Metaphysics

Metaphysics deals with the ultimate stuff of reality. Primarily, metaphysical theories can be

classified into three categories: Monism, Dualism and Pluralism.

Monism: According to monism the ultimate stuff or reality is ONE. When this ultimate stuff is

one in kind only, we call it Qualitative Monism. According to qualitative monism, all apparently

different things in the universe are actually made of ONE and the same kind of stuff. There are kinds

of stuff that we ordinarily experience: matter, life and mind. If a theory claims that the universe is

made of matter only, then that theory is a qualitatively monistic theory (a form of materialism); if a

theory claims that the universe is made of life only, it is also a qualitatively monistic theory (a

form of vitalism); if a theory claims that the universe is made of mind only, then it is also a

qualitatively monistic theory (a form of idealism). However, if a qualitative monistic theory claims

that the universe is made of neither matter, nor life, nor even mind but of something more ultimate,

then that theory is classified as neutral monism.

According to Quantitative Monism, there is only ONE ultimate stuff in number. All other things

that seem to exist, exist as a part of that single absolute whole. Absolute idealism is an example of

this kind of monism. And, when a monistic theory is monistic in quality and quantity as well, we

call it perfect monism or singularism.

Dualism: According to dualism the universe is made of TWO ultimate stuffs. These are: matter

(body) and mind. Matter and mind are irreducible to each other. They are completely of opposite

characteristics. Mater has extension but it cannot think; on the other hand, mind does not have

extension but it can think. In other words, extension is the essential property of body whereas

thought is the essential property of mind. No matter can think; no mind has extension. Descartes’

theory of substance and mind-body relation is an excellent example of such kind of dualism.

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Pluralism: According to pluralism, the ultimate stuff is neither one nor two but MANY. They are

more than two either in number or in kind. If they are many in number only, we have quantitative

pluralism (Leibnitz); if they are many in kind only, we have qualitative pluralism (no known theory of

this kind is explicitly maintained). If a pluralistic theory is plural in kind and in number, we have

a perfect pluralism.

Materialism VS Idealism

Materialism

According to materialism the ultimate stuff of the universe is matter. Everything that exists, exists

as something made of matter. Materialism presumes the objectivity of space, time, motion and change.

Materialism looks upon the universe as an unlimited, self-existent structure composed of countless

atoms or energy particles. Materialists explain life and mind in terms of matter and motion. An

organism, including humans, is a complex machine made of material objects. Life and mind,

according to materialists, are either attributes of matter (body) or a by-product of material activities or

life and mind are identical with matter (body). Materialism is intimately connected with natural

sciences. There are various versions of materialism. Here we will briefly talk about three of them:

(1) Atomism: According to this theory the ultimate stuff is atom. Everything that exists is made

of atoms. This theory was first proposed by Greek philosophers Leucippus and his student

Democritus. They believed that the universe is created by atoms; and those atoms are of the same

kind; they are different only in size, shape and velocity. They also believed that all changes in the

universe are caused by the motion of atoms. They claim that each atom is uniform, homogeneous,

colorless, tasteless, and indivisible. Atoms have size, shape, and (perhaps) weight. And they can

move. That is, atoms have (what have come to be called) primary qualities. As for such secondary

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qualities as color, taste, etc., atoms do not have them - an atom cannot be yellow, or salty. Democritus

maintains that his atoms, being not only very small but the smallest possible particles of matter, are

not only too small to be divided physically but also logically indivisible.

Atomism, in its early form, was speculative. But it reappeared in a scientific and experimental form

in the middle of eighteenth century by the work of great scientist John Dalton. Dalton has shown

that all bodies can be analyzed by atoms. These atoms are of many kinds; and hence, there are

many ultimate stuffs, such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.

(2) Energism: In this theory bodily activities are explained in terms of electro-magnetic energy

particles, e.g., electrons, protons, neutrons. So, according to this theory, the universe is made of

energy rather than matter. Still, it is a form of materialism as it is closely connected with atomism.

Moreover, energy particles are sometimes explained in terms of matter.

(3) Dialectic materialism: This theory is proposed by German philosophers Karl Marx and Frederick

Engels. According to Marx-Engels’ dialectical materialism, matter is the ultimate stuff and mind

is a by-product of material activities. They think that matter evolves dialectically and mind emerges in

the highest level of material evolution; mind is not just material object, it has different characteristics

which emerge because of evolution processes. It is also argued here that although mind is a product of

matter, it has the capability of acting upon it. This interpretation of mind-body relation, which is

associated with Marx-Engels’ dialectical materialism, is named as epiphenomenalism.

Advantages of materialism:

(1) Materialism explains life and mind reducing them to physical processes; and this explanation

is claimed to be fully and solely consistent with the notion of causality and natural sciences. Chemical

analysis shows that an organism is made of ultimate stuffs like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, etc. just

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like pure material objects. Scientific observations show that mental processes are either immediately

preceded or accompanied by physiological processes. Hence, life and mind may duly be explained

in terms of matter and motion.

(2) Materialism is consistent with the law of conservation of energy. This law demands that there

is a constant stock of physical energy. It can explain the phenomena that the so-called vital force

can be transformed into physical force, and physical force can be transformed into so-called vital

force without denying the demands of the law of conservation of energy.

(3) Many biological and psychological phenomena, previously considered to be physically inexplicable,

have been so explained. It may therefore be expected that with further advancement of sciences

the remaining phenomena will be similarly explained.

