ADMAS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

THE EFFECT OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT ON
ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE: THE CASE OF ETHIO-
TELECOM

BY

MELAT ZERAY

ADVISOR

ZERIHUN AYANAW (PHD)

A RESEARCH SUBMITTED IN PRACTICAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF BUSINESS

ADMINISTRATION

JANUARY, 2023

ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

Contents
List of figures..................................................................................................................................iv

List of Tables..................................................................................................................................iv

ACRONYMS...................................................................................................................................v

CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1

1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1

1.1. Background of the study...................................................................................................1

1.2. Statement of problem........................................................................................................2

1.3. Research Objectives..........................................................................................................4

1.3.1. General Objective......................................................................................................4

1.3.2. Specific Objectives....................................................................................................4

1.4. Research hypothesis..........................................................................................................4

1.5. Significance of the study...................................................................................................5

1.6. Scope of the study.............................................................................................................5

1.7. Organization of the Study.................................................................................................5

CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................6

2. LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................................6

2.1. Conceptual and Theoretical Review.................................................................................6

2.1.1. Total Quality Management........................................................................................6

2.1.2. Theories and Principles of TQM...............................................................................8

2.1.3. TQM implementation..............................................................................................10

2.1.4. TQM and Organizational Performance...................................................................12

2.2. Empirical Reviews..........................................................................................................12

2.3. Conceptual framework....................................................................................................14

CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................16

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3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................16

3.1. Research Design..............................................................................................................16

3.2. Research Approach.........................................................................................................16

3.3. Data Type and Data Source............................................................................................17

3.3.1. Primary Sources.......................................................................................................17

3.3.2. Secondary sources...................................................................................................17

3.4. Data Collection procedure..............................................................................................17

3.5. Population and Sample size............................................................................................17

3.5.1. Target population.....................................................................................................17

3.5.2. Sample Size.............................................................................................................17

3.6. Sampling Technique.......................................................................................................18

3.7. Data Collection Tools.....................................................................................................18

3.8. Data management and Analysis......................................................................................18

3.9. Validity and Reliability...................................................................................................18

3.9.1. Validity....................................................................................................................18

3.9.2. Reliability................................................................................................................19

3.10. Ethical consideration...................................................................................................19

3.11. Model Specification....................................................................................................19

CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................20

4. DATA PRSENTATION, ANALYSS, AND INTERPRETATION......................................20

4.1. Response rate..................................................................................................................20

4.2. Demographic Information of Respondents.....................................................................20

4.3. Descriptive Statistics Analysis........................................................................................22

4.4. Inferential Statistics Analysis..........................................................................................29

4.4.1. Linear Regression Assumption Tests......................................................................29

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 4.4.2. Correlation Analysis................................................................................................31

4.4.3. Regression Analysis.................................................................................................33

4.4.1. Multiple Regression Model.....................................................................................36

4.5. Hypothesis Testing..........................................................................................................37

CHAPTER FIVE...........................................................................................................................38

5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION..............................................38

5.1. Summary of Findings......................................................................................................38

5.2. Conclusion......................................................................................................................39

5.3. Recommendations...........................................................................................................39

References......................................................................................................................................41

APPENDICES...............................................................................................................................45

Appendix – I - Survey Questionnaire............................................................................................45

Appendix –II – SPSS Outputs.......................................................................................................52

List of figures

iv
Figure 2.1 1 Conceptual Framework Adopted for the study.........................................................15

Figure 4.1 1 Normal Probability Plot 31

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 List of Tables
Table 3.1 1 Reliability Result........................................................................................................19

Table 4.1 1 Demographic Information of Respondents 21

Table 4.2 1 Descriptive analysis for Change management23

Table 4.3 1 Descriptive analysis for Organizational Design 24

Table 4.4 1 Descriptive analysis for Facilitation 25

Table 4.5 1 Descriptive analysis for Process improvement 26

Table 4.6 1 Descriptive analysis for Team Alignment 27

Table 4.7 1 Descriptive analysis for Talent Management 28

Table 4.8 1 Collinearity Analysis Results 30

Table 4.9 1 Normality test 31

Table 4.10 1 Correlation Analysis Results 32

Table 4.11 1 Summary for Regression 34

Table 4.12 1 Multiple linear regression model of the TQM factors 35

Table 4.13 1 Summary of Hypothesis Result 38

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vii
 ACRONYMS
GDP Growth Domestic Profit

TQM Total Quality Management

QMPs Quality Management Practices

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science

NBK National Bank of Kenya

SMEs Small and Medium Enterprises

viii
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION
In this introductory chapter of background of the study, statement of the problem, research
question, objectives of the study, significance of the study, and scope of the study are discussed.

1.1. Background
Essential oils have become an integral part of everyday life. They are very interesting natural
plant products and among other qualities they possess various biological properties. Essential oil
or also known as ethereal oil is a concentrated, hydrophobic liquid that contains hundreds of
aromatic compounds, organic constituents, including hormones, vitamins and other natural
elements. These compounds are extracted from leaves, stems, seeds, flowers, bark, roots or other
elements of a plant. Essential oil contains highly volatile components. The essential oil is the
extract from aromatic Plants obtained mainly by distillation processes, like hydro distillation
(HD) and steam distillation (SD) and solvent extraction. Essential oil is formed by volatile aroma
compounds and the main components are terpenes, sesquiterpenes and several oxygenated
derivative compounds (alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, phenols, ethers, esters, etc.) all of
them responsible for the characteristic plant odor and flavor which are important in the food ,
Cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries.

Essential oils are generally derived from one or more plant parts, such as flowers (e.g. rose,
jasmine, carnation, clove, mimosa, rosemary, and lavender), leaves (e.g. mint, Ocimum spp,
Lemon grass, jam Rosa), leaves and stems (e.g. geranium, patchouli, petit grain, verbena,
cinnamon, thyme), bark (e.g. cinnamon, cassia, canella), wood (e.g. cedar, sandal, pine),
roots(e.g.angelica, sassafras, vetiver, saussurea, valerian), seeds (e.g. fennel, coriander, caraway,
dill, nutmeg, mango seed),fruits(bergamot, orange, lemon, juniper), rhizomes (e.g. ginger,
calamus, curcuma, orris) and gums or oleoresin exudations (e.g. balsam of Peru, Myroxylon
balsamum, storax, myrrh, benzoin).

