Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Numbers/Electron
Configurations
The
Schrodinger
equation,
which
was
shown
in
class,
is
a
wave
function
and
the
solutions
to
this
function
provide
information
about
the
probability
of
finding
electrons
in
a
particular
space.
Each
electron
in
an
atom
can
be
uniquely
described
using
four
quantum
numbers:
Principle
quantum
number
(n):
This
number
describes
the
most
probable
distance
from
the
nucleus
and
thus
the
size
of
the
orbital.
Because
electrons
farther
from
the
nucleus
also
have
higher
energy,
this
number
describes
the
overall
energy
of
an
electron.
Each
value
of
n
(integers
1,2,…)
refers
to
a
shell
of
electrons.
Angular
momentum
quantum
number
(l):
This
number
describes
the
shape
of
an
orbital
and
the
value
ranges
from
0,1,…(n-‐1).
These
are
referred
to
as
subshells.
l
value
Subshell
Number
of
Orbitals
0
s
1
1
p
3
2
d
5
3
f
7
Magnetic
quantum
number
(ml):
This
number
describes
the
orientation
of
an
orbital
in
space.
It
ranges
from
–l
to
l.
For
s
orbitals,
a
sphere
only
has
one
orientation,
but
for
p
orbitals,
there
are
three
orbitals
and
they
have
three
orientations
px,
py,
pz
which
are
oriented
along
the
3
perpendicular
axes.
Spin
quantum
number
(ms):
It
represents
the
spin
of
an
electron
and
can
only
take
one
of
two
values:
up
or
down.
Valence
Electrons/Octets/Bonding
You’ve
learned
how
to
assign
electrons
to
the
different
subshells
to
obtain
the
atomic
configuration
for
a
particular
atom.
We
are
particularly
interested
in
the
electrons
contained
in
the
outermost
shell.
These
outermost
electrons
are
called
valence
electrons
and
they
are
the
only
electrons
that
participate
in
bonding.
Examples:
Element
Configuration
Valence
Electrons
Lithium
1s22s1
1
Magnesium
1s 2s 2p 3s
2 2 6 2
2
Carbon
1s22s22p2
4
Silicon
1s22s22p63s23p2
4
Nitrogen
1s22s22p3
5
Oxygen
1s 2s 2p
2 2 4 6
Sulfur
1s22s22p63s23p4
6
Fluorine
1s22s22p5
7
You
can
notice
from
the
table
below
that
for
main
group
elements
(groups
1,2,
13-‐18)
the
number
of
valence
electrons
corresponds
to
the
group
(column
number
or
(column
number
–
10)
for
columns
13-‐18)
on
the
periodic
table.
Transition
metals
are
harder
to
predict
so
often
you
must
actually
write
out
the
electron
configuration.
Since
valence
electrons
are
the
only
electrons
involved
in
bonding,
they
are
largely
responsible
for
the
different
properties
of
atoms
and
thus
you
can
use
the
columns
of
the
periodic
table
to
predict
properties.
Elements
tend
to
form
bonds
in
order
to
form
a
closed
shell,
meaning
all
orbitals
in
that
particular
shell
have
the
maximum
two
electrons.
So
for
main
group
elements,
this
corresponds
to
achieving
s2p6
in
the
outermost
shell.
This
is
often
called
the
octet
rule
because
the
bonded
atoms
prefer
to
have
eight
valence
electrons
either
through
sharing
or
giving/taking.
Group
1
and
Group
2
metals
have
only
one
or
two
valence
electrons
respectively,
thus
they
are
most
likely
to
lose
electrons
and
form
cations.
Na Na+ e-
Mg Mg2+ 2e-
Group
7
elements
have
seven
valence
electrons
and
thus
only
need
one
to
fill
their
octet.
They
can
gain
this
electron
either
through
removing
it
from
another
atom
to
form
an
ionic
bond
or
through
sharing
with
another
atom
to
form
covalent
bonds.
