Answers To Science Focus 3 Coursebook Questions

Answers to Science Focus 3 coursebook questions
Unit 1.1 Atoms and elements

1 a Smallest: electron
b Heaviest: proton and neutron (the neutron is slightly heavier than the proton)
c Positive: proton
d Negative: electron
e Neutral: neutron
f Spins around the nucleus: electrons
g In the nucleus: neutrons and protons
2 Protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral) are located in the nucleus. The
negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus in shells.
3 The overall charge of an atom is zero, i.e. it is neutral. The number of protons and
electrons must be the same for the charge in the atom to balance.
4 a Atomic number: number of protons in an atom
b Mass number: number of protons and neutrons in an atom
c Nucleus: centre of the atom, comprising neutrons and protons
5 26
56
Fe, 26p+, 26e–, 30n 56
26
Fe, 26p+, 26e–, 30n
28
59
Ni, 28p+, 28e–, 31n 59
28
Ni, 28p+, 28e–, 31n
29
64
Cu, 29p+, 29e–, 35n 64
29
Cu, 29p+, 29e–, 35n
79
197
Au, 79p+, 79e–, 118n 197
79
Au, 79p+, 79e–, 118n
6 The atomic number
7 Various answers, e.g. gold contains only gold atoms.
8 a Dalton’s atomic theory: all matter is composed of atoms, atoms cannot be
broken down into smaller units, atoms of the same element are alike, atoms join
together in different ratios.
b The incorrect part is that atoms cannot be broken down. Atoms can be broken
down into sub-atomic particles (protons, neutrons and electrons).
9 A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together, e.g. the atom for oxygen is O
(single atom), whereas the molecule of oxygen is O2 (two oxygen atoms bonded
together).
10 Diagrammatic answer required
11 Compounds are formed when two or more different types of elements are
chemically joined.
12 a Various answers, e.g. water (H2O), sodium chloride (NaCl)
b Various answers, e.g. water (H2O) found in oceans, lakes, ice etc, sodium
chloride (NaCl) is common table salt found in salt water.
13 A mixture can be separated by physical means, e.g. water can be filtered from
muddy water.
14 A glass of cordial is a mixture and can be dilute or strong: there are no definite
proportions.
15 a True
b False. The chemical symbol for iron is Fe.
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Answers to coursebook questions Chapter 1
c True
d True
e False. A molecule is not the same as a lattice.
16 a Lead, Pb: element, contains only one type of atom
b Nitric acid, HNO3: compound, can’t be separated by physical means
c Sea water: mixture, can be separated by physical means
d Ammonia, NH3: compound, can’t be separated by physical means
e Peanut butter: mixture, can be separated by physical means
17 a Compound
b Lattice
c Atom
d Molecule
e Mixture
18 a An element is made from many identical atoms; a compound is made from many
identical molecules or units.
b The element iron is made of many iron atoms; an atom of iron is only one.
c The compound water contains many molecules of water; a molecule of water is
only one.
d A compound has many identical molecules or units; a mixture has a variety of
them.
e Different atoms make up a molecule.
19 a SO2: 1 sulfur and 2 oxygens
b H2S: 2 hydrogens and 1 sulfur
c C12H22O11: 12 carbons, 22 hydrogens and 11 oxygens
d H2SO4: 2 hydrogens, 1 sulfur and 4 oxygens
e CH3COOH : 2 carbons, 4 hydrogens and 2 oxygens
20
Atom Atomic Mass Number Number Number Symbol

number number of of of for the
protons neutrons electrons atom
Carbon 6 12 6 6 6 12
6
C
Sulfur 16 32 16 16 16 32
16
S
Sodium 11 23 11 12 11 23
11
Na
Oxygen 8 16 8 8 8 16
8
O
Fluorine 9 19 9 10 9 19
9
F
Iodine 53 127 53 74 53 127
53
I
Unit 1.2 Arranging the elements

1 a German chemist Johann Dobereiner, English chemist John Newlands, Russian
chemist Mendeleev, German chemist Lother Meyer, English physicist Henry
Moseley.
b Various answers, e.g. Mendeleev arranged the elements in order of atomic
number.
2 Mendeleev left gaps to keep the families of elements known at the time in vertical
columns or groups.
3 a False. Horizontal rows in the periodic table are ‘periods’.
b False. Vertical columns are called ‘groups’.
c False. The most reactive metallic atom would be Francium, Fr.
d True
e True
4 Cl: chlorine (non-metal); Na: sodium (metal); Ar: argon (non-metal); Si: silicon
(semi-metal); Cu: copper (metal); Ge: germanium (semi-metal)
5 Semi-metals: boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, polonium,
astatine
6 Non-metals: H, He, C, N, O, F, Ne, P, S, Cl, Ar, Se, Br, Kr, I, Xe, Rn
7 Common transition elements could be iron, gold, copper, silver, zinc.
8 Most metals are in Groups I, II, III and some in IV. One (Bi) is in Group V. Non-
metals are in Groups IV, V, VI, VII and VIII.
9 Five physical properties: hardness, colour, shine, boiling point, melting point
10 a Group VI: oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, polonium
b Period 3: sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorous, sulfur, chlorine,
argon
c Same ‘family’: any set of elements from the same column or group
d Similar chemical properties: any set of elements from the same column or group
e Noble gases: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon
11 a Cuprum: Cu, copper
b Aurum: Au, gold
c Plumbum: Pb, lead
d Wolfram: W, tungsten
e Bromos: Br, bromine
12 The word ‘ferrous’ gives iron its symbol, Fe.
13 ‘Plumber’ and ‘plumbing’ come from the Latin word plumbum for lead, Pb.
14 a V
b IV
c VII
d II
15 a Hydrogen: mass number = atomic number + neutrons = 1 + 3 = 4
b Chlorine: 17 + 20 = 37
c Nickel: 28 + 30 = 58
16 Diagrammatic answer required.
Unit 1.3 The role of electrons

1 Energy levels are shells in which the electrons spin.
2 First: 2 electrons; second: 8 electrons; third: 18 electrons but happy with 8; fourth:
32 electrons but happy with 8
3 The electronic configuration of an atom shows the arrangement of electrons in an
atom.
4 Magnesium: 2,8,2
5 a Atoms in the same group have the same number of outer-shell electrons and
similar properties.
b Atoms in the same period have the same number of shells in use.
6 Noble gases (or inert gases, Group VIII, Group 0)
7 Atoms that react have an incomplete outer shell of electrons, whereas atoms that
don’t react have a full outer shell.
8 An atom is neutral, with equal numbers of protons and electrons. Thus a chlorine
atom has 17 protons and 17 electrons. An ion is charged, with unequal numbers of
protons and electrons. A chlorine ion has 17 protons and 18 electrons.
9 A sodium atom loses an electron to form a sodium ion.
11 Various answers. Positive ions: hydrogen +1, magnesium +2. Negative ions:
chlorine –1, oxygen –2.
12 Noble gases do not form ions because they have a filled outer shell (eight electrons
in it).
13 Sodium chloride has Na+ and Cl–. These are in equal numbers so the overall charge
is balanced.
14 a Period 2, Group IV
b Period 3, Group VI
c Period 2, Group V
d Period 3, Group V
e Period 4, Group II
f Period 2, Group VIII
15 a 2,6
b 2,8,8
c 2
d 2,8,2
e 2,8,6
16 Neutrons are neutral, so they take no part in determining charge of an ion.
17 a, b
Atomic number Element (name and Number of:

symbol)
Protons Electrons
i 8 Oxygen (O) 8 8
ii 18 Argon (Ar) 18 18
iii 3 Lithium (Li) 3 3
iv 19 Potassium (K) 19 19
v 9 Fluorine (F) 9 9
vi 12 Magnesium (Mg) 12 12
vii 5 Phosphorous (P) 15 15
viii 13 Aluminium (Al) 13 13
c
i 2,6, most likely ionic charge –2
ii 2,8,8, will not form an ion
iii 2,1, most likely ionic charge +1
iv 2,8,8,1, most likely ionic charge +1
v 2,7, most likely ionic charge –1
vi 2,8,2, most likely ionic charge +2
vii 2,8,5, most likely ionic charge –3
viii 2,8,3, most likely ionic charge +3
d Diagrammatic answer required.
18
Element Atomic Number Electronic The atom Or it Most Most

number of configuration could lose could gain likely likely ion
electrons scenario formed
H 1 1 1 1e– 1e– Uncertain H+ or H–
He 2 2 2 Unreactive No ion formed
Li 3 3 2,1 1e– 7e– Lose 1e– Li+
Be 4 4 2,2 2e– 6e– Lose 2e– Be2+
B 5 5 2,3 3e– 5e– Lose 3e– B3+
C 6 6 2,4 4e– 4e– Uncertain
N 7 7 2,5 5e– 3e– Gain 3e– N3–
O 8 8 2,6 6e– 2e– Gain 3e– O2–
F 9 9 2,7 7e– 1e– Gain 3e– F–
Ne 10 10 2,8 Unreactive No ion formed
Na 11 11 2,8,1 1e– 7e– Lose 1e– Na+
Mg 12 12 2,8,2 2e– 6e– Lose 2e– Mg2+
Al 13 13 2,8,3 3e– 5e– Lose 3e– Al3+
Si 14 14 2,8,4 4e– 4e– Uncertain
P 15 15 2,8,5 5e– 3e– Gain 3e– P3–
S 16 16 2,8,6 6e– 2e– Gain 2e– S2–
Cl 17 17 2,8,7 7e– 1e– Gain 1e– Cl–
Ar 18 18 2,8,8 Unreactive No ion formed
K 19 19 2,8,8,1 1e– 7e– Lose 1e– K+
Ca 20 20 2,8,8,2 2e– 6e– Lose 2e– Ca2+
19
Number of Number of Number of Overall Is it an Symbol

protons neutrons electrons charge atom or
ion?
8 6 8 0 Atom O
10 10 10 0 Atom Ne
11 10 10 +1 Ion Na+
17 16 18 –1 Ion Cl–
15 15 18 –3 Ion P3–
19 18 18 +1 Ion K+
20 19 18 +2 Ion Ca2+
8 7 10 –2 Ion O2–
Unit 1.4 Metals, non-metals and semi-metals

1 Metal atoms form lattices.
2 Various answers
3 Non-metals can exist as atoms, molecules or lattices.
4 Various answers
5 Non-metals have a higher electronegativity than metals.
6 a Na+
b S2–
c I–
d P3–
e Al3+
7 H could be placed:
a in Group I because of its ability to lose one electron.
b in Group VII because of its ability to gain one electron.
c by itself, because of its ‘indecisive’ nature.
8 Helium could be placed in Group II because it has two outer-shell electrons.
9 Helium is normally placed in Group VIII because of its family resemblance to the
other noble gases.
10 a Metalloids
b Semi-metals have most of the properties of non-metals, except that they can
conduct electricity.
c Boron, silicon
11 a Lustrous: shiny
b Malleable: able to be bent
c Ductile: able to be stretched into wires
d Brittle: shatters easily
e Electronegativity: holding power of an atom for its electrons.
f Semi-metal: an element that shows both metallic and non-metallic character
12 a Mercury (Hg) is the only metal that is liquid at normal room temperatures.
b Sodium, magnesium, aluminium are metals in Period 3.
c Tin and lead are metals in Group IV.
d Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium are metals that
would form +2 ions.
13 a Solids: four, ignoring metalloids (P, Si, Se, I)
b Liquids: one (Br)
c Gases: ten (H, N, O, F, He, Cl, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)
14 Examples could be drawn from:
a H, He, N, O, F, Ne, Cl, Ar, Kr
b Br, Hg
c N, P, As, Sb, Bi
d Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne
e F, Br, I, At
f S, Se, Te, Po
15 Group I: +1; Group II: +2; Group III: +3; Group V: –3; Group VI: –2; Group VII:
–1; Group VIII: no charge, no ion formed
16
Metal or non-metal Properties

Metals Ductile, dense, malleable, lustrous,
excellent conductors, normally solid
Non-metals Normally gas or liquid, brittle, dull, poor
conductors
Unit 1.5 Families of elements