Mango is one of the most important and popular tropical fruits, due mainly to its delicious flavor
and nutritional value Mango kernel constitutes about 17–22% of the fruit Mango seed is an
abundant residue discarded by mango juice manufacturing industries of mango juice and its

1
amount is increasing due to the expansion of fruit production. An alternative for the use of this
residue is necessary. Mango seed kernel oil is thick solid fat, pale yellow in color.

Mango seed kernels contain on a dry weight average 6.0% protein, 11% fat, 77% carbohydrate,
2.0% crude fiber and 2.0% ash. Mango seed kernel contains about 10-16% percent oil. Mango
seed kernels were shown to be a good source of polyphenols, phytosterols as campesterol, β-
sitosterol and tocopherols. Extracted and fractionated total lipids from Alphonso mango kernel
Total lipid (11.6% of dry kernel) consists of 96.1% neutral and 3.9% polar lipids, which
comprised 2.9% glycolipids and 1.0% phospholipids. Nutritional and toxicological studies of the
mango seed kernel indicated that mango seed kernel fat is promising and a safe source of edible
oil and were found to be nutritious and non-toxic so that it could be substituted for any solid fat
without adverse effects. Now days, a number of researchers are doing their scientific and
technological work to diversify and enhance mango seed product.

1.2. Statement of problem

One of the challenges for the expansion of pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries in Ethiopia is
due to lack of raw materials. Mango seed is one of the main raw materials for production of
essential oil, which is raw material for the industries. There is a huge potential for cultivation of
mango, which is 482,119.99 quintals per annual in Ethiopia, it is again source of essential oil. So
far Mango kernel (by product of juice processing plant) is not utilized as any valuable product
rather disposed as a solid waste. Producing/manufacturing mango kernel essential oil has
positive impact on the nation industrial development.

Therefore, this project is motivated by an aim to solve the shortage of essential oil in our country
and to minimize the load of environment, introducing the process technology of extracting oil
from mango seed kernel is encouraging work.

1.3. Research Objectives

1.3.1. General Objective
The general objective of this thesis was Extraction of essential oil from mango seed kernel.
1.3.2. Specific Objectives
 To identify the effects of temperature, size, and time on the oil yield.
 Characterize the physical properties (color, PH, specific gravity, odor) of mango seed oil.

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 1.4. Significance of the study
The significances of the production of oil from mango seed kernel are,

 The oil can be used as an ingredient in producing different types of mango kernel oil
based skin and hair caring cosmetics materials so, different cosmetics industry will be
benefited and also substitutes import.
 Production of oil from mango seed kernel will contribute for minimizing environmental
pollution, since mango seed is one of the wastes of juice processing industries. And also
generates an income for juice processing industries.
 Mango kernel oil production program can also be helpful to creates job opportunity for
the society.
 The result of this study will be used as a base line information for future study since the
oil has also an application in pharmaceutical industry and also used as edible oil.

1.5. Organization of the Study

The research is organized in to five consequential chapters. The first chapter deals with the
introduction of the research area in the form of background of the study, statement of the
problem, objectives of the study, other relevant introductory issues. The second chapter deals
with a review of literature on this research topic. Chapter three contains the research
methodology mainly concentrated on data collection techniques variables definition &
measurement and method of analysis. The fourth chapter is data presentation, analysis and
interpretation and chapter five addresses summary, conclusion, and recommendation.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Historical Background of Mango
The mango is a very common tropical fruit usually found in Southern Asia, especially in Eastern
India, China, Burma, Andaman Islands and Central America (Kittiphoom, 2012). It is cultivated
and grown vastly in many tropical regions and widely distributed in the world. Mango is
indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia (Fowomola, 2010). It is one of the
most extensively exploited fruits for food, juice, flavor, fragrance and color and a common
ingredient in new functional foods often called superfruits (Kittiphoom, 2012). Due to its
attractive color, delicious taste and exotic flavor it has been recognized as ‘king of the fruit’ (Pott
et al.,2003).

Mangos belong to the genus Mangifera of the family Anacardiaceae. The genus Mangifera
contains several species that bear edible fruit. Most of the fruit trees that are commonly known as
mangos belong to the species Mangifera indica (Singh, 1996). Mango (Mangifera indica) is one
of the most important tropical fruits in the world and currently ranked 5th in total world
production among the major fruit crops (FAO, 2004).

2.2. Overview of mango production in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is agro-ecologically diverse and has a total area of 1.13 million km 2. Many parts of the
country are suitable for growing temperate, sub-tropical or tropical fruits. For example,
substantial areas in the southern and south-western parts of the country receive sufficient rainfall
to support fruits adapted to the respective climatic conditions (Amer, 2002). There are also
regions within Ethiopia that are well suited to producing a surplus for particular agricultural
commodities. One such location is the Asossa – Homosha region in western Ethiopia, which is
particularly suitable to the production of mangoes (James et al., 2009).

The Ethiopian government has a plan to expand mango production by distributing high yielding
varieties for small scale farmers, especially in the Southern and Oromia region, by grafting
mangos of known and high yielding varieties. In July 2006, it was announced that the Oromia
Government distributed 14,000 improved seeds of mango. The production of mango fruits for
the past Nine years in Ethiopia according to FAOSTAT (2014).