F e- F-
F H H F
Lewis
Structures/Formal
Charge
The
number
of
valence
electrons
tells
you
the
number
of
bonds
an
atom
prefers
to
form.
For
example,
carbon
has
4
valence
electrons
and
will
form
4
bonds
while
nitrogen
has
5
valence
electrons
and
prefers
to
form
3
bonds.
This
does
not
mean
that
nitrogen
cannot
form
more
than
three
bonds,
but
if
it
does,
it
will
be
charged.
When
nitrogen
has
four
bonds,
it
has
8
valence
electrons
which
is
good,
but
it
is
sharing
all
eight
in
bonds,
so
it
really
only
has
four
to
itself.
Since
it
normally
has
5,
it
is
one
electron
short
and
thus
has
a
positive
charge.
This
can
be
calculated
through
finding
the
formal
charge
which
is
basically
finding
the
difference
between
the
expected
number
of
valence
electrons
in
an
isolated
atom
and
the
number
of
electrons
it
actually
has
when
it
is
within
a
compound
either
through
lone
pairs
or
covalent
bonds.
Each
covalent
bond
contains
two
shared
electrons,
but
for
formal
charge
calculations,
an
atom
is
considered
to
have
“possession”
of
one
per
bond.
Examples
H2O H3O+ HO-
H o H H o H H o
H
NH3 NH4+ NH2-
H
H N H H N H H N H
H H
Formal
charge
=
#valence
electrons
–
(number
of
lone
pair
electrons
+
#bonds
Electronegativity
Above,
we
have
been
considering
bonding
as
either
purely
ionic
(electrons
lost
or
gained)
or
purely
covalent
(electrons
shared),
but
in
reality
bonding
falls
on
a
spectrum
with
many
bonds
having
unequal
sharing
of
electrons.
This
is
due
to
differences
in
electronegativity
which
can
be
thought
of
as
a
measure
of
the
atom’s
ability
to
pull
electrons
towards
it.
When
one
atom
in
a
bond
is
much
more
electronegative
than
the
other,
it
can
pull
the
electrons
closer
to
its
nucleus,
thus
concentrating
a
bit
more
of
the
negative
charge
on
itself.
These
bonds
are
considered
polar
and
they
result
in
one
atom
having
a
partial
negative
charge
and
the
other
(the
less
electronegative)
having
a
partial
positive
charge
(indicated
by
a
δ-‐
or
δ+.
Bonding Spectrum
Na+ F- δ+ δ-
H F F F
Electronegativity 0.9 4.0 2.1 4.0 4.0 4.0
Values
Molecular
Orbital
Theory
When
two
atoms
come
together
to
form
a
bond,
the
orbitals
containing
the
electrons
involved
in
bonding
must
begin
to
overlap
to
form
an
orbital
that
is
shared
by
both
atoms.
This
combined
orbital
is
called
a
molecular
orbital
because
it
belongs
to
the
entire
molecule
rather
than
a
specific
atom
and
just
like
an
atomic
orbital,
it
describes
the
volume
of
space
where
an
electron
is
likely
to
be
found.
Bonding
must
be
energetically
favorable,
otherwise
it
would
not
occur.
Thus
bonding
molecular
orbitals
are
lower
in
energy
than
the
individual
atomic
orbitals
that
form
them.
Intuitively
this
makes
sense
as
when
two
atoms
are
far
apart
there
is
no
interaction
between
their
nuclei,
but
as
they
approach,
the
positively
charged
nuclei
attract
the
negatively
charged
electrons
of
the
other
atom.
At
some
distance
though,
the
repulsion
of
the
nuclei
of
the
two
atoms
will
begin
to
outweigh
the
attraction
to
the
electrons
and
moving
the
nuclei
any
closer
together
is
energetically
unfavorable.
This
is
what
determines
the
atomic
distances
in
bond
length.
The
diagram
below
shows
this
effect.