1 Helium is lighter than air, just like hydrogen. It is far safer, however, because it is
not explosive.
2 Noble gases get heavier and more dense as we go down the group.
3 The melting and boiling points of the halogens increase as we move down the group.
4 Halogen used as:
a disinfectant: Cl, I
b sedative: Br
c goitre control: I
d bleach: Cl
e anaesthetic: F
5 Alkali metals burn in chlorine gas; they react violently with water.
6 Alkali metals:
a Melting point of 98°C: Na
b Is in caustic soda: Na
c Used as an air filter: Li
d Would be the most reactive: Rb
e Would be the smallest atom: Li
7 The alkaline earths:
a Closely related to potassium: Ca
b Used as a ‘meal’: Ba
c Found in plaster: Ca
d Used to protect iron from rusting: Mg
f Least reactive: Be
8 a True
b True
c False
d False
9 a Diamond: gems, drill tips and saws, abrasives
b Graphite: electrode in battery, electrical ‘brushes’ in motors, grey-lead pencils,
lubricant
c Silicon: glass, gemstones, electronic components
d Germanium: electronic components, lenses for optical instruments
10 Only 20% of diamonds are valuable.
11 Three transition elements that:
a are in Period 5: Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd
b are magnetic: Fe, Ni, Co
c are used for jewellery: Au, Ag, Pt
d are silver grey in colour: Ag, Fe, Pt, Zn, Hg, Cr, Ni
e have Latin or Greek roots: Cu, Au, Fe, Ag, W, Hg
12 Carbon is basically a non-metal but does conduct electricity as graphite. It could
thus be classified as a semi-metal.
13 Carbon was found much earlier than most of the other non-metals because
amorphous carbon is left over from burning or combustion. It would have been on
food, rocks and charcoal around cooking fires.
14 a 20°C, gas: F, Cl; liquid: Br; solid: I
b 100°C, gas: F, Cl, Br; solid: I
c –199°C, gas: F; solid: Cl, Br, I
d 150°C, gas: F, Cl, Br; liquid: I
15 The most likely compound between hydrogen and
a silicon is SiH4
b germanium is GeH4
c tin is SnH4
d lead is PbH4
16 As a metal, lead is soft and malleable. A lead container would hold a liquid like
heating fuel as long as it retained these properties. Below 13°C, however, lead
begins to act more like a non-metal: although solid it could be expected to crumble
into powder instead of retaining its shape. A container would soon have holes or
splits which would leak the vital heating fuel.
Chapter 1 review
2 a Halogens: Group VII
b Inert gases: Group VIII
c Alkaline earths: Group II
3 First holds up to 2 electrons, second holds 8, third holds up to 18 but often only fills
to 8, and fourth holds up to 32 but often only fills to 8.
4 Period number = number of shells used, group number = number of electrons in

outer shell.
5
Metal Non-metal
Electrical conductivity High None or limited
Heat conductivity High None
Shine Lustrous Dull
Able to be bent Malleable Crumbles
Melting/boiling points Relatively high Low
6 A chlorine atom is neutral, with equal numbers of protons and electrons. A chloride
ion is a chlorine atom which has gained an electron and is now charged.
7 The most likely charge would be:
a +3
b –1
c –2
d 0
e +2
f –3
8 a False
b False
c False
d True
e True
f False
g False
h False
i True
j True
k True
l False
m False
n True
9 Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell,
will form similar ions and can be expected to act in a similar way in chemical
reactions.
10 Non-metals have a higher electronegativity than metals.
11
Atom Atomic Mass Number Number Number Atomic

number number of of of symbol
protons neutrons electrons
Sulfur 16 32 16 16 16 32
S
16
Hydrogen 1 1 1 0 1 1
H
1
Beryllium 4 9 4 5 4 9
Be
4
Iodine 53 127 53 74 53 127

I
53
Nickel 28 59 8 1 8 59
Ni
28
12 Helium has outer shell electrons like group II elements, but has properties like the
inert (noble) gases in group VIII. It can sometimes be placed in both positions on the
periodic table. Hydrogen has one outer shell electron, similar to elements in group I,
but has different properties as a very light atom and gas.
13 The size and weight of elements increase as we move down any group.
14 Various answers.
15 a 17p+, 17e– and 18n
b 1p+, 1e– and 2n
c 79p+, 79e– and 118n
16 If a potassium atom meets a fluorine atom, the potassium atom will probably lose an
electron to the fluorine atom, becoming the ions K+ and F–. They form a lattice, KF.
17 The outer electrons are exposed to attack from other atoms and thus will control
what the atom does in a chemical reaction.
18 Carbon forms a molecule, CCl4, so family resemblances suggest that the compounds
SiCl4, GeCl4, SnCl4 and PbCl4 would form.
Unit 2.1 What are chemical reactions and why do they happen?
1 Precipitation, gas given off, permanent colour change, heat given out or taken in,
one metal coating another
2 A solution is a solute dissolved in a solvent.
3 ‘Clear’ means you can see through it.
4 Ions join together to form sparingly soluble compounds.
5 a Spontaneous reactions happen naturally, whereas non-spontaneous reactions
require a continual energy input to keep them going.
b Spontaneous reaction: rusting of iron. Non-spontaneous reaction: electrolysis of
water.
6 a
i Reactant: water
ii Products: hydrogen, oxygen
iii The reaction is endothermic.
iv Reactants have more energy.
b i Reactants: ethane, oxygen
ii Products: carbon dioxide, water
iii The reaction is exothermic.
iv Products have more energy.
7 a Physical
b Chemical
c Chemical
d Physical
e Physical
f Physical
g Chemical
8 Various answers, e.g. cooking
9 a Chemical—a precipitate is formed.
b Physical—no new substance is formed.
c Chemical—gas is given off.
d Chemical—heat is produced.
e Physical—no new substance is formed; there is simply a change of state.
f Chemical—a new compound is formed.
10 Some energy must be added to start it, but it is still a spontaneous reaction.
11 Various answers
12 Equations allow us to represent complex reactions quickly and simply.
13 a Copper + nitric acid → copper nitrate + nitrogen monoxide + water
b Sodium carbonate + sulfuric acid → sodium sulfate + water + carbon dioxide
c Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
d Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
e Iron + oxygen + water → hydrated iron oxide
f Lead nitrate + sodium iodide → lead iodide + sodium nitrate
Unit 2.2 Naming compounds

1 An electron is either gained or lost.
2 Electrostatic attraction
3 As a positive ion, sodium has a noble gas electronic configuration, and thus is more
stable than as a neutral atom with one valence electron.
4 a An ion made up of more than one atom
b e.g. SO42–
5 a Rubidium bromide
b Potassium sulfide
c Beryllium oxide
d Sodium nitride
e Ammonium chloride
f Lithium hydroxide
g Silver carbonate
h Zinc sulfate
6 There is sharing of electrons between two or more different non-metals.
7 a Carbon dioxide
b Dinitrogen pentoxide
c Sulfur hexafluoride
d Dihydrogen dioxide
e Dihydrogen oxide (or water)
8 Ionic bonding involves the complete transfer of electrons. Covalent bonding is the
sharing of electrons.
9 Metals always donate electrons, leaving more protons than electrons, resulting in a
positively charged ion.
10 a NaBr
b MgS
c CaF2
d Li3N
e Al4C3
11 a Na2SO4
b Mg(OH)2
c SrCO3
d LiNO3
e (NH4)2O
12 a FeCl3 ionic
b PH3 covalent
c FeCl2 ionic
d CuNO3 ionic
e OCl2 covalent
f Cu(NO3)2 ionic
13 The attraction between magnesium and oxide ions is greater.
14 a +4
b +32
c –9
15 a 2 nitrogen, 8 hydrogen, 1 sulfur, 4 oxygen

b 2 potassium, 2 chromium, 7 oxygen
c 1 calcium, 2 oxygen, 2 hydrogen
16 The bonds between molecules of dinitrogen monoxide are weaker than those
between ammonia molecules.
17 Various answers. It would be difficult to write and interpret formulas and would
create confusion.
Unit 2.3 Reaction types

1 When two or more substances combine to form one new substance, e.g. carbon +
oxygen → carbon dioxide.
2 Substances should be written as they appear at room temperature and pressure, and
oxygen is a diatomic molecule under these conditions.
3 A decomposition reaction is the opposite of a combination reaction.
4 Carbon dioxide
5 Cloudiness is seen in the solution.
6 (s) = solid, (aq) = aqueous, (g) = gas, (l) = liquid
7 Neutralisation reaction: acid + base, e.g. sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid
8 Salt and water are the products.
9 Combustion reaction: substance burning in oxygen. Oxygen (O2) is always a
reactant.
10 Displacement reaction: burning magnesium
11 When one metal deposits on another
12 The activity series lists the metals in order from most to least reactive.
13 Various answers
14 a No
b Yes
c No
d Yes
15 a Silver chloride
b Mercury(I) iodide
c Calcium carbonate
d Barium sulfate
16 a Silver nitrate + sodium chloride → silver chloride + sodium nitrate
b Mercury(I) nitrate + potassium iodide → mercury(I) iodide + potassium nitrate
c Calcium nitrate + lithium carbonate → calcium carbonate + lithium nitrate
d Barium nitrate + sodium sulfate → barium sulfate + sodium nitrate
17 One metal deposits on another.
18 a Decomposition
b Neutralisation
c Displacement
d Precipitation
e Combustion
19 Various answers
20 Because other similar reactions can be compared and classified accordingly.
21 Various answers
Unit 2.4 Acids and bases

1 An acid contains hydrogen in combination with other elements.
2 Acid: sour, turn blue litmus red.
3 Sulfuric acid dehydrates living tissue.
4 Hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3)
5 Acetic acid in vinegar is weak as it does not give up hydrogen easily.
6 A base neutralises an acid.
7 An alkali is a soluble base.
8 Base: bitter, turn red litmus blue.
9 A salt is an ionic compound.
10 a Nitric acid + aluminium → aluminium nitrate + nitrogen
b Nitric acid + zinc → zinc nitrate + hydrogen
c Nitric acid + iron → iron nitrate + hydrogen
d Nitric acid + lithium → lithium nitrate + hydrogen
11 Various answers, e.g. brushing teeth with toothpaste, containing base, neutralises
acids in the mouth.
12 a Stinging creatures: worker bees, stinging ants, stinging nettles, wasps and some
jellyfish
b Stinging nettles (acid sting): add a dock leaf (contains base). Wasps and some
jellyfish (base sting): wash wound with vinegar (weak acid).
c Bluebottle sting contains base, so the vinegar (weak acid) will neutralise the
sting.
d Beestings are acidic, so adding more acid (vinegar) will not neutralise the sting.
13
Reaction type Example (word equation Reactant(s) Product(s)
and chemical formulas)
Acid + metal Hydrochloric acid + Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium chloride +
magnesium → magnesium magnesium HCl, Mg hydrogen MgCl2, H2
chloride + hydrogen
2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2
Acid + hydroxide Hydrochloric acid + sodium Hydrochloric acid + Sodium chloride +
hydroxide → sodium chloride sodium hydroxide water
+ water HCl, NaOH NaCl, H2O
2HCl + NaOH → NaCl +
H2O
Acid + oxide Hydrochloric acid + calcium Hydrochloric acid + Calcium chloride +
oxide → calcium chloride + calcium oxide water
water HCl, CaO CaCl2, H2O
2HCl + CaO → CaCl2 + H2O
Acid + carbonate Hydrochloric acid + sodium Hydrochloric acid + Sodium chloride +
carbonate → sodium chloride sodium carbonate carbon dioxide + water
+ carbon dioxide + water HCl, Na2CO3 NaCl, CO2, H2O
2HCl + Na2CO3 → 2NaCl +
CO2 + H2O
14 a Strong acid: 0–3

b Weak acid: 4–6
c Pure water: 7
d Weak base: 8–10
e Strong base: 11–14
15 An indicator is a substance that changes colour depending on whether it is placed in
an acid, base or neutral solution.
16 An indicator is used to determine whether a particular substance is an acid or a base
or to determine the pH of a substance.
17 At pH 8:
a Universal: green/blue
b Red litmus: blue
c Blue litmus: blue
18 Oranges, lemons and grapefruit all contain citric acid.
19 Dilute: contains few nitric acid particles. Concentrated: contains many nitric acid
particles.
20 Bases feel soapy because we have fats on the surface of our skin and these react with
bases.
21 a The pop test—hydrogen gas will pop if a spark is added.
b Lime water goes milky or a flame goes out.
22 The oesophagus, throat and mouth are not protected by mucus as the stomach is.
23 a An acid will lower the pH of the soil.
b Acids have lower pH values.
24 Acetic acid, because hydrochloric acid would be harmful to eat.
25 a Strontium nitrate
b Copper sulfate
c Silver chloride
d Magnesium nitrate
26 a
i Hydrochloric acid + iron(II) hydrogen carbonate → iron(II) chloride +
water + carbon dioxide
ii Nitric acid + silver hydroxide → silver nitrate + water
iii Sulfuric acid + barium oxide → barium sulfate + water
b
i HCL + FeHCO3 → FeCl + H2O + CO2
ii HNO3 + AgOH → AgNO3 + H2O
iii H2SO4 + BaO → BaSO4 + H2O
27 a Barium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
b Calcium oxide and nitric acid
c Iron(III) carbonate and sulfuric acid
28 You have to dilute by a factor of 100, so you would have to add 900 mL of water.
29 Various answers
30 Various answers
Chapter 2 review
1 Chemical reaction: cloudiness, bubbles of gas, a metal depositing, gets hotter or
colder, permanent colour change.
2 Rain is a physical change (vapour → liquid).
3 Ice melting is an endothermic reaction.
4 In sea water, the solute is salt (NaCl) and the solvent is water.
5 Some metals give away electrons more easily.
6 a LiOH
b BaSO4
c AlBr3
7 a Dihydrogen monosulfide
b Phosphorus trifluoride
c Silicon dioxide
8 The bonds between atoms in H2O are covalent (two non-metals).
9 a 1+
b 2+
c 3+
10 a Hydrogen carbonate
b Iodide
c Sulfide
d Ammonium
11 Diatomic: consists of two atoms, e.g. O2.
12 Various answers—should be a base.
13 Various answers, e.g. vinegar, baking soda
14 a Combination
b Neutralisation
15 Displacement could be used.
16 Magnesium hydroxide is found in antacids.
17 a Base
b Base
c Acid
d Base
e Acid
18 a Carbon dioxide, water and sodium chloride
b Water, calcium nitrate
19 a Red
b Red
c Pink/orange
d Yellow
20 Various answers, e.g. add indicator to one and if it stays green it is water. Pour one
of the others into this. If it turns red, the one poured in is the acid and therefore the
remaining one is the base.
21 Various answers
Unit 3.1 The expanding universe

1 The pitch changes from high to low.
2 Various answers, e.g. ambulance, police siren
3 a Short wavelength would produce a high pitch.
b Long wavelength would produce a low, deep pitch.
4 A change in wavelength would change the colour.
5 Light can be separate by using a prism or spectrometer.
6 Most galaxies are moving away from us, and the further away they are, the faster
they are going.
7 It stands to reason that they were once closer together because they are now moving
further apart.
8 The big bang theory
11 Just after the big bang, all the matter in the universe was packed in a much smaller
volume, so the density would have been extremely high.
12 Various answers, e.g. where did the matter that came into existence with the big
bang come from?
13 Austrian physicist Christian Doppler described the Doppler effect in 1842. American
astronomer Edwin Hubble used the red shift to determine whether galaxies are
moving towards or away from us and at what speed. In 1929 he reported Hubble’s
law.
Unit 3.2 The big bang