4
 2.3. Application (Importance) of mango seed oil
Mango Seed oil has a treasure-house of nutritional benefits including antioxidants, fatty acids
and other health-supporting components. It is an excellent choice for skin care preparations
aiding in hydration, elasticity and sun-protective qualities. The chemical properties of mango
seed oil are amongst the most important properties of the oil. Free fatty acid and peroxide values
are always used as an index of oil quality. The low free fatty acid of mango seed oil indicated
that the mango seed was almost free from hydrolytic rancidity brought almost by lipases and
enables the direct use of such as oil in industries without further neutralization (Arogba, 1999).

The major saturated fatty acids in mango seed kernels oil were stearic and palmitic acids and the
main unsaturated fatty acids are oleic and linoleic acids . The comparison of the composition in
fatty acids of mango seed kernel oil with that of vegetable oils indicates that this plant is rich in
acids stearic and oleic. Accordingly, mango seed kernel oil is more stable than many other
vegetable oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Such oils seem to be suitable for blending with
vegetable oils, stearin manufacturing, confectionery industry or/and in the soap industry
(Kittiphoom, 2012).

2.4. Essential Oil

Essential oils are concentrated volatile aromatic compounds produced by plants the easily
evaporated essences that give plants their wonderful scents. Each of these complex precious
liquids is extracted from a particular species of plant life. Each plant species originates in certain
regions of the world, with particular environmental conditions and neighboring fauna and flora.

Essential oils are frequently referred to as the “life force” of plants. Unlike fatty oils,
these"essential" oils are volatile, highly concentrated, substances extracted from flowers, leaves,
stems, roots, seeds, bark, resin or fruit rinds. The amount of essential oils found in these plants
can be anywhere from 0.01 percent to 16 percent of the total. That's why tons of plant material is
required for just a few hundred pounds of oil. These oils have potent antimicrobial factors,
having wide range of therapeutic constituents. These oils are often used for their flavor and their
therapeutic or odoriferous properties, in a wide selection of products such as foods, medicines,
and cosmetics. Beware of imitations. Essential oils cannot be substituted with synthetics. Only
pure oils contain a full spectrum of compounds that cheap imitations simply cannot duplicate.

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 2.4.1. Chemical Constituents of Essential Oils
Pure essential oils are mixtures of more than 200 components, normally mixtures of terpenes or
phenyl propanic derivatives, in which the chemical and structural differences between
compounds are minimal. They can be essentially classified into two groups.

 Volatile fraction: Essential oil constituting of 90–95% of the oil in weight, containing the
monoterpene and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, as well as their oxygenated derivatives
along with aliphatic aldehydes, alcohols, and esters.
 Nonvolatile residue: that comprises 1–10% of the oil, containing hydrocarbons, fatty
acids, sterols, carotenoids, waxes, and flavonoids.

2.4.2. Importance of mango kernel essential oil

Oil is more or less viscous organic liquid. Oils are important sources of nutritional oils, industrial
and pharmaceutical. Mango seed kernel oil and its derivatives are used in cosmetic as a
preservative since it has high content of stearic acid. It melts at body temperature or upon contact
with skin and disperses smoothly, providing a protective, emollient layer.
Figure 2.1 1 Mango seed and its kernel

6
 2.5. Physical and chemical properties of mango seed oil
2.5.1. Chemical properties of mango essential oil
The chemical properties of mango seed oil are amongst the most important properties of the oil.
Free fatty acid and peroxide values are always used as an index of oil quality. The low free fatty
acid of mango seed oil indicated that the mango seed is almost free from hydrolytic rancidity
brought almost by lipases and enables the direct use of such as oil in industries without further
neutralization. On the other hand, mango seed oil had a high quality due to the low level of
peroxide value. Iodine value represents the amount of un-saturation contained in oil. The iodine
number ranged from 39 to 53 g /100gof oil. Saponification value represents the average
molecular weight (or chain length) of all the fatty acids. Un-saponifiable matter is component of
an oily mixture which fails to form soap when blended with NaOH .The major saturated fatty
acids in mango seed kernels oil were stearic and palmitic acids and the main unsaturated fatty
acids are oleic and linoleic acids. The comparison of the composition in fatty acids of mango
seed kernel oil with that of vegetable oils indicates that this plant is rich in acids stearic and
oleic. Accordingly, mango seed kernel oil is more stable than many other vegetable oils rich in
unsaturated fatty acids. Such oils seem to be suitable for blending with vegetable oils, Stearin
manufacturing, confectionery industry or/and in the soap industry.

Table 2.1 1 Chemical Properties of Mango essential oil

Properties Mango seed kernel essential oil
Saponification value(mg of KOH/g of oil) 173.3

Un-saponicable matter 3.45

Free fatty acid 1.11

Iodine value (g of 1/100gOf oil) 45.55

Peroxide value (PV) 2.5

Acid value 2.22

2.5.2. Physical properties of mango essential oil

Mango essential oils are volatile and become semi solid at room temperature. They are less dense
than water. They are soluble in alcohol and in the usual organic solvents, such as ether or

7
chloroform, and also in high grade alcohol. They are lipo- soluble and not very soluble in water,
but can be dragged using steam.

Table 2.2 1 Physical properties of mango essential oil

Properties Mango seed kernel essential oil
Color Pale yellow
Odor Neutral odor
Solubility Insoluble in water
% Oil content 10.2
% moister content 0.53
Melting point oC 29.2
PH (10g/I) Slightly acidic at 28°C
Specific gravity g/ml 28oC 0.910 ± 0.03
Refractive Index 2.5
Viscosity 42 mPas at 37°C

2.5.3. Extraction of essential oil

Extraction is the withdrawing of an active agent or a waste substance from a solid or liquid
mixture with liquid solvent. The solvent is not or only partial miscible with the solid or the
liquid. By intensive contact the active agent transfers from the solid or liquid mixture (raffinate)
in to the solvent (extract). After mixing the two phases are separated which happens either by
gravity or centrifugal forces. For recovery of the solvent and to get the active agent in pure form
a further separation process is necessary.
Depending on the phases following types of extraction exist:
A. Solid-liquid extraction
B. Liquid-liquid extraction
C. Gas-liquid extraction

