.4 Material removal
Productive time and standard values for material removal

Electric discharge machining (wire EDM )
wire elect~
v, I
/ct?.,
~t
~
'/
lp productive time in min

v, feed rate in mm/min
L travel. cutting length in mm
H cutting height in mm
T geometric tolerance in 11m
Productive time
Example:
Material: Steel, H 30 mm; La 320 mm;

T 30 "'m; Vi 7; lp 7
tp = Vf
""= 1.8 mm/ min (from table)

L
320mm
- 178min
, =-v 1.8 mmtmin
P
Feed rllte ""lstenderd veluesl''

Cutting
height H
inmm
10
20
30
50
Steel eroding
60
9.0
5.1
3.7
2.5
40
8.5
5.5
4.0
2.5
30
4.0
2.5
1.8
1.2
Feed rate ., in mm/min

Copper eroding
Desired geometric toleraflCe T in 11m
20
10
40
20
10
3.9
2.1
7.5
3.5
2.0
2.5
1.5
4.7
2.4
1.5
1.8
1.1
4.0
1.9
1.1
1.2
0.7
1.4
0.8
2.6
Carbide eroding
80
4.5
3.1
2.3
1.4
20
0.7
0.3
0.2
0.2
10
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.2
'' These standard values are average values from the main cut and all subsequent CUIS required to reach geometric tolerance.
With unfavorable flushing conditions lhe achievable feed rate drops considerably.
Cherecterlstic:a end appi'N:IItion of common wire electrodes

Wire
El. conductivity
in m/(Q . mm2)
material
CuZn alloy
13.5
18.5
Molybdenum
Tungsten
18.2
Te nsile strength
inN/mm2
400-<900
1900
2500
Typ ical wire

diameter in mm
0.2..0.33
0.025-o. 125
O.D25-o.125
Application
Universal
Cuts with very tight geometric tolerance
Narrow slots, small corner radii
Electric discharge machining (sink EDM )
electrode
,
_v
I .I
productive time in min

removal area
of electtode in mm 2
v removal volume in mm3
Vw removal rate in mm3/min
Example:
Removal rllte Vw {standard Qlues)11
Productive time
lp
tp= -
Vw
Roughing of steel; graphite electrode,

S = 150 mm2 ; V = 3060 mm3; Vw= 7; tp = 7
Vw 31 mml/min {from table)
V
:J:l60 mml
t =-=
- 99min
P Vw
31 mrn3/min
Removal rate Vw in mm3/min

Roughing
Finishing
remova l area S in mm2
d esired roughness de pth Rz in 11m
Electrode
10
100
50
200
300
400
2
3
4
6
8
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
50
100
200
300
400
600
3
4
6
8
10
Graphite
7.0
18
31
62
81
105
2
5
Steel
Copper
13.3
22
28
51
85
105
0.1
0.5
1.9
3.8
5
Copper
15
Carbide
18
6.0
28
30
33
0.1
0.5
2.2
5.2
11 Actual values will vary widely due to the effects of different processing methods. Refer to page 314.
Work
piece
material
314
Production engineering: 6.4 Material removal
Process parameters in EDM erosion
t
......
off
hme
~c
~f
:;; ...
..,
- ....
:>
tome
t--
on
time
Elec:trolytlc:
copper
Graphite
In various grain
Elec:trode sizes
Material
Vw
removal rate In mm3/mln
removal volume in mm3

removal time in min
Ve
absolute tool wear in

mm3
v,..
relative tool wear in %
Removal rate
Vw =-
Relative tool w ear
v.
1/.el , !5_. 100%

r
V
Universal application; low wear behavior; high removal rate;

for finish and rough machining; ditrocult to manufacture electrode by machining;
high thermal expansion; no cracked edges;
tendency to warp
Universal application; very low wear; greater current density than Cu;
low electrode weight; easy to manufacture electrode by machining;
non-warping; low thermal expansion; more detailed electrodes are made by
selecting a finer graphite grain; unsuitable for carbide machining
TufllPten-eopper
Detailed electrodes; very low wear; very high material removal rate with relatively
low discharge currenrs even with large current densities;
only manufactured in limited sizes. high electrode weight
Copper-gflll)hlte
Special applications involving small electrode dimensions with simultaneous high

electrode strength; wear and material removal rate play a subordinate role in these
special applications
Synthetic oils,
Requirements for dielectric fluids:
filtered and
low and constant conductivity for stable sparking
low viscosity for filtrability and penetrating ability in narrow gaps
Dielec:ttk: cooled; according
to machine
low evaporation to reduce hazardous vapors
fluid
m anufacturer
high flash point to avoid fire hazard
high heat conductance value for good cooling
extremely low health hazard for operators
Rushing
Replac:ement of
dielectric: fluid
at the erosion site
Remove eroded
particles from
gap
Depending on requirements and available options. different flushing meth ods can
be used to maintain stable erosion performance:
flooding (most commonly used method, simultaneous heat rejection)
pressure flushing through hollow electrodes or next to electrode
vacuum flushing through hollow electrode or next to electrode
interval flushing caused by retracting electrode
movement flushing by relative movement between workpiece and electrode.
without interrupting erosion cycle
positive
Electrode is positively polarized; for low electrode burn rate during roughing w ith
long pulse duration and low frequency
negative
EleC1rode is negatively polarized; for erosion with short pulse duration and hig h
frequency
Kept constant during feed (controlled by discharge voltage).

Control sensitivity set too high: Electrode continually pulses on and off, controlled
discharge impossible.
Control sensitivity set too low: Abnormal discharges increase o r gap remains too
large for discharge.
side
Determined primarily by duration and size of discharge pulse, depends on m aterial

matching and no-load voltage
low
low removal performance. low tool wear on copper electrodes. high w ear o n
graphite electrodes
high
High removal performance. high tool wear on copper eleC1rodes. low wea r on
graphite electrodes
Polarity
Gap
Disch8rge
current
Pulse
short
Electrode wear with positive polarity is larger. lower removal rate
duration
long
Elect<ode wear with positive polarity is smaller, higher removal rate
315
Production engineering: 6.5 Separat ion by cutting
Cutting force, Operating conditions for presses

I
Cutting force, cutting work

F
Fm
cuning force
calc:tJiated cuning force
S
shear area
R,""" maximum tensile strength
r sB max maximum shear strength
W
cuning work
s
sheet metal thickness
f orcl!-stroke curve
1\
v 1\
ir-1..
-~ I' ..
J_ 1-- .;,.:
F= S 'rs8max
Max. shear strength
Tss max "' 0.8 Rm maxi
Eumple:
S 236 mm2; S 2.5 mm; Rm f'nll< 510 N/mm 2
\. i ":) ! ''"'''
II
I ~
Solution: r .a .,.. 0.8 Rm """'

0.8 . 510 N/mm2 .OS N / mm2
F S r.amu 236 mm 2 400 N/mm2
working stroke h shee t metal

thtckness s
Cutting fOf'Ce
r:~, .
96 288 N 96.288 kN
W
a3 F S J" 96.288 kN 2.5 mm

.. 160 kN mm 160 N m
Operating concitions for ec:centric: and crank presses

Press drives are usually designed such that the
nominal pressing force is applied at crank angle
WO<k capacity in
continuous mode
a ; 30".
Machines operate without interruption in continuous mode or can be stopped after each cycle in
single-stroke mode. For presses with adjustable
strokes, the allowable pressing force is less than
the nominal pressing force.
crank
cuning force, shaping force
Fn
nominal pressing force
W. =F" S
c
15
Woric capacity in
single-stroke mode
Fo110w allow. pressing force for adjustable stroke

S
ram
s.
h
metal
strip
a
W
We
w.
stroke, maximum stroke for adjustable

stroke
adjusted stroke
working distance ( a sheet metal thickness s)
crank angle
cutting work. shaping work
work capacity in continuous mode
work capacity in single-stroke mode
Fixed stroke
Example:
Eccentric press with fixed stroke Fn ; 250 kN; S ; 30 mm;
F a 207 kN; S 4 mm
Find: W ; We. Can the press be put into continuous mode?
Solution: W
w.
Adjustable stroke
; !3 F s : ~3 207kN 4mm = 562kN mm= 552 N m
W: = F.S = 250kN-30mm 500kN -mm = 500N m

e
F s F0
W s We or
15
15
If F< F0 , but W > W., the press cannot be used in continuous mode for
this workpiece.
Fallow
4.JSa h - h2
W s We or
w" w.
316
Production engineering: 6.5 Separation by cutting
Tool and workpiece dimensions

Punch end cutting die dimensions
-tjl:~
'"";"' ,;,
Die clearance u n
sheet metal
thickness s
mrn
0.4-0.6
0.7~.8
0.9-1
1.5-2
2.5-3
3.~
Cf. VOl 3368 (198205}
d punch
dimension
0 ctJning die
dimension
u die clearance
s sheet metal
thickness
(l
clearance angle
Piercing
Process
Shape of
workpiece
Blanking
Governing
specified size is:
dimension of
punch d
dimension of
cutting die 0
Dimension of
o pposite tool
cuning die
Od+2V
punch
d 0 - 2 u
function of material and sheet metal thickness
Cutting die opening

with clearance angle a
s hear strength r .e in N/mm2
upto250 I 251-400 I 401-600 I over600
die clearance u in mm
0.01
O.D15
0.02
0.025
0.015
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.05
0-02
0.03
0.03
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.04
0.07
0.10
0.12
0.06
0.09
0.12
0.16
Cutting die opening