1 The universe is thought to be 14 billion years old.
2 It inflated a fraction of a second after the big bang.
3 The left-over matter went on to form the universe, which includes us.
4 Quarks formed protons and neutrons.
5 a 77% is hydrogen.
b Hydrogen is the simplest atom, having only one proton at its centre.
6 A hydrogen nucleus contains only a proton.
7 It was crammed with particles that prevented light travelling far in a straight line.
8 Electrons slowed down enough to form new types of atoms or elements. The fog
cleared as more atomic particles combined to form new elements.
9 The evidence was radiation from the afterglow of the big bang.
10 COBE: Cosmic Background Explorer
11 Stars and galaxies are formed by matter collapsing under gravity.
12 ‘Baby’ planets grow by attracting other nearby matter.
13 An open universe keeps expanding forever. A closed one eventually contracts into a
‘big crunch’. A flat universe expands at a decreasing rate, but doesn’t contract again.
14 Various answers
15 a The first atoms formed a second or so after the big bang.

b It did not happen earlier because the temperature was too high to allow particles
to form stable atoms.
16 Radiation: heat, radio waves, microwaves
17 Galaxies may not have formed.
19 The steady state theory is less likely than the big bang theory, given the evidence for
the expansion of the universe, and the discovery of background radiation (probable
afterglow of the big bang).
Unit 3.3 The life of a star

1 A nebula is a vast cloud of gas and dust in space.
2 The main fuel in stars is hydrogen.
3 Burns hydrogen, red giant, burns helium, white dwarf
4 The limited hydrogen fuel will run out and our Sun will expand to form a red giant
and eventually collapse to form a white dwarf. A star with a mass of ten Suns uses
up its fuel more rapidly and becomes a blue supergiant and then expands to form a
red supergiant which collapses, causing a supernova, resulting in a neutron star.
5 A pulsar is a rapidly rotating neutron star with a strong magnetic field. It emits radio
waves that sweep across space.
6 A black hole is formed by the collapse of a star the size of many Suns.
7 We cannot see black holes because light cannot escape from them. We know they
exist because of the X-rays emitted by them, and the behaviour of nearby stars.
8 The elements were produced when stars collapsed.
9 Blue supergiant, red supergiant, supernova, neutron star
10 You could not lift it.
11 Our region of the galaxy rotates around (rather than falling into) the black hole.
Unit 3.4 Are we alone?

1 The search would take thousands of years.
2 There is less background interference at microwave frequencies than at radio wave
frequencies.
3 It indicates the position of Earth in the solar system.
4 SETI: Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence
5 The SETI programs required large amounts of money, with little chance of
immediate success.
6 Parkes (New South Wales) and Arecibo (Puerto Rico)
7 The signal may have travelled a great distance, taking a long time to reach Earth.
During this time the civilisation may have been destroyed or ceased to exist.
8 Are there other intelligent life forms in the universe?
9 Because they show only Western-looking white people, i.e. the picture has excluded
all the other races of people on Earth. Because only the man is waving, i.e. it implies
that women are not active and do not communicate. Because there are diagrams of
naked humans.
10 Many transmissions from television and radio stations have been (and are continuing
to be) emitted into space from Earth anyway.
11 Our galaxy could contain 1 billion Earth-like planets.
12 Various answers
13 Various answers
Unit 3.5 Future space travel

1 It would cost approximately $5 million.
2 American billionaire Dennis Tito was the first space tourist. It cost US$40 million.
3 It would take one thousand lifetimes.
4 Less energy would be required for food, heating, etc. The journey could be at a
slower speed.
5 It would take over 40 years to reach Alpha Centauri.
6 Antimatter would react with the normal matter that the tank is made from,
destroying both. Perhaps a magnetic field could be used to contain antimatter within
an outer tank.
7 Various answers, e.g. it may close unexpectedly or lead to an unexpected or
unknown location.
8 Various answers
9 You could jump six times higher and would take twice as long to return to the
ground.
10 Various answers, e.g. to find an alternative planet to inhabit before Earth is
consumed by an expanding and dying Sun.
11 Various answers
12 Various answers
13 Positive charges given to the xenon atoms come from the spacecraft, leaving it
negatively charged. This negative charge would need to be neutralised before a
dangerous amount of charge built up.
14 A conventional rocket could be used to place an ion drive rocket in space.
15 Various answers, e.g. protecting the spacecraft’s occupants from the nuclear blasts
and radiation.
16 A desired change in power or direction of the laser would take a long time to be
conveyed from the spacecraft to the laser on Earth.
Chapter 3 review
1 a A Formula One car’s screaming engine changes pitch from higher to lower as it
races past your position in the grandstand.
b All waves, including sound and light, can undergo a Doppler effect.
c Stars moving towards us may have a spectrum shifted towards the blue end.
d True
e The universe is expanding.
2 The big bang is the moment when the universe exploded into existence.
3 Hydrogen and helium

4 The early universe was incredibly hot compared to today.
5 The positron and the electron would annihilate each other.
6 The ‘fog’ cleared after about 300 000 years.
7 a 8.6 years
b 160 000 years
8 Nebulae are known as ‘star nurseries’.
9 Add labels (clockwise from top): neutron star, black hole, supernova and red giant.
10 Signs of a black hole: X-ray emission, behaviour of nearby stars
11 a Astronomy using Hubble telescope, space probe exploration
b Astronomy using telescopes, radio astronomy
12 Various answers. Propulsion methods may include those involving collection of fuel
from space, ion drive, nuclear bombs, antimatter, laser drive, warping space and
time, wormholes, antigravity.
13 Various answers. May include physicists Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, who
detected background radiation left over from the beginning of the universe.
14 Something must have helped (and be helping) to pull matter together under gravity
to form galaxies.
15 They help indicate our position compared to nearby pulsars.
16 E = extra, meaning ‘outside’. T = terrestrial, meaning ‘of the Earth’.
17 Because we don’t know which frequency an extraterrestrial intelligence would use.
18 Various answers, e.g. traffic noise
19 Various answers
Unit 4.1 Bending light

1 Refraction is the bending of light when it continues into another substance.
2 Objects immersed in water appear bent when viewed from air.
3 Optical density
4 Diagrammatic answer required. The eye traces light back to form a virtual image
where it appears to have come from.
5 When light travels from a less optically dense substance into an optically denser one
(say from air into glass), it reflects and the light is unable to escape from the
substance it’s in.
6 Optical fibre is more durable and cheaper than copper wire.
7 A bike reflector uses total internal reflection.
8 a It emerges into the air.
b It reflects from the boundary back into the glass.
9 Light may escape from the fibre.
10 The protective layers prevent possible leakage of light if a layer is compromised.
11 More fibres allow more light to be transmitted to and from the end of the endoscope.
12 Light is sent to the end of the endoscope through one or more optical fibres.
13 a Microphone
b Video camera
c Computer
14 a Speaker
b Television
c Printer/photocopier
15 Different regions or layers of air at different temperatures behave like different
substances as far as light is concerned. That is, they have different optical densities.
17 A
18 a An example: optical fibres are used in endoscopes to provide images of the
intestinal lining.
b It may replace the need to operate on certain parts of the body where tumours
are present.
c It provides more powerful and accurate images of body cells, and is less invasive
of body cells.
19 a Diagrammatic answer required.
b Diamond bends light most.
20 a Towards the normal
b Towards the normal
c Away from the normal
Unit 4.2 Lenses and curved mirrors

1 From left to right: concave and convex, convex, concave, convex, concave, convex
2 a Convex lens: converging
b Concave lens: diverging

4 a Real images formed by convex lenses may be bigger or smaller than the original
object.
b True
c Concave lenses can form real and virtual images.
d True
e Real images in a concave lens are always inverted.
5 Various answers, e.g. camera, telescope
6 The images would be upside down, and a longer tube would be needed to contain
the lenses at the correct separation.
7 Concave and convex. Diagrammatic answer required.
8 A concave mirror
9 a Greater thickness = shorter focal length (focus closer to lens).
b Greater thickness = smaller image.
10 a The image gets bigger.
b The image gets bigger.
11 A convex lens—the hot spot would be an image of the Sun.
12 The slide must be placed upside down because the real image produced is inverted.
13 We can tell that they are real images because they are able to be projected onto a
screen.
14 a At an intersection: convex mirror
b By a dentist: a concave mirror
15 The Moon is too far away to be enlarged—only objects closer than two focal lengths
are enlarged.
16 Use the thick lens for the eyepiece, and the thin lens for the objective lens.
17 a They both contain an eyepiece and an objective lens.
b Objects viewed using a microscope are much closer to the eyepiece.
18 a To correct long-sightedness, a convex lens would need to be placed in front of
the eye.
b To correct short-sightedness, a concave lens would need to be placed in front of
the eye.
19 Arrange a convex lens or a concave mirror to produce an image of the Sun on some
light but flammable material (e.g. paper or dry grass).
20
Object height Image height Magnification

2 cm 6 cm 3
5 cm 20 cm 4
25 mm 5 mm 0.2 or 1
5
16 mm 4 mm 0.25 or 1
4
8 cm 160 mm 2
Unit 4.3 Colour

1 Newton used a triangular prism.
2 a ROYGBIV: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet
b Various answers, e.g. Rip Out Your Guts Before I Vomit.
3 a Scattering is the spreading of light in the atmosphere.
b Blue light does this most.
4 At sunrise and sunset, when sunlight travels further through the atmosphere, almost
all of the blue rays are scattered and the light that reaches us is mainly red or orange.
5 Rays of sunlight totally internally reflect, breaking into colours (dispersing) as they
do so.
6 A primary rainbow has a red band at the top.
7 a Primary: red, blue and green
b Secondary: cyan, magenta and yellow
8 Complementary colours add to make white.
9 a Magenta
b Red
11 a Blue
b Green
c Black (technically, black is the absence of colour, not a colour)
12 Colours important in printing are the secondary colours of light (cyan, magenta and
yellow) and black.
13 Magenta and yellow would produce red on the printed page.
14 C
15 Various combinations of coloured spots called phosphors are made to glow by
electron beams. Our eyes merge these to produce colour images.
16 Light energy is converted to heat in the filter.
17 B would be confused with blue, so the last letter of the word ‘black’ is used instead.
18 Three colours (usually cyan, magenta and yellow) are required in various
combinations to produce other colours.
Chapter 4 review
1 When a light ray travelling in air strikes a glass boundary, it bends towards the
normal. The speed of the ray in the glass is less than it is in air.
2 a False. Light doesn’t bend; it hits ‘head on’ when entering glass from air.
b True
c True (An example is when light enters warmer air from colder air.)
d False. Light passing from water to air will bend away from the normal.
e True
3 Optical fibres are used in communications and medical applications (e.g.
endoscope).
5 a Light travelling in an optical fibre undergoes several total internal reflections.
b Optical fibres are used in endoscopes. These flexible tubes contain optical fibres
and can be passed via the mouth into the digestive system to provide doctors with
images (magnified around four times) of the stomach and intestinal lining. Optical
fibres are also being used instead of copper wire to transmit data and
communications.
c Endoscopes provide more accurate and powerful images. In communication
more information may be carried and there is increased data security.
6 a Cyan
b Green
7 a Virtual image
b Virtual image
8 Concave mirrors, such as those used in some shaving and make-up mirrors or by
dentists, produce an enlarged or magnified virtual image or an object placed close to
the mirror. Convex mirrors used at dangerous intersections, in shops and in rear-
vision mirrors in vehicles provide a wider view of what is behind.
9 a b, d, e
b a, b, c, d, f
11 a Real, inverted, same size
b Real, inverted, diminished
c Virtual, upright, enlarged
d Virtual, upright, diminished
12 Eyepiece and objective
13 a The objective lens forms a real image and the eyepiece lens then magnifies this
image to produce a final virtual image.
b The convex mirror provides a view of the whole shop.
c Binoculars consist of two telescopes (which consist of lenses) and use triangular
prisms to redirect the light and ensure images are the right way up.
d A concave mirror reflects the light from a bulb through condenser lenses, which
concentrate the light to pass it through a slide and then through the projection lens,
which produces a magnified real image on a screen.
14 Various answers, e.g.
a projector
b microscope
16 a Orange
b Blue
c Violet
17 a One
b Two
18 The red light that is left to be scattered is scattered more dramatically by the greater
number of particles in the atmosphere.
20 a A green flag viewed in blue light appears black.
b A blue flag viewed in red light appears black.
c A cyan flag viewed in green light appears green.
21 Green
22 Red
Unit 5.1 Plate tectonics

1 Six pieces of evidence that suggest the continents were once joined:
• the shape of the continents
• fossil remains of the same fern-like plants and Triassic reptiles
• rock formations in mountain on different continents
• ancient glaciers
• coal above the Arctic Circle
• magnetism in ancient rocks.
2 a Gondwanaland: Australia, Antarctica, South America, Africa, India
b Laurasia: North America, Europe, much of Asia
3 Five surprising facts about the ocean floor when it was first mapped:
• Huge volcanic mountain ranges exist down the centre of the oceans.
• The rock of the ocean floor is much younger than that of the continents.
• Deep ocean trenches exist.
• The rock of the continents is more dense than that of the ocean floor.
• The ocean floor has magnetic stripes that indicate that the rock is of different
ages.
4 The oldest rocks on the ocean floor are those closest to the trenches. The youngest
are on or next to the mid-ocean ridges.
5 a Tectonic plate: sheet of crust, its partly molten bottom and top layer of mantle
that all shift as one.
b Mantle: molten rock under intense pressure and temperature—the layer under
the crust.
c Crust: thin layer of solid rock that we live on—the ‘skin’ of the Earth.
6 The crust varies from about 5 to 7 km thick under the oceans to 30 to 40 km thick
under the continents.
7 The Earth’s crust is broken into plates. These float on convection currents in the
mantle. They collide, separate and scrape against each other.
8 Convection currents are caused by hot material rising and cooler material dropping.
They are thought to occur in the mantle.
9 a False. Triassic reptiles could not have swum the distances required to populate
different continents.
b False. There are similar mountain ranges in the USA and Europe, also in Africa
and South America.
c False. Many of the continents that do not have glaciers now were once cold
enough to have them.
d True
e False. The rock of the ocean floor is much younger than the rock of the
continents.
f False. Continental rock is less dense than the rock of the ocean floor and ‘floats’
on it.
g True
10 The temperatures along the ridges are higher than elsewhere due to the volcanic
action that happens at the mid-ocean ridges.