8
 i.1.1.1. Solid-liquid extraction (leaching)
The principle for the solid-liquid extraction is that the soluble compounds of a solid matter,
existing of an inert matrix and the active agent, are extracted by a solvent. The extracted can be
included in the extracted matter in solid or liquid form.
The total solid-liquid extraction process includes the preparation of the extraction material,
separation and recovery of the solvent from extract and separation and recovery of solvent from
extraction residual.
The following points are necessary for an economic extraction process:
 The extraction matter has to be prepared in this way that the extract can be solved
by the solvent in short time this is achieved by grinding, milling or rolling.
 Only the desired extract has to be solved and extracted. This is achieved by
selectivity of the solvent and the temperature.
 The extract should contain high concentrations of extracted compounds. This is the
reason why counter current extraction plants are preferred.
 Separation of the solvent from as well extract solution as residual has to be
economically

i.1.1.2. Extraction technologies of essential oil

There are three technologies to accomplish oil extraction. Each of them is based on a different
principle. The three technologies are
i. Steam distillation
Steam Distillation used to isolate an Essential Oil from plant material. In steam distillation, the
steam is produced in a boiler separate of the still and blown through a pipe into the bottom of the
still, where the mango seed kernel powder rests on a perforated tray or in a basket for quick
removal after exhaustive extraction.
ii. Mechanical pressing (pressure extraction)
Mechanical pressing is a process in which the oil glands within the mango seed kernel are
mechanically crushed to release their content. One early means of separation was physical
pressure (mechanical pressing) to „squeeze the oil out‟. The most energy efficient, practical
embodiment of that method is the modern screw press. This is a conveyor screw with a slotted
cage surrounding it and a screw with diminishing space for the solid material as the material

9
proceeds from pitch to pitch of the screw. Eventually, as the free space is progressively
restricted, the oil is squeezed out of the solids and through the slots. More than half of the oil is
easily removed in this way, but perhaps 7% or 8% residual oil is left in the solids, the process
uses considerable horsepower, there is considerable wear and maintenance, and it takes many
machines for high capacity.

iii. Solvent extraction.

Solvent Extraction is a process which involves extracting oil from oil-bearing materials by
treating it with a low boiler solvent as opposed to extracting the oils by mechanical pressing
methods (such as expellers, hydraulic presses, etc. In the case of mechanical pressing the residual
oil left in the oil cake may be anywhere from 6% to 14%. The solvent extraction method can be
applied directly to any low oil content raw materials. It can also be used to extract pre- pressed
oil cakes obtained from high oil content materials.

Because of the high percentage of recovered oil, solvent extraction has become the most popular
method of extraction of oils and fats. Various solvents can be used for extraction. However, after
extensive research and consideration of various factors, such as commercial economics, edibility
of the various products obtained from extraction, physical properties of the solvent especially its
low boiling point etc. food grade n-hexane is considered to be the best and it is exclusively used
for the purpose.

2.5.4. Extraction process

In extraction process, there are two types of processes Batch extraction process and Continuous
extraction process.
i. Batch extraction process
The extraction material is contacted with fresh solvent and extraction takes place. Afterwards the
underflow is settled and the miscella is withdrawn. The underflow is contacted again with fresh
solvent and so on.
Advantages of batch process are the simple and strong construction of the apparatus.
Disadvantages are the limited capacity and the discontinuous output of product. With increasing
extraction time the concentration of the miscall decreases and therefore the recycling of the
solvent becomes more and more cost intensive.
ii. Continuous extraction process

10
In continuous extraction, both the oilseeds and the solvent are fed into the extractor continuously.
The different available types are characterized by their geometrical configuration and the method
by which solids and solvents are moved one in relation to the other, in counter-current fashion.
The solvent passes through the nonmoving solid material and extracts the soluble substances.
The basic for this process is that the material has good filter through a pours properties, which
means that the solvent can pass easily the solid material.
The advantages of the continuous operating process are:
 Large amount of solid material can be treated in apparatus of compact size.
 Even at low residual content of active agents in the residual material extract solutions
with high active agents concentrations are produced with a low amount of solvent.
 Short extraction times because no dead times arise as for the batch process.
 Low content of fine solid particles in the extract solution so that this solution has not be
filtrated before further treatment and An optimal heat balance is achieved if for
evaporation of the solvent the heat amount of the exhaust vapor is used. Therefore, based
on the above criterias we choose continuous process.
2.5.5. Factors affect essential oil accumulation and extraction

i.1.1.3. Factors affect essential oil extraction

There are several factors that affect extraction of mango seed oil. Among these:
i. In-efficient process
ii. Inadequate utilization of some oil bearing materials
iii. Unscientific and inadequate storage
iv. Inefficient and expensive packaging
v. Inadequate research and development
vi. Time of contacts
vii. Quality and types of solvent
viii. Temperature
ix. Size of material (size of mango seed kernel)

i.1.1.4. Factors affecting essential oil accumulation

Factors that determine the composition and yield of the essential oil obtained are numerous.

11
In some instances it is difficult to segregate these factors from each other, since many are
interdependent and influence one another. These variables may include seasonal and maturity
variation, geographical origin, genetic variation, growth stages, part of plant utilized and
postharvest drying and storage .
i. Seasonal and maturity variations
These two factors are interlinked with each other, because the specific ontogenic growth stage
will differ as the season progresses. There are variations in the chemical profile of essential oils
from various plants collected during different seasons. The essential oils yields varied
considerably from month-to-month and was also influenced by the micro-environment (sun or
shade) in which the plant was growing. Results obtained from different researches indicated that
timing of harvest is critical to both yield and oil composition.
ii. Geographical variation
There are many reports in the literature showing the variation in the yield and chemical
composition of the essential oil with respect to geographical regions and indicate variations in
the yield and chemical profile of essential oils, collected from different geographical locations,
respectively. Such differences could be linked to the varied soil textures and possible adaption
response of different populations, resulting in different chemical products being formed, without
morphological differences being observed in the plants.