Remember
that
electrons
behave
like
a
standing
wave
(see
image
of
sinusoidal
wave),
so
atomic
orbitals
have
phases
and
nodes.
For
each
shell,
there
is
a
single
s
orbital
which
is
spherical
in
shape.
Shells
with
number
two
and
above
have
three
identical
p
orbitals
oriented
at
90
angles
to
each
other.
With
a
standing
wave,
you
have
both
upward
and
downward
displacement
which
are
the
two
phases.
The
the
region
with
no
displacement
is
called
the
node.
Atomic
orbitals
also
have
phases
and
nodes
and
it
is
easiest
to
visualize
this
with
p
orbitals.
In
the
image
above,
the
colors
represent
the
two
phases
and
there
is
a
nodal
plane
between
the
two
lobes
where
there
is
zero
probability
of
finding
an
electron.
When
two
waves
combine,
they
can
combine
in
a
constructive,
additive
manner
or
a
destructive
manner
and
atomic
orbitals
are
the
same
way.
When
two
atomic
orbitals
overlap
to
form
a
bond,
you
get
two
separate
molecular
orbitals
because
the
atomic
orbitals
combine
either
in
an
additive
or
destructive
manner.
If
they
combine
such
that
the
in-‐phase
ends
overlap
(additive),
this
generates
a
bonding
molecular
orbital.
If
they
combine
in
the
opposite
way
(destructive),
you
get
an
antibonding
molecular
orbital.
The
following
diagram
demonstrates
this
with
two
p
orbitals.
Orbitals
can
overlap
to
form
two
different
types
of
bonds:
sigma
and
pi
Sigma
Bonds
Sigma
bonds
are
cylindrically
symmetrical
which
just
means
that
electrons
are
symmetrically
distributed
around
the
bond,
or
around
an
imaginary
line
connecting
the
centers
of
the
two
atoms.
The
overlap
of
two
s
orbitals
always
results
in
a
sigma
bond
while
two
p
orbitals
can
give
sigma
bonds
when
they
overlap
end-‐to-‐end
(as
shown
in
the
figure
above).
As
was
mentioned
above,
you
always
generate
two
molecular
orbitals
when
you
combine
two
atomic
orbitals
which
in
this
case
are
denoted
as
σ
and
σ*.
• The
σ
orbital
is
the
bonding
molecular
orbital
and
is
lower
in
energy
than
either
of
the
p
or
s
orbitals
that
combined
to
form
it.
• The
σ*
is
the
antibonding
orbital
and
it
is
higher
in
energy
than
either
of
the
atomic
orbitals.
The
σ*
orbital
has
a
node
between
the
two
nuclei
meaning
the
electrons
are
more
likely
to
be
found
somewhere
other
than
between
the
two
nuclei.
This
means
that
the
two
nuclei
can
repel
each
other
because
the
positive
nuclear
charge
isn’t
mediated
by
the
negative
charge
of
the
electrons.
This
repulsion
explains
why
this
is
a
higher
energy
orbital.
Much
like
with
atomic
orbitals,
you
always
fill
the
lowest
energy
molecular
orbital
first
which
in
this
case
is
always
σ.
Any
electrons
in
the
σ*
orbital
actually
detract
from
bonding
because
they
are
in
a
higher
energy
state
than
they
would
be
if
they
were
in
the
original
s
or
p
atomic
orbital.
The
diagram
below
just
shows
the
molecular
orbital
diagram
for
bonding
two
H
atoms.
The
two
s
orbitals
from
H
overlap
to
give
a
σ
and
σ*
where
the
σ
is
lower
in
energy
and
σ*
is
higher.
The
two
electrons
from
the
two
H
atoms
each
fill
the
σ
orbital
leaving
the
σ*
empty.
Pi
Bonds
For
p
orbitals
forming
σ
bonds,
they
overlap
end-‐to-‐end,
but
the
two
orbitals
can
also
overlap
side-‐to-‐side
forming
what
is
known
as
a
π
bond.