12 The mantle is kept hot because:
• the crust traps heat like a blanket
• patches are continually being heated by radioactive decay of uranium, thorium
and potassium.
13 If the mantle cooled and became solid, the plates would stop moving.
14 Another reason that Australia doesn’t have any glaciers now is climate change not
related to plate tectonics.
Unit 5.2 At the edges

1 a Types of plate boundaries: spreading, collision and transform boundaries
b Spreading: plates are moving away from each other. A fault in the crust causes a
rift valley to form.
Collision: plates move towards each other. At a subduction zone, either oceanic
plates sink below continental plates forming mountains and oceanic trenches, or a
faster oceanic plate sinks below a slower oceanic plate, resulting in an island chain.
Transform: plates scrape past each other, producing earthquakes.
2 The mid-ocean ridge constantly tries to heal itself, forming a ‘rock scab’ that is the
ridge itself. Magma keeps breaking through the scab, however, oozing out and
forcing the repair to happen all over again.
3 A subduction zone is where one plate (usually the ocean plate) dives under another
(continental) plate. Friction causes earthquakes along it and melts the rock. The
molten rock may have enough pressure to break the surface to form volcanoes.
4 a Fast
b Heavy
c Oceanic plate
5 When the continental plates that form the Himalayas collided, the pressure and
friction was enough to partly melt the rock deep under the mountains This makes a
‘mountain root’ that is highly resistant to weathering.
6 Plates scrape past each other, producing earthquakes. An example is the San
Andreas Fault in California, USA.
7 a Conservative: transform boundaries
b Destructive: collision
c Constructive: spreading
d Subduction zones: collision
e Forms rift valleys: spreading
f Dive into the mantle: collision between oceanic and continental plates
g Causes trenches: collision between oceanic and continental plates
h Causes huge, folded mountains: collision between continental and continental
plates
i Have only sideways movement: transform
j Form island chains: collision between oceanic and oceanic plates
k Form mountains: collision and spreading
8 a Iceland: spreading.
b San Andreas fault: transform
c Mt Everest: collision
d Mt Kilimanjaro: spreading
e Lake Victoria: spreading
f Dead Sea: spreading
11 a Himalayas: Indo-Australian plate with Eurasian plate
b Andes: South American plate with Nazca plate
c Mid-Atlantic Ridge: African plate with South and North American plates
d Caribbean islands: South American plate with Cocos plate
e Japan: Pacific plate with Eurasian plate
f Mariana Trench: Philippine plate with Pacific plate
g San Andreas fault: Pacific plate with North American plate
h Dead Sea: Indo-Australian plate with African plate
12 The plate going under will wear off some of its own rock and will squash the upper
plate. It thickens as a result.
13 a Assuming an average lifetime of between 70 and 90 years, the Himalayas will
grow between 70 and 90 cm. If you reach 100, they will have grown one metre.
b
i A further 10 m will take 1000 years.
ii A further 100 m will take 10 000 years.
iii A further 1 km (1000 m) will take 100 000 years.
14 a Mediterranean Sea: the Red Sea needs to widen another 260 km (500 – 240 km).
260 km = 26 000 000 cm. So the time taken would be: 26 000 000/20 = 1 300 000
years = 1.3 million years.
b Atlantic Ocean (6100 km): 29 300 000 years = 29.3 million years
c Pacific Ocean (14 000 km): 68 800 000 years = 68.8 million years
Unit 5.3 Earthquakes

1 Friction always occurs between two surfaces that try to slide over one another. This
applies to rocks, too; bumps and hollows keep catching, making the slide difficult.
2 The friction between the plates is normally enough to stop movement of the plates
for a while. The plates are still pushing, however, and the pressure will build until it
overcomes the friction. That’s when the plates will move, suddenly.
3 Body waves (either P or S waves) and surface waves (either R or L waves)
4 Examples:
a Longitudinal wave: P waves, sound
b Transverse wave: S and L waves, water waves, light
5 Refraction is when waves change direction due to a change in speed.
6 Different densities and temperatures of the rock below the surface cause changes in
speeds of P and S waves and cause them to be bent or refracted.
7 S waves apparently do not pass through the Earth’s core since there is always a
‘shadow’ opposite the epicentre. S waves cannot pass through liquid, indicating that
the outer core must be liquid.
8 The epicentre is the position on the Earth’s surface directly above the source or
focus of the earthquake.
9 The deepest is about 200 km below the surface. This is where the ocean plate has
completely melted and returned to the mantle. There is no more friction between the
plates here.
10 a R waves are rolling waves. L waves have a side-to-side motion. R waves are the
slowest and often the most dangerous.
b Diagrammatic answer required.
11 Quakes are often not felt because they are in areas of low population or are too small
to be detected.
12 Any quake of 6 or more causes widespread damage.
13 An aftershock is a smaller quake after the original quake. Aftershocks are caused by
slabs of rock and crust settling after the original quake.
14 Aftershocks are often more dangerous than the original because they can bring down
already unstable buildings.
15 A tsunami can form when there is an earthquake with its epicentre under the ocean
floor. The wave travels at high speeds and increases in height as it enters shallow
water.
16 There are almost no videos or photographs of tsunamis because any photographers
would have been killed and their equipment and film or video destroyed.
17 All of Australia sits on the Indo-Australian plate. There are no boundaries running
through it. Papua New Guinea and New Zealand both straddle the Indo-Australian
and Pacific plates and thus sit on a boundary, where earthquakes can be expected.
18 a Body waves travel through the body of the Earth. Surface waves travel across
the surface of the Earth.
b A longitudinal wave is a ‘push-pull’ wave, and moves particles back and forth in
the direction of the movement of the wave. A transverse wave is an ‘up-down’ wave
that moves particles at right angles, or sideways, to the direction of the movement.
19 a Most dangerous: L (and sometimes R)
b Up-down waves: S and L
c Compression waves: P
d Pass through the Earth: P and S
e Fastest: P
f Last to arrive: L
g Like surf: R
h Travel like a snake: L
i Cannot travel through liquid: S and L
20 a Aftershocks are quakes that happen after the original earthquake due to rocks
settling.
b A quake of strength 5 on the Richter scale is ten times the strength of a 4.
c True
d True
e Tsunamis are small (often only 2 m) when in deep water.
21 A tremor would be 3 to 4 on the Richter scale and I to II on the Mercalli.
22 a Damage from superquakes: total destruction of buildings, valleys fill with mud
from landslides, floods and dam breaks; deep cracks in the Earth’s surface
b 0 to 10 per year
23 Various diagrams are possible.
25 a 4.0 min: 2500 km

b 2.2 min: 1300 km
c 3.5 min: 2150 km
d 8.1 min: 6350 km
26 If P and S waves arrive at the same time then you must be at the epicentre of the
quake (actually, you must be at the focus itself!).
27 A single seismograph only gives the distance the quake is from the seismometer.
This would give a circle anywhere along which the quake could have been.
28 a 6000 km: 7.8 min or 7 min 48 s
b 1500 km: 2.6 min or 2 min 36 s
c 3300 km: 5 min
d 900 km: 1.6 min or 1 min 36 s
30
Arrival time Arrival time Time Time (min) Distance of

of P waves of S waves difference epicentre (km)
(h:min:s) (h:min:s) (min:s)
10:24:00 10:32:00 8:00 8.0 6200
04:48:20 4:52:50 4:30 30 ÷ 60 = 0.5 2900
so time is 4.5
min
2:55:21 p.m. 3:01:21 pm 6:00 6.0 4150
7:37:03 p.m. 7:42:33 pm 5:30 5.5 3700
14:08:34 14:11:46 3:12 3.2 1950
20:21:02 20:25:50 4:48 4.8 3150
05:45:10 05:50:10 5:00 5.0 3300
11:34:30 11:41:00 6:30 6.5 4650
08:12:56 08:16:56 4:00 4.0 2500
15:21:04 15:28:40 7:36 7.6 5800
Unit 5.4 Volcanoes

1 Hundreds of thousands; 1500 are potentially active
2 Krakatoa was a volcano that caused the largest explosion recorded in history. It is
now a volcanic island.
3 They may be under water or in remote areas.
4 Various answers, e.g. Mount Gambier
5 A vent is a single exit for lava. A fissure is a long crack for the exit of lava.
6 Volcanoes are usually on or near plate edges.
7 Lava, magma, gases, hydrogen sulfide, steam, volcanic dust, volcanic bombs
8 a Volcanic ash clouds rise because the ash is hotter and thus less dense than the air
around it. Hence it rises.
b These clouds are dangerous because they can smother the surrounding areas and
the people who live there. Rain can turn the ash into a river of mud, which can
destroy anything in its path. The ash can also reach great heights and be a danger to
aircraft.
9 a Lava consists of magma and the gases hydrogen sulfide and steam.
b The magma chamber is a region under the surface where molten rock forms.
c Lahar is a river of volcanic dust and water.
d A fume consists of volcanic gases.
e A jet stream is high-speed winds at a height of about 30 km.
10 Volcanic bombs are solid rock or pieces of the mountain that are blown out by gas
explosions and vent blockages. They can also form when hot lava is thrown into the
air.
11 a True
b True
c Volcanic dust moves faster than lava.
d True
e Ash clouds can travel as far as 500 km.
12 Hydrogen sulfide, H2S (rotten egg gas), causes the smell.
13 The ‘Ring of Fire’ is a ring of active volcanoes around the edge of the Pacific
Ocean.
14 Volcanoes are usually on or near plate edges, and this is where earthquakes usually
occur also.
15 5000 km in 4 hours = 5000/4 = 1250 km/h
Unit 5.5 Landscaping the crust

1 Three types of fault: normal, reverse, transcurrent
2 If the rock that makes the fault scarp is hard, it will weather slowly. If soft, it will
weather quickly and will be carried away by erosion, leaving a rounded rise instead.
3 Horst and graben will be part of the scab formation along the mid-ocean trenches.
Faults will allow blocks of cooled rock to rise and allow others to drop.
4 A substance shows plastic behaviour if it can bend and fold without breaking.
5 Rock can act in a plastic way if it is under extreme pressure and temperatures,
typically found in folding.
8 Evidence that the Hawaiian Islands are moving westwards:
• The oldest island, Kauai, is in the far west.
• The youngest, Hawaii, is in the far east.
• A new underwater volcano, Loihi, is forming east of Hawaii.
• Volcanic activity is only under Hawaii and Loihi.
10 Weaknesses that may have contributed: smaller faults, folds, hots spots, extinct
volcano
11 Intense heat and pressure are needed to convert kerogen into hydrocarbons. Weak
spots could provide these conditions. The other idea is that oil and gas would be
squeezed into the more porous rock that weak spots would provide.
12 Diagrammatic answers required.
13 a A plug is magma that has cooled in the vent of a volcano. The walls of the
volcano have since eroded away, leaving the plug. A dyke is an intrusion of magma
that cooled and never reached the surface. The surface may have eroded to expose it.
b A shield volcano is shallow, with gentle slopes, made from the gradual building-
up of lava. Cinder cones are steeper, smaller and are made from volcanic rock and
dust that has dropped back around the vent.
c A horst is an upthrust block, with faults on both sides. A graben is a rift valley
made from a sunken block, with faults on both sides.
14 Volcanoes form away from plate boundaries if they exist over a hot spot or mid-
plate weakness.
16 The mountains and volcanoes of New Zealand are both caused by the collision of
the Pacific plate with the Indo-Australian plate. Mountains have buckled up and
volcanoes have formed from the subduction zone.
18 a Layer K was laid down first, followed by J, I, H, G, F, E and D on top. All were
laid flat. Pressure folded the layers upwards, forming an upward fold or anticline.
Erosion removed the top of the fold, until D and E were nearly worn away. The
erosion left the surface flat once more. Sediment laid new layers: C first, then B and
A on top.
b Layer D was laid down first, followed by C, B, A. A reverse fault then occurred,
followed by erosion to present profile.
Unit 5.6 Geological time

1 Growth rings indicate the age of the tree.
2 A fossil is a piece of evidence of past life.
3 a A dinosaur footprint is a trace fossil.
b True
c True
d Fossils may be found under oceans or other bodies of water.
e True
f Fossils of complete animals do exist.
4 Uranium changes into lead.
5 a Carbon is used to date fossils.
b No, it could not be used.
6 Cenozoic, Palaeozoic, Archaeozoic, Azoic
7 Cretaceous, Jurassic, Triassic
8 Various answers, e.g. overpopulation and not enough food, failure to adapt to
climate change.
9 A trilobite is an index fossil.
10 The Earth is thought to be 4.5 billion years old.
11
Period Span (millions of years)