Altitude seems to be another important environmental factor influencing the essential oil content
and chemical composition. Climatic factors such as heat and drought were also related to the
essential oil profiles obtained. Moreover, the preference of the plant for these conditions suggest
that genetic make-up of the plant, rather than the soil-type in which it is growing, should have a
greater influence on the chemical profile of the oil produced.

iii. Genetic variation

Genotype is typically defined as “the genetic make-up of an organism, as characterized by its
physical appearance or phenotype”, while chemo-type is generally defined as “a group
oforganisms that produce the same chemical profile for a particular class of secondary
metabolites”. Variations in chemical profiles were observed from oils produced from specimens
from the same population and location, demonstrating the presence of different chemo-types
within this species. Genetic makeup of the plant is one of the most important contributors to their
essential oil composition.
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 i.1.1.5. Other factors affecting yield and composition of essential oil
Other factors which affect the growing plants thus leading to variations in oil yield and
composition, include part of plant used; post-harvest drying; length of exposure to sunlight;
availability of water, height above sea level, plant density, time of sowing and the presence of
fungal diseases and insects. The oil composition and yield may also change as a result of the
harvesting methods used, the isolation techniques employed, the moisture content of the plants at
the time of harvest and the prevailing extraction conditions.
Postharvest drying of material is an accepted practice in the production of essential oils.
Drying methods include exposure to natural air in the shade, sun-drying, as well as drying by
blowing warm air over the material. Postharvest drying is thought to improve oil yield and
accelerate distillation, by improving heat transfer, in addition to providing increased loading
capacity, due to loss of plant moisture. Further advantages include the reduction of microbial
growth and the inhibition of some biochemical reactions in dried material. However, some
amount of the oil may be lost during such post-harvest treatment due to volatilization and
mechanical damage to oil glands.

2.5.6. Process Description mango essential oil

Figure 2.2 1 Process of oil extraction from Mango Seed Kernel

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 i.1.1.6. Handling, Drying and Storage
Proper handling and storage of mango is important for their processing into quality products
since oilseeds are prone to auto - catalytic deteriorative processes, enzyme action, microbial
spoilage, etc. Immature seeds, harvested before their enzymes have become dormant, deteriorate
more rapidly than normal seeds during storage. The moisture content of mangos at the time of
harvest is usually high arid uncongenial for their safe storage. Consequently all the mangos need
to be dried prior to their storage. Mango stones have to be dried, usually in the sun, so reducing
the kernel moisture content from about 48 percent to 13 percent. Good drying is essential to
prevent the growth of Aspergillusniger and to avoid the development of Free Fatty Acid
rancidity. Mechanical drying of mangos at 105-110°C is preferable to minimize the quantitative
and qualitative losses. The dried mangos also require adequate cleaning to remove sand, dirt,
dust, leaves sterns, weed seeds, stones, metal pieces and other extraneous matter before storing.
Immature seeds, high moisture seeds, dried seeds which become wet during storage, damaged
seeds and sound seeds which suffer mechanical injury during handling and storage, respire at
faster rate. As a consequence, the oxygen uptake increases leading to the oxidation of poly
saturated fatty acids and reduces the nutritive value and organoleptic quality of oils present in

14
oilseeds. The faster rate of respiration also generates excessive heat that raises the temperature of
seed mass and thereby accelerates its deterioration.

The most important factor in proper storage of mangos is their moisture Content. Water in the
mango seed is held by mechanical and/or chemical forces. The change of moisture content, as
well as of all the other capillary porous colloidal matters, can be caused by the environment. In
case of inadequate storage, the triglycerides may be decomposed, especially under the influence
of ferments, micro-organisms as well as the chemical processes due to the increased temperature.
In order to avoid these negative processes, the mango seed should be dried below the critical
moisture-a point above which the ferments are activated and which depends on the oil content of
mango seed.

Chlorophyll in the oil is undesirable because of the difficulty of removing green color in
subsequent processing and tendency of the color to become intensified by hydrogenation. The
moisture content of mango seed kernels can have a significant effect on the yield of essential oil
during its production. Moisture content affects the extraction efficiency and oil yield because it
affects the ease of oil extraction from the kernel. If the moisture content is too high, it can lead to
fungal growth, bacterial contamination, and oxidative rancidity, which can reduce the quality of
the extracted oil. High moisture content can also make the drying process challenging, leading to
increased energy consumption and cost.On the other hand, if the moisture content is too low, the
seed kernel becomes brittle, and extraction of the oil becomes challenging as some of the oil may
be lost. Besides, low moisture content can lead to increased friction, heat, and wear during the
extraction process, which can reduce the yield of the extracted oil.Therefore, it is crucial to
maintain an optimal moisture content range while producing essential oil from mango seed
kernels to achieve the maximum oil yield and quality.

i.1.1.7. Pre-treatment
Irrespective of the method used, certain pretreatments of raw seeds are essential, if highest
possible recovery of quality oil at an economical rate is obtained. The following pretreatments
are used to improve oil yields to be and their quality. These are:-

i. Cleaning
Normally, the mango oilseeds are mixed with a variety of foreign materials called, sand, stones,
stalks, weed seeds, foliage, etc., during harvesting, handling and transportation. It is ideal to

15
clean seed before putting it into store. Stone, iron and wood pieces mixed with seeds can disrupt
mechanical equipment during processing. Foreign matters may lower protein content and
increase fiber content of meal residue after extraction of the oil. Moreover, foreign matters mixed
with mango oilseeds may be having high moisture content which may initiate overheating in
storage. The local hot spots in the mango oilseed damage the quality and constitute a fire hazard
if not properly detected and corrected by aeration or rotation. In short, proper cleaning of mango
oilseeds can increase in crushing capacity of oil expelling units, reduce in-plant maintenance and
improve the quality of oil and cake.

ii. De-hulling (decortications)

The hulls of oilseeds are fibrous and have low oil content. De-hulling of oilseeds extraction is
advantageous as the hulls; reduce the total oil yields and the capacity of extraction equipment.