without clearance angle a
shear strength r , 8 in N/mm2
up to 250 I 251~00 I 401-600 I over600
die clearance u in mm
O.D15
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.025
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.05
O.o7
0.09
0.11
0.08
0.11
0.14
0.17
0.11
0.15
0.19
0.23
Web width, edge width. trim stop waste for rnetalic materials
~~~
edge width
Polygonal worlcpleces :
e web width
''
edge length
web length
B strip width
i trim stop waste
(french stop waste}
The web or edge length, whichever is la rger,

is used to determine web and edge widths.
Round workpieces :
For all diameters values given for /0 e Ia
10 mm of polygonal workpieces apply to
web and edg e widths.
Polygonal wor1<pieces
Strip
width B
mm
Web length '

Edge length /0
mm
Web
width e
Edge
width 8
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.0
2.5
3.0
up to 10
e
a
0.8
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.6
1.9
2.1
1.6
1.9
1.2
1.5
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.4
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.3
1.8
2.2
1.4
1.7
1.0
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.2
2.5
2.0
2.4
1.6
1.9
1.2
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.4
2.7
1.8
2.2
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.5
e
a
e
a
0.9
1.2
1.0
1.1
1.0
1.1
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.3
1.8
2.2
1.4
1.7
1.0
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.2
2.5
e
a
e
a
2.0
2.4
1.6
1.9
1.2
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.4
2.7
2.2
2.7
1.8
2.2
1.4
1.7
1.6
1.7
2.0
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.6
2.9
1.8
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
5.0
II
up to
100 mm
.-
11-50
51- 100
over 100
up to 10
51- 100
101- 200
~_J
trim stop waste i
11-50
over
100mm
to
200mm
Sheet metal thickness sin mm
trim stop waste i
1.5
317
Production engineering: 6.5 Separation by cutting
location of punch holder shank, Utilization of strip stock

Location of punch holder shank for punch geometry with known center of gravity
Punch layout
prepunching
hfl''
~~i&
s.;=
.i] If' 1
)( .
!:.
I x = C1 a1 + C2 a2 +C3 a3 + ... 1
blanking out
h trn~-:.;~
:'">
Distance of the center of forces
WO<'kplece
C1+ C2 + C3 + ...
,,~ ~
~~
""
.,,. 31
Example:
....
C>
Based on the figure at left. calculate the distance x of

center of forces S.
Solution:
The outer perimeter of the cuning punch is chosen as
reference edge.
Blanking punch: C1 4 20 mm 80 mm; a1 10 mm
Piercing punch: C, ". 10 mm 31.4 mm; ~ 31 mm
~
20
selec ted reference e;;;
c , , c2.
C:J ...
x ~ c, . a, + C, a~
circumferences of Individual punches

distances from punch centers of gravity
to selected reference edge
dist.ance of center of forces S
from chosen reference edge
a1, a2, 8J ...

X
C1 +C2
80mm 10mm+31.4mm-31 mm
,. 16mm
80 mm + 31.4 mm
Location of punch holder shank for punch geometry with unknown center of gravity
Center of forces corresponds to centroid of the lineI I of
all cutting edges.
Punch layout
Wortq>iece
Distance of the center of forces

/ a + 1 a + Ia a3 + ...
X= 1 1 2 2
t, +12 + Ia + ...
)(
-,a s~"~
~ ~..
'~ 20
"'
Example:
Calculate the location of the punch holder shank on

the progressive die for the workpiece shown in the
figure at the left.
,d, =S
d1 ;9.8
.ry= 21 I
selecte~
refer.
edge
20
Solution:
n
lninmm
d, =)1
as="
/ 1,/2,/3 to In
a1, a2, 8J to a0
X
'L in. Bn
X= - - 'f.ln
:;:
cutting edge lengths

distance from line centroids
to selected reference edges
distance from center of forces
to selected reference edge
number of individual cutting edge
1
2
15
23.6
3
4
20
2. 20
5
I
20
118.6
X =
11 For line centroids, see page 32
Bnin mm
5
9.8
21
31
41
In 8n in mm2
2786.28
75
231.28
420
1240
820
I:ln. 8n - 2786.28mm2 - 23.5 mm

118.6 mm
I:ln
Utilization of strip stodc for single row stamping
...
!
:l:
rro:::;
:l
'---T'
I
...
w
~
w-tr
~..
,_....I-
w
a
v
A
R
1/
wor'kpiece length
workpiece width
strip width
edge width
web width
strip feed
area of workpiece
(including holes)
number of rows
degree of utilization
Strip width
W=w + 2B
Strip feed
V = l +e
Utilization factor
R A
q= - -
V W
318
II
Values apply to bending angle as 120 and bending transverse to rolling direction. Value or the next larger sheet
metal thickness should be selected for bending long itudinal to rolling direction and bending angle a> 120.
inmm
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.5
1
1.6
2.5
4
1.0
1.3
1.6
1.3
1.6
2.0
2.5
1.7
1.8
2.2
2.8
1.9
2.1
2.4
3.0
2.9
3.2
3.7
4.0
4.5
4.8
5.2
6.0
6.9
3.4
3.8
5.5
8.1
9.8
4.5
6.1
8.7
10.4
5.2
6.7
9.3
11.0
5.9
7.4
9.9
11.6
6.7
8.1
t0.5
12.2
11.9
15.0
18.4
22.7
12.6
15.6
19.0
23.3
13.2
16.2
19.6
23.9
13.8
16.8
20.2
24.5
t4.4
17.4
20.8
25.1
6
10
16
20
25
32
40
50
2.5
3.5
4.5
10
7.5
8.9
11.2
12.8
8.3
9.6
11.9
13.4
9.0
10.4
12.6
14.1
9.9
11.2
13.3
14.9
12.7
14.8
16.3
17.8
19.3
21.0
22.3
15.0
18.0
21 .4
25.7
15.6
18.6
22.0
26.3
16.2
19.2
22.6
26.9
16.8
19.8
23.2
27.5
18.2
21 .0
24.5
28.8
21 .1
23.8
26.9
31.2
24.1
26.7
29.7
33.6
L developed length II
a.b.c length of leg
s thickness
bending radius
n number of bends
v bend allowance
r
.()
Developed length21
21
L = a+b+C+ ...
-nvl
Calculated developed length

should be rounded off to a
whole mm value .
Example (see illus.l:

a~
25mm; bs 20 mm; c~ 15 mm; n ~ 2; r ~ 2 mm;
r 4 mm; material S235JR; v ?; L ?
v s 4.5 mm (from table above}

L = a b+ c- n V= 125<- 20 <-15 - 2 4.5) mm = 51 mm
II If the ratio r/s > 5, the formula for developed length (page 24) can be
used.
319
Produ ction engineering: 6.6 Fo rming
Calculation of blank size, Springback in bending

Calculation of blank size for pans with any selected bending angle
do
: --,,-:-
"'
r_J~--
il
-P- n
v = 2 - (r + s ) - tan -1000
- 2
6 -.;: :'1.
0.8
0.6
~
c
0.4
~
<...
0.2
...
...... ........
Be nt pan w ith fJ 60". a 16 mm . b 21 m m. , . 6 mm.

s = 5 mm; k = ?; v = ?; L = ?;
!. = 6 mm 1.2;
k 0.1 (from diagram);

5 mm
k = 0.689 (calculated by formula)
v = 2 (r + s)- Jt
('~~~"P) (r+2s k)
--:;eo;-
= 2 - (6 +5)mm - n -
3
ratio rl s
'
Springbac:k in bending
-~
-5
cw-60") . (6 + '25 - 0.7) mm = S.nmm

~
L = a + b - v = 16 mm+ 21 mm -s.n mm - 32 mm
tool
(r ~/
~-~
'
Material of
bent pan
k = 0 .65 + 0 .5 -log;
Ex:ample:
Correction factor
1.0
cooo-p)
~ (r+2s )
i1
I
I
Bending allowance for fJ over 165" to 180"

v - 0 !neg ligible)
Correction factor
I ..
...,t
cooo-p) (
L = a+b - v
v = 2 . (r + s )- n ~ r+ s k)
I~
5... k
/)
r~
Bend allow a nce for fJ over 90" to 165"
fJ > 90" to 166"

~
Developed length 11
developed length s sheet met. thickness

L
a. b length of leg
r bending radi us
v bend a llow ance
p ape rture a ngle
k correction factor
Bend allowance for fJ = 0" to 90"
~ ~sw
= }k
cf. DIN 6935 ( 1975-10)
ll
For r/S > 5 the developed length (page 24) is sufficiently accurate
for calcula tions.
Radius on tool
a, angle of bend before

springback (on tool)
a~ a ngle of bend after
s p ringback (on w orkpiece)
r, radius on tool
'~ bending radius on w orkpiece
~ spring back factor
s sheet metal thickness
I =kR lr2
r1
+ 0 .5 s) - 0 .5 sl
Angle of bend before springback
a, =-a2
kR
Spnngback factor ~ for the ratio r2 1s

1
1.6
2.5
6.3
10
16
25
40
63
100
DC04
OC01
X12CrNi18-8
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.98
0.99
0.99
0.97
0.98
0.97
0.95
0.97
0.96
0.93
0.97
0.96
0.89
0.96
0.93
0.84
0.94
0.90
0.76
0.91
0.85
0.63
0.87
0.77
0.83
0.66
E-Cu-R20
CuZn33-R29
Cu Ni18Zn20
0.98
0.97
0.97
0.97
0.97
0.96
0.96
0.95
0.97
0.95
0.94
0.96
0.93
0.93
0.95
0.90
0.89
0.92
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.79
0.83
0.82
0.72
0.77
0.72
0.6
0.73
EN AW-AI99.0
EN AW-AICuMg1
EN AWAISiMgMn
0.99
0.92
0.98
0.99
0.90
0.98
0.99
0.87
0.97
0.99
0.84
0.96
0.98
0.77
0.95
0.98
0.67
0.93
0.97
0.54
0.90
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.93
0.86
0.82
0.76
0.72
320
Production engineering: 6.6 Forming
Deep drawing
Calculation of blank diameter
Orewn pan
without flange d 2
D = Jd,2 +4 d,h
with flange d 2
D Jd22 + 4 . d 1 h
without flange dl
o - Jdi + 4. ld, h, +d2. hzl
with flange d3
D = Jdl + 4 ld, h, + d2 hzl

without flanged.
D Jd,Z +4. d 2 .f
~
1
with flange d4
without flange d 2
D= J2 . d,z 4 . d 1 h
with flange d 2
D= J2. dl+ 4 . d 1 h + (d22 - d12)
I
I
Bl1t1k diam eter D
Dnow n pert
Blank dllmet1t D
o- Jd,z + 4 . d2 I +(d2 -d32)
without flange d z
D = Jd,z + 4 . h,2 + 4 . d, . hz
with flange d z
D Jd,2 + 4 h,2 + 4 d 1 hz +ldi - d,21
without flange d 2
D= J2. d 12 1.414 . d
with flange d 2
D = Jd,2 +dl
Example:
Cylindrical drawn part with flange d 2 (see figure, upper left) with d 1 - 50 mm, h 30 mm; 0 ?
D =Jd,z+4 . d,. h = J502 mm2 + 4 . 50 mm 30 mm = 92.2 mm
Drawing gap and radii on drew ring and draw punch

drawing gap
sheet metallhickness
material factor
,..
,I
radius on draw ring
blank diameter
punch diameter
d,
draw ring diameter
radius of draw punch
Radius of draw ring in m m
'r =0.035 [50 +(0 - d)) JS
For each redraw the radius of the draw

ring should be reduced by 20 to 40 %.
Radius of draw punch in m m
r 51 = (4 to 5) s
Example:
Steel sheet; O a 51 mm; d= 25 mm; s= 2 mm; W= ?; r, = ?; r,. =?
k
Steel
0.01
A luminum
0.02
Other non-ferrous metals
0.04
= 0.07 (from table)
w = s+ k
fiQ.S= 2 + 0.07 (1Q.2 = 2.3 m m
r, 0.035 [50+ (0 - d)J fs =0.035 150 + (51- 2511

r_. =4.5 s=4.5 2mm=9mm
t'2 =3.8 m m
321
Production engineering: 6.6 Forming
Deep drawing
Drawing steps end drewing ratios
D
d
d1
~
dn
p,
{J2
fJ.01
s
blank diameter
inside diameter of finished drawn part
punch diameter for 1st draw
punch diameter lor 2nd draw
punch diameter for nth draw
drawing ratio for 1st draw
drawing ratio for 2nd draw
total drawing rat.i o
Drawing ratlo
1st draw
{J, =d,
2nd draw
Eu mple:
draw ring
CUp without flange made of OC04 1St 14) with d

SOmm; h 60mm;Oa1;{J1 1;fJ2 - 1; d1 1; ~ - 1
D Jd2 + 4 dh
; J(51Jmm)2 + 4 50mm 60mm oo 1l0 mm
Total
drawing ratio
P. 2.0; p, 1.3 (according to table below)
d, =E..=llOmm = 60 mm
p,
2.0
d2 =!!J.= 60mm = 46 mm
p,
1.3
Two draws sufficient since d 2 < d
Redraw
Material
Max. drawing
ratios 1l
p,
P2
Rm21
Material
N/mm2
MalC. drawing
ratiosll
p,
Pz
D
fltot d
MalC. drawing
ratios1l
f1m7l
Material
N/mm2
p,
/J2
f1m2l
N/mm 2
OC01 (Sl12)
1.8
1.2
410
CuZn30R270
2.1
1.3
270
Al99.5 H11 1
2.1
1.6
95
DC03 (Sl13)
1.9
1.3
370
CuZn37-R300
2.1
1.4
300
A1Mg1 H111
1.9
1.3
145
DC04 (St14l
2.0
1.3
350
CuZn37-R410
1.9
1.2
410
AJCu4Mg1 T4
2.0
1.5
425
X10CrNi18-8
1.8
1.2
750
CuSn6-R350
1.5
1.2
350
AISi1MgMn T6
2.1
1.4
310
11
Values apply up to d 1 : s . 300; they were determined for d 1 100 mm and

for other sheet metal thicknesses and punch diameters.
s - 1 mm. Values change negligibly

21
maximu m tensile strength
Tearing force, deep drawing fon:e. blank hoking fon:e

F,
Fdd
d,
Rm
p
Pmo
fi,
D
~----------------~~
Blank holding pressure pin N/mm2
Steel
2.5
Cu alloys
2.()...2.4
AI alloys
1.2-1.5
r,
w
tearing force
deep drawing force
punch diameter
tensile strength
drawing ratio
max. possible
drawing ratio
blank holding force
Deep drawing force
Jild = n
{3 -1
(d1 + s) s Rm 1.2 - - Pmax - 1
Ir----------------.
Blank holding force

blank diameter
support diameter
of blank holding force
blank holding pressure ' -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - '
radius on draw ring
Support diamat~ of blank holding force
drawing gap
dh = d 1 + 2 (rr + w)
Eumple:
D . 210 mm; d, - 140 m m; S 1 mm; Rm z 380 N/mm2 ; p a 1.5; Pmax- 1.9; fdd a ?
IJ-1
N
1.5-1
Fdd=n (d1 +sl s Rm 1.2 - - = n 1140mm+1 mml 1 mm 380 - - 1.2 - - = 112218 N
A-na,.- 1
mm2
1.9- 1
322
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining. Welding
101
111
11
12
13
131
135
136
Code
Name
p[
PB
for length dimensions

l!Jin mm
nominal size range tll
.. ...,
Degree
of accuracy
11 1 shorter leg
over
over
over
over
30
120
400
1000
323
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding
, f DI'J EN ISl 9fi92 1 ,2 JOl Oo l
Weld preparation
Name.
Work
weld symbol piece
weld
thickness
Edge form
pages 93-95
mm
Flere-V
groove
weld
o-2
0-4
.,/\..
II
V groove
weld
v
Y-buttweld
0-8
3-10
3-40
5-40
> 10
bevel
groove
weld
> 10
3-10
3-30
> 10
>2
double
bevel weld
~
~ .._1
"';,
Allet weld
angle a
in
3, 111, 141,
512
3,111.141
s 1/2
s4
s 2
40~
s3
s 2
.. ,
.. 1/ 2
.. 6()"
1-4
2-4
1-3
2-4
111, 141
13
Remarks
Thin sheet
welding.
usually without
filler material
Linle filler
material,
no weld
preparation
3
111, 141
With backi ng run

40"~
13
.. so
111,
13. 141
.. so
111, 141
40"~
1- 3
-~
tJ
11
2~692
With root and

backing run
13
111. 141
s2
40"~
13
Symmetrical
edge form,
h= 1/2
2-4
1- 2
35"-60"
111,
13. 141
1-4
s2
35.-60"
111,
13, 141
With backing run
1-4
s2
3s-so
111,
13, 141
Symmetrical
edge form,
h = t/2 or t/3
s2
70"- 100"
3, 111,
13, 141
s 2
700- 110"
3, 111,
13, 141
T-joint
>3
21
webc
mm
.. soo
Preferred
welding
method2 1
gap b
mm
double
V weld
Dimension
on
butt weld
r,pl.tt ,,..., DIN EN
Weld preparation
D Design: s single-V weld; d double-V weld

For welding methods. see page 322
Double fillet weld,

corner joint
324
Type of gas
Oxygen
body
white
Acetylene
cheslnut
brown
Hydrogen
red
Argon
gray
gray
blue
chestnut
brown
black
Changeover to the new color coding should be completed by July 1, 2006. During the transition
period the hazardous substance label (page 331) is the only legally valid designation.
" )According to European Standards
Gas welding rods for steel joint welding
cf. DIN EN 12536 (2000-08),

replaces DIN 8554-1
Weldi ng
rod,
code
T1l
Yield
strength
Tensile
strength
Elongation
at fracture
Nl2l
R,
R,
N/mm2
Kv
N/mm2
5235,$275,
P235GH, P265GH
011
>300
390- 440
>20
> 47
5235, 5275
P235GH, P265GH
0111
>310
400- 460
> 22
>47
Boilers, pipes,
temperature resis
tant up to 530
5235, 5355, 5275, P235,

P235GH, P265GH,
P295GH, 16Mo3
OIV
>260
440- 490
> 22
> 47
Boilers, pipes,
temperature resis
tant up to 570 C
13CrMo4-5, 16CrMo3
ov
> 315
490-590
> 18
> 47
Vessels,
pipes
oc
Rod EN 12536 - 0 IV: Gas welding rod of Class IV
11 T Treatment condition of the weld: U untreated (weld condition); T tempered

21 Nl notch impact energy at +20 C, determined using an ISQ.V test specimen
325
Production eng ineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding

liJ[;)mJ
"'' . ......",gases
......
...
:-Jil'i 'J' ~ ~ r::IiU'iili
........>::i; 'V of steel
~'-
' (199505)
Composition 11
Gas type,
effect
Welding
methods
Materials;
Applications
A1
H2 < 15%,balancaArorHe
R2
(1 ~5l%H 2,balanceAror He
reduction
gases
TIG, plasma
welding
high-alloy steels,
Ni. Ni alloys
inen gases
(neutral
behavior}
MIG, TI G,
plasmawelding
AI, AI alloys,
Cu. Cu alloys
gas mixtures.
weak
oxidizing
MAG welding
alloyed CrNi steels;

mainly stainless and
acid-resistant steels
Codes
11
100% Ar
12
100% He
13
He < 95%, balance Ar
M11
C02 s 5%, H 2 s 5%, balance Ar or He
M 12
(3-10lo/o C0 2 balance Ar or He
M13
02 < 3o/o, balance Ar
M21
(5-25}% C02, balance Ar or He
M22
(3-10}% C0 2, balance Ar or He
mixed gases.
more strongly MAG welding
oxidizing
low-alloyed and
medium-alloyed steels
mixed gases,
medium
oxidizing
MAG welding
unalloyed and low

alloyed steels; heavy
plate
strongly oxi
dizlng gases
MAG welding
unalloyed steels
M23
C02 s 5%, (3-10}% 0 1 balance Ar or He
M31
(25-501% C02, balance Ar or He
M32
(1()..15)% 0 2 , balance Ar or He
M33
C1
(5-50)% C0 2, (8-151% 0 2, balance Ar or He

100% co,
C2
0 2 s 30%. balance C02
Shielding gas EN 439-13: In en gas with up to 95% Helium, balance Argon
l) Arargon
0 2 n"Y9pn
He helium
C02 carbon dioxide
H 2 hydrogen
Wire electrodes e nd deposits for gas-shielded metal ere

welding of non-alloy end fine grain struc:tural steels
Designation example (weld metal}:
EN 440
I Standard number I
-fTlT ~
Designation for
gas shielded metal
arc welding
Code digit for

the mechanical
properties of the
weld metal
(page 327}
Code digit for

notch impact
energy of the
weld metal
(page327)
ct. DIN EN 440 (1994-11 l
Designation
for shr.lding gases
Code Shielding g ases
letter otN 439
M
M21,M22,
M23, M24
C1
Chemical - ........-u~, ' of the wire
~=t~~~
Main alloying elements
....
GO
All
G3Si1
0.7-1.0% Si, 1.3-1.6% M 1
; agreed upon
~:
G21i
G2Ni2
Main alloying elements

_0.5-0.8% Si, 0.~1 .4% M n, 0.05-0.25% 1i
, 0.4-(tB% Si, 0.8-1.4% M n, 2.1-2.7 % Ni
EN 440 - G 46 4 M G3Si 1: Properties of weld metal: M inimum yield strength Re = 460 N/mm2,
notch impact energy at - 40c = 47 J; mixed gas M21- M 24, electrode w ith 0.7- 1.0% Si, 1.3-1.6% M n
Wire '
Designation as per
DINEN440
Welding
methods
Shielding
gases
Usable on steels,
examples
Applications. properties,
examples
G464 M G3Si1
MAG
M21-M24, C1
S185-S355, E295, E335,

P235-P355, GP240R,
joint and build up welding
G 504 M G4Si1
MAG
M21-M24, C1
l21~
like G3Si1, but higher mechanical

strength propenies
G46 M G2Ni2
MAG
M21
12Ni14, 13MnNi6-3,
S!Pl275-S(P)420
fine grain structural st eels and

steels with low-temp. toughness
) ~wwuo un >l
to Europea n Stgoldard~
326
Standard values for gas shielded metal arc welding, Filler metals for aluminum
Weld seam type
Weld design
Weld
Wire
Number Voltage
thickness diamet er of passes
/J
mm
mm
Efficie~cyva lues
Senings
Current
A
Wire feed
rateH
m/min
Shield
ing gas
Filler
metal
1/min
g/m
Productive
time
minim
MAG welding. stenderd v-"- for UNIIoyed a1Ncturel .tMI

Welding position: PB
Wire electrode DIN EN 440 - G 46 4 M G3Si1
Shielding gas DIN EN 439 - M21
20
22
23
105
215
220
7
11
11
10
45
90
140
1.5
1.4
2.1
1.0
1.0
1.2
1
1
3
30
300
10
15
215
300
390
2.6
3.5
4.6
1.2
3
4
30
300
10
15
545
605
6.4
9.5
2
3
4
0.8
1.0
1.0
5
6
7
8
10
MIG welding, stnderd velun for elumlnum alloys

Welding position: PA
~,
Filler metal DIN 1732- SG - AIMg5
700--
~~
4
5
6
1.2
1.6
1.6
5
6
8
1.6
1
2
2
Shielding gas DIN EN 439 - 11
23
25
26
180
200
230
3
4
7
12
18
18
22
22
160
170
220
6
6
7
18
26
30
77
147
2.9
3.3
3.9
126
147
183
4.2
4.6
5.0
1 For MIG welding: welding travel speed
TIG welding, .underd velutiS for eluminum elloys

Welding position: PA
Filler metal DIN 1732 - SG - AIMg5
Shielding gas DIN EN 439 - 11
1
1.5
3.0
75
90
0.3
0.2
2
3
3.0
110
125
0.2
4
5
6
3.0
160
185
210
4.0
1st layer
2nd layer
4.0
1st layer
2nd layer
~t I
10
- ~~
22
3.8
4.3
28
1.8
5.9
0.2
0.1
0.1
8
10
10
38
47
47
6.7
7. 1
12
165
0.1
0.2
12
105
13
165
0.1
0.2
12
190
16
Welding fillers for aluminum

Designations 11
19
d . DIN 1732 (1988-00)
Material
number
Application for base metals

(Designation without adding EN AWl
Al99.7, Al99.5
SGAI99.8
(EL-AI99.8)
3.0286
SGAI99.5Ti
(EL AI99.5li)
3.0805
Al99.0, A199.5
SG-AIMnl
(El-A1Mn1)
3.0516
AIMnl, AIMnlCu
SG-A1Mg3
3.3536
AIMgl(C), A1Mg3
SG-AIMg5
3.3556
AIMg3, AIMg4, AIMg5, AISilMgMn, AIMglSiCu, AIZn4.5Mg1 ,

GA1Mg5, GAIMgSi, G-AIMg3, G AIMg3Si
SG-AIMg4.5Mn
3.3548
A1Mg4, A1Mg5, AISilMgMn, AIMglSiCu, A1Zn4.5Mg1, GAIMg5,

G-AIMgSi
SGAISi5
(ELAISi5)
3.2245
AIMgSi1Cu, AIZn4.5Mg1
SG-AISi12
(El -A1Si12)
3.2585
G-AISil , G-AISi9Mg, G-AISi7Mg, G-AISi5Mg
11 SG metal fillers with bare surfaces; El coated rod electrodes
327
Rod electrodes for arc welding

cf. DIN EN ISO 2560 12006-03)
Coated rod elec:trodes for unalloyed steels and fine grain steels
replaces DIN EN 499
I Classification of rod electrodes
Yield strength
Not ch impact energy 47 J
I Tensile strength
according t o
I Designation example
Standa rd number
H hydrogen content
5 -> 5 mV100 g w eld met al
A classification according to
yield strength and notch
impact energy 47 J
Notch impact energy 27 J
ISO-A-E
N . "'
.------
E coat ed rod electrode
Code nurnbs fOf the welding position
Code numbets few the mechanical properties

of weld metel
Code Minimum
number
yield
strength
N/mm 2
Tensile
strength
N/mrn2
Minimum
elongation
at fracture
EY;in%
440 - 570
22
35
355
38
380
470-600
20
42
420
500 - 640
20
46
460
530 - 680
20
50
500
560-720
18
Welding position
Code
number
1
all positions
all positions. except venical down welds
butt weld in flat position, fillet weld

in flat and horizontal position
butt and fillet weld in flat position
for vertical down weld and as in number 3
Code number fOfthe efficiency and the type of cumtnt

Code letter few the notch impact energy
of weld metal
EffiCiency
"'
Type of current
Code letter/
code number
Minimum nomh impact energy

47Jat "C
> 105
> 105
no requirements
> 105s 125
+ 20
>105s125
DC
> 125 s 160
ACand DC
ACand DC
DC
ACand DC
- 20
> 125s 160
-30
> 160
ACand DC
- 40
> 160
DC
I--
Code letters fOf the chemical

composition
Code
number
Code
letters
Maximum content in %
Mn
Mo
Ni
N one
2.0
Mo
1.4
Mn Mo
1.4-2.0
DC
Code letters fOf the type of coating

Code
letters
Type of coating
acid coating
basic coating
0.3-0.6
cellulose coating
0.3-0.6
rutile coating
0.6-1 .2
RA
rutile acid coating
1.8-2.6
RB
rutile basic coating
0.6- 1.2
RC
rutile cellulose coating
0.6- 1.2
RR
thick rutile coating
1Ni
1.4
2Ni
1.4
Mn1Ni
1.4 - 2.0
1NiMo
1.4
0.3- 0.6
ISO 2560-A- E 42 2 RB 12: A rod electrode with guaranteed yield strength and notch impact energy, 42 y ield
strength R0 = 420 flt/mm>, 2 notch impact energy 47 J at
RB rutile basic coating. 1 efficiency> 105%, 2 all
welding positions except for vertical down welds.
-zoc,
328
Production Engineering: 6.7 Joining. Welding
Coating of rod electrodes, Weld design

Coating of rod electrodes used for rc welclng
The coating of rod electrodes has a decisive influence on the welding Pfoperties and the mechanical pr operties of
the weld metal.
The coating consists of a homogeneous mixture of the following components:
slag formers
inert gas formers
arc stabilizers
deoxldlzers
The addition of iron powder increases the efficiency of the weld metal.
binders
alloy contents. if applicable
I welding position -.tlnq to the type ol coating 11
. ........ u ....,
Type of coating
' V I'o
IWelding position I page 3221
~~.
acid coating
With thick coated rod electrodes. fine drip

transition with flat, smooth welds. risk of
solidification cracking
limited application in
constrained positions
basic coating
High notch impact energy, particularly at

low temperatures. low crack sensitivity
PA,PB,PC,PO,PE.PF
cellulose coating
Intense arc with particular suitability for

vert.ical down welding
PG
rutile coating
IGood
transition. suitable for the

!welding of thin sheets
PA.PB.PC.PD.PE.PF
rutile acid coating
~;~~~ally
PA.PB.PC. PD.PE.PF
;as
rod electrodes.
with ecid coating
rutile basic coating
Good welding and mechanical properties
PA, PB,PC, PD,PE, PF
rutile cellulose coating
Good drip transition. suitable for welding

of thin sheets. also in vertical down position
PA, PB. PC. PO, PE. PF. PG
11 The specifications apply to
rod electrodes designated according to the yield strength and the notch impact
energy (page 327).

I design
' joints
th:!.
final
i ~.:~~p.
3.2 x450
4 x 450
3..2 x450
4 x 450
1 FP
3.2x450
4 x450
3.2 X 450
4 x450
5 x450
3.2 X 450
4 x450
5 x450
3
2
4
2.9
4
4.7
4
3.7
3.5
4
4
6.2
100
185
100
145
215
100
195
380
s
mm
=~,'
1R
1 FP
r oot pass
Weld design for an:
Electrode
dimensions
dxl
mm
Number
and
mm
4
f iller pass
Gap
1.5
10
1R
1FP
1R
2FP
1R
1F
1 FP
1R
1F
piecetm
Weld weight
per pass
total
~
75
80
100
110
Jn
155
210
285
460
675
lfi- -
final pass
pass
1
1
3.2x450
4 x450
3.2
3.6
80
140
80
140
5
6
3
3
3.2 x 450
4 x450
8.6
8
215
310
215
310
1R
2FP
4
5
x450
x450
3
7
430
10
1R
4FP
4
5
x450
x450
3
12.3
120
745
865
1R
4FP
4
5
x450
x450
3
18.5
120
1125
1245
12
11
3
4
R root pass;
F filler pass;
FP final pass
120
550
329
Areas of application and standard values for beam cutting

Areas of application for cutting processes
Sheet metal thickness sin mm
M aterials
Structural steel,
unalloyed and alloyed
: ~I"'
1
I
'
' '
'
._,., _
i-
2fl
1f
~?~
_t
-~
~::;.:.
--~--
.'
.
Aluminum,
aluminum alloys
~-
'
~!lliEl
'
:-..;: ;<'. ..,..
Titanium, glass, ceramic,

stone. plastics. rubber.
foam materials, etc.
..
I 1<r>
I I
. -~~ ..,::\
'
Chrome-nickel steels
~-
.tl..""r
.,:c.
:~__r-:::
-~ ~"'"
I I
:..\.; ~ -~.!
Standard values for oxyacetvJ- cutting

Materiel: unal oyed structural steel;
Sheet met
thiokn.
Cutting
nozzle
mm
mm
cunlng
bar
1.5
2.0
2.5
5
8
10
3-10
1D-25
bar
ri'/hr
m3/hr
0.27
0.69
0.84
2.0
0.2
1.67
1.92
2.14
0.32
0.34
0.64
0.60
0.78
0.74
0.2
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.62
0.52
0.45
0.75
2.5
0.40
0.41
0.60
0.42
0.44
0.38
0.36
0.57
0.55
2.46
2.67
2.98
4.0
4.3
2.0
Cuning rate
Acetylene
~sumption
quality
cut
m/min
3.5
25-40
T01a1
oxygen
consumption
heating
bar
2.5
3.0
1.8
25
30
35
pressure
3.0
10
15
20
Aeelylene
Oxygen pressure
Cut
s
mm
fuel gas:~
Width of
2.5
0.2
4.5
3.20
3.42
3.54
standard
cut
mtmin
0.69
0.64
Standard values for plasma cutting11

Material: aluminum
Material: high-alloyed structur81 steels

Cutting method: argon-hydrogen
Electrical
Sheet met. current
thickn.
qual. stand.
s
cut
cut
mm
A
A
4
5
10
70
15
20
25
70
120
120
CUI1ing
rate
quality stand.
cut
cut
m/min mlmin
Cutting method: argon-hydrogen
COnsumption values
argon
m3/hr
hydrogen
ri'/hr
Consumption
Cutting
rate
values
quality stand. argon
hydrocut
gen
cut
m/min m/min ml/hr
m3/hr
quality
cut
A
stand.
m3/hr
1.2
1.2
70
120
3.6
1.9
1.1
6.0
5.0
1.6
1.2
0.5
70
120
0.6
0.35
0.2
1.3
0.75
0.5
1.2
0.5
nitrogen
1.4
1.1
0.65
2.4
2.0
0.95
0.6
0.6
1.2
0.24
0.35
0.25
0.35
0.6
0.45
0.35
1.2
1.2
1.5
0.24
0.24
0.48
Eleclrical current
cut
11 Values apply to an arc power of approx. 12 kW and 1.2 mm cutting noozle d iameter.
330
Standard values, Quality and dimensional tolerances for beam cutting

Standard values for laser cutting11
Sheet mel. Cuning
M2l thicl<ness
s
speed
Cutting
gas
Cutting
gas press.
p
bar
Cuning
speed
Cutting
gas
Cutting
speed
m/min
1
1.5
5.0 - 8.0
4.0- 7.0
2
2.5
4.0- 6.0
3.5- 5.0
3
4
3.5- 4.0
2.5- 3.0
3.5- 4.2
2.8 - 3.3
3.6 - 2.8
2.8-3.4
5
6
1.8-2.3
1.3- 1.6
2.3- 2.7
1.9 - 2.2
2.5 - 3.0
2.1- 2.5
1
1.5
4.0-5.5
2.8- 3.6
2
2.5
2.2-2.8
1.6-2.0
3
4
1.3 - 1.4
1it;
"0
"'>
.2
coc
::>
iii
..
c"'
;;
<ii
Laser power 1.5 kW
Nz
1.5- 3.5
4.8 - 6.2
4.2- 5.0
8
10
5.0- 7.0
3.5- 5.2
14
2.0- 4.0
1.9 - 3.2
15
Cutting
gas press.
p
bar
Laser power 2 kW
7.0 - 10
5.6- 7.4
7.0- 10
5.5- 7.5
02
Cunlng
gas
m/mln
mm
Laser power 1 kW
mtmin
Cutting
gas press.
p
bar
Oz
1.5- 3.5
Nz
1.8- .2.4
1.0- 1.1
4.8 - 6.1
4.2-5.0
6
10
4.5 - 9.0
3.8-6.6
10
14
3.4- 5.3
2.7 - 3.8
14
15
2.2- 2.7
1.4- 1.8
Oz
1.5-3.5
12
13
N2
14
14
16
1l The table values apply a the focal length off 127 mm (5"1and a cutting gap width of w 0.15 mm.
M material group
2)
cf. OtN EN ISO 9013 (2~71
Cutting quality and dimensional tolerances for thermal cuts

au.llty of cut~
The specifications apply to

oxy fuel gas cutting,
plasma cutting,
laser beam cutting.
Range
The quality of the cut surfaces

is determined by
the perpendicularity tolerance u,
the average surface roughness R~tr
I
s
u
R,s
l:J
nominal length
workpiece thickness
perpendicularity tolerance
average surface roughness
limit deviations from the
nominal length I
~PI!
I ISO
9013-~
''~'"'of~cut..~-=-Qua~ty
lj
perpendicularit y t olerance u
according to row 3
aver age surface roughness R,s
according to row 4
tolerance class 2
Perpendicularity
tolerance u
inmm
Average surface
roughness R,s
inl)m
u < 0.05 .. 0.03 . s
R15 < 10 + 0.6 s
u < 0.15 + 0.07 . s
RI5<40 + 0.8 S
U<0.4 + 0.01 S
%<70+1.2 -s
u< 1.2+0.035 - s
R,5 <110+ 1.8S
Comments
Put in workpiece
thickness
inmm
Urnit dMiimons from the nominal length

Umit deviations t:J from nominal lengths I in mm
Workpiece
thickness s
inmm
Tolerance class 2
Tolerance class 1
>35
> 125
>315
>35
> 125
>315
s 125
s 315
s1000
"125
" 315
" 1000
> 1 s 3.15
>; 0.3
>; 0.3
:t0.4
:t 0.5
:t0.7
:!:
> 3.15 s6.3
"0.4
~0.4
"0.5
:t0.8
:t0.9
>6.3s 10
"0.6
:t0.7
%0.7
" 1.3
" 1.4
" 1.1
,,.5
> 10 s 50
:t 0.7
:t0.7
:t 0.8
:1:1.8
:!:
1.9
"'2.3
>50s 100
:1: 1.3
:1:1.4
:1:1.7
ot2.5
%2.6
%3.0
> 100 " 150
"1.9
>; 2.0
:1: 2.1
:1: 3.3
"' 3.4
"'3.7
0.8
Example: oxy-fuel gas cutting according to tolerance class 2. I e 450 mm,

s ~ 12 mm, cutting quality according to range 4
Sought after. t:J; u; %
Solution;
t:J = :~:2.3 mm
U & 1.2 + 0.035 s= 1.2 mm + 0.035. 12 mm = 1.62 mm
R6 ~ 110 + 1.8. s= 110 1Jm+ 1.8. 121Jm = 131.61Jm
331
Gas cylinders - Identification*

Hazardous substance labels
cf. DIN EN ISO 7225 (2008..02)
A hazardous substance label must be applied to individual gas cylinders t.o identify their contents end any possi
ble hazards from these contents. Up to three hazard labels wam of the main hazards.
Example:
complete
name of the gas,
e.g. oxygen, compressed
manufacturer's name,
address, phone number
Hazard label
or. ~ ~ ~
non-combustible,
nontoxic
combustible
toxic
Color coding
flammable
corrosive
cf. DIN EN 1089-3 (2004..()6)
Color coding ol the cylinder shoulder is used as additional information about the propenies of the gases.
It is readily recognized when the hazardous substance label is illegible from a distance.
This color coding does not apply to liquid gases.
General color coding
>
toxic and/or corrosice
flammable
inen21
oxidizing
Color coding for special gases
Oxygen
Acetylene
21
Argon
Nitrogen
Non-toxic, non-corrosive, non-flammable, non-oxidizing

an Standards
Carbon dioxide
Heli um
332
Gas cylinders- Identification*

Pure gases and gas mixtures for industrial use
Color coding (examplesl
cf. Information sheet from Industrial Gases Association
Codng
Coding
n ew1121
old
Oxygen
old
new1121
Xenon. Knnrton, Neon
blue
flourescent
green
blue
gray
yellow
red
yellow
(black)
red
dark green
red
gray
gray
black
flourescent
green
gray
gray
Compressed air
gray
flourescent
green
gray
gray
brown
gray
" For gas cylinders color coded as per DIN EN 1089, the
letter "N" (=new) must be put on the shoulder of the
cylinder two times (opposite sides). The "N" is not
required on cylinders w hose color coding has not
changed.
21 The cylinder body may be another color. However. this
must not lead to confusion regarding the h azardous
nature of the cylinder contents.
*I According to European Standards
333
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Soldering and Brazing
Brazing
Brazing heavy non-ferrous metals
cf. DIN EN 1044 (1999-071
Sihlet' contllining brezlng rn8teriels

Brazlng material
Material
Group Oesig number
nation''
AG 301
2.5143
Alloy
designation
as per
IS036n2l
Information for use
Vlloi1<ing
Brazing Solder
joint31
feed"I
BAg50CdZrtCu-6201640
640
f, l
620
f, l
AG302
2.5146
BAg45CdZnCu-605J620
AG304
2.5141
BAg45ZrtCdCu5951630
610
f. I
ct
AG309
2.1215
B-Cu40ZnAgCd-6051765
750
G,V
f. I
i:
AG104
2.5158
BAg45CuZrtSn-6401680
670
f, l
AG 106 2.5157
B-Cu36AgZrtSn-630/730
710
f, l
AG 203
2.5147
BAg44CuZrt6751735
730
f,l
AG 205
2. 1216
B-Cu40ZnAg-700{790
780
f, l
AG 207
2.1207
B-Cu48ZnAg(Sil-8001830
830
f,l
~~ AG208 2. 1205
BCu55ZnAg(Sil-8201870
860
G,V
f, l
:>
Cl
Vl
~
C>
ct
~
~0
8~0
.,_
CP 102
2.1210
BCuSOAgP-645.'800
710
G, V
f, I
CP 104
2.1466
B-Cu89PAg-645/815
710
G,V
f,l
>.,
=~
Vl
ll
Vl~
Materials
"C
precious metals, steels,
copper alloys
steels, malleable cast iron, copper,
copper alloys, nickel, nickel alloys
steels, malleable cast iron. copper,

copper alloys, nickel,
nickel alloys
steels, malleable cast iron, copper,
copper alloys, nickel, nickel alloys
copper and nickel-free copper alloys.
Unsuitable for materials containing
FeorNi
CP 105
2.1467
B-Cu92PAg-645/825
710
G,V
f, I
AG351
2.5160
B-AgSOCdZnCuNi-6351655
660
f. I
Cu alloys
AG403
2.5162
B-Ag56CulnNi600{710
730
f, I
chrome, chrome-nickel steels
AG502
2.5156
B-Ag49ZnCuMnNi-680005
690
f. I
carbide onto steel,

tungsten and molybdenum materials
Copper baNd brazing materiels
cu 104
cu 201
cu 202
cu 301
2.0091
B-Cu100(Pl-1085
1100
2.1021
B-Cu94SniPI-910/1040
1040
2.1055
8-CuBSSniPl-82.5/990
990
2.0367
l-CuZn40
900
G,V
f,l
G,V
f, I
CU305
2.0711
B-Cu48ZrtNi(Sil-890/920
910
CP202
2.1463
B-Cu93P-710/820
720
f. I
5I
5I
5)
steels
iron and nickel materials
steels, malleab. iron, Cu, Ni, Cu & Ni alloys
steels, malleable iron, Ni, Ni alloys
cast iron
Cu. Fe-free and Ni-free Cu alloys
Nic:kel baMd brazing materials for high-temperature brazing

Nl 101
2.4140
Nl103
2.4143
B-Ni73CrFeSiBICI-96011060
BNi92SiB-980/1040
Nl105
2.4148
B-Ni71CrSi-1080/1135
Nl107
2.4150
B-Ni76CrP-890
nickel, cobalt,
nickel and cobalt alloys,
unalloyed and alloyed steels
Aluminum based brazing materials

Al 102
3.2280
B-AJ92Si-575{615
610
f, I
Al103
3.2282
B-AJ90Si-5751590
600
f. I
Al104
3.2285
B-AI88Si-575/585
595
f,l
11 The
two letters indicate the alloy group, while the three digit numbers
are purely numbers increasing sequentially.
21 N umbers at the end indicate the melting range. Alloy components,
see pages 116 and 117.
31 G suitable for gap brazing; V suitable for V-joint brazing
I f filled brazing; I lapped brazing
S) Refer to manufacturer's data.
aluminum and AJ alloy types

AJM n, AJMgMn, GAJSi;
especially for AI alloy types
AJMg, AJMgSi up to 2"k Mg content
Brezlng joint
Gap brazing:
w< 0.25mm
V-joint brazing:
w > OJnvn
334
Solders and flux

Solders
Alloy
group11
cf. DIN EN ISO 945312006-12)

Alloy
no.21
Alloy designation
as per ISO 367731
Previous
designation
DIN 1707
Working
tem perature
c
tinlead
101
102
103
SSn63Pb37
S.Sn63Pb37E
S-Sn60Pb40
L-Sn63Pb
L-Sn63Pb
L-Sn60Pb
183
183
183-190
precision mechanics
electronics, printed circuit boards
printed circuit boards, high-grade steel
lead-tin
11 1
114
116
124
S-Pb50Sn50
SPb60Sn40
S-Pb70Sn30
S-Pb98Sn2
LSnsoPb
LPbSn40
183-215
183-235
183-255
321>--325
electronics industry, tin plating

thin-sheet packaging, metal goods
plumbing work, zinc, zinc alloys
radiator manufacturing
131
132
S-Sn63Pb37Sb
S-Sn60Pb40Sb
L-Sn60Pb1Sbl
183
183-190
precision mechanics
precision mechanics, electrical industry
134
136
S-Pb58Sn40Sb2
S-Pb74Sn25Sb1
L-PbSn40Sb
L-PbSn25Sb
185-231
185-263
radiator manufacturing, wiping solder

wiping solder, lead solders
tin lead
bismuth
141
142
5-Sn60Pb38Bi2
S-Pb49Sn48Bi3
181>-185
138
precision solders
low-temperature solder, safety fuses
tinlead
cadmium
151
5-Sn50Pb32Cd18
L-SnPbCd18
145
tin-leadcopper
161
162
SSn60Pb39Cu1
5-Sn50Pb49Cu1
L-SnPbCu3
L SnSOPbCu
231>--250
183-215
electronic devices, precision mechanics
tin-leadsilver
171
5-Sn60PbAg
L-Sn60PbAg
178-180
electrical devices, printed circuit boards
leadtin
silver
182
191
S-Pb95Ag5
5-Pb93Sn5Ag2
LPbAg5
304-365
296-301
for high operating temperatures

electric motors, electrical equipment
tin-lead
anti mony
LPbSn2
-
thermal fuses. cable joints
11 Filler metals for aluminium are no longer in EN ISO 9453.

21 The alloy numbers replace the material numbers as per DIN 1707.
31 With traces 1<0.5%) of Sb, Bi, Cd, Au, In, AI, Fe, Ni, Zn: see pages 116 and 117.
Aux for soldering
cf. DIN EN 29454-111994.021
Designation by m 8in constituents

Flux
type
1 rosin
2 organic
Flux basis
1 oolophonium
2 without colophonium 1 without activator
2 ectivated by halogens
1 water soluble
3 activated without halogens
2 not water soluble
A liquid
1 salts
1 with ammonium chloride

2 without ammonium chloride
B solid
2 acids
1 phosphoric acid
2 other acids
C paste
3 alkaline
1 amine a~or ammonia
3 inorganic
Cl-.iflcatlon by effect
Flux
form
Flux activator
Designations
DIN EN DIN8511
Effect of
residues
3.2.2...
3.1 .1...
F SW11
F-SW12
very
corrosive
3.2.1.
3.1.1 ...
2.1.3...
2. 1.2...
1.2.2..
F-SW13
F-SW21
F-SW23
F-SW25
F-SW28
somewhat
corrosive
1.1.1...
1.2.3...
F-SW31
F-SW33
noncorrosive
Flux ISO 9454 -1 .2.2.C: Flux of type rosin (11, base without colophonium 121.
activated by halogens (2), available in paste form (C)
Aux for brazing

Rux
ActMition temper.
cf. DIN EN 1045 11997081

Instructions fell' use
FH 10
FH 11
FH12
5SO-SOO c
sSO-Soo c
5SO-Sso c
Multi-purpose flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped.

Cu-AJ alloys; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped.
Stainless and high-alloy steels, carbide; residues chemically stripped.
FH20
FH21
FH30
FH40
701>--tooo c
75(}-1 100 c
over tooo c
650-toooc
M ulti-purpose flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped.

M ulti-purpose flux; residues removed mechanically or chemically stripped.
For copper and nickel solder; residues removed mechanically.
Boron-free flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped.
FL10
FL20
40G-7oo c
40G-7oo c
Ught alloys; residues are rinsed off or chem ically stripped.

Ught alloys; residues are norHX>rrosive, but should be protected from moisture.
335
Soldered and brazed joints

Classification of soldering and brazing processes
Differentiating
characteristics
Soldering
Working temperature
Soldering and brazing processes

Breling
High temperature brazing
ooo c
<450C
> 450"C
Energy source
soldering iron. soldering

bath, electrical resistance
flame. furnace
flame. laser beam,

electric induction
Base material
Cu,Ag,
AI alloys,
stainless steel,
steel, Cu,
Ni alloys
steel,
carbide inserts
steel, carbide
Soldering or filler
material
Sn, Pb alloys
Cu,Agalloys
NiCr alloys,
AgAu-Pd alloys
A uxiliary materials
Flux
flux, vacuum
vacuum, shielding gas
>
Standard values for soldering gap widths

Soldering gap width in mm
for brazing materials primarily of
copper
brass
for solders
Base material
silver
unalloyed steel
0.05-0.2
0.05-0.15
0.1..0.3
Alloy steel
0.1..0.25
0.1-0.2
0.1..0.35
0.1-0.25
Cu. Cu alloys
0.05-0.2
0.05-o.25
0.3-{1.5
0.3-{1.5
Carbide
0.05-o.2
Design rules for soldered joints
~
J
4
7"'
ldma.::::s.7
"'
Soldered joint under shearing load
,,.,
Load on solder joint reduced by folded seam
..
position
Production process sim plification
Soldered pip e fitting
knurled
press fit
Preconditions
Soldering gap should be large enough so that flux and sol
der adequately fill the gap by capillary action (table above)
The two surfaces to be soldered should be parallel.
Surface roughness due to machining can remain for
Cu soldering Rz 1Q-16 I'm. for Ag soldering at Rz
251Jm.
Load tratl$fer
The load on the soldered joint should be in shear (trans
verse forces) if at all possible. In particular, solder seams
should not be loaded with tensile or peeling stress.
Soldering gap depths /d > 5 . s do not fill w ith solder reli
ably. Therefore load capacity cannot be increased by a
larger gap depth.
Load capacity can be increased by design features such as
folds
Production process simplification
In soldering there should be a means for assuring proper
positioning of the parts to be joined, e.g. by part shape
or by knurled press fit.
Application example$
pipes and fittings
sheet metal parts
tools with brazed carbide cutters
336
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Adhesive bonding
Adhesives, Preparation of joint surfaces

Properties and conditions of use for adhesives''
Adhesive
Trade name
Acrylic
resins
AgometM,
Acronal,
StabilitExpress
Curing conditions
max.
Comb. tensile
and"-
Temperature lime
operating
temperatuns
c
streng!h
re
!Wmm 2
Elasticity
"C
Epoxy resins Araldlt,

Metallon,
(EP)
Uhu-Pius
Applications,
special characteristics
metals, thermosets.
ceramics. glass
20
24 hr
120
6-30
low
20-200
1hrto
12 h r
50-200
10-35
low
metals. thermosets. g lass.

ceramics, concrete, wood;
long curing time
120-200
60s
140
20
low
metals, thermosets,
g lass. elastomers, wood.
ceramics
metals, thermosets,
glass, elastomers, wood,
ceramics
Phenolic
resins (Pf)
Porodur,
Pertinax,
Bakelite
Pol'{vinyl
chloride
I PVC)
Hostalit,
lsodur,
Macroplast
20
> 24 hr
60
60
low
Polyurethane Desmocoll,
(PUR)
Oetopur,
Baydur
50
24 hr
40
50
present
metals, elastomers,
glass. wood,
some thermoplastics
Polyester
resins (UPI
Fibron,
leguval,
Verstopal
25
1 hr
170
60
low
Poly
chtoroprene
(CR)
Baypren.
Contitec,
Fastbond
50
1 hr
110
present
Cyanoacrylate
Parmabond,
Sicometn
20
40s
85
20-25
low
fast-<:uring adhesive for

metals. plastics, elastomers
Hot glue
Jet-Melt,
Ecomelt,
Vesta-Melt
20
>30s
50
2-5
present
all types of materials;

adhesive action through
cooling
metals. thermosets,
ceramics. glass
contact glue for metals
and plastics
11 Due to varying chemical compositions of adhesives, the values given are only approximate values. Fo r detailed
Information please refer to information from the manufactu rer.
Preparation of parts for bonded joints

Material
low
AI alloys
M galloys
li alloys
Cu alloys
11
cf. VOl 2229 (1979-06)
Treatment sequence !I
for toad severity 2'
medium
Material
high
low
1-2-3-4
1-6-5-3-4
1-6-2-3-4
1-6-2-3-4
1-2-7-8-3-4
1-7-2-9-3-4
1-2-10-3-4
Steel, bright
Steel, galvanized
Steel. phosphatized
1-2-3-4
1-6-2-3-4
1-723-4
Other metals
medium
high
1-6-2 34
1-7 2-34
123-4
12-34
1-2-34
1 2 34
1 62 34
123-4
1-6-2 3-4
17-2-34
Code numbers for type of treatment

1 Cleaning of dirt, scale, rust
6
7
2 Removing grease w ith organic solvent
or aqueous cleaning agent
8
3 Rinsing with clear water
9
10
4 Drying in hot air up to 6s c
5 Removing grease with simultaneous etching
21
Treatment sequence1 1
for load severity21
Meehanical roughing by grinding or brushing

Mechanical roughing by shot blasting
Etching 30 min, at so c in 27.5 % sulfuric acid solution
Etching 1 min, at 2oc in 20 % nitric acid solution
Etching 3 min, at 2oc in 15% hydrofluoric acid solution
Load severity for bonded joints

Low:
Tensile shear strength up to 5 N/mm2 ; dry environment; for precision mechanics, electrical equipment
Medium: Tensile shear strength up to 10 NJmm2; humid air; contact with oil; for machine and vehicule manufacturing
High:
Tensile shear strength up to 10 !Wmm2; direot contact with liquids; for aircraft, ship. and container
manufacturing
337
Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Adhesive bonding
Design of adhesive bonded joints, Test methods

Design examples
Bonded joints should be loaded in compression or shearing if possible.
Tensile, peeling or bending loads should be avoided.
Butt joint/overlap joint
Tube joint
i!J,h
good, since the bonding surfaces
only have a shear load
good, since the bonding surfaces

only have a shear and
compression load
J'Mr
good, since suffiCiently large

bonding surfaces can withstand
shear load
1:Qk
not good, since small
Mr
bonding surfaces cannot
withstand tensile and shear load
notgood.
sinoe peeling forces act due to
off-center applicalion of force
Test methods
Test method
Contents
mndard
Bending peel t est
DIN 54461
Tests resistance of bonded joints against peeling forces
Tensile shear t est

DIN EN 1465
Tests tensile shear strength of high-strength bonded lap joints
Fatigue test
DIN EN ISO 9664
Tests fatigue p roperties of structural adhesives under tensile-shear loads
Tensile test
DIN EN 26922
Tests tensile strength of bonded bun joints perpendicula r to bonded su rface
Roller peel test

DIN EN 1464
Tests resistance to peeling forces
Compression shear test

DIN EN 15337
Tests shear strength. primarily of anaerobic11adhesives
11 Sets with exclusion of air
Adhesive behavior as a function of temperature and size of bonding surface
..,.,
E
c
.,"'
..
:><
..0
test temperatureS
______.
Tensile shear strength of

overlap bonded joints
bonded surface area -----.

Effect of adhesive joint surface
area on breaking load
338 Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
Safety colors, Prohibitive signs*

Safety colors
cf. DIN 4844-1 (2005-05) and BGV AS II 12002-04)
Color
red
yellow
Meaning
stop,
prohibited
caulionl
mandatory signs,
notices
potemial danger
Contrast color white
black
Color of graph b lack

lcsymbol
black
white
while
Applicetion
Stop signs.
exempln
emergency stop
(see pages 340 prohibitive signs,
and341)
fire fighting
equipment
Notice of hazards (e. g.

fire, explosion, radiation);
nolice o f obstruc
tions (e. g. speed
bumps, holes)
Identification of ambu
lances and emergency
exits;
firs1aid and
emergency aid stations
Requirement to
wear personal protec
tive equipment (PPE);
location of a
telephone
cf. DtN 4844-2 (2001.()2) and BGV A8 11(200204)
Prohibitive signs
Prohibited
while
No smoking
No fires, open
name or
smoking
PedeS1rian access Do not extinguish

prohibited
with water
Access prohibited Access by forklifts

for unauthorized
prohibit.e d
persons
Do not touch
Placement or stor- Transport of pas

age prohibited sengers prohibited
Walking in this
area prohibited
No spraying with
water
Do not use this
Do not reach in
No magnetic or
electronic data
media allowed
Climbing
prohibited for
unauthorized
persons
Do not touch live voltage
device in the
bathtub, shower
or sink
Do not
connect
Non-potable
water
No access for
persons with
pacemaker
No cell phones
No food or drink
allowed
Operating with
long hair
prohibited
Hand-held or
manually operated grinding not
allowed
t J German Employer's Liability Insurance Association -Accident Prevention Regulations (Ber ufsgenossen-
schaftliche Unfallverhiitungsvorschrift) BGV A8 (replaces VGB 125)

*) According to European Standards
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection 339
Warning signs*
Warning signs
~
Warning:
Hazardous area
cf. DIN 4844-2 (2001-02) and BGV AB 11 (200204)
& & &

.
Warning:
Combustible
materials
Warning:
Explosive
substances
Warning:
Toxic substances
Warning:
Corrosive substances
&. A Lh
Warning:
Suspended
load
Warning:
Forklift traffic
~~
Warning:
Non ionic,
electromagnetic
radiation
Warning:
Substances
hazardous to
health or irritants
Warning:
Strong magnetic
field
~
Warning:
Gas cylinders
Danger.
High voltage
Warning:
Optical radiation
Warning:
Laser beam
radiation
Warning:
Radioactlve
materials or
lonillng radiation
~
Warning:
Oxidizing
substances
A
Warning:
Danger of
tripping
Warning:
Danger of falling
A&
Warning:
Hazards due to
batteries
Warning:
Explosive
atmosphere
Warning:
Biological hazard
Warning:
Extreme cold
~~
Warning:
Milling shaft
Warning:
Crushing hazard
&&& &&A
Warning:
Danger of tipping
when rolling
Warning:
Automatic
start-up
Warning:
Hot surface
Warning:
Risk of hand
injury
Warning:
Danger of slipping
Warning:
Moving
conveyor
on track
11 German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossen
schaftliche Unfallverhutungsvorschrift) BGV A8 (replaces VGB 125)

340 Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
*
Saf ety s1gns
<I Cli N HII / 1/llll 02
""'-JGv .\ ,, 12oJ2 011
Mandatory signs
Wear ear
protection
Wesr respirator
Use safety belt
For pedestrians
Use safety
harness
Eye rinsing
equipment
Direction arrows for First aid stations.

escape routes and emergency eKits2l
Rrstaid
Medical stretcher
Emergency
shower
Directional arrows
Wall hydrant and

fire hose
Ladder
Fire extinguisher
Work area!
High Voltage
Danger to life
Location:
Date:
Sign may ody be
removed by:
Fire fighting
equipment
Manual fire alarm
Wear safety shoes
Extra sign which

gives more information to
supplement the safety sign
German Employer's Uability Insurance Association

-Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche
Unfallverhutungsvorschrift) BGV M
Extra sign which

gives more infor mation to
the
only in combination with other escape route

and rescue signs
341
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
lnfonnation signs
Discharge time
longer than
1 minute
In case of
farlure part can

have live voltage
Before touchmg
-diSCharge
-ground
- short CirCUit
5 Safely rules
B I ' <J n r q '1'1 I I ~ ,,, If t r t '
l
'' ~
'
>
rr
[,, It I
d ' " '
C .,
' ,o I I "
1 rrt,
'-"~~
r' ,,
0
r ,,,,
,r , , r'
I , , , 1 , v ,
r "l'
Combination signs
Workarea!
Locallon:
High Voltage
Hazardous
Da1o:
~:.lybe
Do not connect
Warning of high voltage
Combination signs for escape

routes or emergency exits with
corresponding direction indicated
by arrows
First aid
station
Prohibited! Walking on
roof is prohibited.
Fire blanket for fighting fire
Danger of toxic
gases
H German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallverhiitungsvorschriftl BGV AJ3 (replaces VGB 125)
342 Product ion engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
Danger symbols and description of hazards*

Code lener. dan
ger symbol, hat
ard description
T+
Danger criteria of
materials
When consumed
in very small
amounts leads to
death or may
cause acute
or chronic damage to health.
Code lener.
Danger criteria of
danger symbol.
materials
hatard description
XI
Cont.act with skin

or mucus mem
branes can cause
Inflammation.
07
Ht
;~~1 [0~,~'
Code lener,
Danger criteria of
danger symbol,
materials
hatard descripti on
F
Solid material
can be easily
ignited by a
source of ignition.
Liquid material
with flash point
< 21 c .
X - St. Andrew's
cross
i e irritating
F - flammable
T toxic
When consumed
in small amounts
leads to death or
may cause acute
or chronic dam
age to health.
Risk of explosion
by shock, friction,
fire or other
sources of
ignition.
T toxic
E explosive
When ingested
may result in
death or cause
acute or chronic
harm to health.
Substances that
substantially
increase the risk
and severity of a
fire, because they
produce oxygen.
Substances
change water,
ground. air, eli
mate, animals,
plants, etc. in
such a way that
the environment
Is endangered.
N noxious
(harmful)
Substance may
cause cancer fro
inhaling, swallowlng or from contact with the skin.
R 45: May cause
cancer
X St. Andrew's
cross
n noxious
0 = oxidizing
T toxic
Living tissue can

damaged by
contact.
Liquid substances
with flash point
< 0 "C and boiling
point < 35 c;
gaseous substances, which
are flammable in
contact with air.
Substances
which can have a
mutagenic effect
on humans.
oo
Limited
C = corrosive
F flammable
T = toxic
Substance which
can cause concern
due to possible
mutagenic effect
on humans. However, there is not
yet sufficient
information available to give conelusive proof.
Substances which
are known to
impair fertility or
reproduction.
Substances
which cause concern due to possible impairment of
fertility of
humans.
evidence of
mutagenic
effect
1)
R 46: M ay cause
heritable genetic
damage.
X = St. Andrew's
cross
n =noxious
R 40 = irreversible
damage possible
(page 1991
EU-Directive, Appendix II
Danger to
fertility
T= toxic
R 60 = may impair
fertility
R 61 may cause
harm to the
unborn child
"I According to European Standards
Umited
evidence of
influence on
fertility
X - St. Andrew's
cross
n =noxious
R 62 possible
risk of impaired
fertility
R 63 = possible
risk of harm to
unborn child
Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection
343
".~~.~,~~~,~
Identification of pipe lines*

Area of application and requirements
Area of applic;ation: A precise Identification marking of pipe lines. indicating the substance being conveyed, is neces
sary for reasons o f safety, fire lighting and proper malntenanoe and repairs. The idenlification marking is intended 10
lndicale possible hazards and help 10 prevent ac:cidents and damage 10 health.
Requirements c;onc;erning ldentific:ation marking
Identification marking must be clearly visible and long
lasting.
Identification can be established by peiming, lenering
(e. g. via self-adhesive foil strips) or signs.
Particularly operation-critical and hazardous places
should be marked (e.g. beginning and end of branch
pipes. wall penetral ions. fittings).
Marking must be repeated at leas! every 10m of pipe

1eng1h.
Indication of the group and supplemental color (see
table below).
Indication of the flow direction by means of an arrow.
Indication of the conveyed substanoe by specifying the
name (e. g. water) or the chemical formula (e. g. H2 0 ).
With hazardous materials, additional indication o f
hazard signs (page 342) or warning signs (page 339) If
general hazards are implied.
Fire extinguishing lines must be fitted with a red/white/red color marking. The white field contains the graphical sym
bol of the safety sign Fire fighting equipment and materials (cf. page 340) in the color of the extinguishing agent.
Potable water lines must be fitted with a green/While/green color marking. Non-potable water lines have a
green/blue/green marking. The code letters and their colors are listed in the table below.
Heating oil
Fire extinguishing unit

(water)
Oxygen (fire-promoting, 01
xygen
Potable water
Compressed air
Acetylene (highly flammable, F+l
Acalylene
3 44 Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmenta l protection
Sound and noise*

Sonic terms
Tenn
Exp!Matlon
Sound
Sound comes from mechanical vibrations. It propagates in gaseous. liquid and solid bodies.
Frequency
Number of oscillations per second. Unit 1 Hertz 1 Hz 1/s. Pitch increases with frequency.
Frequency range of human hearing: 16 Hz- 20.000 Ht.
Sound level
Measure of the sound strength (sound energy).
Noise
Undesirable, annoying or painful sound waves; damage depends on strength, duration,

frequency and regularity of exposure. For a noise level ol85 dB (AI and higher there is danger
of permanent hearing loss.
Decibel (dB)
Standardized unit lor sound level.
dB(A)
Since the human ear perceives tones o f different heights (lrequenciesl to have different
strengths when they are actually at the same sound levels, noise must be appropriately
dampened with filters lor cenain frequencies. Frequency weighting curve w ith Filter A
compensates for this and indicates the subjective auditory impression. A difference of 3 dB (A)
corresponds approximately to a doubling (or halving) of the sound intensity.
Sound level
dB(A)
Type ol sound
Threshold of
auditory sensitivity
Breathing at distance
of30cm
10
dB (AI
Type ol sound
normal speech
at distance oil m
70
machine tools
Soft rustling o f leaves
20
Whispering
30
Tearing paper
Quiet conversation
40
50-60
75-90
loud talking
at distance oil m
welding torch, lathe
hammer drill, motorcycle
engine test stand, walkman
Noise protection regulations
heavy stamping
95-110
angle grinder
95-115
85
car horn at
distance of 5 m
disco music
90
00-110
jet engine
80
dB (AI
Type ol sound
100
10(H15
hammer and anvil
110
120..130
ct. Accident Prevention Regulations on "Noise" BGV 83 (1997-<111
Accident prevention regulrions

for noise l)f'Oduc:lna ooantlons
I 1S Workplace regulation
Requirem. to post signage lor noise~ 90 dB (A) and above.

Above 85 dB (AI sound protection devices must be available, and they must be used above 90 dB (A).
II the risk of accidents increases due to noise, appropriate
measures must be taken.
Regular preventative medical checkups are compulsory.
New operational equipment must conform to the most
advanced level of noise reduction.
Noise limit value lor:

predominantly mental activities
simple, predominantly mechanized
activities
all other activities (value may
be exceeded by 5 dB I
break rooms, ready rooms and
first-aid rooms
max. dB(AI
55
70
85
55
Noise harmful to health

~,~~~~-~
-~ I
I
0
10
I I II
I III
I I
II
II I
l r earin
I
I
I _!
1- ,
30
40
50
60 65 10
80 85 90
100
danser limit
for hearing
110
120
- -
:~~
l d Tge
20
130
pain
threshold
140
150
160 dBIAI
sound level - -
Table of Contents
345
7 Automation and Information Technology

7.1
w
7.2
L-
I k1 KJ
346
348
349
350
Electrical circuits
Circuit symbols ............................
Designations in circuit diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circuit diagrams ..... . ............ .... .....
Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protective precautions .......... ... ...... ...
351
353
354
355
356
7.3
Function charts and function diagrams

Function charts .................. . ...... ... 358
Function diagrams ..... .................... 361
7.4
Pneumatics and hydraulics

Circuit symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Layout of circuit diagrams .... .. .............
Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulic fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pneumatic cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forces, Speeds, Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Precision steel tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
363
365
366
368
369
370
372
Programmable logic control

PLC programming languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ladder diagram (LD) ............. .. ........
Function block language (FBL) . ......... ... ..
Structured text (ST) .... ..... . ..... .... .....
Instruction list ............................
Simple functions .................. ....... ..
373
374
374
374
375
376
7.5
~-
~
7.6
Handling and robot systems

Coordinate systems and axes .... ............ 378
Robot designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Grippers, job safety ........................ 380
7.7
Numerical Control (NCI technology

Coordinate systems ........................
Program structure according to DIN ..........
Tool offset and Cutter compensation . . . . . . . . . .
Machining motions as per DIN ...............
Machining motions as per PAL ......... .....
PAL programming system for lathes . . . . . . . . . .
PAL programming system for milling machines .
381
382
383
384
386
388
392
lnfonnation technology
Numbering systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ASCII code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Symbols for program flow charts .............
Program flow chart, Structograms ............
WORD commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXCEL commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
401
402
403
404
405
406
7.8
NO
Basic terminology for control engineering

Basic terminology, Code letters, Symbols . . . . . .
Analog controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discontinuous and digital controllers . . . . . . . . .
Binary logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
346
Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology
Basic terminology of open loop and closed loop control systems

Buic terminology
cf. DIN 19226-1to 5 11994..02)
()po loop control

For open loop control the output variable. such as the temperature in a hardening furnace. is influenced by the input
variable, such as the current in the heating coil. The output
variable does not have an effect on the input variable.
Open loop control has an open action flow.
Schematic
pr-ntation
For closed loop control the controlled variable, such as the

actual temp. in an annealing furnace, is continuously monitored and compared to the target temp. (reference vari
able) and, if there are deviations, adjusted to the reference
input variable. Closed loop control has a closed action flow.
disturbance
heat losses
mtlflipulated
varillble
current
disiUrbiJnce
heat losses
controller
button
Functional diagram of
open loop control system
button
relay
annealing fumace
k*:=.l l~r:tll~!
temperature
setpoint
current
heat loss
Application-based code letters
cf. DIN 19227 1 11993 10)
POIC
Designation eKample:
TTT
Supplementary letters
First letters
difference
electrical parameters
flow, throughput
distance, position, length
manual inpul/intervention
time
status (e.g. level)
humidity
pressure
Q quality parameters
R radiation parameters
speed, rotational speed
T temperature
w w eight, mass
ratio
control point qual)'
sum, integral
E
F
G
H
K
l
M
p
Succeeding letters
A
D density
c
H
I
l
A
error indication
automatic closed loop control
upper limit value
display
lower limit value
registration
Example: [);fferential pressure closed loop control

EKplanation: P
pressure
D difference
I
display
automatic closed loop control
In plain language: Pressure differential closed

loop control with display of pressure difference
347
Symbols
Locetlon of output UMr control
0
or
Effect on the controlled ..,.._.,
0
Process control
room
Local control console
Local, implemented
by prooess control
system
C)
Measuring point,
sensor
Final control element. contro l point
Example
Servo motor; the

sening for maximum mass flow or
flow of energy is set
during loss of auxiliary power.
-r-..
M
--
Explanation
Sensors
D
or
<>-r
Sensor for pressure
Sensor for level with

float
l~wl
Sensor for w eight.

scales; indicating
OutpUt devices
Symbol
Explanation
Explanation
Final controlliftil -control

elements
Controller. general
IPro]
Two-point controller
with switching output and P10 behavior
E]
Three-point controller with switchingout.p ut
~
~
Valve actuator with

motor drive
Valve actuator with

solenoid drive
Adjuster for electric

signal
Signel designeton
Adepten
Pressure transducer
with pneumatic
signal output
-f
A
(\
Signal, electrical
Signal, pneumatic
Analog signal
Digital signal
&.nple: Temperlltu'e controller
[SJ
Basic symbol.
general display
Printer, analog, no.

of channels as a
numeral
PID controller
sognal amplifier for
.
manipulated
actuating signal
variabley&
controlled variable x
temperature
transduce1'
wi1h elecbical
signal OU1pUt
temperature
JgJ
loop control
cf. DIN 19227-2 (199102)
Symbol
Controllers
Sensorfor
temperature,
general
T
R
Temperature control
and registration at local
control stand measuring
point310
Solution based symbols for devices

Symbol
temperature
~ registrati~n
~~=atoc
IO~ ~
Servo motor; the

final control device
remains in the most
recently acquired
sening during loss
of auxiliary power.
control point
Referenoe line
Servo motor; the

sening for minimal
mass flow or flow of
energy is set during
loss of auxiliary
power.
?
9
Local, implemented
by prooess
computer
~"ii point.
Servo motor,
general
Local,
general
<' Jl~\ l 1}._'7 1 i ] LJJJ lQ1
Monitor
sensor
"'-:-~
variable w
-f
input variable w
--1
=~~
.,
signal adjuster for electrical

-f signal to adjust reference
water bath
valve
actuator,
mot()(
driven
~steam
..... ......
348
Aut omat ion: 7. 1 Basic terminology
Analog controllers
Analog (continuous) controllers
cf. DIN 19225 (1981-12) and DIN 19226-2 (1994-02)
In analog controllers the manipulated variable y may essume any desired value within the control range.
....... control_.,.., ~
Contro. . dnlgn
P-contron.r.
Proportional
controllers
Output variable Is
proportional to
input variable.
P-controllers
have steady-state
errors.
inflow valve
1-
_V
'If
-..t
Symbol''
Block~
x controlled variable
P controller
it
,l!u...
___;.:~:.,==-~~ II!" :::
~t
T....-ltion function
:- _..,._-::-
- - step function31
y manipulated variable - - step response
e error
nl ~:E ~
~
outflow
lime t --
I-controllers
Integral controllers
:o. t. =;
In PI-controllers a
P-controller and a
!-controller are
connected fn paraile I.
0-controllers
Derivative con
trollers
II
PD-controllers
Proportional
derivative controllers
PIO-controllef'S
Proportional
integral
derivative controllers
!-controllers are
slower than
P-controllers. but
they eliminate all
errors.
PI-controllers
Proportional
integral controllers
I controller
~ tl .,I,___
, ___
~~~ ;:~~ . .tLV
(\<
Pcontrol
:O...J
part
- 1--lcontrol
part
~~~r-~~
.. ""' =--
If:::~
-~-----~
-----------
~
'=>
D-controller systems only occur with P- or PIcontroller systems, since pure 0-controller
behavior with constant error does not provide
any manipulated variable and therefore no
closed loop control.
PD-controllers are created when a P controller

and a D element are connected in parallel.
The D part changes the output variable at a rate
proportional to the rate of change of the input
variable. The P part changes the output variable
so that it is proportional to the input variable
itself.
PO-controllers act quickly.
PIO-controllers are created by connecting P. I
and D-controllers in parallel.
Initially the D part reacts with a large change to
the control signal, afterwards this change is
reduced to approximately the magnitude of the
P element, and finally the effect of the I element
causes the response to rise linearly.
n Symbol as per DIN 19227-2

31 Signal curve at controlled system input
D
~
-I~
. .fU::::_
, ___ ~
~t ~
. . fUI , __ ~
-I~ ~
. . f ,__
,__
'I~
""t
,___
~
~
21 Block representation as per OIN 19226-2

41 Signal curve at controlled system output
349
Discontinuous and digital controllers

Switching (discontinuous) controllers
cf. DIN 19225 (198112)and DIN 19226 2 (1994-021
Switching controllers change the manipulated variable y discontinuously by switching in several steps.
Elalmple.~
8 ..
Controller design
Two-point controller
ttttt
Th,....point con
troller
~er
set-point
Air conditioning system

In an air conditioning system three ternperature ranges are assigned three
switch positions:
- heating ON
- heating/cooling OFF
- cooling ON
11r:pos
s\Jitch
pos t 0 error
slol1tth pos l
0 error
switth pos. 1
Digital controllers lsoftwe controllers)
E]
..I
bimetal
-::
_.. .;:::::~ ~ntadS
.w.
8lodl ...,._..etlon
"'t
heat radiDtioo
~VI
svmbol
swltc:Hng~
1~
,_
~-~
y-
Transition function,
{Ef
B
~
cf. DIN 19225 (1981 -12)and DIN 19226-2 (1994-021
The operating mode of the digital controller is implemented as a computer program.
~ (simplilled)
Control! design
Compute,.
Programmable
Logic Controllers
I
I,
IPLCI
Tr..o.nt function
Di~troller
PI
Enter
reference input
variable w
I
'"I
tIerror step
.. : Ill II I II I
litr.et - -
H
.._,
AQuire
controlled
variable
Microcontrollers
Generate error
e = w- x
M icroprocessors
~~m
control
2
1
individual parts
v
~
:..t"'
I part
......_ P part
tinle t - -
H, ~
....
3
2
~~~;;.;t~~ed l
step response
timet - -
P-mtrolled systems with time delay IT part)