Quaternary 2
Tertiary 63
Cretaceous 79
Jurassic 64
Triassic 40
Permian 42
Carboniferous 72
Devonian 46
Silurian 30
Ordovician 67
Cambrian 65
Precambrian 2130
12 a Carboniferous
b Cretaceous
c Silurian
d Precambrian (Archaeozoic era)
e Jurassic
f Jurassic
g Ordovician
h Precambrian (Proterozoic era)
i Jurassic
j Cretaceous
b Diagrammatic answer required.
c The Precambrian era extends for almost five times the length of time of the first
three eras combined, so it would be difficult to fit on the same page and leave room
for clear labels.
14 A fold in layers of the Earth’s crust may move an older layer above a younger one.
15 Movement of tectonic plates may form a new mountain range and higher land.
16 Models could be produced by pouring plaster into the spaces before removing the
rock.
17 A predator caught one of two smaller animals it was chasing.
Chapter 5 review
1 The Earth is like toast on soup—both have slabs of moving solid crust floating on a
hot, thick liquid.
2 All the current continents were part of Pangaea. Hence it is literally ‘all the lands’.
Its ‘babies’ are Gondwanaland and Laurasia.
3 a The north poles of ancient rocks that are magnetic all point in different
directions. When the continents are pieced together the north poles all point in the
same direction, suggesting that the continents have shifted and twisted.
b Magnetic stripes exist parallel to the mid-ocean ridges. The stripes closest to the
ridges are the newest and the ones further out are older, suggesting that they are
moving away from the ridges and towards the trenches.
4 Theory of plate tectonics: that the crust is a series of solid plates floating on
convection currents in the mantle. These plates slip along and against each other.
5 The Theory of Continental Drift assumes that only the continents are shifting. The
Theory of Plate Tectonics involves much larger slabs of rock (which also carry the
shifting continents).
6 Convection currents push the rock of the mantle around. The bottoms of the plates
are partially molten or ‘soggy’ and will be carried with the mantle as it moves
underneath them.
7 Plate boundaries are where plates separate, collide or scrape over each other.
Friction will occur and will stop movement until the pressure is sufficient to
overcome the friction. When it does, the plate slips and an earthquake results.
8 The subduction zone is completely molten 200 km below the surface.
9 Primary, secondary, Raleigh and Love waves are all detected by the seismometer.
They are in the order P first, S next, and R and L basically together and last.
11 a Side-to-side: S and L
b Up-down: P
c Rolling: R
12 Mountain ranges can form by:
• continent/continent collision, forming folded mountains
• volcanic action at plate boundaries or hot spots
• normal faults creating horst and graben, which can erode into mountain ranges
and basins.
13 A fault is a weak spot or break in the crust along which the crust can move in an
earthquake. There is no break in the crust when folded. The crust buckles instead of
breaking and shifting.
14 a False
b True
c True
d False
e True
f True
g True
15 a Animals with a hard outer covering that die under water are more likely to form
fossils.
b They are better preserved and less likely to break down than soft-bodied
animals.
16 The amount of uranium compared to lead
17 a Palaeozoic
b Palaeozoic
c Cenozoic
d Mesozoic
18 Various answers, e.g.:
a Fish
b Algae
c Humans
19 The mysteries of the ocean floor were discovered only in the twentieth century with
the invention of sonar and the need for good ocean-floor maps in World War II.
20 A map of the world in the future will be different to what it is now because all the
plates and their continents are shifting. Some will join, others will part, some will
slide along each other.
21 a The mantle is solid but is still able to move due to the extreme pressures and
temperatures there.
b Other ‘solid’ substances that can ‘move’ are plasticine, clay or mud.
22 The ocean floor is like a conveyer belt because it carries the newly created rock from
the mid-ocean ridges across the ocean towards the trenches.
23 The longest mountain ridge (about 65 000 km long) is down the middle of the
Atlantic. The highest mountain ridge is the Himalayas.
24 Dense materials sink and lighter materials float. The rock of the continental plates is
less dense than the rock of the ocean plates. The continents thus will ‘float’ on the
ocean floor, and the ocean plate will sink under the continent.
25 An easy way of remembering what P, S, R and L waves do is P = push/pull, S =
shake, R = roll, L = leftovers!
26 a Plates suddenly slip when the pressure builds and the plate cannot take any
more.
b Plate boundaries are weak spots in the Earth’s surface and often allow magma to
rise from the mantle below.
27 Magma is molten rock which is full of gas. It is lighter than the surrounding rock
and thus rises.
28 The temperature near the ceiling of a room is always hotter than at floor level
because of convection currents. The warmer air rises and the cooler air drops: the
temperature will increase as you go higher in the room.
29 Magma is molten rock full of gas (mainly steam). Its density is less than the
surrounding rock and so it will push upwards through the covering tectonic plate.
31 A cinder cone has steeper sides than a shield volcano because it is simply a pile of
rock. The pile will build until the rock begins to tumble further down the slopes. A
shield volcano is made from cooled lava. Being molten, it will spread further than
solid rock.
33 Volcanic ash rises in the atmosphere because it is hotter and lighter than the
surrounding air.
34 Volcanic ash, fumes, steam and gases.
Unit 6.1 Types of reproduction

1 a Budding, spores, fission
b Budding: a new organism forms, attached to the old one.
Spores are released and reproduce when the environment is appropriate.
Fission: the cell divides into two.
2 Bacteria = fission; yeast = budding; ferns = spores; starfish = fragmentation and
regeneration.
3 Spores are tough, light, able to survive over time and in different environments.
4 Various answers, e.g. spores are brushed onto fur and brushed off elsewhere.
5 Vegetative propagation is when a piece is broken off a plant and then becomes a
new organism.
6 Sexual reproduction makes it likely that some organisms will have characteristics
that will help them survive.
7 Fertilisation is the successful fusing of two gametes.
8 A hermaphrodite has both male and female reproductive organs.
9 An ovum doesn’t have a tail (flagellum).
10 Ova are produced in the ovary (female) and sperm are produced in the testis (male).
11 Gametes must be mature, the organism must be healthy and the timing must be right.
12 a The release of an ovum by a female is called ovulation.
b Not all fertilised eggs survive to maturity.
13 Nectar is deep inside the flower to encourage insects to enter the flower, as the
pollen gets brushed onto and off them in the process.
14 Various answers, e.g. in internal fertilisation, the gametes and the embryo are more
protected, in external fertilisation they are more vulnerable to the external
environmental conditions and predators.
15 a In asexual reproduction, only one parent is needed.
b Fission is a type of asexual reproduction.
c If the daughter cell is identical to the parent cell, a mutation has not occurred.
16 No, clones do not always look like their parents. Natural mutations occur and the
environment also has an influence.
17 The further spores can be spread, the greater is the chance that they will survive.
18 They still have normal life spans and cannot always regenerate—for example, if they
lose too much of a body part.
19 Body temperature suits them best.
20 a Because the cutting can develop into a new plant by the cells in the cutting
splitting into exact replicas, called daughter cells.
b This is known as vegetative reproduction.
21 Because this flexibility enables them to survive in different environments.
22 Because nectar and bright colours attract insects, which help to carry pollen from
flower to flower and plant to plant.
23 Because kangaroos provide a lot of care to their young, so they can’t look after
many babies at once.
24 Parthenogenesis: when an unfertilised gamete becomes a new individual.
25 Various answers, e.g. it can be useful if a species is rare, because there are not many
individuals around to mate.
26 Different environments influence the appearance of the trees, e.g. type of soil and
amount of sunlight.
27 Various answers, e.g. religious beliefs.
28 a 4
b 64
c 4096
d 5 × 1086 (5 followed by 86 zeroes)
29 Producing a very large number of offspring increases the chances that at least one
will survive.
30 If the insects die, they cannot pollinate the plants, so the plants can’t produce seeds.
Unit 6.2 Human reproductive systems

1 a = prostate; b = urethra; c = seminiferous tubules; d = testis; e = scrotum
2 Locating the testes outside the body maximises sperm production by keeping the
testes cool.
3 Semen consists of sperm and fluid.
4 Prostate, seminal vesicle, Cowper’s glands
5 a = oviduct (fallopian tube); b = ovary; c = uterus; d = cervix; e = vagina
6 About 500 000 are present at birth; a few hundred become fully formed.
7 Hormones regulate the menstrual cycle.
8 The blastocyst produces a hormone that tells the body not to menstruate.
9 The lining consists of blood, mucus and cell debris.
10 Menopause usually occurs between 40 and 50 years of age.
11 The egg is fertilised in the oviduct.
12 Puberty is the time of reproductive maturity.
13 Males: deeper voice and increased body hair; females: growth of breasts and hips;
beginning of menstruation
14 a Male = testosterone; female = oestrogen
b Testosterone: stimulates growth of genitals and secondary sexual characteristics.
Oestrogen: causes eggs to mature and lining of uterus to thicken, and causes
secondary sexual features to develop.
15 The first period is known as menarche.
16 Males constantly produce new gametes, but females’ eggs age with them.
17 It indicates that some body fat is needed for puberty to occur normally.
18 Every time an egg ripens, a scar is left by the follicle.
19 a About 125 cm
b About 140 cm
c Girls = 11 to 15 years; boys = 13 to 17 years
d Various answers
Unit 6.3 From gamete to birth

1 Copulation is sexual intercourse.
2 Millions of sperm are released.
3 One sperm penetrates the egg.
4 Twins can be identical (produced by the splitting of the zygote) or fraternal

(produced when two eggs are fertilised).
5 Various answers, e.g. condoms reduce risk of STDs but also reduce sensation.
6 Zygote: two gametes fused; morula: clump of 80 cells; blastocyst: fluid-filled ball
7 From implantation to about 8 weeks
8 The foetus is protected by the amniotic fluid.
9 The foetus’s lungs don’t work until after birth.
10 Sometimes the head is squeezed on the way out. If the bones of the skull aren’t
fused, the head is more malleable.
11 This is when amniotic fluid rushes out.
12 Various answers, e.g. drugs, infections, stress, poor nutrition
13 Ultrasound, amniocentesis, blood tests and CVS
14 Folate helps prevent neural tube defects.
15 Poor circulation results in the foetus getting a poor supply of nutrients, which
prevents it from developing well.
16 Crying means the baby’s lungs are clear of fluid.
17 Toxoplasmosis can cause damage to the eyes and nervous system.
18 Overly strenuous exercise could increase her blood pressure too much.
20 a Seminal duct
b Because sometimes sperm still get through.
21 Various answers, e.g. home birth is more familiar and relaxing, hospital birth has the
benefits of technology if things go wrong.
22 A miscarriage would occur.
23 Various answers
24 Various answers
Unit 6.4 Reproductive problems

1 Sexual contact is anything involving genital contact.
2 Abstinence or condoms and spermicide can provide protection.
3 It is spread through sexual contact, and is treated by antibiotics.
4 Infection, radiation, other causes
5 Asymptomatic means there are no outward signs of disease.
6 A chancre is an open, painless sore.
7 Because multiple embryos are implanted to maximise chance of success.
8 Because human females aren’t designed to carry more than one foetus at a time.
9 The baby may come into contact with an open sore on its way out.
10 Problems are more likely in older reproductive systems.
11 The prostate is commonly affected by cancer.
12 The breasts and cervix are commonly affected by cancer.
13 Some diseases can be asymptomatic, so it is best to have a doctor check.
14 Time is needed for the woman’s cycle, and for the growth and development of an
embryo, as well as the stages of IVF, such as egg production, stimulation,
harvesting, fertilisation and implantation.
15 Eat well, take folate supplements, don’t drink alcohol, don’t smoke, don’t take drugs
16 Various answers
17 Egg production, stimulation, harvesting, fertilisation and implantation

18 Some types of contraception do not prevent STDs. There may be more education
and information available about contraception than about STDs.
19 Contraception controls over-population and prevents unwanted pregnancies.
Chapter 6 review
1 Fission, e.g. bacteria. Budding, e.g. yeast. Spores, e.g. fungi. Fragmentation and
regeneration, e.g. starfish
2 Gametes, fertilisation, zygote, implantation, embryo, foetus
3 a Amniotic membrane
b Amniotic fluid
c Placenta
d Umbilical cord
e Foetus
4 Asexual
5 280 days, approximately 9 months
6 In the oviduct
7 About 5° below normal body temperature.
8 E.g. little variation, so the species has great success in a constant environment.
9 The foetus is protected.
10 a Cervix
c Testes
d Sperm
e Epididymis
f Semen
g Ovulation
h Uterus
i Ovum
j Seminal fluid
k Vagina
l Oviduct
m Urethra
n Scrotum
o Ovary
11 Various, e.g. deepens voice
12 In fission, the parent cell divides into two halves. In budding, the parent cell divides
but the new cell is much smaller than the parent cell. Spores are reproductive cells
that are released and grow into new organisms. Fragmentation occurs when a piece
that breaks off the parent grows into a new individual.
13 Various, e.g. condoms prevent semen entering the vagina.
14 Various, e.g. drinking alcohol in pregnancy, smoking, poor nutrition.
15 Avoid contact with any open sore on another person.
16 Implant fewer embryos.

b
Flower part Function

Anther Production of male sex cell (pollen)
Ovary Production of female sex cell (ovule)
Pollen Male sex cell
Ovule Female sex cell
Stigma Male sex cells deposited here
c Pollination: when pollen (male sex cells) is deposited into the stigma (female sex
cells)
18 Various answers
19 Various answers
20 A mutation that improves an organism may make that organism (and those like it)
more likely to survive to pass on the improvement to future generations.
21
Flower part Human part Comparable function

Anther Testes Production of male sex cells
Ovary Ovary Production of female sex cells
Pollen Sperm Male sex cell
Ovule Ovum Female sex cell
Stigma Vagina Male sex cells deposited here
22 Asexual reproduction requires one parent only and results in genetically identical
offspring. Sexual reproduction requires two parents and results in genetically
different offspring.
23 a Growth: increases the number of cells.
b Repair: replaces dead or damaged cells.
c Reproduction: produces specialised sex cells (sperm, ova).
Unit 7.1 Energy for life