iii. Size reduction

The extraction of oil from oilseeds, either by mechanical expression or by means of solvents, is
facilitated by reduction of the seed in small particles by grinding or rolling. Although a large
proportion of oil bearing cells are disrupted, many oil cells remain intact even after the most
careful size reduction and the walls of these cells are made permeable to the oil only by the
action of heat and moisture in the subsequent cooking operation. However, the cell walls are
more readily acted upon by heat and moisture if the seed particles are small. Hence the size
reduction of oilseeds is important for efficient recovery of oils. Hammer mills/attrition mills are
used for the preliminary reduction of size of large oilseeds while milling rolls are used for final
reduction.
There are many ways to reduce the particle size of feed ingredients. Two of the most common
pieces of equipment used are the hammer mill and the roller mill. The choice of which to use
depends upon the unique requirements of every individual situation.

i.1.1.8. Solvent Extraction

Solvent Extraction is basically a process of diffusion of a solvent into oil-bearing cells of the raw
material resulting in a solution of the oil in solvent. Various solvents can be used for extraction.
Solvent Extraction is a process which involves extracting oil from oil-bearing materials by
treating it with a low boiler solvent. The solvent extraction method recovers almost all the oils
and leaves behind only 0.5% to 0.7% residual oil in the raw material. Solvent extraction has

16
become the most popular method of extraction of oils and fats. The extraction process consists of
treating the raw material with solvent and recovering the oil by distillation of the resulting
solution of oil in solvent called miscella. Evaporation and condensation from the distillation of
miscella recovers the hexane absorbed in the material. The hexane thus recovered is reused for
extraction. The low boiling point of hexane (67°C / 152°F) and the high solubility of oils and fats
in it are the properties exploited in the solvent extraction process.

The entire extraction process can be divided into the following stages.
1. Preparation of raw material
2. Process of extraction
3. Desolventization of extracted material
4. Evaporation of miscella
5. Meal finishing and bagging
Solvent extraction is either batch or continuous types. However, the continuous counter current
percolation (filter through a porous surface) systems are more popular in use because of its better
efficiency. The thickness of the flakes and the residual oil content of the material are the two
important factors that affect the rate of oil extraction, If the flake thickness is increased three
times, the rate of oil extraction decreases by eighty times.

Various solvents can be used to extract oil from plant seeds. Hexane, petroleum ether, diethyl
ether, ethanol, n-heptane, isopropanol, acetone, chloroform, methanol, and 1-butanol are the
most common and reported oil extraction solvents. The optimum operating conditions for the
extraction were a particle size range of 0.25- 0.5 mm and extraction time of 6 h.
A Soxhlet extractor is a piece of laboratory apparatus invented in 1879 by Franz von soxhlet. It
was originally designed for the extraction of a lipid from a solid material. However, a Soxhlet
extractor is not limited to the extraction of lipids. Typically, a Soxhlet extraction is only required
where the desired compound has a limited solubility in a solvent, and the impurity is insoluble in
that solvent. If the desired compound has a significant solubility in a solvent then a simple
filtration can be used to separate the compound from the insoluble substance. Normally a solid
material containing some of the desired compound is placed inside a thimble made from thick
filter paper, which is loaded into the main chamber of the Soxhlet extractor . The Soxhlet
extractor is placed onto a flask containing the extraction solvent. The Soxhlet is then equipped
with a condenser. The solvent is heated to reflux. The solvent vapor travels up a distillation arms
17
and floods into the chamber housing the thimble of solid. The condenser ensures that any solvent
vapor cools, and drips back down into the chamber housing the solid material

The chamber containing the solid material slowly fills with warm solvent. Some of the desired
compound will then dissolve in the warm solvent. When the Soxhlet chamber is almost full, the
chamber is automatically emptied by a siphon side arm, with the solvent running back down to
the distillation flask. The thimble ensures that the rapid motion of the solvent does not transport
any solid material to the still pot. This cycle may be allowed to repeat many times, over hours or
days. During each cycle, a portion of the non-volatile compound dissolves in the solvent. After
many cycles the desired compound is concentrated in the distillation flask. The advantage of this
system is that instead of many portions of warm solvent being passed through the sample, just
one batch of solvent is recycled.

 Selection of the solvent

 Selectivity: only the active agent has to be extracted and no further substances which mean
that a high selectivity is required.
 Capacity: to reduce the amount of necessary solvent the capacity of the solvent has to be
high.
 Miscibility: to achieve simple regeneration of the solvent the miscibility of solvent and
primary solvent has to be low.
 Difference in density: after extraction the two phases have to be separated in a separator and
for this a high difference in density is positive.
 Corrosion: if the solvent is corrosive prices for construction increase.
 Viscosity: a low viscosity of the solvent leads to low pressure drop and good heat and mass
transfer.
 Vapor pressure: to prevent loss of solvent by evaporation a low vapor pressure at operating
temperature is required.
2.5.7. Solvent recovery
For all extraction processes the regeneration by further separation process is necessary. By this
way pure products are produced and the solvent can be recycled in the extraction process. In
many cases the regeneration step is the most cost intensive part of the process. Following
possibilities for separating of the solvent are available:

18
  Evaporation: the evaporation of the solvent is used if the active agent is very high
volatile.
 Crystallization: cooling the solvent results in crossing the solubility and the active agent
falls out and can be separated by mechanically separation processes.
 Extraction: a further extraction step with another solvent can be used to separate the
active agent from the first solvent. But by this way produced extract has to be separated
once again.

Ethanol is a commonly used solvent for extraction in many applications, including the
production of essential oils, herbal extracts, and cannabis extracts. Ethanol is polar and can
dissolve both polar and nonpolar compounds. It also has a high boiling point, making it easy to
remove from the final product. However, ethanol may also extract unwanted compounds,
requiring additional purification steps. It is important to ensure that all residual ethanol is
removed before consumption or use of the extract.