Controller design
Eurnple
P-controlled
system with deley
1st order
IPT1 controlled
system)
Filling a gas vessel
P-controlled
system with delay
2nd order
(P T2 controlled
system)
p,
cf. DIN 19226-2 (1994-021

T.-.nsient function
,~crP,k::
P~
::b
P0
-I~
....t
tinle I - -
timet - -
P,l= ,--f.~ ~ ~tz:. -I~

.._t
Filling two gas vessels
Po
P.
-- -
~ =N=l
EJCplanlltlon
The computer program
has the following tasks:
- generate error e
- calculate the manipu
lated variable y based
on programmed control algorithms
At the step response all
P, 0 and !-parts are
summed.
Sampling of analog signals and their conversion to digital values
and internal program
flow causes a time delay
of the controlled vari
able "I similar to a
T-controlled system).
P.
timet - -
k><l- '
timet - -
Explanlltlon
If the pressure vessel is
filled by a flow of gas,
pressure p, in the vesset gradually reaches
the pressure of the gas
flow.
If two vessels are connected in series, pressure Pl increases in the
second vessel slower
than pressure p, in the
first vessel.
350
Automat ion: 7. 1 Basic termin ology
Binary logic
FUnction
AND
DI'H 'J olbll l.' tl'l'l'l
Circuit symbola
logical equlltlon
electric
11 12
0 0
~
0 = 11 A 12
OR
n lt
= 11 v 12
0
0
11
0
12
0
0
0
~~~
T ~- Tc T
11
12
[1
~ --'
(~
(1
NOT
11
12
NOT
11
1--l
AND
(NANDI
12
~-~
11
12
0
0
0
1
1
0
0 = ii"AIT
NOT-OR
(NOR)
0 = i1Vi2
11
12
Exclusive
OR
(XORI
0 = (11 A 121 V
(11 A 121
11
0
0
Memory
(AS flip
flop)
S set
R reset
I= inputs
(1 9
12
(~
t,.
1-11- 1--.J
l
(1
c1~ o (~
12 01 02
0
1 0
1
[1
11
~_,
(1
(1
~ ---~
(2
1 1 0 0
state un
c~ o1 c ~
~~~Rfgn
0 indeterminate
state
0 = outputs, e.g. lamps
l~t t 12 t@t l
C = relays, contacts
( 2 (2
(1
c? o2~~
351
Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Circuit symbol s
, f lli"JF\J606111 1 > 1/11'1990 11
General circuit symbols
-c=:>E3
Resistor.
general
Fuse
-II-
Capacitor
..../'V"VV'\_
..
---
Inductor. coil
Nonstandard
represent a
tion
Permanent
magnet
7<-
w
~
Lamps,
general.
optional representation
Buner
Horn
~~
Electrolytic
component
-{Z}-
Converter,
transducer
Conductors, connectors and terminals

Conductor,
general
-J"V'-
Conductor.
moveable
Conductor,
insulated
"Z:
,.
r
I
Grounded
conductor.
PE
Neurral conductor, PN
Neutral con
ductorwith
ruotective
unction PEN
Devices and machines
-o-o-
-1+
Double
junction,
..L
Connection
to ground,
optional rep
resentation
Ground
Ground con
nector connection
Semiconductor components
Measuring
device,
machine
$H
Measuring
device,
recording
--~
Transformer,
Valve
*r
Semiconduc
tor diode,
general
LEO light
emitting
diode
Types of current
Designations
Adjustability
~
/
TT
Junction,
,-J
Function
stepped
general
continuous
adjustable
Effect
regulated
--
oc
""
ACwith low
frequency
thermal
radi ation
""
""
""
ACwith high
frequency
Three-pole
switch, protective systemiP44
PNP
transistor
NPN
transistor
Types of connections
Y connection
Delta
connection
Y.6.
Y-delta con
nection
Circuit symbols in wiring system drawings
d
a)
~
b)
Circuit switch
a) single-pole
bl double-pole
Three-way
switch, illu
minated
Sensor switch
Groundingtype
receptacle
Series switch
Key button
ill
OC AC
converter,
regulated
' IP44
Automatic
breaker
Motor circuit
breaker
Ground-fault
circuit inter
rupter
. -\
Inductor,
continuously
adjustable
-?
Resistor,
5step
variable
""
OCorAC
(universal)
L
3G1.5
Three-core
cable with
junction
Cable with
3 conductors,
with ground
conductor (G)
and 1.5mm2
cross section
&)
DC motor
Three-phase
motor
352
Circuit symbols
Actuetlon types
Relay contacts
NO conlact,
normally open
Manual.
general
"'F---
E---
By
pressing
fr--
By tilling
[8--
By pressure
energy
By key
~--
By proximity
~--
By touching
)---
By
pulling
.J---
By pedal
Single pole
double throw
_F.--
By
turning
G---
By coil
Relay coli,
general
Timer on
delay
Timer off
delay
f---
NC contacl.
normally
closed
Electromech. relays
I Cli'J H'l h<lfi1/ 11, )/If')')') I) ll
Switch behavior
-v-
==
b)
)=
11
Timer on off
delay
By bimetal
(thermal)
Senson (Block representation)
lock,
prevents
automatic
return
Delayed
adion (para
chute effed)
for movement
a) to the righl
b) to !he left
Symbol for
actuated
sl ate
8)
~--
l!l
Capacilive
sensor.
reacts to
proximily of
all substances
Inductive
sensor,
reads 10
proximity of
metals
Magnetic
sensor.
reacts to close
proximity of a
magnet treed
switch)
1'/~1
Optical
sensor,
reacts to
relledion of
infrared beam
Examples of switch applications