1 a A producer is an organism that can produce its own food.
b A consumer is an organism that cannot produce its own food.
2 A first order consumer is one that eats plants directly. A second order consumer is
one that eats first order consumers.
3 a Producer = algae
b First order consumer = water snail; second order consumer = small fish; third
order consumer = large fish; fourth order consumer = kookaburra
c The arrows point in the direction the food is going. The sunlight provided energy
for the algae, so the chain begins with nuclear energy.
4 The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed, but converts from one form into another.
5 Various answers, e.g. light, electrical, chemical
6 a Chemical potential to heat and light
b Light energy to chemical potential energy
7 a Ectothermic: various answers, e.g. snakes and alligators
b Endothermic: various answers, e.g. camels and rabbits
8 Energy is lost through maintaining a constant internal temperature, movement,
growth and repair of tissues, and excretion of wastes.
9 The herbivore receives the highest percentage of energy from the plant.
10 The Law of Conservation of Mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed.
It is rearranged and recycled. The law was proposed by A. Lavoisier in 1789.
11 ‘Inefficient’ means that not all energy is transferred between levels in the pyramid.
Some is transferred to the environment.
12 There would be more herbivores.
14 Energy flows in one direction only; matter flows in a cyclic manner.
15 Yes, because plants produce their own food.
16 a Humans are consumers.
b Unless a tragic accident occurs, humans are the last organisms in the food chain.
c After our death, our bodies are decomposed by various decomposers.
17 A flea or a tick would be an example of a sixth order consumer in this chain.
18 a The simpler plants (e.g. grasses) would begin to die, as would those consumers
that ate only those producers. Other plants might survive better, although their
nutritional value would deteriorate. They would, however, still be available as food
for first order consumers and, provided the sunlight returned, the ecosystem should
survive.
b If the Sun’s light was blocked for a year, the ecosystem would not survive, as
producers cannot survive that length of time without sunlight.
19 Various answers
20 Most pets are mammals, so their energy losses would be similar to our own.
21 If you had an endothermic pet such as a dog or cat, most of its energy loss would be
in keeping its body at a certain temperature. An ectothermic pet such as a hermit
crab or a snake would not lose energy in this way.
22 Line A is the endothermic animal (kookaburra); Line B is the ectothermic animal

(snake).
23 If one food source becomes depleted, the kookaburra has another.
24 Algae receive energy from the Sun, so the chain would begin with nuclear energy.
This energy is converted into chemical energy inside the producers (algae), and then
in each subsequent consumer. In both food chains, the kookaburra is the only
endotherm, so the energy flow in each is relatively similar.
Unit 7.2 Recycling in nature

1 Organic matter and inorganic matter.
2 Organic: a leaf or part of any living thing, coal. Inorganic: rock, air, water
3 a Biotic: living. Abiotic: non-living
b Biotic: leaf, algae, bacteria, grass, human. Abiotic: water, soil, air, rock, cloud
4 See Figure 7.2.3
5 a Condensation occurs when the molecules that make up a gas cool and convert to
a liquid state.
b Evaporation is when the molecules that make up a liquid obtain more energy and
convert to a gaseous state.
c Precipitation in the water cycle refers to rain.
6 See Figure 7.2.7.
7 Carbon enters a plant via the stomatal openings in the leaves in the form of carbon
dioxide gas.
8 a Photosynthesis
b The Sun provides light energy for this process.
9 a Oxygen is an important by-product.
b Oxygen is required by cells for the process of respiration.
10 Inorganic—contains no carbon compounds. It is not part of living things in that
form.
11 See Figure 7.2.8.
12 Amino acids and nucleic acids. Amino acids are important as they are the building
blocks of protein; nucleic acids are important as they are the building blocks of
genetic material.
13 a Nitrogen exists as two atoms joined together in gaseous form.
b Some gaseous nitrogen exists in soil spaces.
c Nitrogen exists mostly as nitrates, nitrites and the ammonia of animal wastes.
14 a True
b False. All living organisms need water.
c True
d True
15 Lightning converts atmospheric nitrogen into various nitrogen compounds, which
settle to Earth in the rain.
16 Azobacter, Rhizobium and Frankia species.
17 Nitrifying bacteria act on the ammonia found in animal wastes and convert it into
nitrates. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates and nitrites back into atmospheric
nitrogen.
18 If all the decomposers on Earth were to disappear, the recycling of matter would
cease. It is these organisms that return living matter to the non-living world.
Unit 7.3 Human intervention – energy crisis

1 a Energy resources are categorised as renewable or non-renewable. Renewable
resources can be replaced, but non-renewable cannot.
b Renewable: sunlight, heat stored within the Earth, wind, water, ‘green energy’.
Non-renewable: fossil fuels (e.g. coal, oil, gas), uranium.
2 A fossil fuel is derived from organic matter that was originally laid down during
prehistoric times and has since been acted on by pressure, heat and time.
3 Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atom into smaller components. It is desirable
because it releases a massive amount of energy.
4 Two disadvantages of nuclear energy are that the toxic wastes produced are hard to
dispose of, and it is a non-renewable energy source.
5 We rely on the Sun to provide energy for plant growth; solar ponds provide energy
for heating; solar cells can generate electricity.
6 The Sun is non-polluting and it will last for a long time.
7 Geothermal energy is produced by the molten rocks below the Earth’s surface.
8 Water is pumped down into the ‘hot rock’ area. The water boils, producing steam,
which is returned to the surface, where it turns a turbine that generates electricity.
9 Geothermal energy is not available across the globe. When water is extracted or
pumped into rocks, underground pressure conditions change, so earthquakes and
rock cracking can occur.
10 Wind-powered generators are non-polluting and free.
11 a Wind farming is the term applied to the use of land upon which wind generators
are placed.
b Farmers can hire out their land to electrical companies, which buy the energy
generated. Some people object to the wind generators because they spoil the look of
the environment, and they take up space that could be used for other things.
12 a gravity, waves, tides, warm ocean currents, osmotic pressure
b Gravity: gravity pulls water downhill until it reaches the lowest possible
point—the sea. The gravitational potential energy it contains can be harnessed by
passing it through turbines to generate electricity. Electricity produced in this
manner is referred to as hydroelectricity.
Warm ocean currents: warm ocean water is pumped through a pipeline and is used
to heat fresh water to boiling point. The steam produced generates electricity.
Osmotic pressure: osmosis is the movement of water from a weak solution (having
low salinity, like fresh water) to a stronger solution (with a higher salinity, like sea
water) through a semipermeable membrane. This membrane allows some molecules
to pass through it (in this case water), which generates electric current.
Tides: a barrier is placed across a bay’s entrance so that the incoming tide turns a
turbine. At the maximum height of the tide the water flow is blocked until the tide is
low. The stored water is then released, again turning a turbine to produce electricity.
Waves: waves are forced into a narrow gully, causing the air above them to rise and
fall. This movement of air passes through a turbine to produce electricity.
13 Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration

(low salinity) to a region of low concentration (high salinity) through a
semipermeable membrane.
14 Biomass is organic material that has recently died and can be used to generate
energy. It includes everything from wood from fallen trees or industrial processes to
the faeces from humans and animals.
15 Biomass can be burned directly, or it can be converted into a suitable fuel that is
then used as an energy source. This most commonly occurs with agricultural crops
such as sugar cane, corn, rice and wheat, and oil-bearing crops such as sunflowers.
Waste products from their harvesting are processed into fuels such as ethanol and
biodiesel.
16 If each of us makes an effort to use less energy, then the energy requirements of our
cities will be reduced, resulting in less pollution and our resources lasting longer.
17 Fossil fuels are produced by the deposition of organic matter in anaerobic situations
such as bogs. Time, heat and pressure convert them into coal, oil and gas.
18 a Splitting atoms to generate energy is called nuclear fission.
b Geothermal power is a source of energy that cannot be used worldwide.
c True
d Global winds arise from hot air rising from the equatorial regions.
19 They are dark so that they can absorb more heat from the surrounding environment.
20 Fossil fuels have their origin in the living forms of the past. Pressure, heat and time
are required to convert these life forms into first coal and then, after more time has
passed, into oil and finally gas.
21 Those areas that were the most heavily vegetated, where plant and animal life was
abundant, are naturally the places where most of the fossil fuels would be found.
Thus the warm, abundantly watered area would have the most fuel reserves.
22 Various answers
23 Various answers
24 In photosynthesis, energy from the Sun is converted into chemical energy in plants.
After the plants die, the energy stored within them is released back into the
environment as heat energy. Carbon dioxide, taken in through the leaves during the
plant’s growth and used to build plant tissues, returns to the environment as carbon
dioxide.
25 a Various answers
b Various answers
Chapter 7 review
1 a Nuclear energy: splitting the uranium atom
b Heat energy: sunlight
c Chemical energy: the breaking of chemical bonds (as in the process of digestion)
d Light energy: sunlight
2 Every organism has specific needs that are usually met in only a small, localised
area.
3 The arrows in the food chain illustrate in which direction the ‘food’ is moving.
4 Only a small percentage (approximately 5–20%) of energy is passed on.
5 The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed, but is changed from one form to another.
6 a True
b Energy that is derived from molten rocks beneath the surface of the Earth is
called geothermal energy.
c True
d True
7 A semipermeable membrane is one that allows molecules of one size to pass
through, but not others.
8 Coal, oil and gas have their origins in prehistoric life forms, and so are called fossil
fuels.
9 a Hydroelectricity is electricity generated from falling water.
b The Snowy Mountains Scheme is an Australian example.
10 Various answers
11 Various answers
12 a Carbon dioxide + water→glucose + oxygen (in the presence of sunlight)
b Glucose + oxygen→carbon dioxide + water + energy
These two processes are, in effect, the reverse of each other. The major difference is
that photosynthesis is driven by the Sun’s energy, which is converted into chemical
energy. In respiration, the breaking down of glucose provides energy for the
organism.
13 Various answers
14 Various answers
15 Various answers, e.g. the nuclear energy from the Sun could be considered the most
important, as it is the basis for all life on Earth.
16 Energy flows in a straight line, matter is recycled.
17 The first order consumer eats the plant and, using the process of digestion, breaks
down the large plant molecules into smaller ones. This releases energy (which was
holding the plant molecules together), and the now smaller molecules are used to
build up the consumer’s tissue.
18 Lightning is a major contributor to converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form that
can be used by the plants in the ecosystem.
19 Trees absorb much of the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and, during the
process of photosynthesis, use it for growth, producing oxygen as a by-product.
Without the trees, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, and
the percentage of oxygen decreases. Trees must also be replaced if, in future, we
wish to use them for fuel.
20 Bacteria and other decomposers are responsible for returning matter to the abiotic
environment.
21 Coppicing allows the regular re-harvesting of shoots that can be used for a variety of
timber products. Because the roots and trunk of the trees are left intact, erosion is
greatly reduced, and those organisms that rely on these parts of the tree for survival
are not compromised. Also, a reasonable canopy can regrow in one season,
providing shade, food and shelter for some animals.
22 Implications may include: less pollution, expense may increase or decrease
depending on source of renewable energy, some energy production takes space and
is unattractive (e.g. wind turbines), people may become more responsible for energy
use etc. Students should evaluate whether these and other implications are good or
bad.
23 Various answers, depending on student opinion
24 Various answers
Unit 8.1 Sight

1 Both the eye and the camera have a lens, and both lenses create an upside-down
image. But the lens in the eye can change shape to adjust its focus, whereas a camera
lens can’t. The pupil in the eye is like the aperture in a camera—both open and close
to control the amount of light passing through. In the eye, the image is projected
onto the retina; in a camera it is projected onto the film.
2
Part Description/function
Conjunctiva Clear layer covering front of eye
Sclerotic layer Tough white of the eye
Cornea Clear window in sclerotic layer
Aqueous humour Fills front of eye
Iris Controls amount of light entering eye
Pupil Hole in the iris
Lens Helps focus
Suspensory ligaments Hold lens in position
Ciliary muscles Change shape of lens
Vitreous humour Jelly that fills the back of the eye
Choroid Black layer that stops reflection
Retina Layer of light-sensitive cells at back of eye
Fovea Yellow spot, helps us see colour
Blind spot Where vessels and nerves join the eyeball
Optic nerve Carries messages from eye to brain
3 The eye is set back in orbits in the skull. Eyebrows and eyelashes stop particles
getting in. Tears lubricate the surface of the eye and wash dust out of the eye.
4 a Rods detect light and dark.
b Cones detect colour.
5 When one or more types of cone cells are lacking in the retina.
6 Various answers, e.g. fish focus images by moving each lens backwards and
forwards; an eagle can detect a rabbit 3 kilometres away.
7 The tapetum is a mirrored lining at the back of a cat’s eye.
8 Hyperopia is long-sightedness; myopia is short-sightedness.
9 Presbyopia is a condition in which a person loses the ability to focus at short
distances due to ageing.
10 See Figure 8.1.13
11 Possibly by glasses, contact lenses or laser surgery
12 Most bending of light occurs in the front of the eye in the aqueous humour.
13 Being black reduces reflected light, which would otherwise interfere with the image.
14 The blind spot is occupied by vessels and nerves.
15 Your pupil has contracted in bright light and hence initially lets in only a small
amount of light when you have just gone indoors. After a while your pupil dilates to
let in more light.
16 To restrict the amount of light entering the eye (to give the pupil time to contract).
17 We would not be able to judge distances well.
18 So they can recognise particular plants and flowers and colours in other animals that
signal danger, or sex type.
19 Poor. An owl is active at night, so it is more important for it to detect objects in low
light than to see colour. Rod cells are better at doing this than cones, which detect
colour.
20 The blinkers reduce distractions and concentrate the horse’s vision on the view
ahead.
21 The ciliary muscles, suspensory ligaments and lens are involved in focusing.
22 PRK removes a layer of cells from the surface of the cornea. Lasik lifts a flap of
cells but does not remove it.
23 Blinking helps lubricate the eye regularly.
24 a Robert is long-sighted (hyperopic).
b He can see things at a distance, but not things that are close up.
25 Each of the lenses in an insect’s eye is tiny, so not enough light focuses on one spot
to do damage. An insect may not have lenses always aimed at the Sun.
26 There is often less light outside at night, so only the more sensitive rod cells (which
don’t detect colour) are activated and send messages to the brain.
27 No, others may see colours differently—at present there is no way to tell for sure.
28 Two eyes allow distances to be judged more easily and allow us to view things in
3D.
Unit 8.2 Hearing