2.5.8. Packaging of oil

The mango essential oils are packed in glass, metal or plastic containers for marketing. Shelf life
is 3-4 years if stored cool. Most mango oils are refined and during that process the therapeutic
quality is altered.

2.5.9. Cake treatment

The solvent contained in the cake is first treated by applying a heat due to the high volatility of
the solvent. But still there is a solvent in the cake. Finally it is pre-heated by applying a steam so
that all the solvents contained in the cake are separated. The final treated cake is used as an
animal food.

2.6. Essential Oil Market Prospect

The global essential oil market was estimated to be over USD 9 billion in 2019. The market was
projected to grow at a cumulative annual growth rate of 9% in the coming five years and reach
15 billion USD in 2026. The essential oil market is segmented into three different categories: by
product, channel and application. The major essential oil market segments by product are:
Orange, Eucalyptus, Corn mint, Peppermint, Citronella, Lemon, Lime, Clover leaf, Spearmint,
and others. Essential oil application can be classified into four: food and beverage, medical,

19
cleaning and home, and spa and relaxation. The food and beverage segment accounts for over 3
billion annual turnover of the essential oil market.4The addition of essential oils to food products
not only enhances the sensory characteristics but also increases the shelf-life and storage stability
of a variety of edibles. Flavors and fragrances application utilizes significant quantities of these
oils in the global marketplace. The application spectrum of essential oils is further expected to
expand based on the reported anti-toxigenic, anti-parasitic, and insecticidal traits.

The total essential oil exported from Africa is estimated to be USD 275 million for 2019. Based
on data from ITC, top African exporters for essential oils have been Madagascar, Egypt, and
South Africa. Ethiopia ranks 8th place from Africa, with a notable export amount only in the
year 2019. According to Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, the local demand for
essential oils was estimated to be 1800 tons. The report also indicated that the demand for
essential oils and odoriferous substances has increased fourfold between 1997 and 2011. The
market at that time was estimated to grow at a 14% CAGR. Experts indicated that there are over
20 essential oil extractors in Ethiopia but most of them are very small. The major extractors:
Damascenes, Ariti, Terra Plc, and Fana Farmers’ Cooperative Union. In the past, bigger
organizations like Upper Awash Agro Industry used to extract Orange essential oil but the
company stopped operation some years back due to technical challenges. It is very hard to
estimate the total processing capacity of the local manufacturing but evidences suggest that Terra
PLC, Ariti Herbal and Damascenes play a major role in the industry.

20
 CHAPTER THREE

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Materials
3.1.1. Chemicals and Equipment
The equipments used were soxhlet extractor, vacuum pump, oven, filter cloth, flask, beaker,
weight balance, heater, test tubes, sieve, volumetric cylinder, density bottle, and stop watch.
Ethanol is used a solvent.

The experiment extraction of essential oil from Mango seed kernel will be carried out in
laboratory of chemical engineering department of Hawassa University.

3.1.2. Raw Material

The only raw material used is Mango seed kernel.
3.2. Methods
3.2.1. Raw Material collection and preparation
The samples of mango seed were obtained from juiceries of Hawassa. Then after the seed were
separated from chaffs and other impurities as this is very important preparation process to
remove any impurity in the seed that will eventually reflect on the oil extracted. After the mango
seed is cleaned thoroughly the mango seed were separated the mango kernel part and dried in an
electric oven at 130 oc for 1 hour to reduce the moisture content of the seed. To provide greater
surface area the kernel of mango seed is crushed using mortar and pistil. The preparation is done
by weighing the crushed seed using electronic weighing balance.

3.3. Experimental procedures

3.3.1. Determination of moisture content of the seeds
10g of the cleaned sample was weighed and dried in an oven at 130°C for one hour and the
Weight was measured. The procedure was repeated until a constant weight was obtained. The

Percentage moisture in the kernel was calculated using the following:

(m 2−m 1)−(m 2−m3)

Moisture content (%) = ¿ 100 %
(m2−m3)

21
22
 Table 3.1 1 Determination of moisture content of the seeds
Sampl Mass of Mass of Plastic cup + Mass of sample after drying Moisture
e plastic cup mass of sample before + mass of Plastic cup content (%)

1 44.52 54.52 47.97 52.67

2 44.52 54.52 47.96 52.439

3 44.52 54.52 48.07 55.038

4 44.52 54.52 48.13 56.49

5 44.52 54.52 48.08 55.279

Average of the five samples 54.38

3.3.2. Size reduction and sieve analysis of the seed

The moisture was removed by placing the sample in an oven at 130°C for 1hour. Mango kernel
was crushed in ball mill. The sample was vibrating shaker with set of sieves sizes arranged in
descending order 1mm, 355 µm and 250 µm . This is because to investigate the effect of
particles size on yield oil.

Solvent extraction of essential oil from mango seed kernel using soxhlet apparatus

Table 3.2 1 Procedure of the experiment one: effect of solvent

Run Temperatur Particle size Time Sample weight (g) Solvent/ethanol (ml)
e (oC) (mm) (hour)

1 75 350 µm 4 50 300

2 80 350 µm 4 50 300

3 90 350 µm 4 50 300

23
 Table 3.3 1 Procedure of the Experiment two: Effect of Particle Size
Run Extraction time Particle size Sample wt.(g), Temperature Solvent/ethanol
(hour) (oC) (oC) (ml)

1 3 1 mm 50 75 300

2 4

3 3 355 µm 50 75 300

4 4

5 3 250 µm 50 75 300

6 4

Solvent recovery and oil yield

1. At the end of the extraction, the resulting mixture (miscella) containing the oil was
distilled off to recover solvent from the oil. The total yield obtained is expressed in
percentage.
2. Weigh the recovered ethanol.