a)
r-~
NOconlaCI
manually
~~~--1
Double pole
single throw
~--1
11\ 11(
8)
NC contact
with roller
actuation
a) NC conlact
b) NO contact
Represenlalion inactu
atedcondi
tion
b)
bl
~~
NO contact
a) closes
b) delayed
opening when
aauated
o-~r
Emergency
palm button
Limit swil ch.

NO contact
Valve with
electromagnetic
actualion
--X
Delay elemen1s
RS flip-flop
u
12 R
1 0
1 0
DO
Function
table
02 0 1 0 1
Function
table21
RS flip-flop
r.et dominent
-dominwrt
II 12 0 1 02
*~(
Capacitive
proximity
switch with
NC contaCI,
reacts to proximityofall
malerials.
Limit switch,
NC contact
Rip-flop elements
RS'l flip-flop
E~-~
Magnelic
proximity
swilchwith
NO conlact,
reaCis to
proximity of
magnetic
material.
11 12 0 1 02
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 0
1 1 1 0
11
12 01 02
2 0
FunCiion
table
With riM-deley time
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 1 0
When asignal is applied

to input I, outputO
assumes
value 1 after
time r1 elaps
es.
With tum-off delay
Flip-flops are integraled

circuits which store signal
conditions.
R =reset
s set
21 e unchanged state
0 indeterminate state
1l
The numeral 1 after an R or S input indicates that the

logical state of this input is dominant.
If a signal simultaneously lies al inpuls 11 and 12 (11 ~ 1
and 12 = 1) the following applies:
Input without the numeral 1 (R for set dominant, S for
reset dominant RS flip-flop) is always set to logical
stateO.
With loss of a
signal at
input I, output
Otakes the
value 0 after
completion of
time r2
353
Designations in circuit plans*

Designation of devices in circuit diagrams
EMample:
cf. DIN EN 61346-2 (2000121

S2 E
Sequent~~~~
Code letters
for type (selection I
B
F
K
0
M
P
A
S
Sensor, proximity switch

Fuse
Switch relay, timed relay
Circuit breaker. contactor
Solenoid valve, solenoid
Indicator lighl, horn
Resistor
Control switch, push-button
switch
numb
Code letters for function

(not standardized)
A
Function OFF
Direction of movement
Function ON
Example of clrC\Jit diagram
2[1
h
G Test
K Jog operation
~
s
Save, set
R Clear, reset
Kt
Ml
"K
Example
Rectifier circuit
l1
black
L2
L3
N
PE
...0
brown
-tl-l!,
black
!.,
light blue
<t
c:
- green-yellow
~
0
LL+
"'c:
black
black
Star-connected (squirrell cage motor

Terminal board
L1
1l
Color is unspecified. Black is recommended,

brown to differentiate. Green-yellow may not be
used.
2l PEN-wires have a continuous green-yellow
conductor color. To avoid confusion with PE
wires, PEN wires are additionally marked with
light blue on the ends of the wires.
e. g. with a wire clip or adhesive tape.
L2
L3
354
Circuit diagrams
'I DI\J
~N 1>10i21 1 ~'lH n9t
Connector markings on relays
1st digit
Conseruive IUTlbertng d oontac1 sees
Designing circuit diagrams

Every electrical device is shown with a
vertical current section regardless of the
actual spatial arrangement of the elements.
Current sections are numbered sequentially from left to right.
The control circuit contains devices for
signal input and signal processing.
The main circuit contains the necassary
final control elements for the working
elements.
The spatially shared devices, e. g. relay
coil and relay contact, are not represented.
Control circuit
M ain circuit
(1
(1
H1
L-
Contacts and the associated relay coils

are marked with the same oode numeral.
Example: Current sections 1, 2 and 3
2 NO contacts belong to relay coil C1,
both marked as C1. They are used to
latch the relay coil.
All contacts of a relay are entered as a
complete contact set or as a table under
the current path of the relay. Both representations indicate the current section
on w hich a contact is located.
(2
H1
(1
13
14
13
14
13
14
223-r24 523-r24 623-r-24
333-+--Tt:-~
nh nh
-~
-_>--
Contacts Seclion
(1
13 - 14
23 - 24
Contacts
(2
13 - 14
Seclion
Contacts Section
13 - 14
3
Representation as table
(3
355
Sensors
Sensors (selection)
I Sensors that a_re .sensitive
to prox1m1ty
I
I
Inductive
sensors
I
I
Sensors
I
I
Capacitive
sensors
II
Photoelectric
sensors
II
I
I
Tactile sensors
I
L-,
Ultrasound
sensors
II Mag:~~ sen- ~ I
Limit
switches
Characteristics of sensors
Sensor
type
Inductive
Capacitive
Photo
electric
Ultrasound
Magnetic
M echanical
Principle
Triggers if an object interteres with the alternating

magnetic leakage field of
the sensor
High degree of protection

(IP67), very high swit.ch
point precision, dirt
tolerant
Only objects with high electrical conductivity, unsuitable where there is greater
accumulation of metal chips
1mmto
150mm
Triggers if an object interferes with the alternating

electric leakage field of
the sensor
l! l
Small object distances.

High degree of protection
larger design than
(IP67), detects all materials;
comparable inductive sendirt tolerant
sors
20mmto
40mm
1~~ 1
Triggers if an object
returns the infrared field
of the sensor
Detects all materials,

large distances
Advent8gea
Dludventeges
Sensitive to din, smoke and

secondary light. auxiliary
power necessary
A permanent magnet
actuates a proximity
switch (reed contact)
using two contact springs
Risk of contact welding;

suppresses the current
peaks of RC modules
Triggered by manual
actuation or lever system
Suitable in rough environment. high s81Vice life,

suitable for switches in
high frequency circuits
Low price, robust, small,
unaffected by interference
fields, no auxiliary power
necessary
I
I
C
U
D
I IM~anical_
~ount11
1ng condot1ons
inductive
1 flush
mounting
capacitive
possible
ultrasound
2 flush
photoelecmounting
tric diffuse
not possireflected
ble
luminous
beam
3 unspecified
M magnetic
R photoelectric reflected
luminous
beam
T photoelectric d irect
luminous
beam
l lrment
Circuit eJe. ~I I
function
Design
and size
FORM
A cylindrical
threaded
sleeve
B smooth cylin
drical sleeve
C rectangular
with square
cross-section
D square. with
rectangular
cross-section
SIZE
(2 digits)
for diameter
or side length
cf. DIN EN 60947-5-2 (2004-1 1)
rrr11~
Contact chaner, not

allowed in food and
chemical industries
Designation of proximity sensors
Type of
detection
approx.
2m
Slow, use only with standard

pressure, not in areas sub60mmto
ject to explosion hazards and
6m
no high-frequency noise
l! l
~
~
elm~
Evaluates transit times of

Tolerant to dust. dirt and
reflected ultrasonic pulses
light; detects very small
to determine the distance
objects at large distances
to an object
Example:
Object
Symbol
A NOcontact
B NCcontact
C single pole
double
throw
p programmableby
user
other
I
Type of
output
I I connection
Typeof I I
P PNP output, 3
or 4 OC connec
tions
N NPN output, 3
or 4 OC con neetions
0 2 OC connections11
F 2 AC connections2l
U 2ACorOC
connections
S other
1 integrated
connection
line
2 plug
connection
3 screw
connection
4
unused
8
9 other
type of
connection
NAMUR
function
N NAMUR3l
function
Note:
NAMUR
sensors
are 2 wire
sensors that
are connected
to an external
switching
amplifier
11 OC ; Direct Current
2l AC = Alternating Current
31 NAMUR ~ NormenarbeilSQemeinschah fUr M ess- u nd Regelungs-
technik (Standardization Association for Measurement and Control)
356
Automat ion: 7.2 Electrical circuits
Safety precautions*
ct. DtN voe o 100 410 12003061
Safety precautions against elec:tric:al shodc
Protection
119ainst electric lhoek
unci fault condltlf lndinc:t contect

Protection by:
- Safety Extra Low Voltage (SELVI
- Protective Extra low
Voltage !PELVI
- Functional Extra low Voltage
FELV
Protection by.
- protective insulalion of ective
parts, e.g. cable
- coating as Insulation, e. g. housings on electr. devices
- distance, e. g. protective hoods,
housings of machine screen
- barriers. e.g. protective screen.
enclosure
Protection by.
- automatic disconnect or waming,
e.g. residual current protective
device
- potential equalization
- norH:Oilductive areas;
e.g. by insulating coverings
- protective insulation, e.g. housings
encapsulated with insulating material
normally no effect
Al
Bl
conduit or in the wall or in

cable channels
"I According to European Standards
Installation directly on o r in
the wall
357
Safety precautions*
Protective systems for elec:tric:al devices
cf. DtN EN 60529 (2000.()9)
~jm=
EKample:
I
Protective system
designation IP
(International Protection)
1st code numeral

for protection of
device!I against
peneltation of
solid foreign
objects
No protection
Protected against
contact by bad< of
the hand
Protected against
penetration by foreign
objects d" 50 mm
Protected against
contact with fi nger
d 12mm
Protected against
objects d" 12.5 mm
Protected against
contact with a
tool d; 2.5 mm
ProteCted against
penelnltion by foreign
objects d" 2.5 mm
Protected against
contact with a wire
d a 1 mm
Protected against
objects d" 1 mm
Protected
from dust
Protected against
contact with a wire
d 1 mm
Protected against
contact with a wire
d l mm
Oust
proof
,,
If a code number is not given. the letter X is

used in its place, e.g. IP X6 or IP 3X
21 Is only given if the protection is greater than
the 1st code number.
w... protKtlon
no
0
No protection
Protected against
venical drips
Protected against
drips if device is
inclined 15
None
Symbolfor
eKplosion protection
d
e
i
oil immersion
pressurized
enclosure
sand filling
flameproof
enclosure
increased
safety
inherent safety
Protected against
contact by bad< of the
hand
Protected against
contact with finger
d; 12 mm. 80 mm long
Protected against
contact with a tool
d a 2.5mm,
100mm long
Protected against
contact with a wire
d 1 mm, 100 mm long
Protected against
water spray impacting device at
[!]
Protected against
water spray from all
directions
Protected against
water jets from all
d irections
Protected against
st.rong water jets
from all directions
Protected against
temporary submer
sion in water
Protected against
continual submersion in w ater
eoo
Type of protection
&&
SI.!PPiementary letters
H
Equipment for high

voltage
Tested on water intake
M in running machine
Tested on water intake

on idle machine
Suitable for specific

weather conditions
... kPa
cf. DtN EN 13237 (200301)
I
Electrical
devices group
I I
Temperature class
Group I
Code Type of prottion

p
~J T
EKample:
Additional
letters
Symbol
Electric equipment for explosive areas
Supplementary letters
Prohlcticn from
foreign objeds
No protection
Proteetlon against
eccidental ~
Additional
code letters21
2nd code numb
1st code no.
no
2nd code number

for protection of
the device!I
against water with
damaging effect
Code
B
Risk of explosion by occurrence of the following gases:

methane, propane, butane,
propylene, benzene, toluol.
naphthalene, turpentine,
petroleum, gasoline, fuel oil,
diesel o il, carbon monoxide,
methanol, metaldehyde,
acetone, acids, chloride
* )According to European Standards
ethylene. acryl
nitrite, hydrogen
cyanide,
dimelhylelher,
propylene oKide,
coke oven gas,
tetrafluoroethylene
hydrogen,
acetylene.
carbon bisulphide,
ethyl nitrite
Su"temperature
Tl
450 0C
T2
JOoc
T3
2ooc
T4
135 c
T5
1ooc
T6
s5c
358
Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams
Function charts for sequential controls (GRAFCET)ll
, 1 DIN F\J >oHlK
;oo:>
l)
The function chan in accordance w ith GRAFCET is a graphical design language for sequential control. However, It
does not make any statement about the type of devices used, the direction of lines and the installation of electrical
equipment. Only the general representation via symbols is obligatory; dimensions and other details are left to the
user.
Example: hydraulic press with sequential control

The ram of a hydraulic
press forces bushings Into
a plate. When the cylinder
Is in its end position (81)
and a bushing is available
(84), the cylinder extends
in fast motion. The sensor
82 switches to feed mode.
As soon as the bushing is
forced in (83) the cylinder
retracts in fast motion.
-Stan step Stan cycle (5 1) and

cylinder in basic position (81) and
bushing available (84)
$1@
Start
Cylinder A 1 extends in fast motion

Cylinder A1 extended (82)
Cylinder A 1 in feed mode
Cylinder A 1 e><tended (83)
Cylinder A 1 retracts in fast motion
Cylinder A 1 retracted (81)
Sym bol
Examples
Steps
Continuous action
Explanation
CloMcl cycle (step chain)
D
DJ
ICylinder A1 retracts in fast molion I
Stored with rising edge
Solenoid valve M2 ON M2:=1
Stored with falling edge
Signal light M5 ON M5:=1
Stan step
[J
Set step
It displays which steps
are set for a definite
condition of the process
Macro step
Individual representation
of a detailed pan of a
sequential control
Inclusive step
This step contains several
steps that are referred to
as included steps.
Inclusive stan step

This step contains several
steps that are referred to
as included steps.
When the step is activated,

tha value 1 is assigned to the
solenoid valve M2. This action
remains active also after the
reset of the step.
When the step is activated,
the value 1 is assigned to the
signal light 1'5 only after the
reset of the step.
The number must be in
the upper center of the
step field
0
DJ
Step
Stan step with step num

ber 1
Steps that are active at a

panicular time can be
marked with a dot.
[J
I
I
I
I
I
~
5
This action is only valid as

long as the corresponding
step is active.
M&Cf'o step M5, shown in its

detailed structure:
- The release of transition a
activates the access step
E5 of the macro step MS.
- The activation of the exit
step S5 releases transi
tion g.
- The release of transition g
deactivates step S5.
11 GRAFCET French: GRAphe Fonctionnel de Commande Etape Transition.
English: specifteation language for function chans of sequential controls
359
A sequential chart consists of a series of steps

placed one after another. Steps and transi
tions alternate.
-Start step e. g. system "O N"

Start-up push button S 1
Pump motor ON
Tank FULL
Agitator motor ON
15s delay time
OPEN drain valve
1. Sequential charts enforce a step structure

developed from top to
bottom.
2. Within the sequenoe.
only one step can be
active at a time.
3. The start step describes
the initial condition of
the system.
4. After execution of the
last step and release of
the transition, a feed
back loop returns the
system to the start step.
Tank empty
The transition Is compOsed of

a dash and
a text describing the
transition
Transitions can be
represented by:
text statements
Boolean algebra
(equation)
graphical symbols
1. Step 3 is active, i.e. the

agitator motor is ON.
2. If the condition forthe
release of the transition
(the agitator runs for
15 sec.) is satisfied,
step 4 is set.
3. Step 4 resets step 3, i.e.
the ON signal for the agitator motor is no longer
active. The motor is shut
down.
4. The drain valve opens.
Agitator motor ON
15s delay time
OPEN drain valve
Sequence branch:
A sequence branches to
several sequences starting at a single or several
steps.
The sequence occurs if

step 5 is set
a) branching to step 6 if the
condition for the release
of transition e is satis
fied, (e 1) or
A difference is made
between:
sequence branch
sequenoe junaion
b) branching to step 8 if
the condition for the
release of transition "f"
is satisfied (f 1).
Example:
sequence
branch
A sequence branches to
multiple sequences that
are simultaneously activated but run independently of each other.
The next individual step is
carried out only after all
branches are prooessed.
_Q__
GG
0
A sequence from step 2 to

steps 22, 24 etc. only
occurs if,
----r~-,
I
I
I
I
'--:--...1
a) step 2 is set
and
b) the condition for the
release of the common
transition a is satisfied
(as 1).
360
Function charts for sequential controls. Examples
,1 u1\J [ \J GuH-lH 12002
121
Example: Lifting device

Workpieces are lifted by a llhlng cylinder and pushed onto a roller conveyor by a transfer cylinder.
Actuating the main valve and stan bun on 51 causes the lifting cylinder 1A1 to extend. lihing the workpiece and activating the limit switch 182 in the end position. This causes transfer cylinder 2A1 to extend. pushing the workpiece
onto the roller conveyor and activating limit switch 282. Cylinder 1A1 returns to Its initial position. actuates 181 thereby causing cylinder 2A1 to be retracted.
transfer cylinder 2A 1
281 282
$1@
start
System "ON".
Cylinders 1A1 and 2A1
in initial position
Start button 51
Extend cylinder 1A1

182 (Cylinder 1A1 is extended)
Extend cylinder 2A1
282 (Cylinder 2A1 is extended)
Retract cylinder 1A1
181 (Cylinder 1A1 is retracted)
Retract cylinder 2A1
281 (Cylinder 2A1 is retracted)
Example: Stirring machine control

Paint flows into a mixing tank, is stirred there and then
pumped back out Opening valve 01 causes the paint to
fill to a level mark. Afterwards motor M l is turned on and
the paint is stirred 2 minutes. After shutoff of stirring
motor M1 and activation of pump motor M2 (running
time at least 10 sec). the container is pumped empty.
Shutoff criter ion for pump motor M2 is drop of motor
power below 1 kW (container is empty).
Start button S 1
Valve 01 OPEN
p > 0.4 bar (Fill level mark reached)

Valve 01 CLOSED
Stirring motor M1 ON
Stirring motor Ml OFF

Pump motor M2 ON
pressure
sensor for
fi ll level
__.........,_~~~-~~
P < 1 kW (container empty)

&t>~ lOs
Pump motor M2 OFF
361
.........
Function diagrams
Path diagram
Simple motion sequences
~--
S1
~-- -
53
52
-------
SO: signet element ON

51 : last motion up to 51
S2: feed up to S2
S3: last reverse motion
uptoS3
State diagram
Description of a working sequence by 2 coordinates
I ~Pneumatic
cylinder
Step 1: idle position

Step 2: fast forward time ins
motion
0
step
Step3: feed
Step 4: end position
Step 5: fast reverse motion
4 10 11
ta:l tsJ
Symbols of a function diagram

Movements and functions
Paths and movements
Function lines
Straight line
working movement
---
Idle and Initial position

of subassemblies
--- ~
Straight line
idle movement
---
For all oonditions deviating from the idle or

initial position
Signal elements
M anual actuation
cp
1'
OFF
'l
ON/
OFF
---
---
JOG
MODE
AUTOMATIC
MODE
ON
Path limits
general
Path limits using
signal elements
Hydraulic or pneumatic
actuation
Mechanical actuation
ON
Path and movement limits
-t
Umit switch actuated in

end position
lfl6 bar
Pressure switch set to

6bar
(1
Limit switch actuated

over longer path length
cp
Tlme element set to
2s
2 sec.
Signal combinations
The signal line begins at
the signal output and
ends at the point where a
change of state is introduced.
The signal branch is

marked with a dot
Execution of a function diagram lstate diagram)

Cylinder
0 1 2 3 4
:9
Step 1: move from

initial position 1 to
position 2
Step 2: remain in
position
Step3: move
from position 2 to
initial position 1
Valve with two switc:h positions
AND state:
marked with a slash
OR state:
marked with a dot
Signal element activated manually
Step 1: switch
0 1 2 3 4 5
:II
from initial posilion b to position a

Step2and 3::
remain in position
Step 4: switch
from position a to
initial position a
0 1 2 3 4 5
JE
Step 2: switch on;

control element
switches from b
to a
Example: Anal control element mechanicaly activated

0 1 23456step
1A1
.,
:;;
'II
1
2s
Step 1: Final control element switches directional control valve from b to

a and causes extension of cylinder 1A1.
Step 2: Cylinder actuates signal element 1S1
Signal element 1S1 cont.rols timer element
Timer runs out (2 sec).
Step 3: Timer element controls directional control valve from a to b
Cylinder 1A1 retracts to initial state.
362
Function diagrams. Example

Example: Pneumetlc:elly controlled lifting device
251
ys21
- - ..
(C:JT~
- ~=---r~
~i
Step
Components
transfer cylinder 2A1
Name
No.~
MaWl
pneumatic
valve
OV1
r-a
b
.itw
~~;:
lifting
cylinder 1A 1
x, x1 x3
Cylilder
(vettic. stroke)
512 diredional
control valve
Cylinder
(horiz. stroke)
512 directional
control valve
(OCV)
1A1
1V2
2A1
2V1
'
153
251
152
~ ....... 151
f'.
I
II
ll
[)
(
2S2\
...... ~
I)
a
b
~ -{51
I
1/
Pneumatic circu.i t die..,-n
om m - ----11Iilli omI
II t=====::=
m -
[ill]
----11
Parts list
1A1
2A1
Cylinder, double acting

Cylinder, double acting
OV1
1V1
1V2
312 DCV with detent. manually activated

Two pressure valve
5/2 DCV, pressure activated
5/2 DCV, pressure activated
2V1
151
152
153
251
252
312 DCV, roller activated

312 DCV, activated by push bunon
[ill]
I
363
Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Circuit symbols
,f iJIN IS J 12 191 11 9%031
Function elements
...
Hydraulic
fluid flow
I>
Compressed
airflow
tt~
Direction of
flow
( (
Direction of
rotation
'VVV
Spring
..--..
Flow restriction
..__..
Adjustability
Power transmission
.,._
1>-
Hydraulic
pressure
source
Pneumatic
press. source
Wor1<ing tlne
++
-tEEi]
Line j unction
~
L._j
Line crossing
Quick
coupling
----
Control tine
Leakage cur
rent line
LvJ
Exhaust
without
connection
-----
Enclosure
around
subassemblies
Exhaust with
connection
-C)-
-qill-
Muffler
Filter or
screen
Tank
Air
receiver
-v
Water
separator
Hydraulic
accumulator
---
Air dryer
Service unit
IFRL)
-<>-
Lubricator
Pumps, compressors, motors
c)(
~
c)(
Fixed displacement hydraulic

pump. unidi
rectional
Variable dis
placement
hydraulic
pump, bidirec
tional
Compressor,
unidirectional
c)(
c)(
Fixed dis
placement
hydraulic
motor, unidi
recti onaI
Fixed displacement
pneumat.i c
motor, unidi
rectional
simplified:
Single-acting
cylinder,
return stroke
by undefined
power source
~
simplified:
Singleacting
cylinder,
return stroke
by integrated
spring
$_
---
Check valve,
unloaded
-N+-
Check valve,
spring loaded r-----;
Shuttle valve
(OR function)
Quick exhaust
valve
pq
simplified:
Double-acting
cylinder with
one-sided
piston rod
Pressure valves
Check, and/or valves
Variable dis
placement
pneumatic
motor, bidi
rectional
:t>=
Hydraulic
oscillating
drive
=D=
Pneumatic
oscillating
drive
Electric motor
Double-acting cylinders
Single-acting cylinders
pq
Variab le displacement
hydraulic
motor, bidi
rectional
t-W-1
a
Pilot operated
check valve
~
t;
One-way flow
control valve
:_ ___ __ _J
Dual-pressure
valve (AND
function)
rM
--~
Double-acting
cylinder with
one-sided
piston rod
and twosided
adjustable
end cushion
Flow control valves
Pressure
relief valves
-4---
Adjustable
throttle valve
Sequence
valve
-fit
Adjustable
2-wayflowcontrol valve
fii
Adjustable
J.wayflow
control valve,
relief open
ing to tank
2way pressure regulator, directacting

Pressure
switch, emits
electrical signal
for a preset
pressure
364
Circuit symbols
cf. DIN ISO 1219-1 (1996-03)
DIN ISO 5599 (2005 121
Connection designations and codes for directional control valves

Example:
5/2 directional control valve
with connection designation
Connec:tion dlsigndona for

~ lnd hythullc equipment
as per DIN
with
numbers
obsolete:
with
letters lilt
Inflow,
pressure
port
Working
ports
2,4,6
A, B,C
Vent.
drain
3, 5,7
Connection
Switch positions u
pumps and
compressors
A drives
M drive motors
S signal pick-up
V valves
Z all other pans
P
-1
o1
b-l Val~e with 3
.
.
. posrtlons
I 8
~
11 Number of rectangles a
Number o f positions
R,
s.
10.11,
X, Y,
12, 14
"Letters are still frequently used In
hydraulic cirw~ diagrams.
"The sequence of the leners does not
neceSSIIrily correspond to the number
Part designation
Valve with 2
positions
.
Leakage
oil port
Control
poft$31
sequence.
~A pulse
at conuol pon 12, for example,
COflnecls portS 1 and 2.
Designs of directional control valves

21 dil'ectlonal control valves 3/ clrec:tional control valves 4/ dlrec:tlonal control V1llves 5/ directional control valv
DI!J
CitJ
212 OCV, normallyclosed
212 ocv.
normally
open
Flow paths
~
~
~
312 OCV, normallyclosed

312 OCV. normallyopen
3/3 0CV. NC
in middle
position
[][X]
~
[8]
ld
One flow path

Two closed
pons
Two flow
paths
Two flow
paths and
one closed
port
Two interconnectedflow
paths
One flow path
in bypass
switch and
two closed
pons
4/2 directional
control valve
4'3 OCV. NC in
middle pos.
413 OCV. with
float in middle
position
512 directional
control valve
5/3 DCV,
NCinmiddle
position
Actuation of directional control valves

ManuMiy activeted
OJ
CJ
mJ
F[
General, no
type of actualion indicated
=[
Push button
1=[
Lever
Plunger
Pressure actuation
---[
Direct
hydraufoe
- -E[
f[
0=[
Medlanlcal actuation
Pl unger with
adjustable
stroke limit
pneumatic
-<
Indi rect using

pilot valve
Electrical ec:tuation
Pull button
Push and pull

bun on
)=[
Foot pedal
M[
8::[
rC
Spring
Roller
plunger
Roller lever.
one direction
of actuation
By solenoid
By electric
motor
Combined actuat ion
By solenoid
and pilot
valve
Mechanical components
'
Notch
365
Circuit diagrams
"DINIS:11219 2, 1cl9G 111
Designing a circuit plan

clrcul1 1
[ill)
circuil2
The circuit Is subdivided into subcircuits

wilh related control
functions.
The actual spatial
arrangement of the
components is not
considered.
If the circuit diagram

is made of several
units. the unit number
must be given, begin
ning with numera11.
Components are
arranged from bottom
to 10p in the direction
of power flow and
from leh to right
,--- - - - 1
.j ~'I
I I
)
i
L .---~:.::_ ___ ___;
Subassemblies such
as throttle check
valves or service units
(FRL) are enclosed by
a dash-dot line.
Hydraulic components
are shown in their ini
tial positions in the
equipment before
pressure is applied.
Similar components
or subassemblies are
shown at the same
height within a circuit.
I 11~====*=
(ill) [ill]
:I -I
1 1 ~1
Com~ of
Pneumatic components are shown in

their initial positions
in the equipment
before pressure is
applied.
Devices actuated by
drives. e.g. limit
switches, are repre
sented at their point of
activation by a dash
and their designator.
[ill]
Drive elements
Actuators
Control elements
Signal elements
Supply elements
circ:ult
Motors. cylinders, valves
Valves for controlling drive ele
ments
Valves for signal combination
Components used to trigger
a switching action
Service unit (FRLl. main valve
Example : Pneumatic: circuit diagram with two cylinders (lifting device)

circuit 1
drive elements
final control
elements
conlltll
element
signal
elements
supply elements
For roller plunger

valves operating on
one side only, a directional arrow is also
placed at the dash.
366
Electropneumatic controls
Function dlagr8m
Layout
transfer cylinder 2A 1
Sal
lifting cylinder 1A1

down~~~r+~~~~-
t ransfer
cylinder 2A 1
Pneumetic cit'cuit diagram

Lifting
Pushing
,~"~'
IMI~~""
a b
~
b
1M1
+24
2M1
1M2
i
(2
(4
2M2
2M1
(1
switching
N(INO
element table 1l - s
N(INO
- 6
10
11
magazine~ and
operation
B4
B1
continuous operation
(1
~c~
on~
tin-uous --~-.--~~.---~---.--~~
ON
N( e normally closed
NO z normally opened
-=18
Cirwit diagram with the edditional functions -
+24
2M2
T
(2
C3
T
C4
magaz.ine 11 .._AI\._
query
n -r~
BS
cont inuous
operation
OFF
CS
ov
N(INO
- 8
NC = normally closed
NO= normally open ed
Example for relay K5: Relay K5 has a nonnally open switch in section 10 and a normally open switch in section 11.
11 The switching element table is similar to the oontact table (pg. 3541 and is often used in practice. However it is not
standardized. The table indicates the section in which a NC or NO relay contact can be found.
367
Sequence control of a feed unit via PLC according to GRAFCET

Technological scheme
Description
fast
reverse
motion
operating
panel
The hydraulic cylinder extends In fast motion and

is switched into feed mode by switch 82. In the
fully extended position, the proximity switch 83
switches to fast reverse after o time delay of
2 seconds.
STOP
START
Aloc:ation list
Components and &dion
Component
designation
Address
Remarks
EO.O/E0.1
NO contact/
NC contact
Push bunon START
S0/51
52
E0.2
NO contact
Push bunon STOP
53
81 84
E0.3
E0.4-E0.7
NO contact
1M1
A1.0
2M1
A1.1
2M2
A1.2
Mode switch
AUTOMATIC/STEP
Cylinder A1 retTacts in fast motion

Cylinder A 1 retracted (81)
Proximity switch
Solenoid valve 011
Cylinder in feed mode
Solenoid valve 012
Extend cylinder
Solenoid valve 014
Retract cylinder
NC contact
Instruction list ll
I Operating modes I
Network 1
CALL FB1
Network 1: Function block FB1
Network 2
Basic position
U E0.4
U E0.7
SM0.3
FUNCTION BlOCK
Operating modes
I Controlktt I
ON
OFF
ro.o
l.,_~np ,_I
Automatic mode
Single
Release
MO.I
step
Network 2: Basic position
~
~
IStep chain I
Network 3: Step 1
Start step
M0.2
Color marking: step flag in red

Transition in blue
Network 6: Step 4
Fast reverse with dwell time
T1
Network 3
Step 1:
Start step
UE0.2
UN E0.3
U M0.1
UE0.4
UM4.0
OM0.2
SM1 .0
U M2.0
RM1 .0
Network4
Step 2:
Fast extension
U M0.1
UM0.3
U M1 .0
SM2.0
OM0.2
OM3.0
RM2.0
Network 5
Step3:
Feed mode
U M0.1
U EO.S
U M2.0
SM3.0
U M0.2
OM4.0
R M3.0
NetworkS
Step4:
Fast reverse
U M0.1
UE0.6
UM3.0
aT1
UT1
SM4.0
UM0.2
OM 1.0
RM4.0
Network 7 to 9
Steps 5 to 7:
Command output
UM2.0
=Al.l
U M3.0
A 1.0
UM4.0
=A1.2
PE
368
HL
DIN 51524-1
HLP
DIN 5 1524 2) resistance
1-- --t------i +
HVLP
OIN 5 1524-3
Hydraulic units up to 200 bar. with

high temperature requirements
Increase in
1-- --t-- -- - - ; corrosion
lnc,rease in
aging
resistanoe
+ Reduction of wear due to scoring

1--:i:-n_m_i_xed..,.-_fr_ictJ_i_o_n_a_re_a_ _ _ _ _-1 Hydraulic units with hydro pumps
+ Reduction of wear due to scoring
and hydro motors above 200 bar
in mixed friction area
operating pressure and with high
+ Improvement of viscosity-tempera- temperature requirements
ture behavior
HL10
HLP 10
Propenles
HL22
HLP 22
HL32
HLP32
HL46
HLP 46
HL68
HLP 68
Hl100
HlP 100
Example of reeding from diagram:

A gear pump operates at an average
operating temperature of 40'C.
During opereUon the allowable
kinematic viscosity of the hydraulic
oil is allowed to fluctuate between
20 to 50 mm2/sec.
According to the diagram there are

6 hydraulic oils that would be suitable:
HL 22/HLP 22
- 20
20
40
60
ao c
HL 32/HLP 32
Hl 46/HLP 46
100
temperature - -
Applications
-20 to +60
15. 22. 32.

46. 68. 100
Hydraulic
fluid
Unsaturated
esters
Saturated
- 20 to+ 150
Aqueous monomer and/or polymer

solutions. good wear protection
Mining. printing machines. welding

machines. forging presses
Water free synthetic liquids. good

resistance to aging, lubricating property through wide temperature range
Hydraulic equipment with high operating temperatures
low tempe- High temperarature

ture oxidation
flowability
stability
Rust
protection
Compatibility Seal compatiCost

with inner
bility
effectiveness
coatings
Fluid life
369
Pulling force 11 at
p, 6 bar inN
Stroke
inmm
Slngleectlng cylinder
Po
air consumption
gage pressure in
cylinder
, _ ambient air pressure

n
number of strokes
piston surface
Air consumption11
area
specific air con
sumption per em
piston stroke
piston stroke
Example:
Single-acting cylinder with d = 50 mm;

s= 100 mm; Po~ 6 bar; n - 120/min;
Pamb 1 bar; air consumption 0 in 1/min?
Double-acting cylinder
O = A S n- ~
Air consumption11
0 ,., 2 . Asn Pe + Pamb

Pamb
p-
. (6 + 1) bar
10
120 ~
4
min
1 bar
1
= 164934 cm3 " 11i6- min
min
= n (5cm)2
P or p..,
(on return)
P- or Pe
(on r eturn)
cm .
1.0
..!..
1.256
0.1164
I 0,7r)7
em
().56
0.5
0.4
0.3
~/o
'l/
._<>~:~
o.3!l
;~~~~ , ~ i 0.236
02
0.14
0.1
,li>
vwv
!/.: '/ V
bo ,.,_../
Air COI'I$umption11
Single-acting cylinder
0=Q Sn
A;r COI'I$Umption 11
Q , 2 q sn
Example:
0.05
0 .04
0.03
0 .02
r=0.01
0.01
00125
2v
v. L
/ ~v
~~v /
/
Calculate the air consumption of a single-acting cylin-
//. /
10 12 14 16 20
II I I I _I
~6
1076 13.49
25 32 35 40
50 63 70rrvn 100
piston diamelef d
--
derof d SOmm. S 100 mm

and n= 120/min from the
diagram for Pe ,. 6 bar.
According to the diagram
the piston stroke is
q= 0.14 1/cm.
O=q S n=
=0.141/crn 10cm - 120/min
1681/min
II When it fills dead space, actual air consumption m ay be up to 25% greater. Dead spaces include compressed air
lines between the directional control valve and the cylinder and unused space in the end position of the piston. The
rod is not taken into consideration.
cross-sectional area of the
370
Force calculation
Piston forces
P.
gage pressure
A 1 A, piston areas
F1
piston force when
e!Ctending
~
piston force when
retracting
d1 piston
diameter
~piston rod
diameter
'I efficiency
Effective piston force
F= Pe ATJ
Example:
Hydraulic cylinder with d, 100 mm; d, - 70 mm;
11 0.85 and P. 60 bar.
What are the effective piston forces 7
Extending:
N
F1 p 8 A, 11 =600 c~
. 0.85
N
1 Pa 1;nr 10 5 bar
n (10 cmjl
Pressure units
1 bar = 10 c~ ~ 0. 1 m~
1 mbar = 100 Pa ~ 1 hPa
40055 N
Retracting:
Fz Po ~ f/
= SOO~-,. . ((10cmj2 - (7cmj2J. O.BS

c~
4
= 20428N
Hydraulic press
In confined liquids or gases. pressure is distributed Displaced volume
uniformly in all directions.
A1 s1 = A2 s2
F1 Ioree on pressure piston
Work on bottt pistons
~ Ioree on working piston
A 1 area of pressure piston
F1 s 1 = F2 s 2
A, area of working piston
s 1 travel of pressure piston
Ratios:
~ travel of working piston
forces. areas, travel
I hydraulic transmission ratio
I
I
F,
A,
- j_
......-
Example:
F1 - 200 N; A 1 z 5 cm2; A, = 500 cm2;
~ - JOmm; F2 ?; s1 7; i - 1
=~ 200N - 500c~ -
5c~
A,
s, = A, ;
F1
30 mm SOOc~
200N
5c~
~ p.,
s,
i=~
A 1 A2 piston surface areas
Gage pressure
gage pressure at piston area A 1

gage pressure at piston area A,
efficiency of pressure intensifier
11
Example:
A1
Pol
Circuit symbols
accord. to DIN ISO 1219-1
200 cm2; A, 5 c~; 1J =0088;

N/cm2; Po2 a ?
= 7 bar= 70
A,
N
200c~
Pa2 = Po1 A, 'I= 70 c~
c~
5
= 2464 N/~ = 246.4 b.
Pez = Pet .
I)
'"'2
0
II
52
t=- 3000 mm
=!';= 20000N =100
Pel
Pel
F,
F2
t =-
20000N = 201cN
Pressure intensifier
A',"
Fz = ~ =~
F, ~ ~
Transmission ratio
.;;
...... ,_____
I
I
0.88
371
A utomation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics
Speeds, Power
Flow rates
0, 0 1 ,
Oz
Volume flow rate
volume flow rates
A. A 1, A 2 cross-sectional areas
v, v,. l"z flow rates
Continuity equnion
In a pipeline of variable cross-section the volume
flow rate
is constant throughout all cross-sec
lions over time t
~
~
Ratio of flow retas
Example:
Pipeline with A 1 = 19.6 cm2; A, 8.04 cm2 and
0 1201/mln; v 1 7; l"z 7
=. =120000 cmltrnin = 6122 em ,. 1.oz.!!!
A,
1R6 cm2
min
v v1 A, 5 1.02 mls 19.6 cm2 5
.!!!
249
2
A,
8.04 cm2
s
Piston speeds
A
Extending
IB~
0
volume flow rate
A 1, A, effective piston areas
"" l"z
piston speeds
Example:
Hydraulic cylinder with piston diameter
d 1 s 50 mm; piston rod diameter
~ 32 mm and Oa12 Vmin.
How high are the piston speeds?
Extending:
12000cm2trnin 611 em = 6.11....!!!...
111
n - tscm)2
min
min
4
Retracting:
12000 cmltrnin
11
2 = Az = n . (5cm)2 _ n. (3.2 cm)2
Retracting
t~
=Aa
= 1035 em = 10. 35 ....!!!...
min
min
Power of pumps and cylinders

P1
P2
input power on pump drive shaft

output power on pump outlet
0
volume flow rate
Po
gage pressure
TJ
efficiency of the pump
M
torque
n
rotational speed
9550 conversion factor
600 conversion factor
Example.:
Pump with
P1
a 40 Vmin; Pe 125 bar; TJ 0.84;
7; P2 e 1
Pz = 0-p. = 40 125 kW = 8.333 kW

600
600
P, = ~ = 8.333 kW = 9.920 kW
T}
0.84
Formulae for inp ut and

output pow wit h:
Pin kW, M in N m,
n in 1/min, 0 in Vmin,
Pe in bar
372
Tubes
SNmleu precision steel tubes for hychulic MCI Pf*IINitic lines lsetectionl
Materials
d . DIN EN 10JOS.1 (2003-()2)
E235 (St37.4l. E355 (St52.4) according to DIN 1630
Material
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Rm
R.
N/mm2
- ,.--
r-_
Elongation at
fracture EL
N/mm2
'Yo
Mechanical
properties
E235
340to480
235
25
E355
490to630
355
22
Good cold workability. s urface phos phatized or electroplated and
chromed
Applications
For lines in hydraulic or pneumatic systems at maximal rated pres

sures up to 500 bar
Oelivwv type: Normal manufactu red length: 6 m, normalized. Tubes have a surface quality of Ra " 4 (Jm.
Tube HPL-E235-NBK-20 x 2: Seamless precision steel tube for hydraulic and pneumatic applications, made of
E235, normalited, bright-drawn, outside diameter 20 mm, wall thickness 2 mm
Oublde
diameter
D
mm
w
thick.-
AowMC>
tional-
mm
c:m2
Ouaide
diameter
D
mm
4
4
5
5
6
6
8
8
8
10
10
10
12
12
12
14
14
14
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
18
18
18
18
0.8
0.05
20
1.0
0.01
20
0.8
0.10
20
I
1.0
O.o7
20
1.0
0.13
22
1.5
0.07
22
1.0
0.28
22
0.20
1.5
22
2.0
0.13
25
1.0
0.50
25
1.5
0.39
25
2.0
0.28
25
1.0
0.79
25
1.5
0.64
25
2.0
0.50
28
1.0
1.13
28
1.5
0.95
28
2.0
0.79
28
1.0
1.33
28
30
1.5
1.13
0 .79
2. 5
30
1.0
1.54
30
2.0
1.13
30
0.79
3.0
30
3.5
0.64
35
1.0
2.01
35
1.5
1.77
35
2.0
1.54
35
3.0
1.13
35
Ratad presstWe depending on wall thickness
W811
thic:lc.mm
Aowsec:
tionalA
cm2
Outside
diameter
D
mm
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
3.5
1.5
2.5
3 .0
3.5
4.5
6.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
3.5
4.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
5.0
6.0
2.5
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
2.01
1.77
1.54
1.13
3.14
2.54
2.01
1.77
3.80
3.14
2.84
2.55
2.01
1.33
4.91
4.52
3.80
3.46
3.14
5.31
4.91
4.52
3.14
2.55
1.01
6.16
5.73
4.91
4.16
38
38
38
38
38
64
6
8
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
10
12
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
16
20
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
25
30
2.0
2.5
38
3.0
4.0
50
100
Flow sectlonelarea
A
mm
c:m2
2.5
4.0
5.0
7.0
10.0
2.0
5.0
8.0
4.0
5.0
8.0
10.0
13.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
5.0
8.0
10.0
12.5
5.0
8.0
10.0
12.5
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.5
8.55
7.07
6.16
4.52
2.55
11.34
8.04
5.3 1
13.85
12.57
9.08
7.07
4.52
17.35
14.52
11.95
9.62
19.64
15.21
12.57
9.62
28.27
22.90
19.64
15.90
36.32
32.17
28.27
23.76
Wall
42
42
42
50
50
50
50
50
55
55
55
55
60
60
60
60
70
70
70
70
80
80
80
80
Rated pressure pin bar

160
250
I
Wall thickness sin mm
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
Outside
diameter
Dinmm
thick-
320
400
1.0
1.5
1.5
2.0
1.5
2.0
1.5
2.0
2.0
2.5
1.5
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
4.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
4.0
4.0
5.0
5.0
6.0
3.0
4.0
4.0
5.0
5.0
6.0
6.0
8.0
8.0
10.0
373
Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control
Programming languages
PLC programming languages (overview)
TeX11anguages
Instruction Ust IL
II
cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12}
I
Structured leX1 ST
Graphic languages
II
Ladder diagram LAD
I
I
II
Function block
language FBL
Common elements of ell PLC languages (selec1ion)
ct. DIN EN 61131
Delimiters (selection}
Symbol Use
()
;.
AI beginning and end of commenl
Leading prefix lor decimal numbers

Addition operator (STI
Leading prefix for decimal numbers
Year-monthday separator
Sublraction, negative operator ISn
Horizonlalline (lAD and FBLJ
l nitiali~alion operator
Assignmenl operalor (ST)
Base number and time lileral separator
(}
Beginning and end of character strings
Realexponenl delimiter
S1ep names and variable/type separators

Slatement label separators (ST}
Network label separa1ors (lAD and FBLJ
Instruction lists modifier/operalor (ST)
Function arguments (ST}
Delimiter for FBL inpullists (ST}
Separator for type declaralion
Separator for stalements 1ST}
Separator for areas
Separator for CASE areas (Sn
Bulleled lists, inilial values and field index
separators, operand lists, function argumenl
lists and CASE value lisls separators (ST}
Beginning of special characters in strings

Whole number/fraction separalor
Separator for hierarchal addresses and struc
tured elements
e orE
(200312}
Symbol Use
%
I orl
Direcl representation prefix 1l

Vertical lines (lD}
Individual element vtrlllbles for stor~ locations

Variable Meaning
I
a
M
X
storage location input

storage location output
storage location tag
(individual} bit size
Example (AWL)
ST %085 11:
Stores currenl result in byte size in
output storage localion 5
Bementary daU type$
Operators
Name
Variable Meaning
byte si~e (8 bit)
B
w
word size l 16 bill
double word size (32 bit)
D
long word size (64 bit)
L
Symbol Meaning
Keyword
Data 1ype
Boolean
addition
BOOL
subtraction
SINT
short whole number
multiplication
INT
whole number
division
double whole number
DINT
I
Boolean AND
UNT
long whole number
&
Boolean OR
REAL
real number
~ 1
Boolean exclusive OR
LREAL
long real number
=1
negation
STRING
variable long number sequence
J
_3)
sets Boolean operator to 1
TIME
duration
_
3)
sets Boolean operator to o
R
DATE
date
GT
comparison: greater than
>
GE
comparison: greater than or equallo
BYTE
bil sequence of length 8
>
EO
comparison: equal to
WORD
bit sequence of length 16
NE
comparison: not equal to
DWORD
<>
LWORD
LE
comparison: less than or equal to
<=
comparison: less than
LT
<
H Directly represented individual element variables have a leading % symbol.
21 This symbol is not allowed as operator in teX11anguage.
31 Nosymbol
Manufacturer specific
ADD
SUB
MUL
DIV
AND
OR
XOR
NOT
.
-
Bits
1
8
16
32
64
32
64
_.,
__.,.,
8
16
32
64
374
Ladder diagram ILD)
cf. OtN EN 61131 (2003 121
A ladder diagram represents the now in an electromechanical relay system.
I~
Symbol
Symbol
Lines and blocks
-1-:...
I)
--1 r-
Vertical line
Coils
NO contact
logic condition "1"
Coil output energize
---{}~
Coil output deenergize
I )
Crossing without
connection
--1/r-- I )
Blocks with
connection lines
f-------i
-C~
Line junction
I)
NCcontact
logic condition
I)
I Deec:riptlon
Symbol
Contacts
Horizontal line
I
I
IOeec:riptlon
-1Pr-
Contact for sensing

rising edge,
signal from o to "1 "
4s}-
Latching coil,
stores an operation
-{R~
Unlatching coil
, .. I)
-{P}-
Left power rail

I )
-1Nr-
Right power rail
I)
Contact for sensing

falling edge,
signal from "1" to o
-{N}-
Function block language IFBLI
Coil for sensing

positive slopes,
signal from o to "1"
Coil for sensing
negative slopes,
signal from o to. , .
II component designator
cf. DIN EN 6113112003 121
Function block language consists of individual function blod<s with statistical data. They are useful in implementing
frequently recurring functions.
Symbol
oF8 1.2
I Oeec:riptlon
I Oeec:riptlon
Symbol
Input parameters are placed on the left side

and output parameters on the right side.
The block's functionality is entered as a

name or symbol within the block.
The block designator is located above the
block.
-D-D-
Elements are rectangular or square.
Elements must be interconnected by horizontal and vertical signal now lines.
Negation of Boolean signals is shown by a

circle on the input or output.
Structured text 1ST)
cf. OtN EN 61131 (2003-121
Structured text is a high level language and builds on the syntax of ISOPASCAL
A :-A +B IB-CI
~ ~;'"~~ I I
operator
I
Operand
Statement
Type
:;
assignment
conditional statement
selection statement
repeat statement
repeat statement
repeat statement
leaving a repeated statement
IF
CASE
FOR
WHILE
REPEAT
EXIT
Comparison of Function Block Language IFBU and Structured text ISTI

Function blocks (examplesl
Struc:tured text (examplesl
~
~
or
tL}
~
F
or
A:= ADO l B. C. 0)
or
A:a B + C+ 0
E:= AND IF. G, HI
or
E:=F&G& H
375
Automat ion: 7.5 Pro grammable logic control
ct. DIN EN 61131 12003-12)
Instruction list Ill)
Instruction liS1 is a mochin!Hlriented textual programming language, similar to assembly language.

Structure of en Instruction
~!l~~~~ l
Operator modifiers
N
Boolean negation of the operand.
Statement is only executed if the evaluated result

is a Boolean 1.
~ ~
II
Standard
operator
Separates multiple.
Modifier
Evaluation of the operator is deferred until

")" appears.
Standard operators
Operator
Modi
fler
Operator
Modi
fler
Meaning
LD
setting an operand
OIV
division
ST
storing on operand addresses
GT
comparison: >
Meaning
sets Boolean operator to 1
GE
comparison: >-
sets Boolean operator back to 0
EO
comparison:=
AND
N,(
Boolean AND
NE
comparison: <>
&
N,(
Boolean AND
LE
com parison: <
OR
N,(
Boolean OR
LT
comparison : <
XOR
N,(
Boolean exclusive OR
J MP
C,N
jump to label
ADD
addition
CAL
C,N
call of a function block
SUB
subtraction
RET
C,N
jump back
M UL
multiplication
prooessing of deferred operations
Information list Ul l according to Will
cf. VDI 2880 (1985-09)
Structure of an Instruction
Label l : RA1.2
Ubef
I ILTI
"Set solenoid Y2 back
~or
Oper8nd
I I
I
Comment
~orsfor
Operators for
program organlutlon
signal processing
load
AND operation
open parenthesis
OR operation
ZR
count backwards
closed parenthesis
negation
xo
exclusive OR
NOP null operation
UN
NAND operation
SP
uncondit ional j ump
ON
input
SPB
conditional j ump
NOR operation
assignment
output
BA
call o f a block
ADD
addition
tag
BAB conditional call of a block
SUB
subtraction
constant
block end
M UL
m ultiplication
timer
comment beginning
OIV
division
counter
comment end
set
program block
program end
reset
function block
BE
PE
count forwards
Operand
1! In practice. many more PLC controls exiS1 which are programmed according to the VOl guidelines.
376
Comparison of the most commonly used PLC programming languages
Functlona
components of
program
lnmuc:tlon list (IJ
Function block a.nvu-ge
LAdder diagram
~toVDI
(Rill
(LDI
u
u
AND
with 3 Inputs
UN
Ell
E12
E13
AlO
Ell
ru-
rn-
r--
&
~1H1H4-----<~
AlO
~-~----'-=
OR
with 3 inputs
0
0
=
'
'
Ell
E12
E13
A10
Ell
E12
E13
;.1
~r1
A10
'
AND before OR
u
u
Ell
E12
..
OR before AND
with intermediate
tag
u
u
=
.u
0
0
.u
E11
UN E12
(UN Ell
0
U E121
A10
=
RSftip-flop
Set dominant
u
R
RSflip-flop
Reset dominant
u
R
u
=
u
=
Latch.
ON(E 121
dominating
Ell
E12
Ml
E13
E14
M1
AlO
~ ~~A~'1
&
&
~p
"'<~
"'<1
~~1
~~1
Ell
E12
iJ1
Hl
&
En
E14
A10
~1
Exclusive OR
(XOR)
Turn on
delay
E13
E14
A10
u
0
UN
E12 11
A11
El l
A11
E1111
All
E12
All
Ell
T1
T1
AlO
E12
AlO
Ell
AlO
Ell
~ ~~
Rl 1
~II
T1
Ell
~~~
~
AlO
"<~
A10 (
~ ~1
~~1
A10
11 The following applies to flip-flops: If S = 1 and R = 1, the last function programmed in the IL dominates.
377
PLC controlled embossing machine tool

Technological scheme
Description
mot(f)op
auto-
-'"ol4
START
STOP
operating
panel
WortqJieoes are to be fined with a work

p;ece number on an embossing machine
tool. The sensor B7 detects whether work
p;eces are still available in the stacker. The
pneumatic cytinder A 1 pushes the work
piece out of the stacker into the working
position. After this, the embossing cytinder
A2 extends and embosses the workpiece.
After a delay time of 1 sec., first the
embossing cylinder A2 and then the
pushing cylinder A1 are retracted. Cylinder
A.3 serves as an ejector of the embossed
workpiece. Sensor 88 detects whether the
workpiece was actually ejected.
Allocation list
Component and action
Cylinder A 1 extended (821

and workpiece at stop (881
Extend cylinder A2
Cylinder A2 extended (841
and dwell time of 1 sec.
Retract cylinder A2
Cylinder A2 retracted (831
Retract cylinder A 1
Solenoid valve <with

Solenoid valve (With
Component
desi nation
Address
SO/Sl
EO.O/E0.1
S2
S3
81 -84
8&88
1M1 und 1M2
2M1 und 2M2
3M1 und 3M2
E0.2
E0.3
E0.4-E0.7
E1 .0-E1.3
AO.O/A0.1
A.0.2/A0.3
A0.4/A0.5
Remarks
IStep chain I
Network 3: Step 1
Start step
M02
Extend cylinder A3
Cylinder A3 extracted (86)
and workpiece ejected (88)
Retract cylinder A3
IOperating modes I
Network 9: Step 7
Retract cylinder A3
M01
E13
Ell
Network 1: Function block f81

FUNCTION BLOCK
Operatlng modM
ON
OFF
EO.O
I Controller I
IOpetaUng _ , ,
Aulomattc mode
Single
step
MO 1
Release
Network 2: Basic position

EO.~
Color marking: step flag in red

Transition in blue
Network 6: Step 4
Retract cylinder A2
T1
378
Automation: 7.6 Handling and robot systems
Coordinate systems and axes
' 1 01 " r'J 15 J
~~-.,,, ,Juu
)/I
Robot axes
Robot meln -for~
To manipulate workpieces
or tools in space, the follow
ing are necessary:
3 degrees of freedom for
positioning and
3 degrees of freedom for
orientation
To reach a desired point in space, 3 robot main axes are

necessary.
3 robot auxiliary axes for

spatial orientation
A (roll)
3 translation axes
(T axes) designated
X, Y and Z
P (pitch)
Y (yawl
f----------...-----------1.
Cartesian robots
Articulated arm robots
3 rotational axes
(A-axes) designated
A. B and C
Coordinate systems
cf. DIN EN ISO 9787 (2000..071
The base coordinate

system references
the level mounting sur
face for the XY plane
the center of the robot for
the Zaxis
The flange coordinate sys

tern references the end
surface of the terminating
main axis of the robot.
The origin of the tool coor

dinate system lies at the
tool center point TCP (Tool
Center Point).
The speed of the tool cen
ter point is referred to as
the robot speed and the
path of tool travel as the
robot trajectory.
Symbols for representing robots (selection)
cf. VOl 2861 (1988-06)

Example RRR robots
Translation axis
ITaxis)ll
Translation aligned
(telescoping)
Translationoutof
alignment
-E
~
~""
Rotation axis
(R-axis)21
Rotation
aligned
-<J [>- 0
+ l+J
A
Rotationoutof
alignment
r-------------,_-----------;~A-u~xi~lia_ry__a~xi-s----~r-~r-===-===~-,~~
Gripper
__,..
--...
11 Translation = straight line motion
7 m~
~ ~~
(e.g. for roll, pitch

and yaw)
21 Rotation = rotational motion
L, ____ _j
'f-~armnts
~~"'
Jhand
joints
l.
[j
379
Robot designs
''
]I'. t-f\
15 1 9
'
'"'
' 2 n~;~ .
Mechanical 1tructure11
TIT-Kinematics
Main axes:
3 translational
Gantry robot
Areas of application:
large working space, there
fore often in overhead
gantry
tool and w orkpiece feed in
production cells
sheet processing with laser
beam and water jet cutting
pelletizing
Main axes:
1 rotational
2 translational
suitable for heavy masses
handling of heavy forged
and cast parts
transport o f pallets
end tool cartridges
pick and place
RTTKinematics
Base robot
ART-Kinematics
Vertical
swivel arm robot
Polar robot 2
Type: SCARA31robot
Main axes:
2 rotational as horizontal
revolute joint
1 translational
primarily in vertical
assembly area
point and simple path
welding
pick and place work
ART-Kinematics
:rs."-~
./=-1.
~ -~~v
Li-
r
1
I
"'.
r\(
I
""\
.'-..::::.__)---_/
Main axes:
2 rotational
1 translational
telescoping type axis 3,
consequently deeper
working space
point and simple path
welding. e.g, on car bodies
pick and place with die
casting machines
Horizontal
swivel arm robot
RRR-Kinematics
Vertical
swivel arm robot
Main axes:
3 rotational
handling and
assembly area
complex path welding
painting work
adhesive bonding
low space requirement
yet large working space
11 Axes are designated with numbers, where axis 1 is the axis of the first motion.
21 R =rotational axis; T =translational axis (Designations " A" and "T" are not standardized.)
31 SCARA = Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm
380
Grippers, Job safety

Gripper
cf. DIN EN ISO 14539 (2002 12) and VDI2740 (1995-04)
Scissors
griPPers
Char&cteristics
Cher8Cieristics
Both griPPer
fingers turn
about an axis
fixed in the
frame.
1 degree of
movement
Spring
loaded
Characteristics
Clamping
force is creal
ed by a
spring.
Opening of
the gripper
by pressure.
Frequently
used
grippers.
3 degrees of
movement
6 degrees of
movement
gripper
f
~
Both gripper
fingers are
pushed
parallel to
each other
opposite to
the gripper
housing.
Work safety for handling and robot systems*

protective curtain with sensors that can
distinguish between human and robot
because of workpiece change
Clamping
force created
by the own
weight of the
gripping
object.
Opening of
the gripper
by pressure.
Used in textile industry.