(4) The apparent dependance of mental processes upon the brain and the nervous system is simple

evidence that support materialism. If there is no excitation of nerves by stimulus, there is no

sensation; an injury in brain may cause temporary and permanent loss of consciousness; disturbance

in brain corresponds disturbance in mental life. There is no psychosis without corresponding neurosis.

Disadvantages of materialism:

(1) We observe design, unity and harmony in the nature that cannot be explained in terms matter

and motion. There must be something spiritual that causes the unity and harmony.

(2) Faculties of mind, such as thinking, willing, feeling etc. represent something which is non-material.

A material object cannot think, neither can it feel or will. They can be explained in terms of the

existence of non-material (and higher) entity. But materialism does not allow any such entity.

(3) Mind cannot be considered as the functions of brain. Brain’s function is perceived as motion

and changes of the combination of material objects. But a mind’s functions are not perceived as

motions or changes of the combination of material objects.

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(4) There is an epistemological issue also. In the case of obtaining knowledge, there must be two

things: the knower and the object of knowledge. The object of knowledge may be something

material; but the knower cannot be material. It is intuitively unacceptable that in the process of

obtaining knowledge a matter knows another matter.

(5) Materialism is alleged to have dangerous practical consequences. It leads to atheism and

encourages hedonism and worldly pursuits.

Idealism:

According to idealism, the universe is grounded in mind or its basic stuff is mental or spiritual.

Idealism denies the reality of external objects independent of the knowing minds. The mind (or

spirit) is the primary reality. According to this view the external objects (i.e., the physical universe)

are either mind-dependent or they have no real existence. Idealist philosophers distinguish between

reality and appearance. They define the former as mental or ideal and the latter as the physical

objects of ordinary experiences. Our commonsense belief of the existence of the physical universe

is either explained away by idealism or it is reduced in to a mere appearance or self-manifestation

of the spirit. There are various versions of idealism. Here we will briefly talk about two of them:

(1) Subjective Idealism: George Barkley is an advocate of subjective idealism. Barkley thinks that

material objects are nothing but the clusters of qualities. Some qualities are primary (e.g., solidity,

height, etc.) and some are secondary (e.g. taste, color, etc.). Barkley believes that all of these

qualities are mind-dependent in the sense that they exist if they are perceived by the knower. Thus,

the conception of extra-mental matter is a dogmatic conception. The external world does not exist,

and, consequently, the qualities of the world—primary or secondary—are the subjective ideas of

the mind. The world outside us is neither hot nor cold, neither bright nor dark, neither sweet nor

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sour, neither mobile nor immobile. The universe and its primary and secondary qualities are

nothing but perceptions or ideas of our minds. But the perceptions or ideas are not created by our

own minds. They communicated to us by God who is the cause of our perceptions. Since he thinks

that the so-called existence of external objects is dependent on the perceiver (subject), his theory

is called subjective idealism.

(2) Objective Idealism: Plato is an advocate of objective idealism. According to Plato, reality is

a realm of ideas or forms which are the original patterns of things. He clearly draws a distinction

between the reality and appearance. He thinks that there is a world that contains the ideas or forms.

These ideas or forms are unchangeable. And, whatever we perceive in the world of experience are

only shadows or partial copies of the ideas or forms. Everything we perceive in the world of

experience is changeable. But, Plato thinks, reality is permanent and unchangeable. So, the world

of idea or form is the real world and ideas or forms are the real objects. And, things we perceive

in the world of experience are unreal. But they are not fully unreal. They are real insofar as they

copy, embody or participate in the ideas. They are, therefore, only partially real while the ideas are

fully and truly real. For example, a particular horse (a horse that is perceived in the world of

experience) is born, change and then seize to be existed (dies). So, it is not real. But the ideal horse

never changes, never seizes to be existed (never dies). It is permanent and unchangeable. That is

why it is real. So, ideas, according to Plato, are not things but thoughts. But they are objective,

extra-mental and eternal. Since Plato argues for the objective existence of ideas, his idealism is

called objective idealism.

Advantages of idealism:

(1) Idealism can explain the design, unity and harmony of the nature in terms of built-in consciousness

of ultimate spirit.

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(2) Faculties of mind, e.g., thinking, feeling, willing, etc. can be explained by the ultimate spirit

which is non-material. An idealist does not need to consider mind as the function of brain. So,

mind’s activities can be interpreted without material brain’s motions and changes.

(3) Idealism can account for the relation between the knower and the object of knowledge. Mind

or spirit is the knower and the appearance of the real idea/form is the knowing object.

Disadvantage of idealism:

(1) Idealism faces difficulties in explaining the relation between mind and body. Scientific observations

show that mental processes are either immediately preceded or accompanied by physiological

processes. But if idealism denies the reality of material objects, then it goes against the scientific

observations.

(2) Our commonsense says that external objects are real. Their existence is independent of our mind

or thought. Matters exist not because the knowers perceive them or not because they imitate a form

or idea, they exist without being dependent on any mind or spirit. That is what our commonsense

says. From that point of view, it may be said that idealism is counterintuitive.

(3) Subjective idealism leads toward solipsism according to which the existence of any material

object is dependent on a particular mind. Then the whole universe becomes a universe created by

a particular mind (who is not God). That is completely unacceptable view.

(4) Plato’s objective idealism was criticized by his famous student Aristotle. He, quite logically,

says that the form or idea cannot be separated from the particular object. There is no ideal horse

or horseness without a particular horse. Ideal horse or horseness cannot be conceived to exist in

separation from particular horses.

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