This
type
of
overlap
results
in
electron
density
above
and
below
the
axis
of
the
bond
(shown
below).
Just
like
with
σ
bonds,
you
form
two
molecular
orbitals
when
making
a
π
bond,
π
and
π*.
The
amount
of
orbital
overlap
in
π
bonds
is
less
than
that
with
σ
bonds,
thus
π
bonds
are
weaker.
This
image
is
representing
the
different
phases
with
+/-‐
signs
instead
of
the
colors
that
had
been
used
in
previous
diagrams.
The
image
below
shows
the
relative
energies
of
the
different
σ
and
π
bonds
from
the
2
shell.
Since
the
π
bonds
are
weaker
than
σ,
they
are
slightly
higher
in
energy.
Also,
σ
bonds
resulting
from
s
orbitals
are
lower
in
energy
than
σ
from
p
orbitals
because
the
s
orbitals
were
lower
in
energy
to
begin
with.
Antibonding
orbitals
can
contain
electrons
as
long
as
the
overall
energy
of
the
filled
molecular
orbitals
is
less
than
that
of
the
atomic
orbitals.
If
you
have
so
many
electrons
to
put
into
the
molecular
orbitals
that
this
is
not
the
case,
then
the
compound
you
are
considering
is
unlikely
to
form.
Hybridization
The
idea
of
hybridized
orbitals
helps
to
explain
known
properties
of
molecules.
For
example,
methane
(CH4)
has
four
hydrogen
atoms
bonded
to
a
central
carbon
atom
and
all
of
the
bonds
angles
are
the
same
(109.5°).
When
you
think
about
carbon,
it
only
has
two
unpaired
electrons
in
its
outer
shell
(both
in
p
orbitals),
so
you
might
think
that
it
would
only
form
two
bonds.
To
explain
why
carbon
can
form
four
bonds,
you
could
promote
one
of
the
electrons
from
the
s
orbital
to
the
empty
p
orbital
which
results
in
four
unpaired
electrons.
This
would
allow
for
four
covalent
bonds
to
form,
but
there
is
still
one
problem.
p
orbitals
are
higher
in
energy
than
s
orbitals
so
the
four
bonds
formed
would
not
be
identical,
but
we
know
that
that
they
are
in
fact
identical
in
methane.
Orbital
hybridization
helps
to
address
this
inconsistency.
If
you
combine
the
single
s
orbital
with
the
three
p
orbitals,
you
can
create
four
degenerate
(equal
energy)
orbitals.
These
are
H
known
as
sp3
hybridized
orbitals.
These
four
orbitals
adopt
a
spatial
arrangement
that
minimizes
repulsion,
thus
keeping
the
four
orbitals
as
far
H H
H
apart
as
possible.
This
explains
the
tetrahedral
geometry
of
methane
and
the
109.5°
bond
angles.
p p p p p p
sp3 sp3 sp3 sp3
s s
In
methane,
the
sp3
orbitals
of
carbon
are
overlapping
with
the
s
orbitals
of
H
to
form
a
σ
bond.
In
ethylene
(C2H4),
each
carbon
molecule
is
forming
four
bonds,
but
only
to
three
different
atoms.
In
this
case
you
want
three
identical
hybrid
orbitals
to
form
three
sigma
bonds
(C-‐C
and
two
C-‐H)
which
occurs
through
the
hybridization
of
the
s
orbital
and
two
H H
of
the
three
p
orbitals.
This
results
in
3
degenerate
sp2
orbitals
and
one
p
C C
orbital.
The
C-‐C
bond
is
a
result
of
sp2-‐sp2
orbital
overlap
while
the
C-‐H
bonds
H H
are
from
sp2-‐s
orbital
overlap
since
the
H
only
has
an
s
orbital.
The
remaining
p
orbital
can
form
a
π
bond
which
gives
the
second
bond
between
the
two
carbon
atoms.