Four nail
plates are
eXlended by a
tapered plug
and grip the
fabric.
cf. DIN EN ISO 10218-1 (2007-02) & VDI2854 (1991-06)
eo.-pes
Maximum
space
Area encompassing:
moving parts of robot
tool flange
workpiece
Restricted
space
A portion of the maximum space which shou ld

not be entered in case of an eventual break
down of the robot system
Separating
safeguards
Containment fences. coverings. permanent

encasements, locking devices
(DIN EN 1088)
Protective
systems with
contactless
activation
Hazardous area security: light curtains and

light barriers
Area monitoring: laser scanners
Access security: light grills and light barriers
DIN EN 292
DIN EN61496
Safety stand. for machines, basic terminology

Safety standards for machines, contactless
activation of safety systems
Safety standards for machines, emergency
OFF systems
Safety around machines, safe distances
Acoustical hazard signals
Industrial Robots and Robot systems
American Standard for Industrial Robots
OINEN418
DINEN294
DINEN457
CSA Z 434-03
ANSIR 15.06
381
Automation: 7.7 NC technology
Coordinate axes
,, I)I"Jhh} l
"l01s 1)1
Coordinate system
Right hand rule
Cart_..n coordinate system
+Y
Coordinate axes X. Y and Z are

perpendicular to each other.
This arrangement can be repre
sented by thumb, Index finger
and middle finger of the right
hand.
Axes of rotation A. B and C are
assigned to coordinate axes X. Y
and Z.
When looking down one axis in
the positive direction. the positive
direction of rotation is clockwise.
Coordinate axes in programming

Coordinate axes and the resulting
directions of motion are aligned
to the main slideways of the CNC
machine and are essentially rela
tive to the clamped workpiece
with its workpiece zero point.
Positive directions of motion al
ways result in greater coordinate
values on the workpiece.
The Z axis always runs in the
direction of the main spindle,
To simplily programming it is
assumed that the workpiece
remains motionless and only the
tool moves.
Horizonttl milling mechlne
Example:
2<arriage lathe with programmable
main spindle
Reference points
Machine zero point M
Origin of the machine coordinate system and is set by the
machine manufacturer.
Program zero point PO
Indicates the coordinates of the point at which the tool is
before start of the program.
l oe<~ted
Reference point R
Origin of incremental position measurement system with a distance to the machine zero point set by the machine manufacturer.
Tool hole:! reference point T

lies central to the limiting face of the tool holder. On milling
machines this is the abutting surface of the tool spindle, on lathes
the abutting face of the tool holder on revolver.
11 not standardized
Woricpiece zero reference point W
Origin of the w orkpiece coordinate system and is set by the programmer based on engineering principles.
382
Program structure
Tub of the control program
Block 8trUCtUre
Nl0-!--.~~ ..~..!_0.!_
II
Positional
dat.a
Prep.
function
(G function)
Block
number
Technical
information
T
M03
Miscellaneous
function
(Miunc:rionl
Coordinates
target pointof
Feed
lis edll Tool I

pe
Explanation of wonls:
N10 block number 10
G01 feed. linear interpolation
X30 coordinate of target point in X dlreclion
Y40 coordinate of target point in Y direction
F150 feed 150 mm/min
S900 speed of main spindle 900/min
T01 tool no. 1
M03 spindle clockwise
Progr11m atructwe
Example:
CNC pt"ogram
'"
Program start
N1 GIO
M04
N2 Gil F0.2 5180
-I
NC blooks
aoo-M
.........
M30
N70
---1
Program end
CNC program
%01
N1 G90
M04
F0.2
S180
N2 G96
N3 GOO
X20
Z2
N4 G01
X30
Z-3
N5
Z 15
N6 GOO
X200 Z200
N7
M30
~
~
3x45l
15
Preparatory functions
Prep.
EffectiveMeenlng
fundioM
GOO
G02
G03
G04
G09
G17
G18
G19
G33
G40
G41
G42
e
e
Positioning at rapid rate
G01
Pnlp.
functlotw
Unear interpolation
G53
Circle interpolation clockwise
G54G59
Circle interpol. counterclockwise
G74
Dwell time predetermined
Gao
Exact stop
G81G89
Plane selection XY
Plane selection ZX
G90
Plane selection VZ
G91
Thread cutting, constant

pitch
G94
Cancel tool offset
G95
Cutter oompensation, left
G96
Cutter compensation, right
G97
.,..
Effectille. Meenlng
Cancel shift
Shift 1- Shift6
Approach reference point
Cancel fixed cycle
Fixed cycle 1-Fixed cycle 9
Absolute dimensional notation
Incremental dimensional notation
Feed rate
inmm/min
Feed in mm
Constant cutting speed
Spindle speed in 1/min
modal:
Preparatory functions that remain effective until they are overwritten by a similar type o f
condition.
non-modal:
Preparatory functions that are only effective in the block in which they are programmed.
Universal miscellaneous functions 1m-functions, selection)

MOO
Programmed stop
M04
M02
Program end
M03
Spindle clockwise
d. DIN 66025-2 (1988-091
Spindle counterclockwise
M07
Cooling lubricant ON
M05
Spindle stop
M09
Cooling lubricant OFF
M06
Tool change
M30
Program end with reset
383
Positional c:odesll for cutting tool

point P In relation to Clenter M of
cutting radius '
....----+- T ::~
2
crosshairs of
the presetting
device at
oint P
~--L
p
E tool reference point
M center of cuning radius r,

p tool cuning point
11 not standardized
A
T
E
p
transverse offset of X a><is

longitudinal correction of Z &><is
r,
cuning radius
1-8 positional code digits
T
tool holder reference point
Offset memory
Q
72
53
'
0.8
Po.itional
digit
Offset memory
Q
14
112
r,
0.4
<
tool length
tool radius
tool holder reference point
tool reference point
tool cuning point
Positional
digit
For layout o f lathe tool in front of center according to DIN 66217:

Because of the different perspective in the X-Z plane, the cuner compensation w ould be opposite for the user looking down on the workpiece
and for programming.
..,
~
Offset memory
126
10
'" ~~ } 8
"~'
1~
- -
CNCprogram
N ..
N10
N20
IN30
GOO
GOt
X20
VlO
)CliO
V1l
Zl
(Pll
zo (P2)
z-e l tP3l
N..
C>
C>
.....
C>
V\
Designation and madlining example:
Designation end madlining example:
Counterclockwise
circle interpolation,
machining motion in
programmed feed
CNCprogram
(P1)
tP2)
(P3)
N50 GO! X40
N_.
(P4)
CNCJ)fogrm
N
N10
C>
C>
IN20
GOO
XliO
Z2
001
N30
N40
N..
z-te~l
{Pll
{P21
Z61
{P4)
{P3)
XBO
X102
Designation and machining eKample:
N
NlO
N20
GOO
GOl
XliO
{Pll
{P21
Z-40
N30 G02
X100
N40
N.-
X110
G01
Z2
z.eo
120
KO
{P3)
{P4l
Designation and machining eKample:
CNC program
N_.
NlO G01 XO
zo
N20 G03 X60 Z11 .46
N30 G01
Z-40
IN411 em
N-.
XIII Z-ell
{P1)
10
K-45
(P2)
(P3)
10 K-151 (P4)
386
Automat ion: 7.7 NC technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL 11

Uneer interpolation with G1 for IMhes end milling machines
Turning
Milling
XI. Yl llnd ZJ coordinate. in NC programs wtth G90
lncnment81 programming wtth
NCprogram
N10
N15G90
N20.
N25G1 X68Z 16
N30 G1 I Xl31
N35
NC program
N10..
N15 G42
N20GO X ...
N25 G1 X72
;P2
N30 G1 Xl17 Yl57 ;P3
N35...
;f'2
ZJ.54 l;P3
0
Abeolute progremmlng wtth
55 12
XA. VA end ZA coonlnetes in NC progrMnS wtth G91
NCprogram
NC program
N10.
N15G91
N20
N2S G1 X68 Z-16
;f'2
NJO Gl
130 ZA70f;P3
N35...
N10...
N15 G42 GO X-16 V18
N20G91
N25 G1 X88
;P2
NJO G1 IXA55 YA78l ;P3
N35.
lXA
70
16 0
Start engle AS wtth coorcln8t8 value X
NCprogram
NC program
N 10 .
N15
N20 .
N2S G1 X60 Z-16
N30 jAS150 X130
N35...
N10.
N15 G42
N20GO X . Y18
N25 G1 X72
NJO G1 IA5120
N35...
16 0
80
;P2
;P2
X38l ;P3
:P3
NCprogram
NCprogram
N10 ...
N15G90
N20.
N25G1 X60 Z 16 ;P2
N30 G1 IA5140 zOSO) :P3
N35. .
N10.. .
N15G42
N20GO X .. Y1 8
N2SG1 X50
;P2
N30 G1 I A565 Y66l ;P3
N35..
so
16 0
The radius AN+ and the phase AN- are transition elements between two contour elem ents (circles, straight lines)
NCprogram
NC program
N10.
N15 G90
;P1
N 20 GO X48 ZO
N2S G 1 Z-30 )AN-1q ;f'2
N30 G 1 X82
:P3
N 35 G1 Z74 IAN+l0l ;P4
N40 G1 X140 Z90 ;P5
N10...
N 15 G42
N20GOX.. Y18
N2SG1 X75 IRN-2l
;P2
N30G1 X60 ~;P3
N35.
material)
387
Automation: 7.7. NC technology
Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

Circular interpolation for lathes and milling machines
Block structure:
G90
Gl X.. Z..
:P2
G2 X.. Z.. lA.. JA.. :P3
NC program
NCprogram
N10 ...
N15G90
N20 GO X38 Z4
:Pl
N25 Gl Z-40
:P2
N30 G2 X98 Z70~P3
N35 ...
N10 ...
N15G90
N20 GO X ... Y9
;P l
N25 G 1 X40
;P2
N30 G3 X60 Y29 11A4ct JA29 ~P3
N35 ...
Block structure:
Gl X.. Z..
;P2
G2 X.. Z.. R.. 0 .. ;P3
NCprogram
;P3
Block structure:
G90
N10 ...
N15G90
N20...
N25 G1 X50Z 18
;P2
N30 G2 Z-55 R26 A0115 1illJ ;P3
30
;P2
;P3
N10 ...
N15G90
N20...
;P2
N25G 1X12Y15
N30 G2 X66 Y15 R26 ~ ;P3
or:
;P3
N30 G2 X66 Y15 Rt)26
66
g~ ~:: ~:
Block structure:
Gl X.. Z..
G2 X.. Z.. R- ..
NCprogram
longer arc
N10 ...
N15G90
N20...
N25 Gl X70 Z25
;P2
N30 G2 X100 Z70 R26 ~ ;P3
NCprogram
or.
AO.. H..
~~
NC program
N10 ...
N1 5G90
N20...
;P2
N25G1 X30Y26
N30 G2 Z62 R26A0115 ~ ;P3
388

PAL functions for lathes and milling mac:hi.Progr11mming coordirwtM and lnterpoletion parwnetlrS
XA. YA,ZA
Absolute input of coordinate values relative to the workpiece zero point
XI, Yl, Zl
Incremental input of coordinate values relative to the current tool position
IA,KA
Absolute input of the Interpolation parameters relative to the workpiece zero point
T-addreMH for tool change

T
Tool storage plaoe in the tool revolver or holder
TC
Selection of the number of the offset memory
TR
Incremental tool radius or cuning edge offset in the selected offset memory
TL
Incremental tool length offset in tho selected offset memory (milling)
TZ
Incremental tool length offset in Z direction In the selected offset memory (turning)
TX
Incremental diameter offset In X direction in the selected offset memory (turning)
Additional Mfunc:tionsfl ~ng to PAL

End of sub program
M13
Clockwise spindle rotation, coolant ON
M17
M14
Counter clockwise spindle rotation. coolant ON
M60
Constant feed
M15
Spindle and coolant OFF
M61
M60 +corner shaping
PAL functions for lathes

G.functlons
Types of Interpolation
Cutter compensation
GO
G1
G2
G40
G41
Cancel tool radius offset TRO

Tool radius offset TRO to the left of the
programmed contour
G42
Tool radius offset TRO to the right of the

programmed contour
G3
G4
G9
G14
G61
G62
G63
Rapid travel/motion
linear interpolation with feed rat.e
Circular interpolation, clockwise
Circular interpolation, counter clockwise
Dwell time
E.xact stop
Travel to configured tool change point
linear interpolation for contour routing
Circular interpolation for contour routing,
clockwise
Circu lar interpolation for contour routing,
counter clockwise
Reference points
G50
G53
G54G57
G59
Cancellation o f incremental zero point

shift and rotations
Cancellation of all zero point shifts and
rotations
Adjustable absolute zero points
Feed~
G94
G95
G96
G97
Machining planes and rachuddng

G18
G11
G19
G81
G82
G30
Dimensions
G70
G71
G90
G91
Inch input confirmation

Metric input confirmation (mm)
Absolute dimensions
Input of incremental dimensions
Call sub program

Repeat program seetion
Conditional jumps
Cydes
G32
G33
Gao
Selection of the plane of rotation

Face machining planes
Shell surface/segment surface machining
planes
Rechucking/opposed spindle takeover
Rotational speed limitation

Feed in mm per minute
Feed in mm per revolution
Constant cutting speed
Constant ro tational speed
Program f - .
G2.2
G23
G29
G31
Incremental Canesian zero point shift and
rotation
and speeds
G92
G83
G84
G85
G86
G87
G88
G89
Thread cycle
Tapping cycle
Thread chasing cycle
Completion of a machining cycle contour
description
Longitudinal rough-turning cycle
Rough facing cycle
Rough-turning cycle parallel to the contour
Drilling cycle
Undercut cycle
Radial grooving cycle
Radial contour cutting cycle
Al<ial grooving cycle
Al<ial contour cutting cycle
389
Structure of NC block
G22 L !HI Ill

Obligatory addresses:
L
number of the
sub program
Optional acldresaas:
H numberof
repetitions
extract level
Sub program L911
Main program %900

N10G90..
N15 F.. S.. M4
N20 GO X42 Z6 ;P1
N25 G22 L911 H2
N30.
N35..
N150M30
N10G91
N15 GOZ-16
N20G1 X-6
N25G1 X6
N30GO Z-6
N35 Gl X-6
N40G1 X6
N45M17
22
10 0
Machining example
G23 N N (HI
N stan block number of the program section to
be repeated
N end block number of the program section to
be repeated
Option al addresses:
H number of repetitions
N10
N15GOX58Z-15M4
N20G91
N25G1 X-11
N30G1 Xll
N35GOZ-16
N40 G23 N20 N35 H2
N45G90
NSO .
G84 ZJ/ ZA 101 lVI IVBJ lORI IDMJ lRJ IDA) l UI 101 !FRI l EI
Zl depth of hole, incremental depth relative to the current tool position
ZA depth of hole, absolute depth
Optional addresses (selection):
0
pecking amount
(if 0 is not specified, pecking depth is
Machining example
equal to the final drilling depth!
27
31
35
V
safety distance
VB safety distance to the hole bottom
OR reduction value of the pecking amount
OM minimum infeed
R retract leveVdistance
DA spot-drilling depth
U dwell time at hole bottom
130
20
s
0
dwell time selection
0 1 in seconds
NlO G90
02 in revolutions
N15 G84 Z-130 030 VS VB1 OR4 UO.S
FR rapid travel reduction in %
N20 .
E spot-drilling feed
ttf!1~>~ ~
G32 Z/ZifZA F
Zl, ZA thread end point in
Z direction
I incremental, A absolute
F
p itch of thread
z.
z
Zl
G31 2/ZI/ZA X/XI/XA F 0 IZSI fXSI
IDA) IDUJ 101 101 IHI
Z, Zl, ZA thread end point in Z direction
Z controlled by G90/G91;
X. XI, Zl thread end point in X direction;
X controlled by G90/G91 ,
F
thread pitch
0
thread depth
Optional addresses 1..1:
ZS thread starting point, absolute in Z
XS thread starting point, absolute in X
OA approach
OU overrun
number of cuts
a
0
number of idle cycles
H selection of infeed type and residual CU1S IRCI
H1 without offset (radial infeedl. RC OFF
H2 lnfeed at left flank, RC OFF
H3 lnfeed at right flank, RC OFF
H4 alternating lnfeed, RC OFF
H1 1 without offset (radial infeed), RC ON
H1 2 infeed at left flank, RC ON
H13 infeed at right flank, RC ON
H14 alternating lnfeed, RC ON
Residual cuts 'h. '!. 'to. 'It x 10/0.1
Radial
In feed
H1/H11
Flank
infeed
Flank
infeed
Alternating
infeed
Machining example
1
40
10
N10 G90
N15 G31 2-40 X30 F3.5 02.15 2510 XS30 012 013 H14
N20 .
G81 lor G821 H4 IAKI IAZJ IAXJ IAEl
(AS) (AV) (OJ 1a1 IV) (EJ
or
G81 (or G821 D IH1/H2/H3/ H241
0
infeed
Optional addresses (..):
H type of machining
Longitudinal rough turning
Rough faci ng cycle with G82
H1 rough machining, removal below 45"
cycle with G81
H2 stepwise angle-cutting along the contour
Machining e><ample: longitudinal rough-m achining cycle
H3 like H1 with final contour cut
H4 contour finishing
H24 rough-machining with H2 and subsequent
finishing
AK contour allowance parallel to the contour
AZ contour allowance in Z direction
AX contour allowance in X direction
AE immersion angle (final angle of the tool)
110
125 110
11 55
20 03
AS emergence angle (lateral adjustment angle of tool)
AV safety angle reduction for AE and AS
machining starting point
0
N10
01 : current tool position
N15 G81 03 H3 E0.15 AZ0.1 AX0.5
0 2: calculated from contour
N20 X44 Z3
;f'1
idle step optimization
N25 G1 Z-20
;P2
a1 : optimization OFF
N30 G1 Z-55 AS135 RN20
;PJ
02: optimization ON
N35 G1 Z-n AS180
;P4
v safety distance for idle step optimization
N40G1Z110X64
;P5
G81: in Z direction
N45 AS180
;1'6
N50 AS110X88Z l25
;P1
G82: in X direction
feed
immersion
E
N55 AS180
;PS
N&l AS130 Xl36Z-170
;P9
Nfi6 G80
391
Structure NC block
G86 Z/ZJ/ZA X/ XI/XA ET IEBJ !OJ (. J (selection)
G88 ZIZIIZA X/ XIIXA ET IEBJ (OJ (. J (selection)
Z. Zl, ZA grooving position in Z direction;
Z controlled by G901G91.
Zl incremental. ZA absolute
X. XI. XA grooving position in X direction;
X controlled by G901G91,
XI Incremental, XA absolute
ET G86 absolute diameter of grooving depth
G88 absolute grooving depth
Optional addresses (..(:
EB grooving width and position
EB + grooving in direction Z+ relat.i ve to the
programmed grooving position P
Ell- grooving in direction Z- relalive to the
programmed grooving position P
0
pecking amount (if no value is specified. the
pecking depth is equal to the groove depth
AS flank angle of grooving at the starting point
relative to the grooving direction (X or Zl
Radial grooving cycle with G86 Axial grooving cycle with G88
AE flank angle of grooving at the end point
relative to tho grooving direction (X or Zl
AO rounding or chamfering o f upper comers
RO+ rounding
RO- chamfer width
Machining example: radial grooving cycle w ith G86:
AU rounding or chamfering of lower comers
AU+ rounding
10
AU- chamfer width
AK contour allowance parallel to the contour
AX contour allowance in X direction (contour oHsel)
EP set point definition for groove cuning (position PI
EP1: setpoint in upper corner of the groove
EP2: setpoint in bonom corner of the groove
H type of processing
HI roughing cut Hl4 roughing and finishing
H2 plunge turning H24 plunge turning and finishing
H4 finishing
DB infeed in% of the cuning tool width for grooving
NtO GO X82 Z-32
V
safety distance above groove
N35 G86 Z-30 xao ET48 EB20 04AS10 AE10 R0-2.5 AU2 Hl 4
E
feed rate into solid material
en
Thread undercuts ace. to DIN 76 Undercuts ace. to DIN 509
G85 Z/ ZI/ ZA X/ XIIXA IIIII K(KIIRNJI SXIIHJ lEI
SX
Obligat ory addresses:
Zl. ZA undercut position in Z direction;
z controlled by G90/G91,
Zl incremental. ZA absolute
X. XI. XA undercut position in X direction;
Machi ning precess with DIN 76
X controlled by G90/G91.
XI incremental. XA absolute
I
undercut depth; obligatOry parameter for DIN 76 (Hl)
K
undercut length; obligatory parameter for DIN 76 (HI)
z.

AN corner radius
SX grinding allowance
E
feed rate for plunging
H undercut shape
Hl DIN 76 H2 DIN 509 E
~a
H2 DIN 509 F
ctt:Sn ~
NlOGO _
N15G85 ZAI8 XA16 11.5 KS RNl SX0.2 Hl E0.15
Further information on p. 89 and p. 92
Optional addresses 1.- l: ZA absolute Z<OOrdinate of the madliinir1o limit parallel to the X axis
XA absolute Z<OOrdinate of the
limit parallel to the Z axis
392

PAL functions for milling machines
G-functlona
Types of interpolation, contours
Tool offsets
GO
Rapid motion
G40
Cancel cuner compensation
G1
Linear interpolation with feed rate
G2
Circular interpolation. clockwise
G41 G42
Cuner compensation left

Cuner compensation right
G3
Circular interpolation. counter clockwise
Feeds
G4
Dwell time
G94
Feed in mm per minute
G9
Exact stop
G95
Feed in mm per revolution
Gt O
Rapid motion in polar coordinates
G96
Constant cuning speed
Gl l
Linear interpolation with polar coordinates
G97
Constant spindle speed
G12
Circular interpolation with polar coordinates,

clockwise
G13
Circular interpolation with polar coordinates,

counter clockwise
G45
linear tangential approach to a contoor
G46
Linear tangential retraction from a contour
G47
Tangential approach to a contour in a

quarter circle
G48
Tangential retraction from a contour in a

quarter circle
G61
Linear interpolation for contour routing
G62
Circular interpolation for contour routing,

clockwise
G63
Circular interpolation for contoor routing,

counter clockwise
Reference points, rotation, mirror images. scaling

G50
Cancellation of the incremental zero point shift

and rotations
G53
Cancellation of all zero point shifts and

rotations
G54G57
Adjustable absolutzero points
G58
Incremental zero point shift, polar and

rotation
and..,_.
Program futures
G22
Call sub program
G23
Repeat program section
G29
Conditional jumps
Fbcedcydes
G34
Start-up of the contour pocket cycle
G35
Rough-machining technology o f the contour

pocket cycle
G36
Residual material technology of the contour

pocket cycle
G37
Finishing technology of the contour pocket cycle
G38
Contour description of the contour pocket cycle
Gao
Completion of the G38 cycle
G39
Call contour pocket cycle with material removal

either parallel to the contour or in meanders
G72
Rectangular pocket milling cycle
G73
Circular pocket and spigot milling cycle
G74
Slot milling cycle
G75
Circular slot milling cycle
G81
Drilling cycle
G82
Deep drilling cycle with pecking
Deep dnlling cyde with pecking and full retraction
G59
Incremental Cartesian zero point shift and

rotation
G83
G84
Tapping cycle
G66
Mirror image across the X or Y axis,

mirror image off
G85
Reaming cycle
G67
Scaling (enlarging or reducing or cancellation)
G86
Boring cycle
G87
Plunge milling cycle
G88
Internal thread milling cycle
G89
External thread milling cycle
G76
Multiple cycle call on a straight line (line of holes)
G77
Multiple cycle call on a pitch circle {line of holes)
G78
Cycle call at a particular point (polar coordinates)
G79
Cycle call at a particular point (Cartesian

coordinates)
PI- selection, clmensions

G17G19
Plane selection, 2'h D processing
G70
Inch input confirmation
G71
Metric input confirmation (mml
G90
Input of absolute dimensions
G91
Input of incremental dimensions
G1 IXIXI/XAJ I VIVIIVAI IZIZIIZAJ 101 lAS) .. (selection)
Machining example
X, XI, XA X coordinate of the target point
Y. VI, YA V coordinate of the target point
Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the target point
Optional addresses[ ..):
D length of travel distance
AS ascent angle relative to the X axis
RN transition element to the ne><t contour element
RN rounding radius RN- chamfer width
H
selection among two solutions via angle criterion
H1 small ascent angle H2 greater ascent angle
TC selection of the offset memory number
TR incremental change of the tool radius value
TL incremental change of the tool length offset
N10 ...
N15G1X74Y16RN-12
;P2
N20G1 065AS120AN+14 ;P3
G11 RP API AI (JIJA) [ZIZIIZAI (RNJ .. (Auswahll
RP polar radius
AP polar angle relative to the positive X axis
AI incremental polar angle
Optional addresses (..1:
I, lA
X coordinate of the polar center
J, JA
Y coordinate of the polar center
Z, Zl, ZA infced in Z direction
RN transition to the next contour element
RN+ rounding radius RN- chamfer width
TC selection of the offset memory number
TR incremental change of the tool radius value
TL incremental change of the tool length offset
G2 (XIXIIXA) [VIVIIVA) IZIZJIZAI WIIA [JIJAII I
111/IAJ JIJAl I R I AO IRNJ [OJ [FJ [SJ [MJ
G3 !XIXl/XAJ .... ...
Optional addresses (...):
X, XI, XA X coordinate of the target point
Y. Yl, VA Y coordinate of the target point
Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the target point
I, lA, J, JA center point COO<dinates
R radius of arc and
selection of solution via arc length criterion
R+ shorter arc R- longer arc
AO aperture angle
RN transition element
0
selection of solution via arc length criterion
01 shorter arc 02 longer arc
G12 API AI (lilA) (JI JA) (ZIZIIZAI [RNJ [FJ [ S) [MJ
G13 APIAJ [IIIAI [JIJAI [Z/Zl/ZAJ IRNI [FJ lSI [MJ
AP polar angle of target point
AI incremental polar angle
Optional addr-es [ ...):
I, lA X coordinate of polar center
J, JA V coordinate of the polar center
Machining example
lA
N15 G42 G47 R20X30YO Z3

N20 G 11 lAO JAO RP30 AP90
N25 G111AO JAO RP30 AP180
N30 G11 IAOJAO RP30 AP270
N35 G11 lAO JAO RP30 APO
;P2
;P3
;P4
;PS
;P2
Machining example
shorter
arc (01)
JA
.x
JA
38
80
N10 ..
N15G1 X38Y70RN+15
N20 G3 XA80 R30 A0135 RN-8 02
Machining
example 4 S .--M----<~
~~ tl~n:r>L"
lA
N15 G1 X60 Y15

;P2
N20 G121A45 JA45 AP50 ;P3
G41 /G42 G45 0 [X/XI/XAJ [VlVI/VAI ~fZJ/ZAI
Machining example
lWI lEI lfl lSI lMI

G46 G40 0 (Z/ ZI/ZAI !WI (F) lSI IMI
with G45: D distance to the first contour point,
unsigned
with G46: D length of the retracting motion,
unsigned
~it;:t!~==~t/_._
Opt ional addresses( ..):
X. XI. XA X coordinate o f the first contour point
'>
V. VI, VA V coordinate of the first contour point
"
X
Z, Zl, ZA with G45: intoed at approach point in the Z axis
with G46: retracting motion at the end point
in the Zaxis
absolute position in fast motion in the lnfeed axis
13 0
50
N10 ...
N15 G42 G45 XO V8 013 ;P1
N20 Gl XSO
;P2
N25 G1 V40 AS80
;P3
N30 G40 G46 013
;P4
St ructure of NC block
G41/G42 G47 R IX/XI/XA) [V/VI/VA) IZ/Zl/ZA)
1WJ lEI [FJ lSI IMJ

G48 G40 R [Z/Zl/ ZAI [WI [FJ lSI IMI
with G47: R radius of the approach motion relative
to the center path o f the cuner
with G48: R radius of the retracting motion relative
to the center path of the cutter
Optional addresses [..):
X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first contour point
V. VI. VA V coordinate of tho first contour point
Zl, ZA infeed at the approach point In the Z axis
W absolute position in fast motion in the infeed axis
E
feed rate for
50
N10 ...
N15 G42 G47 XO V8 R13
N20 G1 XSO
N25 G 1 Y40 AS80
NJO G40 G46 R13
z.
G54 or G55 or G56 or G57
Explanatory notes:
The workpiece zero point W is determined by the
commands G54 to G57 and has a defined distance to
the machine zero point. The operator enters the shih
values into the zero point register of the controller
before starting the program. The zero point is always
specified in absolute coordinates (XA, VA. ZAI relative
to the machine zero point.
G59 (XAJ (VA) [ZAI [ARI
Optional addresses (..1:
XA absolute X coordinate of the new workpiece zero point
VA absolute V coordinate of the new workpiece zero point
ZA absolute Z coordinate of the new w orkpiece zero point
AR angle of rotation of the new coordinate system relative
to the X axis
Explanatory notes:
If the coordinate system of the workpiece is rotated in
its current position, only the angle o f rotation is specified:
N ... G59ARThe zero point shih launched via G54...G57 is reset by:
N .. . GSO
XA
;P1
;P2
;P3
;P4
395
G81 ZI/ZA V (WI IFJ (SJ!MI

Zl depth of bore in the feed 8)(is
ZA absolute depth of bore relative to the
coordinate system of the workpiece
v safety distance from the top edge of
the hole
Optional addresses (. }:
W retract level relative to the coordinate
system of the workpiece
C;o~pid
motion
Gifeed
G82 ZI/ZA D V 1W1 !VBI lORI IDMI

lUI (OJ IDAJ lEI IFJ lSI MJ
G83 Zl/ ZA D V [WJ (VB) (OR) !OM)
lUI !OJ IDAJ IE.l IFRJ (FJ lSI IMJ
G83 has the following features:

- the same addresses as G82
-retracts to the safety distance V for chip removal
and in addition
FR rapid motion reduction in %
-- - GO rapid
ZI/ZA depth of bore in the feed a)(iS
motion
Zl incremental depth from the top edge of tho hole- - - Gl
ZA absolute depth in workpiece ooordinates
0 pecking amount
V safety distance above the top edge of the hole
W retract level relative to tho coordinate
VB retract distance to the current hole bottom
DR reduction value of tho last pecking amount
OM minimum pecking amount (unsigned)
U dwell time at hole bottom (relative to pecking)
0
unit of the dwell time
0 1 dwell time in seconds
02 dwell time in number of revolutions
DA incremental spot-drilling depth of the first infeed
E spot-drilling feed rate
G84 ZI/ZA F M V [WJ lSI

Obliglltory addresses:
Z1 incremental depth from the top edge of the hole
ZA absolute depth in workpiece coordinates
F thread pitch
M d irection of tool rotation tor plunging
M3 right-hand thread M4 left-hand thread
V
safety distance to the top edge of the hole
Optional addresses ( .):
G85 ZI/ZA [WJ lEI (F) !51 (MJ

ZI/ZA drilling depth in the infeed a)(iS
Zl incremental depth from the top edge of the hole
ZA absolute depth in workpiece coordinates
V
safety distance from the top edge of the hole
Optional addresses {..):
E
feed speed of the retracting motion
Gl;:;ing
G86 ZI/ZA V !WI lORI IFI lSI IMJ
ZI/Z.A depth to be bored out
Zl
ZA
depth of bore in the infeed axis

absolute depth of bore relative to the coordinate
v
safety distance from the top edge o f the hole
Optional addrnses 1..1:
W
retract level relative to the coordinate system
of the workpiece
DR radial retract distance to the contour
G87 ZI/ZA R 0 V !WI IBGI IFJ lSI IMI

