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What Is A Mineral?
Minerals and Rocks
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Key Characteristics of Minerals
 Minerals have two key characteristics.
◦ Composition:
 The chemical elements that compose a
mineral, and their proportions.
◦ Crystal structure:
 The organized way in which the atoms of
the elements are packed together in a
mineral.
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 Potassium feldspar, a very common
mineral in the earth’s crust, is made up of
the elements potassium, aluminum, silicon,
and oxygen.
The formula for potassium feldspar is
written KAlSi3O8. This means that for every
atom of potassium in the mineral, there
is one atom of aluminum, there are three
of silicon, and there are eight of oxygen
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◦ Mineral is
 naturally formed
 inorganic
 solid material with a specific chemical
composition
 and a characteristic crystalline
structure.
Composition of Minerals
 A few minerals are composed of a single
element (examples are diamond, graphite,
gold, copper, and sulfur).
 Most minerals are compounds, containing
more than one element.
 Ex. The common mineral halite has a
chemical composition of NaCl.
It is made of the two elements sodium
and chlorine with one sodium atom for
every atom of chlorine.
• Rock:
 Naturally formed, coherent mass of one
or more minerals, sometimes including
organic debris.
 Rocks are composed of minerals and
minerals are composed of atoms of
elements bonded together in an orderly
crystalline structure.
 To geologists, minerals are important
because they are the building blocks of the
rocks that make up the earth
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 A rock can be composed of a single

mineral.
For example, limestone is composed
of the mineral calcite.

It is made up of multiple crystals of

The rock granite is made up of the minerals quartz, potassium
feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, and biotite mica. The mineral quartz
(S1O2) is made up of atoms of the elements silicon (purple) and
oxygen (red) bonded together.
calcite either grown in an interlocking
pattern or cemented together
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Atoms: Elementary Structure

 Atoms are the smallest, electrically neutral assemblies
of energy and matter that we know exist in the universe.
 Atoms consist of a central nucleus surrounded by a
cloud of electrons.
◦ Protons and neutrons are dense, and form the
nucleus (core) of an atom.
◦ Protons have positive electric charges.
◦ Neutrons have no charge.
 How do the atoms in a mineral like
◦ The nucleus of an atom always have a positive
quartz stick together? charge.
 Why are minerals crystalline at all? ◦ Electrons, which have negative electrical charges that
balance exactly the positive charges of protons, move
in orbitals around the nucleus.
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Structure of an Atom  There are ninety-two (92) different kinds of

naturally occurring atoms.
 Each “species” of atom is called an element. An
element is defined by the number of protons in
its nucleus or its atomic number.
 Each element has the same number of protons
and the same number of electrons.
 Number of protons = Number of electrons.
Number of protons = atomic number.
Number of protons + Number of neutrons =
atomic weight.
• A stable electronic configuration for an atom is
energy level or shell maximum number of electrons
one with a completely filled outer shell.
first 2
second 8
third 8 11 12

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Bonding
 A molecular compound always
consists of two or more kinds of atoms
held together.
 The force that holds the atoms together
in a compound is called bonding.
 Bonding determines the physical and
chemical properties of a compound.
Example of Ionic Bonding
Halite (NaCl)
Example of Covalent Bonding
Four Types of Bonding
 1. Ionic bonding: caused by the force of
attraction between ions of opposite charge.
- An ion is an atom that has a surplus or
deficit of electrons relative to the number of
protons in its nucleus.
- A cation is a positively charged ion that
has fewer electrons than protons.
- An anion is a negatively charged ion that
has more electrons than protons.
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• 2. Covalent bonding: some atoms share
electrons rather than transferring them,
creating a strong bond.
 Diamond is composed entirely of
covalently bonded carbon atoms. The
sparkle that makes diamonds attractive gems
is due to covalent bonding. Covalent bonds
in diamond are very strong, and diamond is
the hardest natural substance on Earth.
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• 3. Metallic bonding: closely packed atoms share
electrons in higher energy-level shells among
several atoms. It may be described as the
sharing of free electrons among a structure of
positively charged ions This found in metals, such
as copper or gold.
 Because the atoms are closely packed, the
electrons move freely throughout the crystal so
as to hold the atoms together.
 The ease with which electrons move accounts for
the high electrical conductivity of metals.
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4. Van der Waals bonding: weak secondary

attraction between certain molecules formed by
transferring electrons.
• Much weaker than ionic, covalent, or metallic
bonding.
 This is the very weak force that holds adjacent
sheets of mica or graphite together. It is also
the force that holds water molecules together in
ice.