The
geometry
of
ethene
can
also
be
inferred
from
the
orbitals.
In
this
case
the
3
sp2
orbitals
want
to
be
as
far
apart
as
possible
which
results
in
trigonal
planar
geometry
with
bond
angles
of
120°.
Also,
the
π
bond
cannot
rotate
because
of
the
electron
density
above
and
below
the
C-‐C
bond
thus
that
bond
is
rigid.
p p p p
sp2 sp2 sp2
s
Molecules
with
triple
bonds
are
much
the
same
except
that
you
form
2
sp
orbitals
which
leaves
2
p
orbitals
free
to
form
two
separate
π
bonds.
Resonance
Sometimes
molecules
have
several
structures
that
contribute
equally
to
the
overall
structure
of
the
molecule.
Resonance
structures
provide
a
way
of
representing
delocalized
electrons,
meaning
the
electrons
are
spread
across
more
than
one
bond.
It
is
important
to
realize
that
the
individual
resonance
structures
themselves
do
not
exist
in
equilibrium.
There
is
actually
just
one
structure
that
is
a
hybrid
of
all
of
the
individual
resonance
structures.
O
O O
C O O
O O O O
S C N S C N
Isomers
The
term
isomer
refers
to
compounds
that
have
the
same
molecular
formula
(meaning
the
same
atoms)
but
they
do
not
have
identical
structures.
There
are
two
types
of
isomers:
constitutional
isomers
and
stereoisomers
Constitutional
Isomers:
differ
in
the
way
their
atoms
are
connected
OH
OH
O
C3H8O
propan-2-ol propan-1-ol methoxyethane
isopropanol propanol
Stereoisomers:
atoms
are
connected
the
same
way
but
they
differ
in
their
arrangement
in
space.
This
is
a
result
of
the
chirality
of
the
molecule.
A
chiral
object
is
one
that
has
a
nonsuperimposable
mirror
image.
Chiral
molecules
have
an
asymmetric
center
which
simply
means
there
is
a
tetrahedral
atom
bonded
to
four
different
groups.
Since
a
tetrahedral
atom
is
usually
carbon,
one
can
identify
chiral
centers
by
finding
carbon
atoms
bonded
to
four
different
groups.
We
call
the
two
mirror
image
molecules
enantiomers.
*Remember
that
the
solid
wedge
represents
a
bond
that
is
coming
out
of
the
plane
of
the
paper
and
the
hashed
wedge
represents
a
bond
that
is
going
into
the
paper.
Normal
lines
indicate
bonds
in
the
plane
of
the
paper.
Br
Br
C H C
HO HO H
Fisher
Projections:
Sometimes
Fisher
projections
are
used
to
show
the
3D
arrangement
of
molecules
in
2D
space.
The
asymmetric
center
is
located
at
the
intersection
of
two
perpendicular
lines.
The
horizontal
line
represents
bonds
that
project
out
of
the
plane
of
the
paper
towards
you
and
vertical
line
represents
bonds
extending
back
behind
the
plane
of
the
paper.
You
can
start
by
putting
the
four
groups
wherever
you
want
and
then
to
draw
the
enantiomer,
you
exchange
two
of
the
groups.
While
it
doesn’t
matter
which
two
you
interchange,
typically
it
is
the
two
on
the
horizontal
line.
CH3 CH3
H OH HO H
Br Br
Enantiomers
share
all
of
their
physical
properties
such
as
density,
melting
point,
etc.
The
one
property
that
they
do
not
share
is
the
way
they
interact
with
polarized
light.
Polarized
light
has
light
waves
oscillating
only
in
a
single
plane.
If
you
pass
polarized
light
through
a
solution
of
achiral
molecules,
the
light
that
emerges
with
the
same
plane
of
polarization.
Chiral
compounds
however
rotate
the
polarized
light
in
either
a
clockwise
or
counterclockwise
direction
and
this
rotation
can
be
measured.