ZI/Z.A depth of hole to be bored out
Zl
incremental depth from the top edge
ZA
absolute depth of bore relative to the
R
radius of the hole to be milled out
D
infeed per helical line
(pitch of the helical motion}
V
Optional addresses [ ..1:
W
retract level relative to the coordinate
BG2 machining, clockwise
BG3 machining, counter clockwise
G88 ZillA ON 0 0 V !WI IBGJ IFJ lSI IMJ
ZI/ZA depth of thread
Zl
incremental depth of thread from the top edge
ZA
absolute depth of thread relative to the
ON
nominal diameter o f the internal thread
D
thread pitch
a number of thread grooves of the tool
V
Optional addresses [ ..1:
W
retract level relative to the
BG2 machining, clocl<wise
BG3 machining, counter clockwise
G89 ZI/ZA ON 0 a V !WI IBGI [FJ [SJ IMJ
Zt
incremental depth of thread from the top edge
ZA absolute depth of thread relative to the
ON nominal diameter of the external thread
D
thread pitch
a number of thread grooves of the tool
V
safety distance to the top edge of the hole
Optional addresses [ ):
W
retract level
BG2 machining, clockwise
BG3
counter clockwise
N10
N15 G87 Zl-8.5 R10.92 03 V3 W13 03 BG2
N20 G79 X.. Y.. z.. ;cycle call
N10 ...
N15 G88 ZA-16 ON24 02 07 V1.5 W10 BG3 F..
N20 G7'9 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
Ma;;_]~:r0
13 Zl
~~~~::;:l2(},~~8
N10 ...
N15 GB9 Zl-8 ON18.16 01.5 07 VS W13 BG3 F..
N20 G79 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
XI/YI
397
G72
Machining example
ZI/ZA LP BP 0 V !WI !ANI !AKIIAU !EPI

(OBI [RHI (DHJ !OJ (OJ IHI lEI (FJ lSI IMI
ZI/Z.A depth of the circular pocket in the infeed axis
Zl
incremental from the top edge of the pocket
ZA
absolute, relative to the coordinate system of
the workpiece
LP
length of the rectangular pocket in X direction
BP
width of the rectangular pocket in Y direction
0
maximum depth of cut
V
safety distance to the material surface
Optional addntsses (. ):
AK
pocket edge finish allowance
.x
Al
pocket bottom finish allowance
RN corner radius
EPO. EP1. EP2. EP3 definition o f the setpoint at cycle call
W
retract level, in fast motion
H
type of machining
H1 rough machining H4 finishing
H2 face roughing of the rectangular surface
H14 rough-machining and finishing with the same tool
E
N15 G72 ZA-9 LP47 BP24 04 V3 AK0.4 ALO.S W8

N20 G79 X40 YJ6 ;cycle call for G72
G73
Zl/ ZA R 0 V 1W1 !RZI !AKJ !All lOBI

!RH) (OH) !01 (0) (H) (El [FJ [S) IMI
Obligatory addres$e$:
ZI/Z.A depth of circular pocket in the feed axis
Zl
incremental from the top edge of the pocket
ZA
absolute, relative to the coordinate system
of the workpiece
0
V
Optional addresses {.. ):
RZ
radius of the optional spigot
AK pocket edge finish allowance
Al
DB
cutter path overlap in %
W
retract level, in fast motion
H-E aswithG72
G74
ZI/ZA R 0 V [WI [RZI (AKI [All (OBI

IRHI [OHJ 01 101 (HI lEI IFJ lSI IMI
ZIIZA depth of the slot in the in feed axis
Zl
incremental from the top edge of the slot
ZA
absolute, relative to the coordinate system of
the workpiece
LP
slot length
BP slot width
V
safety distance
0
M achining example
-z~ -z~
~ZA
~IS
,E jj
l ".._.....---+-_____J 'l
.x
46
N15 G73ZA-15R20 04 V2 AK0.4ALO.SW5
N20 G79 X46 Y27 ;cycle call for G73
-zL~TL ~
~
Machining~
example,z
,.,
"'
15
44
Optional addresses( ..):

W
retract level
X
AK
pocket edge finish allowance
Al
EPO, EP1, EP2, EP3 definition of the setpoint at cycle call
0
infeed motion
01 vertical tool immersion
N15 G74lA-15LP50 BP22 03V2 ;definition of longilucinal slol via G74
02 ramping tool immersion
N20 G79 X ... Y. ;cycle call at a particular POint via G79
H- E as with G72
Structure of NC blodc
G75 7J/ZA BP RP AN/ AO AO/AP 0 V (WJ (AKI (All
[EPI (OJ (QJ !HI lEI IFJ lSI IMI
ZlfZA slot depth
Zl incremental from !he top edge of !he sloe
ZA absolute depth
BP slot wid!h
RP SIO! radius
AN polar start angle relative to the poshive X axis and the
center point of !he slot's first end radius
AO polar aperture angle between the center points of !he slot's
end radii
AP polar final angle relative to the positive X axis and !he
center point of the slot's second end radius
Machining enmple
(only 2 of the 3 polar angles need to be defined)
D maximum depth of cut
V
safety distance
Optional addresses( ..):
15
EP definicion of the calling point for !he slot cycle
EPO center of !he circular sloe
EP1 cemer of che right or top semicircle at the rear end
EP3 center of the left or bonom semicircle at the rear end
W re!ract level, in fast motion
AK slot edge finish allowance
Al sloe bonom finish allowance
lO
0
direction of motion
01 climb milling
02 conventional milling
H type of machining
H1 rough machining
H4 finishing
N15 G75 ZA-15 BP12 RP80 AN70 A0120 AK0.3 ALO.S EP3 OS V3 W6
H14 rough machining and finishing
N20 G79 X64 V30 ;cycle c.ll for G75 et EP3
feed race for
G76 [X/XI/XAJ [Y/VI/VAl IZ/ZI!ZAI AS 0 0 !ARI IWJ IHI
AS angle of the straight line rei alive to !he first geometry axis
+ counter clockwise
- clockwise
D spacing of the cycle calls on !he line
0 number of cycle calls on the line
Optional addresses( .).:
X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first point
X absolute or incremental X coordinate (G90, G91)
XI difference in coordinates between the currem tool
position and the first poin! on the line
XA absolute coordinate input of the starting point
V. VI, VA V coordinate of the first point
v absolute or incremental V coordinate CG90, G91)
VI difference in coordinates between the current tool
position and the first point on the line
VA absolute coordinate input of the starting point
Z,ZI,ZA Z coordinate of the first point
absolute or incremental Z coordinate (G90, G91)
Zl difference in coordinates between the current tool
position and the first point on the line
ZA absolute coordinate input of the starting point
AR angle of rotation relative to the positive X axis
N15G74ZA-5 LP34 BP20 .... ;definition of longitudinal slotwi111
W retract level. absolute
G74 N20 G76 X126 Y18 ZO ASl20 042 03 AR.:JO :cycle call
H
reversing position
H1 tool travels co safety distance between two positions and to
the retract level after the last position
H2 tool travels to the retract level between two positions
399
Gn [1/IAI (J/JAIIZ/ZI/ZAI RAN/AI Al/ AP 0 IARI IWJ IHJ(FPJ
R radius of p itch circle
AN polar angle of first object
AI constant segment angle
AP polar angle of last object
0
number of objects on the pitch circle
I
difference in X coordinates between the circle center and the staning point
lA absolute X coordinate of the circle center
J
difference in Y coordinates between the circle center and the starting point
JA absolute Y coordinate of the circle center
Z
absolute or incremental input via G90/G91
Zl difference in Z coordinales between the current tool position and the
pitch circle center
ZA absolute coordinate of the targel point
AR angle of rotation in direction of the positive first geometry axis
0 orientation of the object to be processed
01 forced rotation of the object 02 fixed orientation of the object
.y
W retract level. absolute
H retract! ng motion
H1 the tool travels to the safety distance v after completion
of the machining process
80
H2 the tool travels to the retract level W
after completion of the machining process
N15 G74 ZA-5 LP34 BP20 .. ;longitudinal slot with G74
H3 like H1, but I he tool travels to the next position N20 Gn R40 AN-65 Al60 AR40 05 IA80 JA60 ;cycle call
on the pitch arc
G78 [1/IA) IJ/JAI RP AP IZ/ZI/ ZAI IARJ !WI
Obligatory addre5$H:
I, lA X coordinate of the center of rotation
J, JA Y coordinate of the center of rotation
RP radius of the rotation circle
AP angle of rotation relative to the X axis
Optional addresses(..):
Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the top edge
AR angle of rotation of the object
relative to the X axis
retract level
Optional addresses (.):

X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first point
Y. Yl, YA Y coordinate o f the first point
Z. Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the first point
AR angle of rotation of the object relative to the X axis
W retract level. absolute in workpiece coordinates
G61
[XI/XAI IYl/ YAI IZ/ZI/ ZAIIDI IATI IASI RNI IHJ 101

XI, XA
X coordinate of the target point
Yl, YA
Y coordinate of the target point
Zl, ZA infeed in the Z axis
travelling distance AT transition angle
D
AS ascent angle relative to the X axis
RN+ rounding radius
R- chamfer width
H1 small ascent angle H2 larger ascent angle
01 short distance
02 longer distance
z.
.x
N15 G1 X. .. Y...
;P1
N20 G61 AT135 RN20
;P2
N25 G61 XA93 YAS6 AS30 ;P3
400
Structure of NC bloclc
G62 or G63 (XI/ XA) (VI/ VA) (ZJ'll/ZAI [1/IA ) [J/ JA) (R) !An [ AS) [AOI . - - - - - , . . ,
101 CAE/ API (RNJ[H) 101 (f ) lSI LM I
Optional addreases [ . ):
XI. XA, VI, YA coordinates of the target point
Zl, ZA infeed In the Z axis
R radius of the arc
A+ shorter arc A- longer arc
AS angle between tangents AT transition angle (starting point)
AO aperture angle
AE angle between tangents (end point)
AP polar angle of the arc's end point
AN+ rounding radius
AN- chamfer width
HI smaller AT angle
H2 larger AT angle
0 1 shorter arc
02 longer arc
z.
G34
I St.tup
M IIChlning eKample
P1/Pl
of the contour pock.t cyda (CPCI
G35
Rough-machining technology
of the contour pocket cyde
Structure of NC bloek
G35 T 0 [V] (TC] [TR) (Tl) (OM) [ OBI
[ AHI [OHJ (0] [OJ lEI [FJ lSI CMJ
G38 1RMidual matarllll rough-mad 'll
tachnology of the-~ le
G36 T 0 [VJ ITCI ITRI ITLI IDMJ[ OBI
IAHJIOHJ [OJ (OJ lEI [ FJ lSI [MJ
G37
Finishing technology of the
contow pocket cyda
Structure of NC bloclc
G37 T 0 lVI ITCJ [TRJITLI OBI I Rtil
(OHJ101 (OJ I HJ l EI I FJ lSI [M l
Obligatory addresses for G35, G36, G37:
T
tool number 0 absolute depth of bore
N5 G54
NIO Tt M.. G97 S. G94 F.
;~justable absolute
NIS
N20
N25
N30
~-up of contour pocket cyda
G34
G35
G37
G38
Optional addresses for G35, G36, G37:

safety distance
T... addresses for tool change (p. 388)
OM infeed minimum for island height optimization
DB cutter path overlap at the bottom
AH radius of the center path of the helical infeed
OH infeed per helical turn
0 1 plunging
02 helical plunging
01 climb milling
02 conventional milling
H4 finishing of edge/bottom H4 finishing of bottom/edge
H6 finishing of edge only H7 finishing of bottom only
E
1 Contour delcriptlon of the contour pocket cyda
G38 H (ll/ZA) ((lA JA AI/ (LP BP lA J A (RN] [AR]))
H1 pocket H2 island H2 pocket in an island
Optional addresses [ .. ): see on page 397
ZA-10 AKO.SAL0.5
TOt 06 M3
T02 06 M3 S. F..
H1
lero point
;rough-machining 18c:hnologv rllhe CPC

;finishing technology of the CPC
;contour dnctiptlon of the pocket
N35 GO X-40 YO
;PI
N40 G61 AS90 RN+9
;P2
N45 G63 JA20 Rt 3 RN+9 01 ;P3
N50 G61 ASS RN+9
;P4
N55 G63 IA40 R13 RN+9 01 ;P5
N60 G l X50 Y-25
;P6
N65 ...
;completion of G38
N70 G80
;como.. clesa iptlon of the Island
N75 G38 H2
N870 ...
;complelion of G38
N85 G80
;call the contour pocket cyda
N90 G39-
G38
P4/PS
f-i'*D?~:.
Structure of NC block GM ZillA (AKJ CAl l

Zl depth of bore from tool position
ZA absolute depth of bore
Optional addresses ( .. ]:
AK pocket edge finish allowance
AL pooket bottom finish allowance
G39 1penile!
Cal contow pocbt cyde with ailtw material_..
to t h e - or loap-type nwtarial NmOV1II
G39 Z/'1l/ZA V [W ) [X/ XI/XA) [ V/ VI/ YA] (AN) (H]
ddr-=
Obligatory
Z, Zl, ZA material surface in Z
V
Optional addresses [ ):
W height of retract level, absolute
X. XI, XA starting point of machining in X
V, VI, YA starting point of machining in Y
AN angle for loop-type material removal,
if AN is not defined, removal is parallel to the contour
H 1 rough-machining H2 isolating (facing) H4 finishing
HB isolating in finishing mode
H14 rough-machining and finishing
G80
c-.pletion of a G38 pocket/llland

contow description
Structure of NC block: G39
401
Automation: 7.8 Information technology
Numbering systems
Decimal system
Binary number system
Base 10
Numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. 5. 6, 7, B. 9
Decimal number n 10
8ase2
Place value
Value
Total
value n 1o
(decimal)
~.
1o2. 100
2. 1()(}. 200
200
'f
100 ,
0 10 0
5, 5
1010
r:-' ..__,
101 10
Numbe rs: 0, 1
Binary number n:z

Place va lue
i 205
;23. 8
2 1 .2
22 4
20 . ,
Value
1 -8-8 0 - 4 - 0 1 2-210 1 01
Total
I
I
value
n 10
8
0
2
0
ro
(decimal) 1
Hexadecimal numbering system

Base 16
Numbers and leners: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6. 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B. C, 0 , E. F

Decimal value: 0, 1. 2. 3. 4, 6. 6, 7, 8, 9. 10. 11. 12. 13, 14, 15
Conversion into binary number:
Conversion Into decimal number:
Every digit represents a
group of 4 Bit.s
JfL__,
161 ~
Place value
162 - 266
16
1S0 - 1
Va lue
10 . 266 - 2560 2. 16 - 32 115 1 - 15
Total
I
2560
32
15
value
0
ldecimall
n, i
Number value
4 bit group (tetrad)
i 2607
Binary number
n:z
~1~
10
15
1010
0010
11 11
--::::...... ...J_ -:::::-1010001011 11
~
Binary numbers "2 and hexadecimal numbers n,8 for decimal numbers n,0 up to 255
0
1
0
0
ba 0 0 0 0 0
, ____.
"'
!=:
'-=!!-
b,
ba
I><
, ,
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
00
16
10
17
11
18
12
19
13
20
14
21
15
22
16
23
17
24
18
25
19
26
1A
27
18
28
1C
29
10
30
1E
31
1F
32
20
33
21
34
22
35
23
36
24
37
25
38
26
39
27
40
28
41
29
42
'a l b, l bslbs b. l b.l l b.1 l b,

1st tetrad
2nd tetrad
No.
n,o
, n,o
, n,o
0 0
1 0
n,s
n,e
n,o
n,s
Ot&
1 0
0 0
n,o
n,&
n,o
n,&
n,o
n,s
Oto
0_16
n,o
n,6
01
2
02
3
03
4
04
5
05
6
06
7
07
8
08
9
09
10
n,o
n,o
n16 OA
n,o 11
1 0
n,o 12
1 0
1
1
n16
n,s 08
"s oc
13
n,o
n,s 00
n,o 14
n,6 OE
15
1 1 1 n,o
n,s OF
1
1 0
2A
43
28
44
2C
45
20
46
2E
47
2F
, , ,
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
Bit panern (binary numbers)
Decimal numbers and hexadecimal numb ~rs
46 64 BO
96 112 128 144 160 1 6 192
30 40 50
60 70 BO 90 AO
co
49 65 8 1 97 113 129 145 161
193
31 41 51
61 71 81 91 Al
Cl
50 66 82
98 114 130 146 162 1 8 194
32 42 52
62 72 82 92 A2 B2 C2
51 67 B3
99 115 131 147 163 179 195
33 43 53
63 73 B3 93 A3 B3 C3
52 68 84 100 116 132 146 164 160 196
34 44 54
64 74 84 94 A4 84 C4
53 69 85 101 117 133 149 165 181 197
35 45 55
65 75 85 95 AS 85 cs
54 70 86 102 118 134 150 166 182 198
36 46 66
66 76 86 96 A6 86 C6
55 71 87 103 119 135 151 167 163 199
37 47 57
67 77 87 97 A7 87 C7
56 72 88 104 120 136 152 168 184 200
38 46 58
68 78 88 98 A8 B8 C8
57 73 89 105 121 137 153 169 185 201
39 49 59
69 79 89 99 A9 89 C9
58 74 90 106 122 138 154 170 186 202
3A 4A SA 6A 7A 8A 9A AA BA CA
59 75 91 107 123 139 155 171 187 203
38 48 58 68 78 88 98 AB BB CB
60 76 92 108 124 140 156 172 188 204
3C 4C sc 6C 7C 8C 9C AC BC cc
6 1 77 93 109 125 141 157 173 189 205
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 AD BO co
62 78 94 110 126 142 158 174 190 206
3E 4E SE 6E 7E BE 9E AE BE CE
63 79 95 111 127 143 159 175 191 207
3F 4F SF 6F 7F SF 9F AF BF CF
0
1
0
0
ep
~~
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
208
DO
209
01
210
02
211
03
212
04
213
05
214
06
215
07
216
08
217
09
218
OA
219
DB
220
224
EO
225
El
226
E2
227
E3
228
E4
229
ES
230
E6
231
E7
232
E8
233
E9
234
EA
235
EB
236
EC
237
EO
238
EE
239
EF
240
FO
241
Fl
242
F2
243
F3
244
F4
245
FS
246
F6
247
F7
246
FB
249
F9
250
FA
251
FB
252
FC
253
FO
254
FE
255
FF
DC
221
DO
222
DE
223
OF
Example of reading from table: Binary number I)J =10110010 corresponds to decimal number n 1o = 178 or hrucadecimal number n 1e = 82.
Dec: Ch.
Name
0
1
2
3
NUL
SOH
STX
EOT
NULL
START OF HEADING
START OF TEXT
END OF TEXT
END OF TRANSMISSION
5
6
7
8
9
ENQ
ACK
BEL
BS
HT
ENQUIRY
ACKNOWLEDGE
BEU
BACKSPACE
HORIZONTAL TABULATION
ETX
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
OLE
Dec:
a..
32
33
34
35
LF
VT
FF
CR
so
Sl
36
37
38
%
&
39
40
41
42
space
exclamation point
quotes
number symbol
dollar symbol
percent
business 'And'
apostrophe
parenthesis open
parenthesis closed
asterisk
a..
17
OC1
OC2
20
OC4
21
NAK
NEGATIVEACKNO~OGE
22
SYN
ETB
SYNCHRONOUS IDLE
END OF TRANSMISSION BLOCK
24
30
CAN
EM
SUB
ESC
FS
GS
RS
CANCEL
END OF MEDIUM
SUBSTITUTE CHARACTER
ESCAPE
FILE SEPERATOR
GROUP SEPERATOR
RECORD SEPERATOR
31
32
127
SP
DEL
25
28
29
a..
43
44
45
46
47
58
59
60
<
61
62
>
63
OC3
23
26
27
Dec
Name
DEVICE CONTROL 1
DEVICE CONTROL 2
DEVICE CONTROL 3
DEVICE CONTROL 4
18
19
LINE FEED
VERTICAL TABULATION
FORM FEED
CARRIAGE RETURN
SHIFT-OUT
SHIFT-IN
DATA LINK ESCAPE
Name
Dec:
us
Name
plus
comma
minus, dash
period, decimal point
forward slash
colon
semicolon
less than
equal to
greater than
question mark
UNIT SEPE.RATOR
SPACE
DELETE
Dec:
a..
64
91
92
93
94
95
96
123
124
125
126
fUme
at
bracket open
back slash
bracket closed
circumflex
underline
accent grave
curly bracket open
ven icalline
curly bracket closed
tilde
Control symbols (G-32 and 127 decimal) cannot be seen on monitor or printer; they are for transmitting system commands.
Numbers 128-255 (decimal) in expanded ASCII code are either coded like symbols G-127 or they are used for
special symbols (cursive symbols, graphic symbols. user defined code). For example. number 128 is t he EU RO
symbol .
11 ASCII = A M ERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE
403
Automation: 7.8 Information technology
Graphical symbols for data processing

Symbols for program flow charts
Symbol
Heme, c:ommenta
Manual process.
e. g. reading. writing
Manual processing
location
Branch, e. g.
decision
Selector device.
e.g. switch
<>
0
0
II
Loop start,
beginning of a
repeating program
section
Loop end, end of
a repeating program
section
Synchronization in
parallel processing
Synchronization device
t>
It>
t>l
Interruption,
external
!:'-)
Control, external
Call with return

Call with no return
Neme.-
Symbol
Process. e.g.
addition. subtraction
Processing unit,
e. g. person. computer
ct. DIN 66001 (1983-12)

Symbol
Data, general
Dat.a storage medium.
general
Data to be machine
processed
Data storage medium
for date to be machine
processed
Data to be manually
processed
Manual filing,
e. g. card file, archive
D
0
Optical or acoustic data.

e. g. picture, sound
Optical or acoustic
output device, e. g.
monitor, loudspeaker
CJ
Manual, optical or
acoustic data
Input device. e. g.
keyboard, microphone
---
Process sequence
Access path
--!-
Data transmission path
[:]
c=l
Data on card,
e. g. punch card
Punch card device
reader, puncher
c:)
Interface to environ
ment. e. g. start
Connector, connects
graphic displays
Data on punched tape
Refinement, refers to
magnific. or zooming
t:=l
co
Punch tape device

reader. puncher
Data or device:
memory with only
sequential access,
e. g. magnetic tape
Data or device:
memory that is direct.ly
accessed, e.g.
disk or hard drive
Repeating block
with starting condition
--{
Comment for inserting

explanatory text
~on of connection n
Direction of act1on
Connection at symbol
Fanning out
ct. DIN 66261 (19851 1)
Repeating block
with end condition
Start.i ng condition:
Repeat, if ...
Instruction 1
Main memory
Data on paper, e. g. doc

umenc input/oulput
device for paper, e.g.
document reader. printer
Symbols for Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams

Sequence block
Ntome. c:ommenta
Data in main
memory
Instruction 1
Instruction 2
Instruction 1
Instruction 2
Instruction 3
Instruction 2
Instruction 3
Instruction 4
Instruction 3
Alternative
Alternative
Simple alternative
Alternative
Multiple alternatives
Conditional alternative
~~ ~~
not
satisfied
Instruction
No
instruction
(empty)
End condition:
If ..., then repeat
not
satisfied
------j----_ Condition
Condition
1
Instruction
['----__
Condition
2
Condition
3
Instruction
Instruction
Instruction
Instruction
404
Automation: 7.81nformation technology
Graphical symbols for data processing

Program flow chart and Nassi-Shneiderman diagram
Example: Circle calculation.s
Nassi.Shneiderman diagram
Program flow chart
Program: circle calculation

Clear screen
Value assignment pt - 3.1415927
Initial value assignment WS - n
Repeat. until WS
ft:
l---.----=-__J
J~
diameter of the
smallest circle
diameter of the
largest circle
increment
"I"
Repeat, until D > D2

Catcolation
C D PI
A D2PV4
OutpUt D. C, A
Increment value of D by S
lnputWS
Program end
BASIC program
REM
... Circle Calculation Program
REM
for circumference and area of circle
CLS
PRINT
CONST pt 3.1415927 #
WS= n
REM
Input value
DO UNTlL W$ = "j"
PRINT "Diameter initial value:";
INPUTD1
PRINT "Diameter end value: ";
INPUTD2
PRINT "Increment:";
INPUTS
IF D1 < 0 OR D1 > D2 OR 5 < = 0
THEN
PRINT "Invalid input"
END IF
REM Processing and Output
PRINT "D" , "C", "A"
D= 01
DO UNTIL D > D2
c - D ' PI
A=D2 PV4
PRINTD,C,A
D~D + S
LOOP
REM End
PRINT "End program? (y/n)";
INPUTWS
LOOP
END
**
New
Creates a new document.
Open
Opens an existing document.
Close
Closes the current document.
Page Numbers
Defines location and layout.
Save
Saves the current document.
AutoTelrt
Inserts predefined telrt.
Save as
Saves the current document

under a user-selected name.
Symbol
Inserts special charac1ers from

charac1er sets.
Page setup
Set.s margins. page orientation. paper

size and paper source.
Index and
Tables
Select.s telrt for an index, creates table

of contents.
Break
Configures page break or oolumn

break.
Print Preview
Displays a print image of the
Picture
InsertS graphics.
Print
Configures printer and printout.
Telrt Box
Inserts a telrt box.
Exit
Ends MS-Word.
File
Inserts a file.
Object
Inserts a formula, table, etc.
Hyperlink
Inserts a link to an URL.
Undo
Undoes the last action.
Repeat
Cut
Repeats the last ac1ion.
Copy
Copies selected text or graphics

to the clipboard.
Paste
Inserts the clipboard contents.
Select All
Selects the entire document.
Find
Searches for telrt or formatting.
Replace
Searches and replaces te.x t or formatting.
Go to
Jumps to point in text or specific page.
URL ~ Uniform Resource Locator

(Internet address)
Deletes selected text and saves it to the

clipboard.
Opens a new window with contents of
current window.
Arranges all open documents.
Splits a document into two windows.
List of opened documents.
Spelling and
grammar
Checks document for spelling and

grammatical errors.
Language
Sets the language for corrections.
Letters and
Mailings
Links document to data of a control file

(database).
Macro
Combines individual commands into

one action.
Normal
Normal view for creating documents.
Print layout
Displays print layout of a document.
Outline
Shows outline of a document
Tool bars
Shows/hides toolbars.
Customize
Configures screen layout.
Ruler
Shows/hides ruler.
Options
Defines settings for MS-Word.
Header and
Footer
Inserts text at top or bottom of page.
Zoom
Magnifies or reduces the screen

display.
Font
Defines font type and charac1er sets.
Paragraph
Configures paragraph settings.
Bullets and
Numbering
Configures numbering and bullets.
Borders and
Shading
Configures border type and shading.
Tabs
Sets tab stop locations.
Telrt direction
Changes orientation of telrt from

horizontal to vertical.
Insert Table
Creates a table.
Insert
Inserts individual cells (rows.

columns).
Delete
Deletes individual cells (rows.

columns).
Select
Selects individual cells (rows,

columns).
Merge Cells
Combines cells into one cell.
Split cells
Splits individual cells into multiple

cells.
Convert
Converts table to text and vice versa.
Table
Defines cell height, column width and

table layout.
406
Creates a new workbooll, chan or

macro template. When opening a
the commands on the menu bar
change.
Inserts individual cells.

Rows
Inserts entire rows.
Columns
lnsen.s entire columns.
Worksheet
Inserts a new worksheet in the workbook.

Inserts charts in the workbook.
Open
Opens an existing workbook.
Close
Closes the current workbook.
Save
Saves the current workbook.
Chan
Save as
Saves the current workbook under a

newly chosen name and file format.
Page Break
Sets page and/or column breaks.
Function
Inserts mathematical functions for cal

culation.
Picture
Inserts graphics.
Object
Inserts a formula, a table. a chan, etc.
Page setup
Sets margins, page orientation, paper

size and headerS/footers.
Print Area
Sets the selected print area.
Print Preview
Displays a prim preview of the workbook.
Print
Configures printer and printout.
Exit
Ends Excel.
Inserts a link to an URL.

Hypertink
URL Uniform Resource Locator

(Internet address)
New Window
Open.s a new window with contents of

current window.
Arrange
Configures window layout lor opened

workbooks.
Undo
Undoes the last act.i on.
Repeat
Repeats the last action.
Cut
Deletes selected area of worksheet

and saves it to the clipboard.
Copy
Copies selected teKI or graphics

to the clipboard.
Split
Splits a workbook into two windows.
Freeze Panes
Freezes a worksheet in the screen
Inserts diagrams or data series from

the clipboard or other applications.
1 Workbook 1
Ust of opened workbooks.
Spelling
Checks table for spelling errors.
Paste
Fill
Copies contents of selected cells

downwards, upwards, to the right or
left.
Delete Sheet
Deletes worksheet of a workbook.
M ove or Copy
Sheet
Moves or copies single worksheets

within a workbook.
Find
Searches for teKI or formatting.
Replace
Searches and replaces teKI or formattin g.
Sorts table area in alphabetical order.
view.
Share workbook Lets multiple users work on the

workbook simultaneously.
Protection
Protects workbook or individual worksheets from unauthorized access.
Formula
Auditing
Searches for errors within functions

and cross-references.
Macro
Combines individual commands into

one action.
Customize
Defines screen layout.
Enables importing from eKtemal dat.abases, tables or teKI.
Options
Configures settings for EXCEL.
Page Break
Preview
Displays expansion of a table on one

or more pages.
Cells
Sets number format, orientation, font

and frames.
Tool bars
Switches the toolbars on and off.
Ruler
Tu rns ruler on and off.
Header and
Footer
Inserts teKI at the top and/or

bottom of all pages.
Sheet
Sets name of sheet.
Zoom
Magnifies or reduces the screen

display.
Conditional
Formatting
Applies the format of a cell if a specific

condition is true.
Rows
Sets cell height.
Columns
Sets column width.
407
St andards: 8. 1 International standards
International Material Comparison Chart

Chart I
Germ1111y
USA
~-
JliJ)en
Sweden
AFNOR
JIS
ss
U. K.
Standard
DIN, DIN EN
Mat. No
as
AISVSAE
S1ructur.r end madline construction st....

5 185
5235JR
1.()()37
A283fAI
1015.A283
5235JRGI
1.()()36
A283tCl
S235JRG2
1.()()38
AS60.36
5235JO
1.0114
1.0116
5235J2G3
S235J2G4
1.()()35
1.0117
1.()()44
5275JR
5275JO
1.0143
5275J2G3
1.0144
S355JR
1.0045
5355JO
1.0553
1.0570
1449 15 HR; H5
A33
Fe360B
E24-2
STKM 12A;C
1300
1311
STKM 12A;C
1311.1312
1312
A515(55J
Fe 360 B 4360-40 B E 24-2 NE

Fe3608;
6323-ERW 3: CEW 3
E 24-3, E 24-4
4360-40C
E 2.&.3. E 24-4
Fe3600 1 FF
1513
A2
E36-4
1020
A5721421
Fe430 B FU
E2B-2
4360-43C
A 500 lA: B; 01 Fe43001 FF
E 28-3. E 28-4
E 28-J.E 28-4
1414.01
SM400A;B;C
1411. 1412. 1414

2172
1606
EJ6.2
STK400
A3
1449 5005 HR; HS
J20.560M
E J6.3. E 36-4
1024; 1524
1.0577
A7381A:CI
Fe51002FF
A52FP
SJ55K2G3
1.0595
SJ55K2G4
1.()596
A678(C1
A678(C1
224-430
224-430
E295
E335
1.0050
1.0060
AS70(501
A572165l
E360
1.0070
A 678{C1
1312.1313
5N 400 B; C; SN 490 B; C 1412
4J60.50 B
S355J2G3
SJ55J2G4
STK500
213210 2134. 2174

2174
--
Fe 490-2 FN
AS0-2
55490
Fe~2FN
AS0-2
5MS70
Fe~2FN
5MS70
1650
--
--
1550.2172
1650
Unalloyed quality steels

5275N
1.0490
A516{60)
5275M
SJS5N
1.8818
1.0545
A 715 (71
--
A714UIII
4J60.50E
S355M
1.8823
A 7 15171
EJSSR
2334.01, 2134.01
Alloy high grade steels

S420N
5420M
1.8902
1.8825
S460N
1.8901
S460M
1.8827
A633m
A633m
A734(Bl
Ouenc:hed lind tempered structur.r steels with

S4600L
1.8906
S5000L
1.8909
1.8927
S6200L
S960QL
1.8933
E420R
E460R
..._yield
--
--
strwtgth
4360-55 F
54600. T
SM520B,C
2143
5500T
S620T
5960T
--
--
Unalloyed steels- Cue hardened steels

CIOE
C10R
1.11 21
1.1207
1010
1011
040 A 10. 045 M 10 C 10.CX 10
59CK.5 I OC
1265
C15E
1.1141
1015
EJSSC
040 A 15.080 M 15 XC12
C15R
1.11 40
1016
080A20
515.5 15CK
1370
Alloy steels - Case herdened steels

16MnCr5
16MnCr55
1.7131
1.7139
5115
5115
527M 17
I BCrMo4
1.7243
5121Y5120H
527M20
18CrMoS4
1.7244
512(Y5120H
527M 20
20MoCr4
1.7321
K 12220
20MoCrS4
15NiCrl3
1.7323
K12220
1.5752
1.6523
3310
8620H
1.6526
1.6566
20NiCrMo22
20NiCrMo52-2
17NiCrMo6-4
16MC5.16MnCr5
16MC5
2173
2127
20MC5
Sc<420M
2523
20MC5
2523
--
Sc<420M
655H 13
12NC15
20NC02
SNC815 1Hl
SNCM220H
BOSH 20
B62tV8620H
5NCM220M
2506
815M 17
20NC02
18NC06
620-440
2506
2523
408
Standards: 8.1 International standards

Chart II
Germlilly
U. K.
USA
Funce
Jipllll
Sweden
AFNOR
JIS
ss
Standard
DIN, DIN EN
Mat. No. AISVSAE
t7NICrMoS6-4
20MnCr5
20MnCrS5
14NICrMo 13-4
18CrNiMo7-ll
1.6669
1,7147
1.7149
1.6657
1.6687
471&'47 18H
5120
512Mi120H
9310
BS
527 M20
527 M20
832M 13
20MC5
20MC5
16NC013
18NC06
SMnC420H
Sc:r 420 M
2523
S 20 C. s 22C
S20C
1450
1450
Unalloyed atHis - Quenched 8nd ~ atHis
C35E
C45
C45E
C60
C60E
1.0402
1.1 151
1.0406
1.1158
1.0501
1.1181
1.0503
1.1191
1.0601
1.1221
1020
1023
1025
1025
1035
1035
1045
1042, 1045
1060
1064
055M 15
OSSM 15
070M 26
1070 M26l
060A35
080A35
080A46
080M46
060 A 62
060 A 62. 070 M 60
CJO
C35
C40
C50
C55
1.0528
1.0501
1.0511
1.0540
1.0535
G 10300
1035
1040
G10500
1055
080AJO
060A3S
080M40
080M50
070 M 55, 577().50
C22
C22E
C25
C25E
CJS
AF42 C20
2C 22. XC 18. XC 25
1C25
2C25, XC25
C35. 1 C35
C3S
C4S
XC42 H 1
C60
2C60
XC32
S25C,S28C
SJSC,S35CM
S35C
S45C,S45CM
S45C
S58C
S58C,S60CM,
S65CM
SJOC
1450
1572, 1550
1550, 1572
1672, 1650
1672
AF60C40
XC 50
C54; 1C55
38C2. 38Cr2
42C4
42C2,46Ct2
S50C
S55C,S55CM
1666, 1678
F. 114A
1655
Alloy atHis - Quenched and tempered atHis

38Cr2
38CrS2
46Cr2
46CrS2
34Cr4
34CtS4
37Ct4
J7CrS4
25CrMo4
24CtMoS4
41Ct4
41CrS4
34CrM04
42CrM04
50CrM04
51CrV4
36CrNiM04
1.7003
1.7023
1.7006
1.7025
1.7033
1.7037
1.7034
1.7038
1.7218
1.7213
1.7035
1.7039
1.7220
1.7225
1.7228
1.8159
1.6511
34CrNiMoS4
30NiCrMo8
36NiCrMo16
1.6582
1.6580
1.6773
5140
5045
A 768 (95)
5132
434<W4340 H
5135
513515135 H
4118
4130/41 30 H
5140
L1
4137
4140
4150, 4147
6150
9840
4337, 4240
513515135 H
120M36
5JOA40
5JOA32
818M40
5JOA36
32C4.34Ct4
3SNC06
37Cr4.38C4
38Cr4
25C0 4
JOC04
41Cr4,42C4
708M25
cos 110
5JOA40
524A 14
708A37
708M40
708A47
73SA50
817 M37
Sc:r440 M
2245
SNBS
SCr430!H)
SNCM439
Set 435 IHI IMI
Scr43SH
SCM420
SCM430M
Set 4401Hl IM)
--
2225
2223-01
2092
3SC0 4
42C04
50CrMo4
50CV4
36 CrNiMo 4. 3S NCO 5,
40 NC0 3
816 M 40,817 M 40 34CrNiMo 8
823 M JO
JOCrNiMo8
3804
SCM432
SCM4401Hl
SCM44541H)
SUP10
2234
SNCM447
SNCM431
Sc:r435M
722M24
--
2244
2512
2230
2541
Nitriding steels
31CtMo12
34CrAIMo5-10
40CrAIMo710
40CrMoV13-9
1.8515
1.8507
1.8509
1.8523
AJ550.0
E 7140
905MJ9.En41 B
897 MJ9
lOCO 12
JOCA06.12
40CA06.12
SACM 1, SACM 64S
2240
2940
Steels f~ flame and induction hardening

Cf45
42Cr4
41CrM04
Cf35
1.1193
1.7045
1.7223
1.1183
1045
5140
4142
1035
060 A 47. 080 M 46

5JO A40
708M40, 3111-!0'1
080A 3S
XC42H 1TS
42C4TS
42C04TS
XC38H 1 TS
S45C. S45CM
Sc:r 440
SNB 22. SCM 440
S35C. SJ5CM
1672
2245
2244
1572
409
Standards: 8. 1 Internatio nal standards

Chart Ill
Germany
USA
U. K.
AISI/SAE
BS
Fr-
Japan
AFNOR
JIS
Sweden
Standard
OIN.OIN EN
Mat. No
Cf53
1. 1213
1.1249
Cf70
1050
070M 55
XC48H 1TS
S!iOC,550CM
ss
1674
230M07
5250
5250Pb
SUM22
1912
1914
Free cutting steels

11SMn30
1.07 15
1213
11 SMnPb30
11 SMn37
1,07 18
12l l 3
1215
11 SMnPb37
10520
10SPb20
35520
46520
1.0736
1.0737
12L 14
1.072 1
1108. 1109
1.0722
1.0726
1.0727
--
(210M151
1140
212M36
1146
EnS OM
5300
5300Pb
10F2
10Pb F 2
35MF6
45MF4
5UM23L
SUM25
--
SUM43
1926
1957
-
Cold won steels, unalloyed

O!OU
C105U
l1.1!i25
p .1545
IW10S
IW 1
1LBW 1A
CSOE2U.Y 1 SO
Y105
1I 5K3
111880
Cold won steels, ..loy

45WCrVI
1.2542
5 1
BS1
45WCtV8
60WCrV8
1.2550
51
85 1
55WC20
5 1
5KS3
2710
100MnCrW4
1.2510
01
801
90MnWCtV5
90MnCtV8
X210Cr12
1.2842
1.2080
02
P3
802
803
90MnV8.90MVS
Z200C 12
102Cr6
1.2067
L3
(8L31
10006. Y 100C6
SUJ2
45NiCtMo16
1.2767
1.2379
1.2363
02
A2
BP30
802
Y35NCO 16
X153CrMoV12
X100CrMOV51
Z 160CDV 12
5K012
2260
X40CrMoVS1
1.2344
H 13
BA2
BH 13
Z100CDV5
Z40CDV5
S K012
SKD61
2260
2242
X210CrW12
1.2436
04(06)
806
Z210CW12.01
5K02
2312
5K012
2710
Hot won steels

55NiCrMoVI
1.2714
SKS51
X37CrMoVS 1
11.2343
I H 11
IBH 11
Z38CDV5
32CrMoV1228
11.2365
IH 10
I BH10
132 CDV 1228
HS65 2C
1.3343
M2
8M2
HSS.S
SKH51
2722
HSS.S.25
1.3243
M35
BM 35
SKH55
m3
HS104-310
HS292
1.3207
1.3348
Z 85 WDKCV 06-05-04.02
HS 1().4.3-10
M7
H52!)-2,
Z 100 DCWV 09.()4.()202
HS29HI
1.3247
5292-8
1.3249
M42
M42
BM42
BM34
ISKO 6
1-
1-
1-
High speed steels
BT42
SKHS7
2782
HS2-9-HI
SKH59
2716
Stainless steels. austenitic:

X10CrNI18.S
1.4310
301
301 s 21/22
X2CrNi189
XSCrNi189
1.4307
F304 L
304L
Z 12CN 1&09
5US301
SUSF304 L
2331
Z 5 CN 111.09
Z2CN 1&10
SUS304
SCS 19. SUS 304 L
2332
2352
Z 3CN 1&07Az
ZS CN 17.()8
SUS304 LN
S US304
2371
2332, 2333
2346
1A350
304
304531
X2CrNi1&10
XSCrNi1 8-10
1.4306
1.431 1
1.4301
304 L
304 LN
304
3041305511
304561
304517
XSCrNiS189
X6CrNili1&10
1.4305
1.4541
303
303522131
Z8CNF1&09
S US 303
321
Z6CNT 18-10
X4CrNi18-12
3051308
SUS321
2337
sus 305 J1, sus 305
316
316 s 13/17/19
Z 3 CND 17-11.01
SUS316
2347
X6CrNiMoli17-12-2
1.4303
1.4401
1.4571
321 531151
305 5 17. 305 s 19
316li
320518/31
SUS316li
2350
X2CrNiMo1S.143
1.4435
3 16 L
316 s 1 Vll/14
Z6CNOT 11 12
Z 3 CND 1712.()31
Z 3 CNO 18-14.()3
SUS316L
2353
X2CrNiN1911
XSCrNiMo17 12-2
Z5CN 18-11 FF
410
Standards: 8. 1 International standards

Chart IV
USA
Germeny
U. K.
France
Sweden
Japan
Standard
OIN,OIN EN
MaL No.
X2CrNiMoN1713.J
1.4429
X2CrNiMoN1713-5
X1NICI'MQCu25-20-5
AISVSAE
AFNOA
BS
316LN
326563
Z3CNO 1712Al
1.4439
316L
3165 11
Z2CNO 17-12
1.4539
USNN08904 -
Z2NCOU2!;-20
Stinleu stHis. fwrftic
ss
JIS
(SUS316 LN)
2375
SUSF3 16 L
2348
2562
X2CrNi12
1.4003
A266
X6Cr13
1.4000
403
4035 17
ZBC 12.Z8C 13FF
X6Cr17
1.4016
430
430515
Z8C 17
SUS430
X2Crl112
1.4512
409
4095 19
ZJCT 12
SUH 409
X6CrMo 171
1A113
434
Z8C017.01
SUS434
X2CrMoT118-2
1A521
44l/444
SUS444
2326
434517
SUS403
2301
2320
Stainless .taela, rnartensitlc

X 12CrS13
1.4005
416
416S21Z11Cf13 SUS 416
X12Cr13
1.4006
410
4 10S21
Z 10C13
X20Cr13
1A021
420
420 537
Z20C 13
X30Cr13
1.4028
420F
4205 45
X46Cr 13
1.4034
X39CI'Mo 171
1.4 122
X3CrNiMo13-4
1.4313
2380
SUS410
2302
sus 420J 1
sus 420J 2
2303
Z30C 13
(4205 45)
Z44C 14.Z38C 13M
SUS420J2
5925
CA6-NM
425C 11
Z4CN013AM
scss.scss
2304
2304
2384
Hot rolled -'.... for 'Print~~~
38Si7
1.5023
46Si7
1.5024
9255
5157,51 Si7
55Cr3
1.7176
5 155
525A58
55Cr3,55C3
SUP91Al1MI
2253
61SiCr7
1.7108
9261.9262
61 SC7
5 1CrV4
1.8159
6150
55CrV4
SUP 10
2230
41 Si7
735A50
2090
Cold rolled strip and sheet from ~ .teele

OC03
1 1.0347
OC04
11.0338
A619
14493Cil
TA 620 110081 - J1449 2 Cfl; 3 Cll
I CR2
11146
ES
I SPCE;HR 4
11147
Cest Iron with ftak graphite (grey iron)

EN-GJL-100
EN.JL-1010 A 48 20B
1452 Grade 100
ftlOO
G5501FC 10
011().00
ENGJL 150
EN.JL 1020 A4825B
1452 Grade 150
A32-101 FGL 150;FT 150 G5501FC 15
0 11 5-00
EN-GJL-200
EN..JL-1030 A48308
1452 Grade 220
A32101 FGL 200;FT 200 G5501 FC20
012()-00
EN -GJL-250
EN-JL-1040 A48408
1452Grade~
A 32101 FGL 250; FT 25 0
G5501 FC25
0125-00
260
ENGJL-300
ENJl1050 A48458
1452 Grade 300
A 32 101 FGL 300: FT 30 0
G5501FC30
013()-00
EN-GJL-350
ENJL-1060 A48508
1452 Grade 350
A 32101 FGL 350; FT 35 0
G 5501FC35
0135-00
Cest iron with IPhoidaalnodulerl griphlte

EN -GJS.JS0-22
EN-J5-1010 -
071715
ENGJS.SQ0.7
EN.J5-1050 A 536 60-45-12 2789 Grade
A32-201 FGS 500-7
G 5502 FCO 500
07V-Il2
EN -GJS-600-3
ENJS-1060 A 536 80-55.()6 2789 Grade 6000 A 32201 FGS 600.J
G 5502 FCO 600
0732.()3
EN-GJS-700-2
EN -JS-1070 A 53610070-llJ
VB9 Grade 700-2 A 32-201 FGS 700-2
G 5502 FCD700
0737.()1
EN-GJMW-3504
EN-JM 1010-
86661 w 35.()4
A 32701 MB 35-7
G 5703 FCMW 330
ENGJMW.40Q.S
EN-JM 1030 -
6661 w 40.()5
A 32-701 MB 40-05
G 5703 FCMW 370
EN-GJMW-450-7
EN-JM 1040 -
666145.()7
A32701 MB 450-7
G 5703 FCMWP 440
ENGJMB.JS0-10
EN-JM 1130 A47Grade

310 B 340.112
22010+32510
A 32-102 MN 350-10
G 5703 FCMB 340
soon
Malleable c:nt iron
0815-00
EN-GJMB-450-6
EN-JM 1140-
6661 P45-06
A 32703 MP 50-5
085400
EN-GJMB-550-4
EN-JM 1160 -
6661 P55-ll4
A 32-703 MP 50-3
G 5703 FCMP 540
0855.()0
EN-GJMB-650-2
EN-JM 1180-
6661 P65-02
086203
ENGJMB-700-2
EN-JM 1190 A220Grade
6661 P70-ll2
A32703 MP ~2
G 5703 FCMP 690
0862.()3
70003
411
Standards: 8.1 International st andard s

Chart V
Germany
USA
U. K.
AISVSAE
BS
Fr.-
Japan
Sweden
AFNOR
JIS
ss
Standard
DIN. DIN EN
Mat No.
c..t ...... for v-al eppllcWons

GS-38
it-0420
1-
1-
GS-45
11.0446
IA27
1-
Cast st.... few pr~
--
I SCJEO
ISC450
11-
v-.ls
GP240GH
1.0619
A216G.-
G17CrMoS-5
1.7357
A217G.WC6
wee
1504-161 G1. B
Aluminum end wrought aluminum 8lloys

old
A199.5
1050A
AIMn1
3103
AIMn1Cu
AI Mgt
3003
5005A
AI Mg2
5251
AIMg3
AI Mg5
5754
AI Mg3Mn
5454
AI Mg4.5Mn0.7
5083
AICuPbMgMn
2007
AICu4PbMg
AIMgSiPb
2030
AICu4SiMg
5019151 19
6012
2014
1050A
31113
3003
5005A
5251
5754
5019/5119
5454
5083
2007
2030
6012
2014
5454 A-G3MC
5083 A-G4.5MC
NB
A-U4P8
H 15
2017
2024
6060
6060
H9
6082
7020
6082
H30
H17
AIZnS.SMgCu
A-GS
N51
2017
7020
7022
AG3M
2024
7022
7075
5005 A-G0.6
5251 A-G2 M
N4
AI Cu4Mg1
AI MgSi
AI Zn4.5Mg1
AIZn5Mg3Cu
3103 (3 1113) A M1
N41
AI Cu4MgSi
AI Si1MgMn
nf1W old
1050A A-5
18
N3
A-SGPB
(2014 A) A-U 4SG
A-tJ4G
2l9719
2024 A-U4 Gt
(6063) A-GS
6082 A-SGM0.7
7020 A Z5G