Example of Van der Waals Bonding

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Crystal Structure of Minerals Geometric Pattern Various ions

 The atoms in most solids are organized in regular,
geometric patterns, called the crystal structure.
 Solids that have a crystal structure are said to be
crystalline.
 Minerals consist of an orderly array of atoms
chemically bonded to form a particular crystalline
structure
 Ice in a glacier meets the definition of a mineral.
 Solids that lack crystal structures are amorphous.
◦ glass and amber.

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Polymorphism
 Some minerals can have the same chemical
composition but have different crystalline
 Crystalline Structure of Halite structures—described as polymorphism
 Diamond and Graphite are polymorphs of
Carbon
- Diamond – hardest mineral, usually
transparent and has a brilliant luster. Formed
by covalent bonding in three-dimensional
arrangement.
- Graphite – one of the softest mineral, dark
and appears metallic. Formed by covalent
bonds that form sheets that are held together
by much weaker electrostatic bonds (Van der
Waals Bonding)
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Common Minerals in Earth’s Crust

 Only 12 elements occur in the continental
crust in amounts greater than 0.1 percent by
weight.
 These 12 elements make up 99.23 percent of
the crustal mass.
 The crust, therefore, is constructed mostly of
a limited number of minerals.
◦ Approximately 4,000 minerals have been identified,
but only about 30 are commonly encountered.

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Mineral Properties and Bond Types

 Minerals properties depend strongly on
the kinds of bonds present.
 Ionic and covalent bonds are strong,
making minerals hard and strong.
 Metallic and van der Waals bonds
are much weaker.

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Silicates: The Largest Mineral

Three Mineral Groups Group
 Silicate minerals (SiO4)4-, the most
 Two elements, oxygen and silicon,
abundant in Earth’s crust.
make up more than 70 percent of the
 Carbonate (CO3)2-, phosphate (PO4)3-, weight of the continental crust.
and sulfate (SO4)2- minerals.
 Silica is a term for oxygen combined with
 Ore minerals, sulfides (S2-) and oxides silicon. Because silicon is the second most
(O2-) that contain valuable metals. abundant element in the crust, most minerals
contain silica.
 Silicon is the element used to make computer
chips.
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The structures of silicate minerals

1. Isolated Silicate Structure
 Silicate minerals that are structured so that
none of the oxygen atoms are shared by
tetrahedra

 Olivine is among Earth’s most abundant mineral

The four-sided, pyramidal, geometric shape called a tetrahedron
is used to represent the 4 oxygen atoms surrounding a silicon
groups, a very common constituent of igneous
atom. This basic building block of a crystal is called a silicon- rocks in oceanic crust and the upper part of the
oxygen tetrahedron (also known as a silica tetrahedron). mantle.
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Olivines 2. Single - Chain Silicates

 A single chain silicate structure forms
when two of a tetrahedron’s oxygen
atoms are shared with adjacent
tetrahedra to form a chain.
Diagram of the crystal structure of olivine

 Olivine occurs in such flawless and beautiful

crystals that is used as a gem, peridot
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Pyroxene group (ex. Augite) 3. Double-Chain Silicates

 A double-chain silicate is essentially two
 Augite is the most common pyroxene. It is adjacent single chains that are sharing oxygen
an essential mineral in mafic igneous rocks. atoms.

 The amphibole group is composed of double-

chain silicates.
 Augite is usually black, with stubby crystals.
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Amphibole group (ex. Hornblende) Asbestos (Fibrous chain silicate)

 Chain silicates tend to be shaped like columns,
 The most common of the amphiboles is needles, or even fibers.
called hornblende.  Fibrous aggregates of certain chain silicates are
called asbestos.

 Hornblende is a common constituent of

many igneous and metamorphic rocks.  Asbestos does not ignite or melt in fire.
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4. Sheet Silicates
Mica group (ex. Muscovite)
 In a sheet silicate structure each
tetrahedron shares three oxygen atoms to form  The mica minerals are distinguished by their
a sheet. perfect basal cleavage, which means that they
are easily split into thin, often transparent
sheets.

 ex. Mica group and clay-minerals

 Sheet silicates are generally soft and flaky.
Muscovite, KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2, is a common mica.
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Feldspar Group – Most Common