If
one
enantiomer
rotates
light
in
the
clockwise
direction,
the
other
enantiomer
will
rotate
it
in
the
counterclockwise
direction
to
the
same
degree.
A
compound
that
rotates
light
clockwise
is
dextrorotatory
(+)
and
one
that
rotates
counterclockwise
is
levorotatory
(-‐).
The
image
below
shows
a
diagram
of
how
a
chiral
compound
rotates
light.
One
result
of
this
is
that
a
mixture
of
a
chiral
compound
that
is
50%
one
enantiomer
and
50%
of
the
other
enantiomer
will
not
rotate
the
light.
This
type
of
mixture
is
called
racemic.
Since
chiral
compounds
have
almost
identical
physical
properties,
the
enantiomers
cannot
be
distinguished
by
an
achiral
compound.
Many
of
the
fundamental
biological
molecules
such
as
amino
acids
and
sugars
are
chiral
and
many
enzymes
are
chiral
and
thus
can
tell
the
difference
between
two
enantiomers.
Multiple
Asymmetric
Centers
If
you
have
more
than
one
asymmetric
center
in
a
molecule,
there
are
going
to
be
2n
stereoisomers
of
that
molecule
(where
n
is
the
number
of
asymmetric
centers).
If
the
molecules
have
opposite
configurations
at
each
of
the
stereocenters,
then
they
will
be
mirror
images
and
thus
enantiomers.
But
what
if
the
two
molecules
have
the
same
configuration
at
one
center
and
opposite
configuration
at
the
other?
They
will
no
longer
be
mirror
images.
They
are
called
diastereomers.
These
relationships
are
easiest
to
see
with
Fisher
projections
as
shown
below.
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
Cl
H OH HO H H OH HO H
H Cl Cl H Cl H H Cl
OH CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
1 2 3 4
On
the
left
is
the
compound
with
two
asymmetric
carbons
and
on
the
right
are
the
Fisher
projections.
The
pairs
of
compounds
1&2
and
then
3&4
are
enantiomers
of
each
other
because
at
each
of
the
horizontal
lines,
they
are
completely
opposite
of
each
other.
1&3
and
1&4
are
diastereomers
of
each
other
because
they
are
the
same
at
one
stereocenter
and
opposite
at
the
other.
There
are
several
other
pairs
of
diastereomers.
Unlike
enantiomers,
diastereomers
do
not
have
the
same
physical
and
chemical
properties
and
thus
can
react
differently.
This
can
be
explained
by
the
fact
that
the
OH
and
Cl
groups
are
closer
together
in
space
in
1&2
and
farther
apart
in
3&4.
This
spatial
difference
can
affect
the
types
of
interactions
the
molecules
can
have
and
thus
their
physical
properties.
Intermolecular
Forces
These
are
forces
(attraction/repulsion)
that
act
between
molecules.
They
are
much
weaker
than
intramolecular
forces
(bonds).
There
are
several
classes
of
intermolecular
forces
that
vary
in
strength.
Ionic
Forces:
This
is
just
the
interaction
between
two
ions
–
it
results
in
an
ionic
bond.
Na+
Cl-‐
Dipole-‐Dipole:
Bonds
have
polarity
and
often
these
polar
bonds
result
in
a
molecule
that
has
an
overall
dipole.
The
partial
positive
charge
of
one
molecule
can
be
attracted
the
partial
negative
charge
of
another
molecule.
δ-
O
δ+ δ-
O δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
H Cl H Cl
δ+
Hydrogen
Bond:
A
hydrogen
bond
is
a
specific
example
of
a
dipole-‐dipole
interaction.
It
involves
a
hydrogen
bonded
to
a
strongly
electronegative
atom
(F,
N,
O).
This
hydrogen
has
a
significant
partial
positive
charge
because
of
the
large
electronegativity
difference
and
is
the
donor.
A
different
electronegative
atom
(F,
N,
O)
will
be
attracted
to
the
H,
creating
an
intermolecular
force.