A-Z4GU
new
1050A A1050
3003 A3003
5005 A5005
5251 5754 -
5454 A5454
A5083
-A2017
2024 A2024
6060 A6063
6082 7020 (A 7N011
4007
4054
4 106
4 125
4 140
4335
4103
4212
4425
7075 A7075
A-57g
MAG-f-101
G-M2
MAG-f-111
G-A3Z1
MAG-f-121
G-A6Z1
7075
2 L95/96
A356
LM25
7075 A-ZSGU

AC-AISi7Mg
AC-42000
Magnesium alloys, Titanium. Titanium alloys

MgMn2
3.3520
3.!>.31 2
MIA
AZ31 B
MgAI6Zn
3.5612
MgAIBZn
lit
3.5812
3.7025
AZ61A
AZf!{)A
li2
3.7035
liAI6V4
liAIMo4Sn2
3.7 165
3.7185
MgA13Zn
--
TAt
TA2
T A IG-13, 28.56
T A45-51,57
G-A7Z1
--
--
--
The publisher and its affiliates have taken care to collect the above data to the best of th eir ability. However, no
responsibility is accepted by the publisher or any of its affiliates regarding its content or any statement herei n or
omission there from which may result in any loss or damage to any party using the data shown above.
13
74
76
82
Metric ISO screw threads

Counter sinks
Thread runouts
Knurls
204 824
224 835
89 908
91 910
Folding drawing sheets

Studs
Drain plugs
Drain plugs
66
219
219
219
103
12511
12611
158
172
Metric ISO trapezoidal threads

Flat washers
Flat washers
Tapered threads
Headed drill bushings
207
233
234
205
247
938
939
962
Hexagonal weld nuts

Castle nuts
Studs
Studs
Designation of bolts and screws
232
232
219
219
210
173
179
202
228
250
Slip type jig bushing

Drill bushings
Screw thread types. Overview
Morse tapers, Metric tapers
Radii
247
247
202
242,243
65
962
974
981
101311
101411
Designation of nuts
Counterbores
Lock nuts for roller bearings
Hot rolled round steel bar
227
225
268
144
144
319
323
332
336
406
Ball knobs
Preferred numbers
Center holes
Drill diameter for clearance holes
Dimensioning
248 101711
65 1025
91 1026
204 1301
75-82 1302

!-beams
Steel channel
Units of measurement
Mathematical symbols
43311
434
435
461
466
Flat washers
Washers for channels
Washers for 1-beams
Coordinate systems
Knurled nuts. high form
234
235
235
62,63
232
1304
1414
1445
1587
165111
Symbols, mathematical
Twist drills
Clevis pins with threaded stud end
Hexagon acorn nuts. high form
Free cutting steels
19
301
238
231
134
467
471
472
475
508
Knurled nuts. low form

Retaining rings for shafts
Retaining rings for holes
Widths across flats
Nuts forT-slots
232
269
269
223
250
17()()11
170711
1732
1850
Heavy non-ferrous metals, designation

Solders
Welding filler metals for AI
174
334
326
262
509
513
580
582
609
Undercuts
Metric buttress threads
Eye bolts
Eye nuts
Hexagon head bolts and screws
92
207
219
231
214
2080
2093
2098
2211
2215
Steep taper shanks

Disk springs
Compression springs
Vbelt pulleys
Classic V-belts
616
617
623
625
628
Dimension series for roller bearings

Needle bearings
Roller bearings. designation
Deep groove ball bearings
Angular-contact ball bearings
264
268
264
265
265
2215
2403
3760
3n1 n
4760
V-belts, cogged
Pipelines, identification
Radial seals
0-rings
Form deviations
650
711
720
780
787
820
T-slots
Axial deep groove ball bearings
Tapered roller bearings
Module series for gears
Bolts and screws for Tslots
Standardization
250
266
267
257
250
929
935
4844
4983
4987
5406
5412
5418
8 5419
Safety signs
Tool holders. designation
lndexable inserts. designation
Lock washers
Cylindrical roller bearings
Roller bearings, mounting
Felt seals
144
149,150
146
17, 2G-22
19
242.243
246
245
254
253
253
343
270
270
98
338-341
297
296
268
266
26!'>-267
270
5520
6311
6319
6321
Tolerances for installation of roller

bearings
Bonding radii, non-ferrous metals
Thrust peds
Sphoricel w ashers and conical seats
l ocating and supporting pins
17221"
1722311
318
17350"
248 17860
250 19225
249
6323
6332
6335
6336
6771 11
Loose slot tenons

Grub screws w ith thrust point
Star knob
Fluted knobs
Tille blocks
250
248
249
249
66
8773
6780
6784"
6785
6796
Hardness specifications in drawings

Holes, simplified repl'esentation
Workpiece edges
Center punch on turned parts
Conical spring washers
97 50141
83 51385
88 5150.2
88 51519
235 51524
Shear test
Machining coolants
lubricants, designation
ISO viscosity grades
Hydraulic oils
191
292
271,272
271
368
6799
269 53804
240 55350
239 66001
239 66025
240 66217
Statistical analysis
Quality inspection and testing
Program ftow charts. symbols
CNC machines, program structure
CNC machines, coordinates
277,278
276
6887
6888
Circlips
Feather keys
Keys
Gib-head keys
Woodruff keys
691411
6915 11
6935
7 157
7500

Hexagon nuts, heavy
Bending radii, steel
Fit recommendations
Thread forming screws
214
230
318,319
111
218
7719
7721
7722
7726
7753
Wide Vbolts
Timing belts, synchronous belts
Double Vbelts
Foam materials
Narrow V-belts
253
253.255
253
185
439
253,254
440
7867
7984
7989
7991
7999
Vribbedbelt
Cap screws. socket head
Washers for steel constructions
Countersunk head screws
Hexagon fit bolts
253
215
234
216
214
8554 11
9713 11
9715
9812
9816
Gas w elding rods

AI channel
Magnesium wrought alloys
Pillar presses
Pillar presses
9819
9861
16901
17211 11
17212"
Pillar presses
Punches
Plastic molded parts, tolerances
Nitriding Sleets
Steels for flame hardening
5425
6885
6886
110
Sl)l'ing steel
Steel wire for springs
Tool steels
Titanium, titanium alloys
Controllers
138
138
135
172
347~349
19226
Basic terminology of control

engineering
34~349
19227
30910
40719''
50125
Code leners. symbols
346,347
178
66261
69871
69893
70852
70952
485
499"
515
573
754
754
324
755
171
775 11
172
252
1044
252
1045
1089
252
1089
251
1173
186
134
134, 156
Sintenld metals
Function charts
Tensile test specimens
NassiShneiderman diagrams, symbols

Steep taper shank
Hollow taper shahs
Lock nuts
Lock washers
3~360
190
403
382-385
381
403
243
243
231
231
Inert gas
Wire electrodes
Rod electrodes
Material condition of AI alloys
325
325
166. 167
327
165
Designation lor AI alloys

AI round and square bar
Work safety with robots
165
166, 167
169, 170
166, 167
380
Brazing
Aux for brazing
Compressed-gas cylinders
Gas cylinders- Identification
Copper alloys, material conditions
333
334
324
331, 332
174
174
158
160
161
160
10293
10297
10305
10327
12163
Cast steel
Tubes, machine construction
Precision steel tube
Hot dip ooated sheet
Copper-zinc alloys
230
168
172
168
174, 176
12164
12413
12536
12844
12890
Copper-zinc-lead alloys
Grinding, maximum speeds
Gas welding rods
High-grade zinc casting alloys
Panems
175
308
324
176
162. 163
13237
14399-4
14399-4
14399-6
20273
Equipment in EX area
Hexagon nuts, heavy
Hexagon head bolts. heavy
Flat washers
357
230
214
233,235
211
131
131
131
121-125
191
20898
22339
22340
22341
22553
Property classes for nuts

Tapered pins
Clevis pins without heads
Clevis pins with head
Welding symbols
Sheet metal. hot-rolled

Equal leg tee steel
Steel angle
141
146
147. 148
144
144
24015
24766
27434
27435
28738

Set screws, stoned
Set screws. stoned
Set screws, stoned
Washers for clevis pins
10060
10083
10084
10085
10087
Hot-rolled round steel bar

Case hardening st eels
Nitridlng steels
Free cuning steels
144
133. 156
132. 155
134, 157
134, 157
29454
Flux for soldering
2969211 Welding. weld preparation
10088
10089
1011311
10130
101371)
Stainless steels
Spring steel
Fine grain structural steels
Sheet metal, cold-rolled
Quenched and tempered structural
steels
136, 137
138
131
140
131
101421)
10210
10213
10219
10226
Sheet metal, electroplated

Hot-rolled tubes
Cast steel f or pressure vessels
Cold-rolled tubes
Whitworth pipe threads
141
151
161
151
206
10268
10270
10270
10277
10278
Sheet metal, cold-rolled

Steel wire for springs
Steel wire for tension springs
Delivery conditions, bright steel
Bright steel products
140
138
244
145
145
1412
1560
1561
1562
1563
Copper alloys, material numbers

Designation of cast iron
Cast Iron with flake graphite
Malleable cast iron
Cast iron with spheroidal graphite
1661
1706
1753
1760
1982
Hexagon nut s with flange

M agnesium cast alloys
Designation for AI cast alloys
Copper alloys, designation
6506
10002
1000311
10020
10025-2
Hardness test by Brinell

Tensile testing
Hardness test by Brinell
Steels, classification
10025-3
10025-4
10025-6
10027
10045

Quenched and tempered structural steels
Steels, designation system
Notched-bar impact bending test
10051
10055
10056
10058
10059
192
190
192
120
130
60445
60446
60529
Electrical equipment
Wires and connections
Protective systems
60617
161
142
142
141
175
228
237
238
238
93-95
213
220
220
220
235
334
323
353
353
357
Circuit diagrams, graphical symbols

Function charts
60893
Laminated materials
60947
Proximity sensors, designation
6108211 Electrical circuit diagrams
350-352
358-360
184
355
354
61131
373-375
60848
PLC
Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards
128
216
527
868
898
Lines
Paper formats
Tensile properties of plastics
Hardness test by Shore
Property classes of bolts and screws
1043
1101
1207
1234
1302
Basic polymers
Geometric t olerancing
Cap screws, slotted
COlter pins
Indication of surface finish
1872
1873
2009
2010
2039
PE molding compounds
PP molding compounds
Countersunk head screws, slotted
Raised head countersunk screws,
stoned
Hardness test on plastics
2338
2560
3098
3166
3506
3506
415
Flat coumersunk head !lipping screw

Raised head countersunk Ulpplng
screws
Flat washers
Flat washers
Flat washers
217
217
litle blocks
Hal"ardous substance labels
Hexagon nuts, lone thread
Hexagon nutS, fine thread
Hexagon nuts. low form
66
331
229
229
230
183
183 8676
217 8734
217 8740
8741
195 8742

Dowel pins, hardened
Straight grooved pin
1/2 length reverse taper grooved pins
113-1{2 length center grooved pins
213
237
238
238
238
Dowel pins
Rod electrodes
Fonts
Throe-lener codes for countnes
Property classes of bolts and screws
237
327
64
203
211
8743
8744
8745
8746
8747
113- 1/2 length cemer grooved pins

Tapered groove pin
Hall length taper grooved pon
Groovad pins w ith round head
Grooved pins with countersunk heads
238
238
238
238
238
Property classes of nuts

Set screws, hexagon socket
Set screws. hexagon socket
2.2 8
212
212
220
220
8752
9001
9004
Spring pins, heavy duty

Hexagon head bolts end screws
Quality management
Quality management
Quality management
237
213
274,275
274
274
Set screws, hexagon socket

Hexagon nuts, coarse threads
Hexagon nuts. coarse threads
Hexagon nuts, low form
Welding methods, designation
220
228
229
229
322
9013
9453
9692
9787
10218
Thermal cutting
Soft solder alloys
Weld preparation
Industrial robots
Work safety with robots
330
334
323
378.379
380
98
98, 99
211
215
135, 155
10512
10642
13337
13920
14526
Hexagon nutS with insert

Countersunk screws. hexagon socket
Spring pins, light duty
Welding, general tolerances
Phenolic powder moldong compounds
21 6
237
322
184
67 7050
66 7051
195
195 7090
211 7091
7092
180
112- 114
216
232
99. 100
7200
7225
8673
8674
8675
8765
9000
233
234
234
4957
Surface finish
Surface finish
Product grades for bolts and screws
Cap screws, socket head
Tool steels
5457
6506
6507
6508
6947
Drawing sheet sizes

Hardness test, Brinell
Hard ness test by Vickers
Hardness test by Rockwell
Welding positions
66
192
193
193
322
14527
14539
14577
15065
15785
Urea molding compounds

Grippers
M artens hardness
Countersinks for countersunk head
Bonded joints. representation
184
380
194
224
96
Hexagon nutS with insert

Flat head countersunk screws.
cross recessed
230 1ssn
217 15978
18265
217 20482
Blind rivets (flat head)

Blind rivets (countersunk head)
Conversion tables lor hardness
Cupping test
Cap screws, socket head
241
241
194
191
216
230
41 6
Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards
14
128
228
273
286
Splined shaft joints

lines
Pipe threads
ISO fits
241 N3
67- 75 83
206 D12
225
102- 109
Safety signs
Noise Protection Regulations
Grinding tools. application
344
308
513
525
281
278
1219
1832
2162
2203
2768
Circuit symbols for fluidics

lndexable inserts
Representation of springs
Representation of gears
General tolerances
294.295 1119
309 16-31
311
202
208
67/548
363-365 671548
296
87
Quality Sc.ience. Introduction

Nonnal distribution in random samples
965
965
Cuning tool materials. designation

Abrasives
Grit designation
M ultiple start threads. designation
Thread tolerance classes
2859
3040
4379
4381
4382
Acceptance sampling
Oesignation on cones
Plain bearing materials
5455
5456
5599
6410
6411
Scales
Projection methods
5-way pneumatic valves
Screw threads. representation
Center bores. representation
6413
6691
6753
7049
8062
Representation of splines
Plates for cun.i ng tools
Pan head tapping screws
Dimensional tolerances for castings
8826
9222
10242
13715
Roller bearings. simplified

representation
Seals, simplified representation
Punch holder shanks
Workpiece edges
010Q-410
010Q-430
Safety measures
Automatic cutout fuses
848
A-Phrases. S-Phrases
Danger symbols
199. 200
198.342
84
ao. 110
356
60479
280
304
262 2229
261 2740
261
2880
3258
65
3368
69.70
3411
364
79.90
91
87
261
251
218
163
85
86
251
88
356
356
24569
Bonded joints. preparatory treatment

Grippers
PLC applications
Machine running time
Punch dimensions
Abrasive bonds
Hydraulic fluids. degradable
336
380
375
285
316
309.311
368
417
Subject index
Subject index
A
Aluminum, Aluminum alloys, overview 164
Abrasives .. 309
ABS (IICrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
copolymers) .... 181. 187
Acceleration .... .... .. 34
Aluminum, welding fillers . . . . 326

Amino plastic molding materials . . . . 164
Ac<:oloration due to gravity .. ... .. . . 36
Analog controllers . . . . . . . . . 348

AND operation ..... 350, 375, 376
Acceleration Ioree ...... 36
Angular-contact ball bearings . . . . . . . 265
Acceptance quality level (AOl) . . . . . . 280

Acceptance SBmpling . .. 280
Anti-rotation lock lor SCfOWS 222

Aramide fibers . . . . 187
Ac<:idont prevention regulations with

regard to noise protection .. 344
Ace1yleno cylinders, color coding 332
Arc length, dimensionong . . 78

Arc welding
0.
327. 328
Arc welding. weld design 328

Area graphs ... ......................... ..... 63
Argon cylinders, color coding 332
Acme screw threads . 203

Acrylonitrole butadiene rubber (NBAI 185
Address codes, CNC controls .... 382
Arrow projection method .................. .... 70

ASOI code ......... .. .... . ... ........... . .. 402
Adhesive bonding . . . 336

Adhesives. microencapsulated . . 222
Austenite .............. . 153
Air consumption or pneumatic cylinders ... 369

Air pressure ... .... 42
Austenitic steels . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Automation .............. 345-406
Aluminum alloys, heat treatment ...... 157
Auxiliary dimensions . ... 81
Aluminum casting alloys . .... 168
Average speed of crank mechanism .. 35
Aluminum Cllstings. designation . 168

Aluminum profiles . . 169- 171
Axial deep groove ball bearings . . . 266
Axonometric representation ......... . ..... 69
Aluminum profiles, overview .. 169

Aluminum tubes ............. 171
B
Ball bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265, 266
Ball knobs . . . . . . . 248
Boiling temperature ............. ........ 116, 117

Bolt thread as inclined plane ........... . . ...... 39
Basic dimensions .. .. . ... . .. ... 81

Basic geometrical constructions . . ... 58- 61
Bolts and screws ............. ... 209-221

Bolts and screws for T-slots . . . . . . . 250
Basic hole .. ... ... .. . .... . 103
Bolts and screws, designation .... 210
Basic polymers, designation .... ... 180

Basic quantities ... .. ... 20
Bolts and screws, head styles . . . . . 223

Bolts and screws, overview . . 209, 210
Basic shaft ........... 103
Bolts, tightening torques .. . . .. ... 221

Bonded joints, preparation . 336
Basic units .................. 20

Beam cutting ... .... 329, 330
Bonded joints. representation .... ............ 96
Beam cutting, areas of application ..... 329
Bonded joints, !.Osting ................ .. .. ... 337
Bearing foroes ... .. ..... .. . .. ... 37
Bonded joints. types ................. ........ 337

Bosses on turned parts ... 88
Belt drive. transmission ratio . . . . . 259

Bending .. .... . . .. 318,319
BA (butadiene rubber) ... .................... 185
Bending load . . ............... 47

Bending stress .. ... . 47
Brazing materials ....... . . 333

Breakeven point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Bending, bending radius ........ . .. ....... . . 318

Bending, Clllculation of blanks .. 31B, 319
Brinell hardness test .... . . . ........ 192

Buckling, load .............. ...... 46
Bending, spring back .. ... . .... ......... 319
Buoyant force ... . . ... . .. ... .... . . 42

Buttress threads . . . 207
Bevel gears, Clllculation .......... ............ 258

Binary logic . .... 350
Binary number system . 401
Binomialformula ............................. 15
Blind rivet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Block and tackle ......... 39
418
Subject index
Subject index
c
Cabinet projec1ion .... .... . . .... 69
Coeffocient of thermal conductivity . . . . 111
Calculations with brackets .. . ... 15

Captive fastener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Coefficient of volumetric expansion . .... 116, 117

Coeffocients of friction ................... ...... 41
Carb on dioxide cylinders. color coding .. . 332
Cold work steels ... .... . . .. .. ..... . ......... 135
Carbon fibers ......... . . ..... .. 187

Cartesian coordinate system . ........ 62
Cold work steels. heat treatment .... ... . 155

Combination signs ........................ . . 341
Case hardening steels . ..... . . . . 132

Case hardening steels. heat treatment .. 155
Combined dimensioning ..... . . . .. ... 82

Composite materials . . .. .. ... .. 177
Case-hardening .......... . . . .. ....... 154
Compressed-gas cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Cast copper alloys . . . . . . . . . . 176

Cast iron with flake graphite ..... . 159, 160
Compressed'iJaS cylinders, color codi ng ... .. 332

Compression springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Cast iron with spheroidal graphite .... 159, 160

Cast iron, bainitic .......... . .... . ........... 159
Cast iron, designation system .. . ...... . . . 158
Compressive load .. . . . . . . .. . 45
Compressive stress ....... . ....... . ..... 45
Conductor resistance ...... . ... . ... 53
Cast iron, dimensional tolerances ....... 163

Cast steel . . . . ..... .. .... . .. 159, 161
Cone. surface area and volume ..... .. . . .... 30

Conical seats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Casting tolerance grade ....... .... ... 163

Castle nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Conical spring washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Continuous controllers . . . . . . . . . 348
Cavalier projection .. ..... ... ....... ........... 69
Contribution margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Cellulose acetate plastics (CAl .... 181

Cellulose acetobutyrate plastics ICABI . .. .. 181
Control charact.ers of computers .. ... ... 394

Control dimensions ......... . 81
Centrifugal force ... ... ........................ 37
Controlled systems .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . . .. 349
Centroids, lines . ..... ... . ..... . 32

Centroids, p lane areas .............. . .. ... 32
Controllers .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . 346- 349

Coordinate axes in programming . ... . . ..381
Ceramic materials .................... 177
Coordinate dimensioning ........ . ............ 82
Chamfers, dimensioning ....... 78

Change in volume ...... . . . . ..... 51
Coordinate systems of CNC machines .. . 381

Copper-tin alloys .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . . . . .. . .. 175
Character sizes ...... ........ . ................ 64

Character types . .. .. . . . . . . .. .. .... 64
Chemicals used in metal technology .... 119
Copper-zinc alloys .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . . .. . .. 175

Corrosion ........ . . .. .... .. . . . .. 196
Corrosion protection . . ......... ... .. 196
Chlorepoxypropane rubber (COl . .... . .. 185
Cosine ... ............. .......... .... .... 11.13
Circle, area . . ...... ... . . .. . .. 10. 27

Circle, circumference .... . ... . . ... . 27
Cost accounting ............ ... 284

Cost calculation .. . . .. .. . .. . .. . . . .. .. .. . . 284
Cost comparison method . . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . 286
Circle, finding the center of .... . ................ 60

Circlips ...... . ...... .. ....... . . ... 269
Cotangent ........ ............ . .. . ....... 12, 13
Circuit diagrams ... ... .... .... . ...... . 354
Cotter pins . .. .. . .. .. . . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . . 232
Circuit diagrams, hydraulic ... .. . 365, 367

Circuit diagrams, pneumatic . . .. ... . 365, 366
Counterbores for cap screws and

hexagon head bolts . . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. 225
Circuits, elec1rical . . ..................... 351 - 354

Circular movements of CNC machines ... .. 384. 385
Counter nut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Countersink depth, calculating . . . .. .. . ... .. 225
Circularring (annulus), area ............ 28

Circular sector, area . ................. 28
Countersinking, productive time . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Countersinks for countersunk head screws ...... 224
Circular segment, area ............. ........... 28

Circumferential velocity, calculating . .. ...... 34, 35
Countersinks for screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224, 225

Countersunk head screws, slotted . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Clearance fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Clearance holes for bolts ..................... 211
Countersunk screws, hexagon socket .... .... 216

CR (chloroprene rubber) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Clevis pins ........... .. ...... .... . ......... 238
Cross-section area ... .. . ........ . . .. ... ....... 73
Closed loop control, general terms . .. ... 346
CSM (chlorosulfonated polyethylene elastomers) . 185

Cube root . ......................... 15
Closed Substance Cycle and Waste

Management Act .. . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . 197
Coarse threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Coefficient of linear expansion . . .... . 116, 117
Current density ...... .... ... ............... ... 54

Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Cutting data, drilling ................... ... ... 301
Subject index
419
Subject index
Cuning force, face milling .................... 300
Cuning force, specifoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Cuning force, turning .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. 298
Cuning power in face milling ................. 300
Cuning power, drilling . .. . . . .. .. .. . . . .. . . . . . 298
Cutting power, turning .......... . ....... . .... 298
Cuning speed, calcula ting .................... . . 35
Cutting tool materi&ls .. . . .. . . .. .. . .. . .. . 294, 295
Cun ing data, grinding .............. 308, 311

Cuning data, honing .................... 3 12
Cuning date. milling ............. 305
Cuning data, reaming ....................... 302
Cunlng data, tapping ........................ 302
Cunlng data, turning ......................... 303
Cunlng force ............ . .................... 46
Cutting force. drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
D
D.contro llers ...................... 348
Danger critena ................. .. 342
Danger symbols ............... 342
Data processong, graphical symbols ..... 403. 404
Deceleration force ..................... 36
Decimal system ............ . ....... 393
Deep drawing force ................... . ..... 321
Deep drawing, blank diameters ............ 320
Deep drawing, deep drawing force ....... 321
Deep drawing. drawing gap ................ 320
Deep dr11w ing, drawing ratio .. . ............ 321
Deep drawing, drawing steps .............. 321
Deep drawing, tool radii ................. 320
Deep groove ball bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Deep-drawing. hold-down force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Defect che n ........ .. ................... 281
Deflection ......................... 47
Density, values .................. 116. 117
Description of hazards .................. 342
Detent edged ring ...... .. .............. 222
Deviations .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . 102
Diame ter, dime nsioning .. . .. . ........... 78
Diametric projection . .. .. .. .................. 69
Die clearance .......... .. . . ....... . ...... 316
Die dimensions ...... . ................... 316
Differential indexing .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. . . . . 307

Digital controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Dimension lines .............................. 76
Oomension num bers ................ 76
Dimensioning rules ........................... n
Dimensioning systems .................. 75
Direct costing .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . .. .. . . .. 286
Direct costs .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . .. 284
Direct Current lOCI. ..................... .. 55, 351
Direct indexing . ....... . ...... .. .. .... . .. 307
Disoontinuous controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Disk springs .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . . . .. 246
Disposal of substances .................... ... 197
Dividing head . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Divisions. dimensioning ............... . ....... 79
Drain plugs ............................... . . 219
Dnll bushings . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Drilling cycles ............................ .. 389
Drilling screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Drilling, cuning data .................. .... ... 301
Drilling, cutting force and cutting powe r .... . .. 299
Drilling. problems .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. 306
Drilling, productive time . . . .. . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . 289
Dry machining .. . .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . 293
E
EC Directive on Hazardous Substances ..... 198, 199
Effective length of bent pans . . ......... 318, 319
Elastomers ............................. 179, 185
Electric current ...... .. .. . ... .. ....... 53, 54
Electrical circuit symbols . ............ 351, 352
Electrical circuits . . . ... ... . . ...... .. .. . .. 353, 354
Electrical conductance .. . . . . ................... 53
Electrical engineering, fundamentals ....... 53- 55
Electricity, quantities and units . ... ............. 22
Electrochemical series . . . . . . . ............ 196
Electrohydraulic controls . . . ... .. .. ......... 367
Electropneumatic controls ..... ......... 366
Ellipse. area ... . ..... .. .. ... ................. 28
Ellipse, constructing .. . ...... . ............ 60
Embedding matenals (matrix) for plastics ..... 187
Energy of position . . ...... .. .. .... .. . .... . .... 38
Energy. kinetic .... . .................. . ... ... . 38

Energy, potential ........................ .. ... 38
EPA (ethylene propylene rubber, EPOM) .... . .. . 185
Equations, solving ...................... .. . .. 15
Equipment. electrical . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. 353
Erichsen cupping test . ......... . .... . ... .. ... 191
Escape route and rescue signs .. . ... . .. ..... 340
Euclidean theorem . ... ... . ... . . .. . ... . . .. .... 23
Eutectic .. ..... . ... . .............. . . . .. .. 153
Eutectoid . . ........... . ... ... . ....... 153
EXCEL. commands .... . ........ .. . .. .. . . .. . 406
Exlension lines . ... . .............. .. .. .. .. . .. . 76
Exlrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Eye bolls .. .. ......................... . . . . . 219
Eye nuts .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
420
Subject index
Subject index
F
F110e milling. cutting fO<Ce and cuning power .. 300
Flux for soldering .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 334
FBtlgue test . . . . . . . . 189

Feather l!c tapered keys, overview . 239
Foam materials ....... 185

Folded joints. representation ......... 96
Feather keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Fonts .... . .................. . .......... ..... 64
Feod rato, calculating .. ... 35
Force diagram, calculation ..................... 36
Felt rings . . . . . . . . . 270

Ferrite ............................ ......... 153
Forces .................. ..... .... .... ....... 36

Forces, adding and resolving ........ .. 36
Ferritic steels .......... 137

Fiberglass ..... 187
Forces, representation ................ ...... .. . 36
Filler metals ................................ 334
Fom~ and positional tolerances 112- 114

Fotm deviations 98
Fillers lind reinforcing materi11ts for plutics 180

Fine thre11ds . . .. .. 204
Foundry technology ..................... 162. 163
Fire elCllngulshlng lines, identification

marking ........... 343
Free cuning steels ......................... .. 134

Free cutting steels, heat treatment . 157
Fire protection symbols ...................... 340

Fits, ISO system . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 102
Freezing temperature ....................... . 117
Fom~ing
gas UCI cyhnders, color coding . . . . 332
Frequency, relative . . . . . 277
Fits, recommended .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 1t1
Friction ........ .. 41
Fixed costs ... .. ... . .. 286

Flame-cuning, dimensional tolerances . 330
Friction power .. .......................... ... 41
Flamo-cuning, standard values ..... 329
Frictional moment . . . .. .. 41
Frictional work ................. . ......... .... 38
Flat head countersunk screws, cross recessed 217
Function block language (FBU . . . 373, 374
Flat head countersunk 111pping screw ... 217
Function chans .... 358-360
Flat steel bllr, bright ......................... 145
Function diagrams ...................... 361,362
Flat steel bllr, hoHolled .. .. 144
Fundamental deviations . . 102

Fundamental deviations for holes 105
Flip-nop elements ............. . ......... 350, 352

Flow rates .................................. 371
Fundamental deviations for shafts .... 104
FluorOCIIoutchouc IFKMI .... 185

Fluted knobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Fundamental tolerance grades .... 102, 103

Fundamental tolerances .... .. . . 103
Flux for brazing ............ .. 334
Fuses ......... . . ... ...... 356
G
Gage pressure ....... 42
Gas cylinders, color coding . .................. 331
GRAFCET, graphical design language

for sequential control ... . . . . 358
Gas cylinders, identification ........... 331

Gas shielded me111l arc welding . 325, 326
Graphical symbols for data processing . . . . . 403, 404

Graphs .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 62, 63
Gas welding rods ....... .. .................. 324
Greek alphabet .. . ....................... ... .. 64
Gaseous materials, characteristics . . . . . . 117
Grinding .. ........................... 308-311
Gear winch .......... ...... .................. 39
Grinding wheels. selection .... .. .. . 310
General tolerances .................. ........ 110
Grinding. cutting data
General tolerances, weldments . .. ......... 322
Grinding. maximum allow11ble peripheral velocity . 308
Geometric tolerancing ... .. .... .. .. ...... 112- 114
Grinding. prod1Jctive time . . . . . . . 291
Geometrical areas. calculating . . . . . . . 26-28
Grippers .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . 380
Geometrical areas, centroid ....... .. .. ... 32

Geometrical areas. units ......... .............. 20
Grooved drive studs ..... . . ... . 238

Grooved pins .. .. . .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . .. .. 238
Gib-head keys ........ ..... .. .. ............. 239
Grub screws with thrust point . . .. . . . .. .. . . .. . 248
308, 311
Golden Rule of Mechanics .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. 38. 39
H
Handling systems. job safety ... ... . . 380
Hardness limits ............................ ... 97
Hard milling ..... ..... .. .... ................ 293
Hardness penetration depth ............ ........ 97

Hardness specifications in drawings ...... 97
Hard turning ....................... ..... . .. 293

Hardening ......... ... ..... 153, 154
Hardness test ........................... 188-195
Subject index
42 1
Subject index
Hardness values, conversion table 194
He)(agonal fit bolts, heavy .................... 214
Hat ching, represenl81ion ....................... 73
Hexagonal steel bers, bright .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 145
Hat chings, mat erial dependent ... 75
High-grade cast zinc alloys .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 176
H&zardous gases and substances ... 198
High-performance grinding .. . . .... 3 11
Hazardous mat erials, gases ... 198
High-speed machining .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . 293
Hazardous substances ....... 198- 200
High-speed st eels ... . . . 135
Hazardous w ast e ... .. . . .. . 197
Highspeed steels, heat treatment .. .... 155
Headed drill bushings . . . ... ................. 247
High-temperature plastics . . . . . 187
Heat fluK .............. . ............. ........ 52
Histogram . . . . . . . . . . 277
Heat of combustion .... 52
Hoisting winch ... . .. ..... . .. 39
Heat of fusion ................................ 52
Hold-down force in deep drawong operations . 321
Heat of vaporizat oon . . .. . . . . .. 52
Hollow cylinder, surface area and volume .. 29
Heat transf er ................................. 22
Hollow taper shanks .. . .. . 243
Heat transmission ................. ........... 52
Homogenizing anneal .. 153
Heat tr&nsmission coeffident .... 52
Honing. cutting values ....................... 3 12
Heat treatment ....................... .. 153-157
Honing, productive tome .. .. .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . 289
Heat treatment information .. .. 97
Honing. selection of honing stones .... .... 312
Heat treatmenl of st eels . .. ..... 153- 157
Hooke's law ..... ...... 36
Helical line, constructing .... .... ..... 61
Hot w o rk steels .............. ............ . .. 135
Helium cylinders, color coding . ..... 332
Hot work st eels. heat treatment .. .... 155
He)(adocimal numbering sys1em .... . 401
HSC (High speed cutting) .. . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . 293
HeKagon he&d bolts & screws .... 212- 214
Hydraulic drcuit symbols .. 363, 364
HeKagon head bolts with reduced shank .. 213
Hydraulic fluids . .. . . 368
HeKagon head bolts, heavy .............. ..... 214
Hydraulic oils .. . . .. . . . 368
He)(agon nuts .. .. .. . .. .. 228- 231
Hydraulic press ... ... 370
He)(agon, constructing .. . ..................... 59
Hydraulics .............. ........ ....... 363-372
HeKagonal acorn nuts ... ..... ............... 231
Hydrostatic pressure ... . .. 42
HeKagonal fit bolts with long threaded stem 214
Hyperbola, constructing .................. .... . 61
I, J
lbeams, medium w idth ............ .. ........ 149
Injection pressure ................. ... ... .... 186
lbeams, w ide . .. .... 149, 150
Instruction list IL ........ . ............... 373, 375
1-controller .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 348
Interference fit .......................... .... 102
Ideal gas 18w .... .... . . ......... 42
Intersection line, representation . .. 73
Imperial threads ....................... . ..... 203
Involute curve, constructing . . .. . .. . 61
Incline, dimensioning ............... . ......... 78
lA (isoprene rubber) . . . 185
Inclined plane ..... .................. ......... 39
Iron-Carbon phase diagram . 153
lnde)(ing ............ .. ....... ........ ...... 307
ISOfots ....... ... ... ................... 104-109
Industrial robots ..... .. ................. 378, 379
lsobutene-isoprene rubber . . . . . . . . . 185
lnen gas . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. 325
Isometric projectioo ... ... 69
Inf ormation signs ...... .. ................... 341

Information technology . . 401- 406
Job ti me ace. t o AEFA (German association

for work time studies) .................... .. 282
Injection molding ...... . .... .. .... . . ..... ... 186
Jointing, productive time . .. . . .. .. . . . . . .. . 289
K
Key s. feather keys, w oodruff keys . . . . . 239
Knurls . .. ..... . .. . .. .... ............. . . 91
Kinetic energy ... 38
Kryptoo cylinders. color coding . . . . . . . . . 332
Knurled nuts . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. 232
L
Labels for hazardous goods .... .............. 331
laser beam cutting, dimensional t olerances . . . . 330
Ladder diagram LAD .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 374
laser beam cutting, standard values 330
Laminate materials ..... .. .. .. .... . . ... .. .... 184
Latent heat of fusion .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. 116, 117
422
Subject i ndex
Subject index
L
Law o f cosines ... .... . . . . . .... 14
Lines in technical drawings . . . . . 67, 68