5. Framework Silicates
Minerals in Earth’s Crust
 When all four oxygen ions are shared by
• Accounts for about 60 percent of all minerals
adjacent tetrahedra, a framework silicate
in the continental crust.
structure is formed.
• Feldspars crystallize from magma as igneous
 The strongest silicate minerals. rocks and are also present in many types
of metamorphic rock.
• Two most common members:
Orthoclase (potassium feldspar) and
Plagioclase (sodium and calcium feldspar)

Ex. Quartz, Feldspar group

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Potassium Feldspar
European engineers use K-spar in highway aggregates to
increase pavement reflectivity and wearing surface.
Quartz
 Quartz is pure SiO2.
 Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in the
Earth’s continental crust, after feldspar.
• Found in many colors.
• Feldspar and quartz constitute 75 percent of the
volume of the continental crust.
Calcite in the form of a pink marble Calcite in the form of limestone
Aragonite
Plagioclase Feldspar
Plagioclase feldspars are components of decorative
dimension stone, especially “black granite”
(gabbro).
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Nonsilicate Minerals
 The Carbonates Group:
◦ The carbonate anion, (CO3)2-, forms three
common minerals:
 Calcite (CaCO3) occurs mainly in limestone
and marble
 Aragonite - is a polymorph of calcite
 Dolomite (CaMgCO3)2 An important
sedimentary and metamorphic mineral,
found in dolostones and also in limestones
and marble.
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 The Phosphates and Sulfate Group:
◦ Apatite is the most common phosphate mineral.
 Contains the complex anion ((PO4)3-.
Apatite-(CaF) - Calcium fluoro-phosphate
Apatite-(CaCl) - Calcium chloro-phosphate
Apatite-(CaOH) - Basic calcium phosphate
 Common mineral in many varieties of
igneous and sedimentary rocks.
 The main source of the phosphorus required by
plants. The bones and teeth of most animals,
including humans, are composed of calcium
phosphate, which is the same material as
Apatite.
Dolomite
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 Sulfates:
The Ore Mineral Group –
• All sulfate minerals contain the sulfate anion, (SO 4)2- Our Source for Metals
• Only two are common:  Sulfides
 Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).
 Common sulfides:
 Anhydrite(CaSO4) forming from the dehydration of
Gypsum ◦ Pyrite (FeS2) - commonly called “Fool’s Gold”, found to
contain minor nickel and cobalt.
• Use in the manufacture of some cement, a source of
sulfate for sulfuric acid. ◦ Galena (PbS) - is the primary ore mineral of lead
◦ Sphalerite (ZnS) – major ore of zinc.

49 Pyrite Galena Sphalerite 50

 Oxides ◦ Other oxide ore minerals are:

◦ The common iron oxides are:  Rutile (TiO2), the principal source of titanium
◦ Magnetite (Fe3O4) - the only mineral that acts as a  Cassiterite (SnO2), the main ore mineral for tin
natural magnet, or is strongly attracted to magnets
 Uraninite (U3O8), the main source of uranium.
◦ Hematite (Fe2O3) - caused the color of most red and
brown rock in sandstone, It is also responsible for the
red color of many minerals such as Garnet and Ruby.

Rutile Cassiterite Uraninite

Magnetite Hematite 51 52

Clay Minerals Clay Minerals

 The clay minerals represent an important sub-
group of the sheet silicates.
 The term clay is used to denote particular
mineralogical properties, in addition to a small
particle size. It has the tendency to develop
plasticity when mixed with water.
 The most common clay minerals groups are:
kaolinite, montmorillonite or smectite, and
illite.
 KAOLINITE formed by the decomposition of feldspar
(e.g. granite). It is the principal components of china
clay.
 Kaolinite is also use in the manufacture of pills; the main
ingredient in Kaopectate, a remedy for intestinal
distress
 Engineering properties: low compressibility, high friction
angle (25o – 30o )

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 MONTMORILLONITE or SMECTITE is formed by

the alteration of basic igneous rocks containing silicates rich
in Calcium and Magnesium.

 Can swell significantly by the adsorption of water.

 Engineering Properties : exhibit considerable potential for
volume change; known as expansive clay.
- very high compressibility The “roller-coaster road” is the result of uneven swelling
and heaving of expansive clays
- very low friction angle (φ’ ≈ 5o)

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The Physical Properties of Minerals

Quartz (SiO2) exhibits a variety of
Color
 Color is determined by several factors, colors
but its main cause is chemical
composition.
◦ Unreliable for identification.
Ex. If you look at a number of quartz
crystals, for instance, you may find
specimens that are white, pink, black, yellow,
or purple.