1 Vibration
2 Decibels (Db)
3
Part Description/function
Pinna Fleshy ear flap, collects sound
Eardrum Thin sheet of muscle which vibrates in response to sounds
Ossicles Three bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) which receive
vibrations from the eardrum
Oval window Section at the boundary between the middle and inner ear
Cochlea Coiled, fluid-filled tube
Semicircular canals Three perpendicular sections which help us balance
Auditory nerves Pass messages to the brain which are interpreted as sounds
4 The inner ear

5 Hammer, anvil and stirrup, as a group called ossicles
6 The cochlea
7 At the oval window
8 The sound came from the right.
9 If a sound reaches both ears at the same time, our brain interprets this to tell us the
source of the sound is directly in front of, behind or above us.
10 There are three dimensions in which we exist.
11 a Wax helps prevent entry of dust and bacteria.
b Wax can cause blockages of the ear canal, resulting in ringing of the ears or a
degree of deafness.
12 Exposure to loud sounds or a blow to the head can cause damage.
13 You might experience partial deafness and/or ringing in the ears.
14 Mowing the lawn, using a circular saw, attending a rock concert
15 a Train
b Plane taking off
c Whisper
16 About 80 decibels or louder
17 Various answers, e.g. listening to the radio
18 Chewing helps open the eustachian tubes and prevent pressure differences that cause
discomfort, i.e. chewing helps ‘pop’ the ears.
19 Large ears help to give the animals early warning of predators.
20 Two ears help us to determine sound direction and thus would aid in survival, e.g. it
helps animals to determine from which direction a predator is approaching.
21 Infection can disturb the semicircular canals, which help us balance.
22 The horizontal tube in children does not allow wax to drain out as readily as it does
from the vertical tube in adults.
23 Caleb possibly has an ear infection where there is a partial blockage with wax. Sarah
possibly has more serious, permanent damage to part(s) of the ear that allow hearing.
24 a motor mower—75dB; could be dangerous
b large truck passing—75 to 80 dB; could be dangerous
c helicopter up close—120 dB; could be harmful
d person shouting at one metre—70 dB; not harmful
e racing car—90 dB; possibly dangerous
f music through headphones—70 dB; but depends on the volume
g classroom chatter—60 dB; not harmful
Unit 8.3 Smell, taste and touch

1 a True
b True
3 Taste buds are on the sides of bumps on the tongue called papillae.
4 Various answers
5 Taste and smell. Pinch your nose.
6 Epidermis, dermis, fatty layer
7 Touch, pressure, pain, hot, cold
8 It insulates and protects the body.
9 Various answers
10 Australia has a high proportion of sunny days.

11 Wear sunscreen, hat and appropriate clothing. Avoid exposure to the sun in the
hottest part of the day.
12
Sense Sense organ

Sight The eye
Hearing The ear
Smell Nose
Taste The tongue
13 The smell makes it easier to detect a gas leak.

14 Chef, perfume salesperson
15 Chewing, swallowing, talking
16 Sweat produced by sweat glands is channelled to the surface of the skin, where it
evaporates.
17 Various answers, e.g. burned: toast; foul: rotten egg; fragrant: flower; fruity: an
orange; resinous: paint; spicy: a hot curry
18 Always wear a hat outdoors, even on cloudy days. Use sunscreen on exposed areas
of skin and cover up with clothing as much as comfortably possible. Stay in the
shade, and avoid exposure to direct sunlight in the middle of the day.
Unit 8.4 Responding

1 Various answers, e.g. sunlight entering the eye, the smell of flowers, the sound of
the teacher writing on the board, the touch of the book on the hand, the warmth from
the heater, the sound of a distant train.
2 a Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment despite
changes in the surroundings.
b Cells work efficiently only if levels of substances such as glucose and water are
kept within certain limits.
3 Water, glucose, carbon dioxide
4 A receptor detects a stimulus such as heat. An effector brings about a response such
as movement of a hand away from the heat.
5
Receptor Stimulus
Cells of the retina Light
Cells of the inner ear Sound
Taste buds Chemicals
Osmoreceptors in the brain Water levels
Semicircular canals in the ear Gravity
Thermoreceptors in the skin Heat
6 a The stimulus–response model involves some kind of feedback. Feedback is

when the response affects the original stimulus, so the organism can adjust its
response.
b Coordination of several parts of the body responding to stimulus is required for
the total response of an organism to a stimulus.
7 a In the large arteries
b The brain
c Diaphragm and chest muscles
d Increased breathing rate
8 a body temperature: 37°C
b pH of blood: 7.38
9 To move away from the stimulus
10 i Stimulus, ii receptor, iii relay, iv coordinating centre, v relay, vi effectors, vii
response, viii feedback
12 Various answers, e.g. quick movement of feet to avoid touching the hot sand.
Unit 8.5 Nervous control

1 a Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
b CNS: brain and spinal cord, control centre. PNS: sensory receptors and nerves,
provide information to the CNS and transmit decisions from the CNS to effector
organs.
2 a It has a nucleus and cytoplasm.
b Neurons have cytoplasmic threads called axons and dendrites. Neurons can
transmit messages via electrical impulses.
3 A nerve is a bundle of neurons bound together.
4 Sensory neurons have specialised endings sensitive to stimuli, and they transfer
messages to the CNS. Motor neurons transfer messages from the CNS to effectors.
Interneurons transfer messages within the CNS.
5 Neurotransmitters transfer messages across the synapses between neurons.
6 a Synapses allow neural messages to be directed to appropriate places.
b They are susceptible to chemical interference, and they slow neural messages.
7 a Cerebellum, medulla and cerebrum
b The cerebellum controls complex muscular movements. The medulla controls
involuntary activities such as breathing. The cerebrum controls complex thoughts
and memories, receives and interprets messages from sense organs and controls
muscles.
8 a Cerebrum, b cerebellum, c medulla, d spinal cord
9 a Cerebrum
b Medulla
c Cerebellum
d Cerebrum
10 A bony skull, meninges and cerebrospinal fluid
11 Coughing, sneezing, blinking
12 a Pupils narrow
b Coughing
c Saliva production
d Sweating
13 a Light to electrical
b Sound to electrical
c Chemical to electrical
d Heat to electrical
14 a Motor neuron
b i Cytoplasm ii nucleus iii dendrite iv myelin v axon
15 A bright light is shone in the eye→ Receptors detect a change in light intensity→ An
impulse is sent along a sensory neuron to the brain→ An impulse is sent along a
motor neuron to iris muscles→ Iris muscles contract, causing the pupil to narrow.
16 The left side is most active (controls logical thought).
17 Eating, driving a car or operating a piece of machinery
18 Various answers, e.g. continual research into brain and nervous system disorders are
needed to develop controls or cures.
Unit 8.6 Chemical control

1 a Hormones are chemical messengers.
b They are produced in the endocrine glands.
c They are transported in the bloodstream.
2 Each hormone has a specific shape which fits into a receptor on the target cell’s
membrane like a jigsaw puzzle.
3
Gland Hormone
Adrenal Adrenalin
Pancreas Insulin
Pituitary ADH
Thyroid Thyroxin
Ovaries Oestrogen
Testes Testosterone
4 Increased heart rate—enables faster delivery of glucose and oxygen to muscles.

Dilation of bronchioles—allows more air into lungs for greater oxygen uptake.
Glucose release—makes more glucose available for respiration.
Increased breathing rate—results in faster exchange of gases.
5 In frightening situations both the nervous system and the endocrine system (via
adrenalin release) work to prepare the body for fight or flight.
6 The pituitary gland. It not only releases hormones which directly affect other organs,
but also releases hormones which instruct other glands to release hormones.
7 Thyroxin controls the speed of cell reactions and thus influences growth. Human
growth hormone influences total body growth.
8 Decrease in blood glucose levels → Pancreas detects the decrease → Release of
glucagon → Glucagon causes the liver to release glucose → Blood glucose levels
rise.
9 Diabetes is caused by a defective pancreas which does not produce enough insulin
(Type I diabetes), or having cells which do not respond correctly to insulin (Type
II).
10 Hormones are produced in the body and are targeted at specific cells for a specific
function. Pheromones are released into the environment and affect the behaviour of
other animals.
11 Many insects use pheromones to attract mates. For example, termite queens use
pheromones to stop larvae developing into new queens, female moths use
pheromones to attract males.
12 a Light is needed for photosynthesis.
b Plant roots must grow down to anchor the plant and to obtain water and
minerals.
13 Auxin produced by the tips of growing shoots passes backwards from the tip,
stimulating cells to elongate. When the shoot is exposed to light from one side, on
the exposed side auxin is destroyed by the light. The auxin concentration on the
shady side is therefore greater, so those cells elongate more rapidly, causing bending
towards the light.
14 Hormones are broken down when they pass through the liver.
15 a M
b O
c L
d K
e N
f P
16 Hormones provide a more widespread and longer-term response than electrical
impulses.
17
Nervous system Endocrine system

Nature of message Electrical impulse Chemical
Distribution Along nerve fibres Via blood
Speed of delivery Very fast Slow
Length of response Very short (unless Longer
continually stimulated)
18 a helios = Sun, hence to follow the Sun

b hydro = water, hence to respond to water.
Chapter 8 review
1 See Figure 8.1.3
2 Iris—controls the amount of light that enters the eye

Lens—helps focus images
Retina—contains light-sensitive cells that transmit messages to the brain.
Choroid—black layer that stops reflection within the eye.
3 a Outer ear, middle ear and inner ear
b Outer ear (air), middle ear (air), inner ear (fluid)
4 Eardrum—vibrates in response to sounds.
Ossicles—amplify sound and pass it to the cochlea via the oval window.
Semicircular canals—help us balance.
5 Eye, ear, nose, skin, tongue
6 See Figure 8.3.3
7 Possibly the sides of the tongue may detect sour tastes.
8 A few particles of the substance dissolve in our nasal membranes and trigger sensory
cells to send a message to the brain.
9 See Figure 8.2.1
10 a Organisms need to obtain food and avoid predators.
b A response to a stimulus may be complex and require actions from several parts
of the body. These need to be coordinated.
c The nervous and endocrine systems are the coordination systems in humans.
11 a Stimulus: something like heat or light which acts to bring about a change in the
activity of an organism.
b Effector: an organ such as a gland or a muscle which carries out a response to a
stimulus.
c Receptor: a part of the body which detects a stimulus. Eyes (retina cells) detect
light. Ears (cochlear cells) detect sound.
d Response: a change in the activity of an organism as a result of a stimulus.
Pupils in the eye dilate as a response to bright light.
12 a Various answers, e.g. light, heat, sound, gravity
b Retina cells in the eye, thermoreceptors in the skin, cochlear cells in the ears,
semicircular canals in the ears.
14
Part Function
Cerebellum Controls muscle movements while you are cycling
Medulla Controls involuntary actions such as breathing
Meninges Protect the brain from injury
Cerebrum Centre for sight, hearing and speech
15 a Synapses
b Chemicals called neurotransmitters carry the message across.
16 a A reflex action is an action performed without thinking.
b Coughing, sneezing, blinking
c They involve very few neurons. They need to be fast because the organism’s
survival might depend on it getting away from danger as quickly as possible.
17 a Reproduction, metabolism and growth

b Flowering, seed germination and growth
18 When less light is available, the pupil dilates to allow more light to enter the eye.
19 Various answers, e.g. myopia (short-sightedness) may be corrected using concave
lenses in the form of glasses or contact lenses. Laser surgery may be used to reshape
the cornea.
20 Pinch your nose to avoid smelling the medicine.
21 a Homeostasis
b It is important because cells need a continuous supply of glucose for respiration.
c The endocrine system controls glucose levels.
d Diabetes
22 a True
b False
c True
d False
e False
23
Function Hormone
Blood glucose levels Insulin
Female reproductive functions Oestrogen
The rate of chemical reactions in cells Thyroxin
Water levels within the body ADH
The readiness of the body for action Adrenalin
The deepening of the male voice at Testosterone
puberty
24 a Sensory neuron
b The axon carries messages to the cell from a receptor.
25 a Decision-making: A
b Heartbeat: C
c Messages from PNS to brain: D
d Messages from eyes and ears: A
26 i stimulus, ii receptor, iii sensory nerve, iv motor nerve, v effector, vi response
27 a Pancreas
b Insulin
c Bloodstream
d Liver
e Response
f Feedback
28 a A tropism is a response where a plant grows towards or away from a stimulus.
b Examples: phototropism (response to light), geotropism (response to gravity).
29 Various answers, e.g. life is more difficult when one or more senses are impaired.
30 a Various answers, e.g. collecting data about the Earth’s climate, measuring
background radiation, collecting data in space, scanning the body, navigation
b Because our senses are limited in the range of stimuli they can detect. Also,
some situations are too dangerous for us to go to in order to collect information with
our own senses, or might be inaccessible to us—e.g. outer space, the bottom of the
ocean.
c Various answers
d Various answers
e Various answers
Unit 9.1 The ramp

1 Work is the amount of energy needed to do a job. Work = effort force × distance the
load is moved.
2 Work is a form of energy.
3 Like all energy, work is measured in joules (J).
4 A ramp reduces the effort by increasing the distance the object is moved.
5 Various answers, e.g. ramps next to stairs for wheelchair access, furniture
removalists, escalators, ramps used to load luggage onto jumbo jets, a road winding
up a mountain
6 Ramps make the job of lifting a load easier because they reduce the effort force
needed, by increasing the distance the load needs to be moved. Work = effort ×
distance.
7 Mechanical advantage is a measure of the effectiveness of a machine. Mechanical
advantage = load/effort
8 The higher the mechanical advantage, the better the machine.
9 Axe, knife, teeth, log splitter, spade
10 A screw is a long, thin ramp curling around a cylinder.
11 Screws can penetrate objects, either solid (e.g. woodscrews screwed into timber),
liquid (e.g. a propeller on a boat in water) or gas (e.g. propellers on an aircraft or an
electric fan).
12 A path zigzagging up a mountain is easier to walk because the effort needed to walk
a longer track is less than it would be going straight up to the top.
13 a Mechanical advantage = 12/6 = 2
b Mechanical advantage = 18/6 = 3
c Mechanical advantage = 18/3 = 6
d Mechanical advantage = 50/10 = 5
14 c is the best machine because it has the highest mechanical advantage.
15 Various answers, e.g.
Type of ramp How it makes life easier

Screw Smaller force required to move a greater distance
Wedge Reduces the effort needed to e.g. split a log
16 The load was its weight, 24 N.

