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First Order
First Order
The general form for the transfer function of a first order filter is:
a1s + a0
T (s) =
b1s + bo
There will always be a single pole at s = –Po. The pole must be real
(there is only one, so no complex conjugates are not possible) and it
must be negative (for stability). There will always be a zero, which can
be at s = 0, as s → ±∞ (zero at infinity), or somewhere else, s = –Zo.
(Note the zero can have a positive value.) There may be a gain factor,
Go, which might be 1 or smaller (for a passive circuit with a voltage
divider) or have a magnitude greater than 1 for an active circuit.
The two most important cases are the zero at infinity, which is a low-
pass filter and the zero at zero, which is the high-pass filter.
EE 230 1st-order filters – 1
Low-pass
In the case were a1 = 0, we have a low-pass function. jω
s-plane
ao
T (s) = zero as s → ±∞
b1s + bo
x σ
In standard form, we write it as: pole at –P0
Po
T (s) = Go ⋅
s + Po
The reason for this form will become clear as we proceed. We will
ignore the gain initially and focus on sinusoidal behavior by letting s = jω.
Po Po
=
s + Po Po + jω
s=jω
Po + jω [ ] ( Po )
Po Po ω
= exp (jθLP) θLP = − arctan
P +ω
2
o
2
EE 230 1st-order filters – 2
By looking at the magnitude expression, we can see the low-pass behavior.
Po Po
For low frequencies (ω << Po): ≈ = 1.
Po2 + ω 2 Po2
Po Po Po
At high frequencies (ω >> Po): ≈ = .
Po2 + ω 2 ω2 ω
( Po )
ω
For low frequencies (ω ≈ 0): θLP = − arctan ≈ 0.
( Po )
ω
At high frequencies (ω → +∞): θLP = − arctan ≈ − 90∘.
1.0 0
magnitude (dB)
0.8
magnitude
-10
0.6 -20
0.4 -30
0.2 -40
0.0 -50
10 100 1000 10000 100000 10 100 1000 10000 100000
angular frequency (rad/s) angular frequency (rad/s)
phase
0
-15
( Po )
ω -30
phase (°)
-60
-75
-90
10 100 1000 10000 100000
EE 230 angular frequency (rad/s) 1st-order filters – 4
Cut-off frequency
Use the standard definition for cut-off frequency, which is the frequency
at which the magnitude is down by 2 from the value in the pass-band.
For our low-pass function, the pass band is at low frequencies, and the
magnitude there is 1. (Again, we are “hiding” Go by assuming that it is
unity. If Go ≠ 1, then everything is scaled by Go.)
1 Po
M= =
2 Po2 + ωc2
( Po )
ωc
θLP = − arctan = − 45∘
The cut-off frequency points are indicated in the plots on the previous
slide.
EE 230 1st-order filters – 5
To emphasize the importance of the corner frequency in the low-pass
function, we can express all the previous results using ωc in place of Po.
On the left are the functions in "standard" form. On the right, the
functions are expressed in a slightly different form that is sometimes
easier to use.
( )= · ( )=
+ +
( )= · ( )=
+ +
( ) = ( ) =
+
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+
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= arctan = arctan
Again, we could just as easily use real frequency rather than angular
frequency. As an exercise: re-express all of the above formulas using f
instead of ω.
EE 230 1st-order filters – 6
Low-pass filter circuits: simple RC ZR =R
( )= ()
+
()
( )= = = = =
() + + + +
( )= ()
+
()
( )= = = = =
() + + + +
As with the previous example choosing the “RL time constant” , we can
define the pass-band of this low-pass filter.
() +
( )= = = = =
() + +
Be careful with the extra negative sign in the gain: –1 = exp( j180° )
At low frequencies: |T| → R2/R1, and θT → 180° (= – 180°)
At high frequencies: |T| → (ωR1C)–1, and θT → +90° (= – 270°)
EE 230 1st-order filters – 9
Magnitude and phase plots for an active low-pass filter with R1 = 1 kΩ, R2
= 25 kΩ, and C = 6.4 nF, giving fo = 1000 Hz and Go = –25 (|Go|= 28 dB).