Law of sines . .. ...... . 14

Leader lines . .............. . . . ...... .. .. 77
Lines, centroid . .. .......... 32

Liquid m aterials, characteristics ........ . 117
Ledeburite . . . . . . . . . 153
Load cases . .... . ........... ... . ............. 43
Left-hand threads ... . ........ 202
Load types . ...... ... ... .. ........ .. .. ....... 43

Lock nuts . . . . ...... . ......... 231
Length, calculating . . . . . . . 24, 25

Length, effective ...... ..... 25
Length, units . .. . .. ... . . .. 20
Lock nuts for roller bearings . . . . . . . . . 268

Lock washers for bolts and screws . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Lever .. . . . . .. . .. .. .. . . 37
Lever principle . .. . . ..... 37
Lock w ashers lor roller bearing slotted nuts . 268

Lock washers. slotted nuts ...... . . .. . . ... . . .. . 231
Lock wire lor screws ................ 222
Lifting worlc ... . . .......... 38

Limit dimensions for threads . .. .... . 208
Locki ng edg e washer ............... . ........ 222

Locking fasteners .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. . 222
Limits ... . ..... .. .. ... . .. .. .... 102

Linear expansion .......... . 51
Lubrica nts ........ . .. .. . 272

Lubricating greases . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . 272
Linear function .. .. ... .... . .. . ..... . . . 16

Linear movements of CNC machines . .. 384, 385
Lubricating oils .......... . ........... .. .. .. . 271
M
Machine capability .. . ....... ........ ........ 281
Melting temperature ....... .. .. ... ....... 116, 117
Machine hourly rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Memory [f lip-flop) .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . .. 350, 352
Machined plates for press tools and fixtures . . . . . 251
Metric ISO screw threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Machining coolants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

MAG (Metal active gas) welding. standard values 326
Metric tapers . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . 242, 243

MF (m elamine formaldehyde) resin . . . 181
Magnesium. cast alloys . .. . . . ...... 172
Microstructures of carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Magnesium, wrought alloys . ...... . . .. 172
MIG (Metal-inert-gas) welding, standards . ... .. . 326
Magnetism .. . ... .. . ... . 22

Malleable cast iron ... . . . .... . ..... ... . . . 159, 161
Milling, cutting data .. . .... . ..... . .... . . .. ... 305

M illing, cutting force and cutting power . ..... 300
Mandatory signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

Manufacturing costs . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Milling, cycles ace. to PAL

(German association) . . . . . . . . . . . . 392-400
Martens hardness ... .. ........ . ............. 194

Martensitic steels . . . . . . . . 137
Milling, problems ........ . ........ . .. .... ... 306
Mass moment of inertia ........ ... ... . ... ... .. J8
Milling, productive time .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. 290

M inimu m clearance . . . .... .. .... . ... 102
Mass. calculation . ... . . . .. . ... . ..... . 31

Mass, linear mass density and area
mass density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 152
M inimum dimension . . . . . ........ . .. . . .. 102
Material characteristics . . . .... .. ... . .... . 116, 117
Minimum quantity of machining coolant .. .. .. 293
Material removal processes, productive time 313

Material removal rate, standard values .. . .. . 313
Module series for spur gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Modulus of elasticity . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . . 46
Minimum engagement depth for screws . . .. 211

M inimum interterence ... .. .. .. .. .. . . 102
Material science ... ... .. . . . . . .. ..... .. . 115-200
Molding materials, thermoplastic . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Material testing . .. .. ... . 188- 195

Material testing, overview ... .. .... . . .. 188- 189
Molding materials, thermosetting .. ...... ... . 184

Molecular groups .......... ........ ...... ... 119
Mathematical symbols . . . .. ..... . .......... . .. 19

Mathematics .... ... .. .. . ... .... .. 9-32
Morse taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242, 243
Matrix materials for plastics . .. .... . ... 187

Maximum clearance . . . ... .. . 102
Maximum dimension . . . . ..... . .. ..... . . . 102
Maximum interterence .... ................... 102
Mean value. arithmetical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 278
Mean value. standard deviation chart . . . 279
Mechanical strength properties . .. . .. .. 44, 45
Mechanics, quantities and units ... . .. . . . . . 20, 21
Motion, accelerated . . . ... ... 34

Motion, circular . . .. ... . ... .. . . .. . . . . . . . 34
Motion. uniform ... .. ... . ... .. .. ... .. .. 34
Multiple start threads .. . . .. .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . 202
Subject index
423
Subject index
N
NAND o pera tion ............................ 350
Narrow Vbells ............................. 254
NOR operation .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. 350

Normal d istribution .. .. .. .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. 278
NassiShnelderman diagrams .......... 395

Needlo bearings .. . .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 268
Normalizing ................ 153, 154

NOT operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Neon gas cylinders. color coding ...... ..... 332

Net calorific valuo ........................... 52
Notched-bar impact bending tost ........ , .. . 191

NPSM threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
NPT threads . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. . .. .. . . .. 203
Nit riding .................. .... .... ......... 154

Nitridlng stee ls ............................ . 134
NPTF threads .......................... .. 203

NR (natural rubber) .................. 185
Numerical control technology .......... 381 - 400
Nit riding steels, heat treatment .............. 157

Noiso ..................................... 344
Noise Protootoon Regulations (German) .. 344
Nuts ............. ................ ..... 226-232

Nuts lor Tslots .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Nuts, designation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 227
Noise. d11meges to health ..... .. ... 344

Nominal d imens ions . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. 102
Non-ferrous metals .................. ... 164- 176
Nuts. overview ........ ...... ..... 226, 227

Nuts, properly classes ....................... 228
Non ferrous metals, m aterial numbers ..... 165, 174

Nonfcrrous metals . systematic designation . 165, 174
0
Orlngs .............. . ... . ............. 270
Orientation tolerance ..................... ... 113
Ohm's law . .................... .... ......... 53
Overhead .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. 284
Open loop control. general tenms .......... 346, 347

OR operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Oxygen cylinders, colo r coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
p
PA (polyamide) plastics ................ 180-182
PAL drilling cycles (German association) ... .. 389
PI Cf>ropo<tional-integral) controller .......... 348

PIO (Proportional-integral-differential) controller . 348
PAL m illing cycles !German association! ... . 392- 400

PAL turning cycles (German association! ... 389- 391
Parabola, constructing . .. .................... 61
Pillar presses .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. 252

Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236-238
Parallel circuit . ...... . .... . ............... ... 54

Paralle l dimensioning ..... . ............. . ..... 82
Pins. locating ............. ........ .. .. . .. . 249

Pins, overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Pins, seating ..... . ......... . .. . ....... ... . 249
Paralle logram area ... . ...................... 26

Pareto diagra m ........................... 281
Panial views in drawings ................. ..... 71
Pipe lines, identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Pipe threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Piston speeds . .. . . . 371
Path Ootreclion in CNC machining . . . . . . . 383

Panems. color coding . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Plain bearing .. .. ....................... 261,262
PC lpolycarbonatel plastics .............. 180, 181
Plain bearing bushings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Plain bearing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
PC & ABS plastics ........................... 187

PC & PET plastics ... . ... ... ... .. .... . ...... 187
PO controller ......... . ............ . .... 348
Plasma cuning, standard values ..... . .. . . . . 329

Plastic prooessing, settings . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . . . . 186
Plastic processing, tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
PE (polyethylene) plastics .. .. . ..... . ..... 180- 182

PE molding materials .. .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . .. .. .. . 183
Pearlite ............ .. . ... ....... . ........ 153
Plastics .......... .. .......... . ........ . 179-187

Plastics testing .. . .... . ........... .... ... .... 195
Percentage, calculating .. . ..... . ............... 18

Periodic table ofthe elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Plastics, cuning ............. . .... . ... . 301 -305

Plastics, distinguishing characteristics .......... 181
Plastics, hardness test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Pf (phenol fonmaldehydel resin . .... . . . ....... 181

Pf PMC molding materials ............. 184
Plastics, identification ............. ... . ....... 181

Plastics, material testing ......... . .... .... . .. 195
Pf molding materials . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . 184

pH value ................. . ................. 119
Plastics. tensile load .................. .. ... .. 195

Plastics, thermal behavior . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . . .. 179
Pheno lic molding materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Plateau honing ...................... . .. .... 312
Phenolic plastic molding materials . . . . . . . . . . 184

Physics .. ... . ... ... . ....... . . ...... ... 33-56
Plates for pillar presses .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. 251

PLC. controls .. . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 373- 377
424
Subject index
Subject index
Pr~bility network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Process capability ............ . . . 281
Process steps .. .. .. . .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. . .. . . 280
Production COSts .. .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . 284
Production engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . 273- 344
Productive time, countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Productive time, drilling .......... , .... . .. ... . 289
Productive time, g rinding ................ .. .. 291
Productive time, honing .................... . . 289
Productive time. material removal processes . . .. 313
Productive time, milling .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. . . 290
Productrve tome, reaming . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Productive time, thread aming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Productive lime, 1uming . . . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . 287
Productive lime, lurning W1th V consL . . 288
Program flow chan . .. .. . . .. . . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . 404
Program structure of CNC machines ..... . .. ... 382
Programmable logic conlroiiPLCI .... . .... 373- 377
Prohibitive signs .. . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . 338
Projec1ion methods . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . 69, 70
Property classes o f bolts and screws . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Proportion, calculatmg ........... . ..... . . . 18
Proportional conuoller ........... , . . . . . . . 348
PrOieelive measures against dangerous currents . .. 356
Proximity sensors ........................... 355
PTFE ...................................181, 187
Pulley, fixed ........................... . ... . . 39
Pulley, movable ........................ ..... . 39
Pumping capacity .. ......... . ......... . .. .. . 371
Pumps, power .. . . . .............. . .... 371
Punch dimensions .................. ...... .. 316
Punch holder shanks .... . ........... ........ 251
Punch holder shanks, loc111ion .. .. . . .. ........ 317
Punches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
PUR (polyurethane) foam ....... . . . . ... .. 185
PUR lpolyurethane) plaslics ........... ... . 181
Pure aluminum ................ . ..... . .. 164, 166
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) plastics .... ... . .. . 181, 182
PVCP plastics (plasticized PVC! ......... .... 182
Pyramid. slant height ................ ...... . 29
Pyramid, volume . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . .. 29
Pythagorean theorem .............. ....... . .. 23
Pythagorean theorem of heigh! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
PLC. programming ............... 373-376

PLC. programming languages . . . . . . . . 373- 376
PMMA lpolymethylmethacrylatel plastics .. 181, 182
Pneumatic circuit symbols . . ........ 363, 364
Pneumatic cylinders, air consumption ... 369
Pneumatic cylinders, dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Pneumatic cylinders, piston forces .......... 369
Pneumatics .... . ..... . ............ 362- 371
Polar coordinate system .................. 63
Polar coordinates in drawings ................. 82
Polyblends .......................... 187
Polyetherctherketone (PEEK) . . . . . . . . . 187
Polygon. constructlng ......................... 59
Polygon, irregular ............................ 27
Polygon, regular .............................. 27
Polyimide (PII resin .... . ..................... 187
Polyoxidemethylcne (POM, polyacetall resin . 181, 182
Polyphcnyleno sulfide IPPSI plastics ....... 187
Polystyrene plastics . .. ... .. .. .. .... . .... 180-182
Polysulfo ne iPSUI plastics .. .... . . ......... . .. 187
Position lolerances . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. .. .. . .. . . 114
Positional dimensions in drawings .......... 81
Positional tolerances .. .. .................... 114
Potable water lines, identification marking .... 343
Potential energv . ............................. 38
Pour point .. . .... .. ........................ 368
Power factor ....... . ......................... 56
Power, electrical ............ .. ............ 56
Power, mechanical ...... ... ... . ............... 40
Powers lexponentiationl .. . .. ... ............... 15
PP lpolypropylenel plastics .. .. .. ...... 181, 182
PP mo lding materials .. ......... . . .... . .... . . 183
PPE & PS plastics .. .... .. ................... 187
Precision steel1ubes for hydraulic and
pneumatic applications .................... 372
Precision steel tubes, seamless ........... 142
Preferred numbers ........ .... ................ 65
Pressed joints, representation ... ........... . 96
Pressure ............ . .. .. .... . .............. 42
Pressure intensifoer . . ... ... ... . .............. 370
Pressure units . . ... .... . ... ................... 42
Primary profile IP profile) ... .. ... .. . ........... 98
Prime cost .. ... . ... .. .. . . ... . . ..... . ..... 284
Probability . .. . . . .. . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . 276
a
Quadratic function .. ....... .... ....... . ...... 16
Quality and process capability .......... 281
Quality control . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 276
Quality control chan . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 279
Quality control circle ... ... ... . ............... 276
Quality inspection and testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Quality management . ... ... ... . . . .. .... 274-281
Oualil)' management. definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Quality management, standards .... ... . ..... 274
Quality planning .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Quantity of heat ................... .. ... .. . .. . 51
Quenched and 1empered steels ...... .. . ..... . 133
Quenched a nd tempered steels. heatlreatmenl .. 156
Quenching and tempering ........ . ... .. . .. . .. 154
Subject index
425
Subject index
R
Robot axes ........................... . ..... 378
A-Phrases lnformatOfY notes on possible hazards

and nslts. 11oc. to the German Hazardous
Substances Regulations IGefStoffV) 199
Rockwell hardness test ..................... .. 193

Rod electrodes, designatron . . . . ... . 327
Radial seals (rotary shaft seals! 270
Roller bearing fits ........................... 110
Radius ....... . 65
Roller bearings .. .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . 263- 268
Radius, dimensioning . ....... ................. 78
Roller bearings, designation .... 264
Raisod head countersunk screws .. ...... 217
Roller bearings, dimension series . . 264
Raised head countersunk tapping screws . 217
Roller bearings, overview . ..... 263
Raised he&d tapping screws .................. 218
Roller bearings, representation 85
Random sample tests, 111tribute testing 280
Roller bearings, selection .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 263
Random samples . . . .. . .. . 278
Rolling friction ............................... 41
Range (ol samples! .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 278
Roman numerals ...................... ....... 64
Rawdata .................................. 277
Roots, extracting .. .. 15
R11w dat a chart . . . . . . 279
Rotation, kinetic energy ........................ 38
Reaming, cutting data . . . . . 302
Rough dimensions in drawings .. . . . 81
Reaming, productive time . ... 289
Roughness depth in turning operations ... 303
Recommended safety measures . 200
Roughness parameters ........ . 98
Recrystallization annealing . . . . 153
Roughness profile (Aprolilel . . .. ...... 98
Rectangle, area .. . .. . ... . . .. 26
Round bar steels. bright . .. . , . . . 145
Reference lines ................. 77
Round bar steels, polished ............. ...... 145
Reference po1nts ol CNC machines .... 381
Round steel bar, hot-rolled . . 144
Reinforcing fibers . .... ...................... 187
AS flip-flop ..................... . .. 350, 352
Retaining rings .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 269
Rubbers ................................... 185
Ret aining rings, representation . 87
Rule-of-ten (for costS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Rhomboid, area ........... .. .... .. .. .. ....... 26
Run-out tolerances 114
Rhombus. area ........... ... ................. 26
Running dimensioning ...... 82
s
Saf ety colors .. ............. . ... ............. 338
Serrations, representation . . . ... 87
Safety factors .............. 44
Set screws, hexagon socket .. . 220
Saf ety measures lor robot systems .. .... 380
Set suews, slotted . ... .. ..... 220
Safety signs .......... ..... .. ...... ..... 338- 341
Shape dimensions ........................ . .... 81
Sales price .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. 284
Shear cutting Ioree .. ....... ...... . . 315
SAN (styrene-acrylonitrilel copolymers .. 181, 182
Shear cutting work ................ ..... ..... . 315
S8 (Styrene-but adiene! copolymers .. . 180-182, 187
Shear load ...... ................... .......... 46
SBA (Styrene-butadiene! rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Shear strength ............................... . 46
Scales ....................................... 65
Shear stress .................................. 46
SCAAA robots .. .. . .. 379
Shear test . ................................ . 191
Screw joints, calculation . .. . . . . .. .. 221
Shearing ..... .................... ... . .. 316, 317
Screw joints, representation . ...... ..... 90
Shearing, design of press ........... .......... 315
Screw thread standards of various countries 203
Shearing, die dimensions ..... .. . .... .. . .... .. 316
Screw threads ....... ........ ........... 202- 208
Shearing, edge width ......... . ............... 3 16
Seals, representation ...................... .... 86
Shearing,edgewidth ......... . ........ ...... . 316
Second moment olinertia ...................... 49
Shearing, location of clamping pin ..... 317
Sectional views ................. ........... 73, 74
Shearing, punch dimensions ...... . ... ... 316
Sections, comparison of load capacity . 50
Shearing, utilization of strip stock ..... .... 317
Selection of fits .............................. 111
Shearing. web width .... .............. ....... 316
Sensors ................... .. ............... 355
Sheet and strip metal, overview .......... ...... 139
Sequential charts ............................ 359
Sheet metal. cold-rolled ...... .... ...... ...... 140
Sequential control ................... .358. 360, 367
Sheet metal, hoi-dip galvanized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Series circuit ............. .. ................... 54
Sheet metal. hot-rolled .............. ......... 141
Serrated lock washers ........................ 222
Sheet. hOIdip galvanized . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . 141
426
Subject index
Subject index
Shewhllrt quality control chart 279
Shore hardness test ... 195
Shrinkage ... ... .. 51
Shrinkage etlowances .... 163
Shrinkage chucks .... 243
Sl quantities and units ... . ... 20
Silicone rubber (SIR) . ........ . ......... . ..... 185
Simple Indexing ........ . ... .. .............. 307
Sino ...... . ... 11. 13
Simored metals .. 178
Size factor .. . .. . . . .. . .. . .. . 48
Sliding fri<:tion ............................... 41
Slip type jig bushong ......................... 247
Slot tenons 250
Slo15, dimensioning ........................... 79
Software con1rollers ......................... 349
Soldering . .. 335
Solders . . . . . . . . . . . 333. 334
Solid lubricants .. . . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . 272
Solids, characteristics .. .... 116, 117
Sound level . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Sound, definitions . . . . . . .. . 344
SPC (statistical process control) . . . . . . . 279
Special characters, CNC machines 382
Special characters, computers 402
Speciroc cuning force standard values ... 298
Specific heat .......... . ................. 116, 117
Speed graph ............................... 260
Speeds of machines . 35
Sphere, dimensioning .. ... .. ... . .............. 78
Sphere, surface area and volume .. ... 30
Spherical segment, surface area and volume .. 30
Spherical washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Spiral, construction ........ . .................. 60
Spllned shaft joints .......................... 241
Splines, representation ........................ 87
Spreadsheets ............................... 406
Spring back in bending . .... . ................ 319
Spring force ................................. 36
Spring lodt washers . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . 222
Spring pins . . . .. .. . 237
Spring rate . . . . . .. . . . . 244, 245
Spring steel wire . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 138
Spring steel, hot-rolled ... . .. .. . ......... . ... . 138
Spring washers . . . . . . 222
Springs, representation . ..... . . . . ........ 87
Springs: tension, compression, disk . .. ... 244-246
Sprockets, representation . . ..... . .............. 84
Spur gears, calculating . . . . . .. . .. . . 256, 257
Square prism, area ........ . . . ................ 29
Square prism, volume . ... ... .. .. . ..... . ....... 29
Square root ...... . .. .. ..... . ............. 10, 15
Square steel bar, hot-rolled . . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . 144
Square, area . ..... . . .... ... . ... . ............. 26
Square, dimensioning .........................

Stainless steels . 136, 137
Standard deviation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . 2'78
Standardization, regulation body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Star knob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Static friction ....................... . ...... . . 41
Statistical analysis . .. . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . 2n
Statistical process control . . . . . . . 279
Steel bars, bright . . . . . . 145
Steel bars, hot-rolled . 144
Steel channel .. . . 146
Steel sections. hotrolled .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 143
Steel sheet ............................. 139-141
Steel tubes ... . ......................... 142, 372
Steel tubes, hotrolled .. 151
Steel tubes, seamless .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. 142, 372
Steel tubes, welded ......................... 151
Steel wire for springs, patented drawn .. . 138
Steels for name and induction hardening ... 134
Steels, alloying elements .............. .. . ... . 129
Steels, classification ........................ . 120
Steels, identifiCIItion codes .... 122-125
Steels, num bering system . 121
Steels, overview . . . . . 126, 127
Steep tape< shanks . . . . . . . . . 242
Strength of mat.erials .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 43- 50
Stress concentration ...... . . 48
Stress limits ...... 43
Stress relief anneal ...................... 153, 154
Stress. allowable ........................ . . 41, 48
Strip steel, cold-rolled ....... . .. . .... . ... 139, 140
Strip stock utilization in shearing . .... 317
Structural steels. carbon ..... . . 130
Structural steels, quenched and tempered . . . . 131
Structural steels. selecting . 128, 129
S1ructural tee steel, equal legs . . . . . . 146
Structured tex1 (ST) ..... 373, 374
Stub-Aane screw threads .. . . . . . . . . . . 203
Studs . .................................... 219
Sub-dividing lengths ......................... . 24
Surface profile .......................... . ... . 98
Surface areas. calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 30
Surface condition factor ............ . ..... ..... 48
Surface finish ..................... . ....... ... 99
Surface indications ... .. ....... . . ... . .... . 99, 100
Surface pressure, stress ... . ....... 45
Surface protection .. .. . 196
Surface roughness, attainable ....... .. .. 101
Switching controllers ...................... .. 349
Symbols. mathematical . .. . .. . .. . 19-22
Syrochronous belts .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 255
Synchronous pulleys ............. .. .. .... . .. 255
Systems for rots . .. .. . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . 103
427
Subject index
Subject index
T
Tslots ... 250
Tally sheet
2n
Tangent ...... 12
Top hole diameter for tapping screws . . 218
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Three-phase power .....

Three-point controller .......... , .........
Thrust pads
00
00
00
. . . . . . . 00
litle block in drawings .

Tolerance class ...................
00
Tap holes. drill .... . .... 204

Taper pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
00
00
00
00
56
349
00
00
00
248
..........
66
102
Tolerance grade . . . , ... .. 102
Tolerance lnd~ations in drawings , . . . 80
Tolerancesofform o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 113
Tolerances of POSition
114
Tolerances, dimensioning
80
Tolerances. ISO system
103
Taper turning . . . .. . . . ...... 304

Tapered keys . . . . . . . 239
Tapered roller bearings . oo oo 267
Tapered threads . . . 205
Tapers, dimensioning .
78
00
00
00
00
00
Tapers, nomenclature ...

304
Tapping drill holes, diameter .... 204
00
00 . . . . 00 . . . . 00 . . 00
00
00.
00
00
00
00
Tool holders for inde)(able tnserts . . . . . .

Torque ......
Torsion, loading
Total run-out tolerances ........ . ..
00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
297
Thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin! . 51

Thermodynamics
22. 51 , 52
Thermoplastics
179, 182, 183
37
47
114
Transformers . .... . . 56
Transition fir
102
Transmission ratios . . . . . . . . . . 259
Trapezoid, area .. . . . . . . ... 26
Trapezoidal screw threads .. . 207
Triangle, area . . 26
Triangle, constructing circumscribed circle ..
60
Triangle. constructing inscribed circle ... 60
Triangle. equilateral .....
27
Thermoplastics, amorphous 179

Thermoplastics, semi~alline 179
Truncated cone, su rface area and volume 30

Truncated pyramid, volume .. . 30
184
179
287
218
Tubes ......... 142, 151

Turning cycles .
388- 391
Tapping screw threads

202
Tapping screws
217, 218
Technical drawing . 57-114
00
00
00
00.
00
00
00 . . . 00 . . 00
00.
00.
00
00
00 . . .
00 . . . 0 0 .
Temperature ... . . . . ... ... . . . ..

51
Theorem of Intersecting lines ....... 14
Thermal conduction . .. . . . ...... 52
0
00
Thermal conductivity, definition ..... 52

Thermal conductivity, values . 116, 117
00
00 . . 00 . . . 00 . . . 00
00
00
00.
00 . . . . . . . . . 00
00
00.
00 . . . 00 . .
oo
00.00
00
..
00
00
00
00
00
00
00 . . . . . 0
. . . . . . . . 00 . . .
00
00
00
00
. . 00
Thermoset molding materials ...

Thermoset plastics
Thread cunlng, productive time
Thread forming screws . ..
00
0.
Turning with v= const.. productive rime .. .. 288

Turning, cuning data .
303
Turning. cuning force and cuning power
298
Turning, cycles ace. to PAL
(German association) ..... 388- 391
00
Thread molding, cuning data . . . . . . . . . . 302

Thread runouts . . . . . 89
Thread topping, cuning data .............
302
Thread tolerance ... ... . .
208
Thread types, overview .. 202. 203
00
00
00
00
00
00 . . .
Thread undercuts ..
Threads, dimensioning
0
00
Turning, problems ....... . . .. 306

Turning, pmductive time
287
0
00
00
Turning, roughness depch
89
Types of adhesives
79
Threads, multiple start . .
202
Threads, representation . .
90
Three steps for direct proportions 18
Threephase current . . . . .. ... ................. 55
0
.....................
00
00
00
00
00
00
00.
00
00.
00.
00
00
00.
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
303
00
336
00
00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.....
.......
u
UF (urea formaldehyde) resin .. ... 180, 181
UF molding materials .... ..... 184
UF PMC molding materials
UF/MF-PMC plastics
o.
00
..
..
00
00
00 . . . . 00
UNC screw threads .......

Undercuts . . . .
00
UNEF screw threads .

UNF screw threads
Unit prefixes
0.
00
0.
00
..
00
00 00
00
00 . . . . . .
00.
00
00.
00
00 . . .
00
00
00.
00
...........
184
184
203
92
203
203
17, 22
Units of measurement ... . . . 20

UNS screw threads ..
203
0
00
00
00
00
UP (unsaturated polyester resin)
00
00
00
180, 181
UPVC (unplasticized polyvinyl chloride! . 181, 182

Urea fonnaldehyde molding materials . ... 184
Urea{melamine IO<maldehyde molding
materials
00
00
184
Utilization time ace. to REFA

(German association for work time studies) . 283
428
Subject index
Subject index
v
V1scosity grade ............................ . 271
VISCOSity, kinematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53. 54
Vohage drop ........... . ...... .. . 54
Volume of compound solids ..... . ... ....... 31
Volume. calculaling . ......... . .. . . . .. .. . .... . 31
Volume, units ........................... .. .. . 20
Vbolt , , ........... .. ............ 253, 254

Vbelt pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Variable costs ......... . .... . ............... 286
Velocity . . ... . ..... .. . . .... . ......... 34, 308
V1bration tost .. . . .. ... . . . . . ........... 222
Vickers hardness test .. .. . .. .... . ........ . .. 193
Views in drawings .... .. ........ . .......... 71, 72
w
Welding pOSotlons ........................... 322
Welding, general tolerances ...... . ... . 322
White cast iron .................... .. .. .... . 159
Widths across Rats. dimension series . ...... . 223
Widths across Rats. dimensioning ............ . .. n
Wire electrodes .. . ....................... ... 325
Wire, electrical . ..... . ...... . ....... .... 353
Woodruff keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Word processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Work. electrical ................. . .. .. . . . ..... 56
Work. mechanical ...................... . . ... 38
Worm drive. calculating ................ .. .. .. 258
Worm drive, transmission ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Wrought aluminum alloys, designation ...... . 165
Wrought aluminum alloys, heat treatable . ... .. . 167
Wrought aluminum alloys, matenal codes . . . .. 165
Wrought aluminum alloys, non-he at treatable . . . 166
Wrought capper-aluminum alloys
176
Wrought copper-nickel-zinc alloys .... . .... .. . . 176
Wrought titanium alloys .......... .... . ... . 172
Warning signs . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . 339

Washers ............................... 233- 235
Washers for cap screws . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 234
Washers for channels and 1-beams . . . . . . . . . . 235
Washers for clevis p4ns . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 235
Washers for hexagon bolts and nuts . . . . . 233. 234
Washers for steel st ructures . ........... 234. 235
Waste Disposal Act (Germani . ............... 197
Web width in s hear cutting . .... .. ............ 316
Wedge as en Inclined plane .... . . .............. 39
Weight . .... . . . ..... .. . ... ... ... . . ......... 36
Weld design for a rc welding ............. 328
Weld nuts, hexagonal . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. 232
Weld preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Weldable fine-grain structural steels ....... 131
Welding ............ . ... ... . . .......... 322- 330
Welding and soldering, dimensioning .... 95, 96
Welding and soldering, graphical symbols ... 93- 95
Welding and soldering, representation ... . . 93- 95
Welding fillers for aluminum . . . .. .......... 326
Welding methods . ...... . .... . .. .. ... ....... 322
X
Xenon cylinders. color coding . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

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EUROPA-TECHNICAL BOOK SERIES

for the Metalworking Trades

VERLAG EUROPA LEHRMITTEL Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG

English edition: Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook

ISBN 13 978-3-8085-19 13-4

The Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook is well-suited

Notes for the user

Special thanks to the Magna Technical Training Centre for

Authors and publisher

Volume and Surfac. area

Bending, Torsion .......... .. ... 47

Basic geometric constructi ons

Hardness specifiCations in drawings .. 97

4.10 Other metallic materials

Threads (overview) . . . ... 202

Grooved pins, Grooved drive studs,

Shearing ............... . . .. .. ... 316

7 Automation and lnfonnation Technology

Basic terminology for control

8 Material chart, Standards

Structured text (STI . .. ... .... ..... 374

Standards and other Regulations

A draft standard contains the preliminary finished results of a standardization;

Types of Standards and Regulations lselec:tionl

Purpow end contents

International Organization for

Simplifies the international exchange of

European Committee for Standard!zation (Comitll Europllen de

Technical harmonization and the associated

German standard for which an international standard has been adopted

These guidelines give an account of the cur

DeutSChe Gesellschaft fUr Oualitat e.V., Recommendations in the area of quality

Association for Work DesignNI/ork

Recommendations in the area of production and work planning.

1.1 Numerical tables

1.2 Trigonometric Functions

Definitions .......... . . .................. . ..

1.3 Fundamentals of Mathematics

Using brackets, powers, roots ..... .. ... .... ..

1.4 Symbols, Units

Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols

Volume and Surface area

Centroids of lines .. ...... .. ... ..... ... ...... 32

Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables

Square root, Area of a circle

Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables

30" 0.5000 0.5038 0.5075

85" 0.9962 0.9966 0.!

co8le 0" to .es

: functions are rounded off to four decimal places.

Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables

Values of Tangent and Cotangent Trigonometric Functions

5" 0.0875 0.0919 0.0963

10 0.1763 0.1808 0.1853

0.2679 0.2726 0.2773 0.2820

5.8197 5.9758 6.1402

20" 0.3640 0.3689 0.3739 0.3789 0.3839 69" 65"

0.3990 0.4040 68" 66"

cot engent o t o 45"

Mathematics: 1.2 Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions of right triangles

Graph of the trigonometric functions between ooand 3W

Representation on a unit circle