17
Work (J) Ramp length Effort needed Proof that this Mechanical
(m) (N) will do the job advantage
24 1 24 1 × 24 = 24 24/24 = 1
24 2 12 2 × 12 = 24 24/12 = 2
24 3 8 3 × 8 = 24 24/8 = 3
24 4 6 4 × 6 = 24 24/6 = 4
24 6 4 6 × 4 = 24 24/4 = 6
24 8 3 8 × 3 = 24 24/3 = 8
24 12 2 12 × 2 = 24 24/2 = 12
24 24 1 24 × 1 = 24 24/1 = 24
18 The ramp that was 24 m long would make the job the easiest, only needing an effort
force of 1 N. Its mechanical advantage was 24.
Unit 9.2 Levers

1 A force multiplier is a machine that allows us to lift loads with minimal effort. Class
1 and 2 levers are examples.
2 A fulcrum is a pivot or axle around which a lever turns.
4 For levers, mechanical advantage = distance of effort from fulcrum/distance of load
from fulcrum.
5 When the effort is far from the fulcrum and the load is close to it.
6 A class 3 lever acts as a speed multiplier by having the fulcrum at one end and the
load (often a light ball) at the other end. The effort force is high, movement is small
and slow, and is close to the fulcrum. This translates to a low force, but with high
speed at the far end of the lever. Speed has been multiplied.
7 Most ball sports require high speed of light balls. Force is usually not a concern.
8 A sword is an example of a class 3 lever. It is very much like a baseball bat, having
its fulcrum at the very end and the effort near it, at its handle. The load in this case
would be the unfortunate victim.
9 Class 1: beam balance, scissors, pliers, see-saw. Class 2: wheelbarrow and load,
nutcrackers, bottle opener. Class 3: all sports bats and racquets, fishing rod,
tweezers.
10 a Class 1 and 2 levers are force multipliers. Class 3 levers are speed multipliers.
b The fulcrum of a lever is somewhere in the middle in a class 1 lever but at the
end of a class 2 or 3 lever.
c A golf club is an example of a speed multiplier.
d True
e True
11 The Principle of Levers is: effort force × distance of effort from fulcrum = load
force × distance of load force from fulcrum.
12 Class 1 lever. Diagrammatic answer required.
13 Classes 1 or 2 are force multipliers and will reduce the effort needed. Class 3 is a
speed multiplier and actually makes the effort greater.
14 a Beam balance: class 1
b Hammer pulling nail: class 1
c Hammering in a nail: class 3
d Bottle opener: class 2
15 a Mechanical advantage = 10/5 = 2
b Distance of effort from fulcrum = 6 + 3 = 9 m
Mechanical advantage = 9/3 = 3

c Distance of load from fulcrum = 80 + 20 = 100 cm
Mechanical advantage = 20/100 = 0.2
16
Mass #1 (g) Distance of mass Mass #2 (g) Distance of mass

#1 from pivot (cm) #2 from pivot (cm)
6 4 8 3
6 4 2 12
1 24 12 2
10 1 5 2
3 6 2 9
8 4 2 16
Unit 9.3 Going for a spin: wheels, axles and gears

1 A wheel is like a lever in that it has a fulcrum (the axle) and uses distance to
multiply either force or speed.
2 The fulcrum of a wheel is its axle.
3 Torque is another name for a force that causes spinning.
4 The axle of a doorknob or tap is called its spindle.
6 The blades of a fan or propeller act as speed multipliers.
7 Connect wheels of different diameters together with belts.
8 Gears can be used to change speed, torque (spinning force) or the direction of
rotation.
9 A driving gear is turned by its axle. The driven gear is rotated by its teeth meshing
with the teeth of the driving gear.
10 Gearing up is used when high-speed rotation is needed, e.g. in drills and blenders.
Gearing down is used when high force is needed, e.g. in gearboxes and slow-moving
displays in shops.
11 The speed of a driven gear and the torque it can apply depend on the size of the two
gears.
12 A gear train is two or more gears connected together.
13 See Figure 9.3.9
14 a Rotary motion is circular motion.
b The axle is in the centre of a wheel and the rim is on the outside.
c True
d Parallel gears turn in opposite directions but with the same speed.
e The steering wheel of a car is an example of a force multiplier.
f True
g Gearing up is used in drills and kitchen blenders.
Unit 9.4 Pulleys

1 Pulling an object down is easier for humans, because our body weight is already
acting in that direction and can be used for the job. In lifting an object up, we need
to oppose our own body weight.
2 A pulley changes a lifting motion into a pulling-down motion, which humans find
easier.
3 The mechanical advantage of a single pulley should be 1.
4 A block and tackle is another name for a multiple pulley system.
5 A pulley reduces effort by increasing the distance that the effort must be moved. If
the rope is pulled twice the distance, then the effort will be halved.
6 The distance the rope is pulled is increased but the effort decreases.
7 A pulley is a grooved wheel turned by a string, rope or chain. A gear is a wheel with
teeth that mesh with the teeth of other gears. Gears are used to change the direction
or speed of spin, or torque. Pulleys are used to multiply lifting force.
8 The effort put into lifting loads with pulleys may be more than expected because of
friction between the pulley and the rope, and the pulley and its axle.
9 A clamp can hold the load in place, perhaps while it is swung to a new position, as
happens in a crane.
10 A hoist uses a chain.
11 Pulleys are force multipliers, because they reduce the effort force needed to lift a
load.
12 Multiple pulleys mean less effort is needed to lift a load, or higher loads can be lifted
with the same effort. Their disadvantage is that the rope needs to be pulled greater
distances.
13 a Three
b Eleven
14 Force multiplication
a ×4
b × 10
Unit 9.5 The technology of complex machines

1 A force is a push, pull or twist. It causes acceleration, deceleration or a change in
direction or shape.
2 Balanced forces cancel out to give no overall force. They are the same size or
magnitude but act in opposite directions. Any object that is at rest (e.g. a building, a
sitting person) has no overall force on it—all forces acting on it are balanced. Other
objects that are travelling at constant speed in the same direction (e.g. a car on the
freeway, an aircraft at cruising altitude) also have no overall force on them.
Unbalanced forces do not cancel out, so there is an overall force on the object. This
causes acceleration (a car from a traffic light), deceleration (a car braking), a change
in direction (a car turning a corner) or a change in shape (a car in an accident).
3 a Air moving over an airfoil causes lift.
b True
c Fast-moving air has lower pressure than slow-moving air.
d True
e True
4 The important forces acting on an aircraft are its weight, lift, drag and thrust.
5 The top is curved so that it is longer than the bottom. The air flowing across the top
has further to travel than the air along the bottom, and therefore must go faster.
6 Fast-moving air has less pressure than slow-moving air. Hence the pressure above
the wing is less than that below. The wing is thus ‘sucked’ upwards.
7 Lift depends on airflow over the wings. The faster the airflow, the greater the lift.
An aircraft needs to pick up speed to build up lift.
8 a Lift depends on the speed of air flowing over the wing. If the wind is head-on, it
is already providing lift, even if the aircraft is not moving. By heading into the wind,
the aircraft can gain the lift required for take-off at slower speeds than if there is no
wind, or if it travels in the same direction as the wind. Run-ups will be shorter and
less fuel will be used.
b Heavy aircraft need more lift in order to balance, then overcome, their heavier
weight.
c Lift depends on airflow over the wings. Drag is a form of friction caused by
airflow across the surface of the aircraft. If there is no movement then there is no
airflow—hence no lift, friction or drag.
d Air is less dense on hotter days, and so lift is less. More air speed is required to
gain the same lift as on colder days.
10 A helicopter blade must be the same shape as an air foil.
12 If a helicopter is stationary, the lift on each rotor blade will be the same regardless of
where in the circle the rotor is. If the helicopter is moving, however, the airflow over
the blades that are heading forwards in their circle will be faster than the airflow on
the blades that are moving backwards. The lift then will be greater on the side where
the rotor is moving forwards and less on the side where the rotor is moving
backwards. To counter this the angles of the blades are altered so that the lift is the
same on both sides.
Chapter 9 review
1 a False: Machines reduce effort but the work (energy) is the same.
b True (class 3 levers can be seen as an exception here, however)
c True
d False: Drag is the force that slows an aircraft as it moves through the air; thrust
is the force that pushes an aircraft forward through the air.
e True
f True
g False: Ramps make effort less because the distance travelled is more.
h True
i True
j False: A pivot and a fulcrum are the same.
k False: Ramps and levers use up/down motion.
l False: Wheels can act as speed multipliers.
m True
n True
o False: Single pulleys do not reduce the effort needed to lift something.
2 A simple machine reduces the effort force required to do a job.
3 Ramps, wedges, screws, levers, wheels and their axles, and pulleys
4 A complex machine is made from a number of simple machines, e.g. lawnmower,
stapler.
5 Work = effort force × distance moved.
6 Effort is the force that you put into a machine. Load is the weight that is being lifted.
7 See Figure 9.5.1
8 a Mechanical advantage is a measure of how effective a machine is. Mechanical
advantage = load/effort.
b It should be as high as possible.
9 Aircraft wings often seem to flex upwards on take-off due to the upward lift force on
them.
10 Ramps reduce effort by increasing the distance that the load must move up the ramp.
12 Idler, worm and bevel are examples of gears.
13 Parallel gears are the same size and speed but rotate in different directions.
14 Advantages of a single pulley: weight is acting in same direction as the effort, so it
will be easier to do the job. Disadvantage: effort will be the same as or more than the
load.
15 A double pulley can lift twice the load but the rope must be pulled twice the
distance.
16 The more pulleys in a system, the less effort is needed.
18 Mechanical advantage = distance of effort from fulcrum/distance of load from
fulcrum.
19 a Mechanical advantage = 5/10 = 0.5
b Mechanical advantage = 10/2 = 5
21 a Force multiplier: steering wheel, doorknob
b Speed multiplier: fan, blender
23 a pizza cutter—wheel, reduces effort
b wheel—increases speed
c waffle iron—lever, reduces effort
d BBQ tongs—lever, reduce effort
e garlic crusher—lever, reduces effort
f corkscrew—ramp, reduces effort

Answers To Science Focus 3 Coursebook Questions

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Answers to Science Focus 3 coursebook questions

Unit 1.1 Atoms and elements

Atom Atomic Mass Number Number Number Symbol

Unit 1.2 Arranging the elements

Unit 1.3 The role of electrons

Atomic number Element (name and Number of:

Element Atomic Number Electronic The atom Or it Most Most

Number of Number of Number of Overall Is it an Symbol

Unit 1.4 Metals, non-metals and semi-metals

Metal or non-metal Properties

Unit 1.5 Families of elements

4 Period number = number of shells used, group number = number of electrons in

Atom Atomic Mass Number Number Number Atomic

Iodine 53 127 53 74 53 127

Unit 2.2 Naming compounds

15 a 2 nitrogen, 8 hydrogen, 1 sulfur, 4 oxygen

Unit 2.3 Reaction types

Unit 2.4 Acids and bases

14 a Strong acid: 0–3

Unit 3.1 The expanding universe

Unit 3.2 The big bang

15 a The first atoms formed a second or so after the big bang.

Unit 3.3 The life of a star

Unit 3.4 Are we alone?

Unit 3.5 Future space travel

3 Hydrogen and helium

Unit 4.1 Bending light

Unit 4.2 Lenses and curved mirrors

3 Diagrammatic answer required.

Object height Image height Magnification

Unit 4.3 Colour

Unit 5.1 Plate tectonics

11 Diagrammatic answer required.

Unit 5.2 At the edges

Unit 5.3 Earthquakes

25 a 4.0 min: 2500 km

Arrival time Arrival time Time Time (min) Distance of

Unit 5.4 Volcanoes

Unit 5.5 Landscaping the crust

Unit 5.6 Geological time

Period Span (millions of years)

Unit 6.1 Types of reproduction

Unit 6.2 Human reproductive systems

Unit 6.3 From gamete to birth

4 Twins can be identical (produced by the splitting of the zygote) or fraternal

Unit 6.4 Reproductive problems

17 Egg production, stimulation, harvesting, fertilisation and implantation

17 a Diagrammatic answer required.

Flower part Function

Flower part Human part Comparable function

Unit 7.1 Energy for life

22 Line A is the endothermic animal (kookaburra); Line B is the ectothermic animal

Unit 7.2 Recycling in nature

Unit 7.3 Human intervention – energy crisis

13 Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration

Unit 8.1 Sight

Unit 8.2 Hearing

4 The inner ear

Unit 8.3 Smell, taste and touch

10 Australia has a high proportion of sunny days.

Sense Sense organ

13 The smell makes it easier to detect a gas leak.

Unit 8.4 Responding