+ ( )= = simple RC
+ +
( )= + + () non-inverting amp
()
( )= = +
() +
= =
+ +
=
= = +
+ +
=
+
= · Low-pass.
+
s jω
=
s + Po Po + jω
s=jω
Po + jω [ ( Po )
P2 + ω2 ]
jω ω ω
= exp (jθHP) ∘
θHP = 90 − arctan
o
EE 230 1st-order filters – 13
By looking at the magnitude expression, we can see the high-pass behavior.
ω ω ω
For low frequencies (ω << Po): ≈ = .
Po2 + ω 2 Po
2 Po
ω ω
At high frequencies (ω >> Po): ≈ = 1.
Po2 + ω 2 ω2
( Po )
∘ ω
For low frequencies (ω << Po): θHP = 90 − arctan ≈ 90∘.
( Po )
∘ ω
At high frequencies (ω >> Po): θHP = 90 − arctan ≈ 0∘.
1.0 0
magnitude (dB)
magnitude
0.8 -10
0.6 -20
0.4 -30
0.2 -40
0.0 -50
10 100 1000 10000 100000 10 100 1000 10000 100000
angular frequency (rad/s) angular frequency (rad/s)
phase
90
75
( Po )
ω 60
phase (°)
∘
θHP = 90 − arctan 45
30
15
0
10 100 1000 10000 100000
EE 230 angular frequency (rad/s) 1st-order filters – 15
Cut-off frequency
Use the standard definition for cut-off frequency, which is the frequency
at which the magnitude is down by 2 from the value in the pass-band.
For our high-pass function, the pass band is at high frequencies, and the
magnitude there is 1. (Again, we are “hiding” Go by assuming that it is
unity. If Go ≠ 1, then everything is scaled by Go.)
1 ω
M= =
2 Po2 + ωc2
With a bit of algebra, we find that ωc = Po. The same result as for low-
pass response, except that pass-band is above the cut-off frequency in
this case. Once again, we see the importance of the poles in
determining the behavior of the transfer functions.
We can calculate the phase at the cut-off frequency.
( Po )
∘
ωc
θHP = 90 − arctan = 45∘
The cut-off frequency points are indicated in the plots on the previous
slide.
EE 230 1st-order filters – 16
To emphasize the importance of the corner frequency in the high-pass
function, we can express all the previous results using ωc in place of Po.
· The corner frequency is the
= → P0 = ωc
+ value of the pole.
( )= · ( )=
+ +
( )= · ( )=
+ +
( ) = · =
+
= arctan arctan ( ) =
+
= arctan
= + arctan
Exercise: Re-express all of the above formulas using f instead of ω.
EE 230 1st-order filters – 17
High-pass filter circuits: simple RC
ZC =
Capacitor and resistor in series —
output taken across the resistor. +
Vi(s) + ZR Vo(s)
Use a voltage divider to find the transfer –
=R –
function.
( )= ()
+
()
( )= = = = =
() + + + +
( )= ()
+
()
( )= = = = =
() + + + +
= +
()
( )= = = =
() + +
The same comments about the phase apply here: the –1 in the gain
factor introduces an extra 180° (or –180°) of phase.
( )= + + () non-inverting amp
()
( )= = +
() +
=
+ + ( + )
= · High-pass.
+
R ideal
+
Vi(s) + L Vo(s) ( )= =
+
– +
–
As usual, zero at s = 0,
pole at s = –ωc.
R real
+
L + + +
Vi(s) + ( )=
+ +
= +
=
+
– Vo(s) +
Rs
Pole and zero
–
are both shifted!
EE 230 1st-order filters – 23
+ +
( )= =
+ +
= arctan arctan