This
atom
is
the
hydrogen
bond
acceptor.
Hydrogen
bonds
are
extremely
relevant
in
biological
systems
because
water,
which
can
be
both
an
acceptor
and
a
donor,
is
ubiquitous.
They
also
play
a
major
role
in
protein
structure.
donor
O
H H
O H
H
acceptor
Induced
Dipole
(van
der
waals):
Since
electrons
are
constantly
moving,
even
nonpolar
bonds
can
have
instantaneous
polarity
where
there
is
a
slight
unbalance
of
the
electron
distribution
towards
one
atom.
This
induced
dipole
can
then
trigger
an
instantaneous
partial
charge
in
a
neighboring
atom
creating
an
attraction.
You
can
have
any
combination
of
the
above
as
well.
For
example
a
molecule
with
a
permanent
dipole
such
as
HCl
could
induce
a
dipole
in
a
nonpolar
molecule
such
as
CCl4.
In
terms
of
relative
strengths
Ionic
>
Ion-‐Dipole
>
Dipole-‐Dipole
>
Dipole-‐Induced
Dipole
>
Induced-‐Induced
Intermolecular
forces
also
have
a
significant
impact
on
physical
properties
such
as
boiling
points.
The
stronger
the
intermolecular
interaction,
the
more
energy
you
must
put
into
the
system
to
break
the
interaction.
Carbohydrates
Referred
to
based
on
the
number
of
carbon
atoms
–
triose,
pentose,
etc.
They
are
visualized
in
a
variety
of
ways
including
Fisher
projections
which
are
helpful
since
monosaccharides
have
multiple
sterocenters.
Sugars
can
exist
in
either
the
linear
form
that
is
shown
by
the
Fisher
projection
or
a
cyclic
form
which
is
shown
by
the
Haworth
projection
as
seen
below.
You
don’t
need
to
know
the
details
of
the
reaction,
but
the
alcohol
(OH)
on
the
C5
attacks
the
aldehyde
(CHO)
of
C1
to
form
a
ring
with
C6
extraneous
to
the
ring.
The
red
arrows
shown
in
the
figure
represent
electron
movement
(it
is
often
called
arrow
pushing).
In
aqueous
solutions,
glucose
(shown
below)
exists
almost
exclusively
in
the
cyclic
form.
You
will
also
see
glucose
drawn
in
a
chair
conformation.
All
of
these
representations
provide
different
information
about
the
structure,
the
details
of
which
you
will
learn
in
organic
chemistry.
For
this
course,
it
is
just
important
to
be
able
to
recognize
different
forms
as
sugars.
1 CHO
2
H OH
3
HO H
4
H OH
5
H OH
6 CH2OH
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH 6
5 OH H 5 O OH HOH2C
4 5 O
4 HO 4
OH C OH 1 OH
1 O 1 HO
OH OH 2 OH
3 2 3 2 3
OH OH
Haworth Projection Chair Conformation
The
figure
below
shows
the
Fisher
projections
of
glucose
and
galactose
in
their
two
enantiomeric
forms
(D
and
L).
D-‐glucose
and
L-‐glucose
can
be
differentiated
by
certain
enzymes,
but
not
taste
receptors,
hence
they
both
taste
identically.
Otherwise
their
physical
properties
are
the
same
because
they
are
enantiomers.
Glucose
and
galactose,
however,
are
daistereomers
and
even
though
they
only
differ
at
one
of
four
chiral
centers,
they
have
distinctly
different
properties.
Galactose
tastes
less
sweet
than
glucose
and
is
metabolized
through
a
different
pathway.
CHO CHO CHO CHO
H H H H
OH HO OH HO
HO H H OH HO H H OH
H H H H
OH HO HO OH
H OH HO H H OH HO H
O O
O P OH O P OH
O O
base base
O O
3 3
OH O O
O O O base
base P O
P P P O O 5
O O O O 5 O
O O O
OH
OH