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Streak
 Streak is the thin layer of powdered
material left when a specimen is rubbed on
an unglazed ceramic plate called streak
plate.
◦ Much more reliable than color for
identification.
 Many metallic minerals leave a dark-colored
streak whereas most nonmetallic minerals
leave a white or pale-colored streak.
 In particular many of the silicate minerals, are
harder than the streak plate and, thus, it can be Ex. Hematite always leaves a reddish brown streak
very difficult to obtain their streak. though the sample may be brown or red or silver.

59 Figure 3.18 60

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Luster Galena (PbS) displays metallic luster

 Luster is the quality and intensity of light reflected
from a mineral.
 The most important lusters are:
 Metallic (polished metal surface) – may be very
shiny like a chrome car part, or less shiny, like the
surface of a broken piece of iron
 Non-metallic:
◦ Vitreous (glass) – glazed appearance
◦ Resinous (resin) - the look of dried glue or amber.
◦ Pearly (pearl): the iridescent look of a pearl.
◦ Greasy (as if the surface were covered by a film of
oil). 61 62

Hardness and the Mohs Scale Mohs Scale of Hardness

 Hardness is a mineral’s relative
resistance to scratching.
 For a true test of hardness, the harder
mineral or substance must be able to
make a groove or scratch on a smooth,
fresh surface of the softer mineral.
Ex: quartz can always scratch calcite or
feldspar and is thus said to be harder than
both of these minerals
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 The Mohs relative hardness scale uses ten
minerals, each with its distinctive
hardness:
◦ scale indicate relative hardness.
 We test relative hardness by using
common objects:
◦ copper penny, equivalent to fluorite’s hardness of
4.
◦ steel knife blade, equivalent to feldspar’s hardness
of 6.
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Mohs scale
of
hardness
Moh’s scale relates the
hardness of minerals
with some common
objects, such as
fingernails, copper
pennies, a steel knife
blade, and glass.
Orthoclase feldspar (6)
is used as a whitener
agent in toothpaste,
while tooth enamel is Fingernail (hardness of 2 1/2) easily scratches
comprised of the mineral
apatite (5) gypsum (hardness of 2).

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Characteristic crystal forms of

Crystal Form three common minerals
 The crystal form of a mineral is a set of
faces that have a definite geometric
relationship to one another
 If two or more faces on a crystal are
identical in shape and size, they belong to
the same crystal form. Cluster of quartz crystals Crystals of potassium feldspar

Inter grown cubic crystals of

fluorite
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 The angle between two adjacent faces of

quartz is always exactly the same, no matter
what part of the world the quartz sample
comes from or the color or size of the
quartz.
 Ex. : the angle between any two adjacent sides
of the six-sided “pillar” (which is called a
prism by mineralogists) is always exactly 120°,
while between a face of the “pillar” and one
of the “pyramid” faces (actually part of a
rhombohedron) the angle is always exactly
141°45′.
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Cleavage  In quartz, the bonds are equally strong in all

 Cleavage is the tendency to break in directions; therefore, quartz has no cleavage.
preferred directions along bright, reflective The micas, which are
planar surfaces. sheet silicates, are easily
split apart into sheets.
 A cleavage surface is a breakage
The bonding between
surface, whereas a crystal face is a growth adjacent sheets is very
surface. weak. Therefore, it is easy
 A mineral tends to break along certain to split the mineral apart
planes because the bonding between atoms parallel to the plane of
is weaker there the sheets.

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Common cleavage directions Common cleavage directions

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Calcite has three cleavage directions, but the angles

between them are clearly not right angles. Calcite’s
Halite is an example of a mineral with three excellent cleavage
cleavage is known as rhombohedral cleavage
directions, all at 90° to each other. This is called cubic cleavage

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Fracture
 Fracture is the way a substance breaks
where not controlled by cleavage.
 Minerals that have no cleavage commonly
have an irregular fracture.
 Some minerals break along curved fracture
surfaces known as conchoidal fractures.
These look like the inside of a clam shell.
 Minerals that have cleavage can fracture
along directions other than that of the
Conchoidal fracture in quartz
cleavage.
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Density and Specific Gravity

 Density is commonly expressed as specific
gravity, the ratio of a mass of a substance
to the mass of an equal volume of water.
 Minerals with a high density, such as gold,
contain atoms with high mass numbers that
are closely packed.
 Minerals with a low density, such as ice have
loosely packed atoms.

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