Figure 3.1 1 Extraction of essential oil using Soxhlet

24
 3.3.3. Physical Characterization of essential oils
i. Determination of pH Value
Essential oil (0.5g), 50ml pH value was recorded by using litmus paper .

ii. Determination of Specific gravity

Density bottle was used for determining the density of the oil. A clean and dry bottle of 50ml
Capacity was weighed (W0) and then filled with the oil, stopper inserted and reweighed to Give
(W1). The oil was substituted with water after washing and drying the bottle and Weighed to give
(W2).

(W 1−W 0)
The expression for specific gravity is =
(W 2−W 0)
(Mass of the substance(oil))
=
( Mass of an equal volume of water )
iii. Determination of color
The color of the essential oil determined using observation and compared with the literature.

iv. Determination of odor

The product was smell physically and compared with literature odor.

25
 CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Table 4.1 1 Effect of Extraction Temperature on percent yield of Oil
Temperature At constant time (4hr), size (1.4mm), weight sample (50g)
(oC)
Weight of cake Amount of oil(gram) Oil Recovery (%) Yield (%)
(gram)
75 46.14 5.72 11.44 88

80 46.01 5.721 11.442 88.02

90 46 5.721 11.442 88.02

An experiment has been conducted to show the effect of temperature on the quantity of Oil. As
per the results from the experiment, for instance, for a particle size of 1.4mm, percentage yield of
oil using ethanol at a temperature of 75, 80 and 90oC are 88, 88.02, and 88.02 respectively. This
result will show us increasing temperature will raise yield of oil up to 75 oC. the findings indicate
that the yield of Oil is enhanced with increasing temperature. But, at temperature greater than
75oC there is no variation in the temperature which implies that at temperature greater than 75 oC
result in energy loss. Taking from this it is possible to deduce that the optimum temperature for
production of essential oil from mango seed is 75oC at constant time and particle size.The higher
extraction temperatures the easier to break the molecule inside the seed; as a result, the yield of
oil also gets high in some extent.

Table 4.2 1 Effect of Extraction temperature on percent yield of Oil

Particle size Extraction time (hour)
Sample wt.(g), Wt. of oil (g), % Oil recovery 3 4
yield, and % yield
1mm Sample wt.(g) 50 50
Wt. of oil (g) 5.54 5.62
% Oil recovery yield 11.08 11.24

26
 % yield 85.23 86.23
355µm Sample wt.(g) 50 50
Wt. of oil (g) 5.67 5.71
% Oil recovery yield 11.34 11.42
% yield 87.23 87.85
250µm Sample wt.(g) 50 50
Wt. of oil (g) 5.45 5.59
% Oil recovery yield 10.9 11.18
% yield 83.85 86

The maximum extraction of mango oil is 87.85% at particle size of 355µm for the extraction
time of 4 hours, but the optimum percent yield of oil is 87.23% at the extraction time of 3 hour
and the minimum yield obtained was 86% at minimum particle size and maximum extraction
time

4.1. Effect of extraction time on percent yield of oil

Percent yield of mango seed kernel oil can be affected by extraction time, temperature, solvent
type, particle size and other components in the seed. Extraction time plays a great role on the
percentage yield of mango seed kernel oil using ethanol as a solvent. It can be understood that as
the contact time increases the oil yield also increases this continues till transfer of oil from the
kernel powder to the solvent attains zero. It means when the maximum amount of extractable oil
is obtained, the oil yield level remains invariable even by extending the reaction time.

Therefore, maximum oil yield could be found at an extraction time of 4 hours in soxhlet
extraction, but the optimum time from the experiment was 3 hours as it was unnecessary to ge
beyond as the needed yield achived. The extraction rate is fast at the beginning of the extraction
but gets slow gradually. The reason is that when the kernel powder is exposed to the fresh
solvent, the free oil on the surface of seeds is solubilized and oil gets extracted quickly inducing
a fast increase in the extraction rate. Furthermore, since the oil concentration is low in the solvent
at the beginning of the extraction process, the oil diffuses quickly from the kernel to the liquid
phase due to the difference in concentration (driving force) of the oil. As the time passing by, the
concentration of oil increases in the solvent resulting in a decrease in the diffusion rate.

27
 4.2. Effect of particle size on percent yield of oil
Particle size plays a great role on the yield of mango oil. 355µm particle size gives high yield
compared to the samples with 250µm and 1mm particle size deliver low yield. That means less
oil is extracted from the smaller particles (<250µm) compared to the medium size of the
particles. Thus, the project makes use of a particle size of 355µm.

The reason is that smaller particles contain more fine particles which can form agglomerate on
the fabric. We know that when the particle is too small (very fine particle size) i.e., below
<250µm, the extracted oil become small in its amount, even though the contact surface area for
small particle is supposed to be significantly smaller than that for the larger particles. This may
be due to the agglomeration of the fine particles which reduces the effective surface area
available for the free flow of solvent towards inside the solid particles.

4.3. Physical characterization results

Specific Gravity: Specific gravity of the oil is determined by specific gravity bottle. Weight of
empty dry bottle, W0 = 68.90gm
Weight of 10ml oil with the bottle, W1 = 77.8gm
(W 1−W 0)
Weight of 10ml water with the samebottle, W2=78.6gm Then, using the result is
(W 2−W 0)
shown PH value of mango oil: the value of pH of the oil was measured using litmus paper and
The findings from te experiment are displayed as follows;
Table 4.4 1 Experimental Results of Physical Properties of Mango Seed Oil
Property Mango seed kernel essential oil
Color Light yellow
Appearance Semi solid at room temperature
Specific gravity 0.917
pH value at 25 °C 5

Thus, it is possible to deduce that the findings from the experiment show that the physical
characteristics of the Mango seed oil from this experiment are very close to the mango essential
oils in each its properties mentioned above.

28
 CHAPTER FIVE

5. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE

Material balances are the basis of process design. A material balance taken over the complete
process will determine the quantities of raw materials required and products produced. Balances
over individual process units set the process stream flows and compositions. They are also useful
tools for the study of plant operation and trouble shooting. They can be used to check
performance against design; to extend the often limited data available from the plant
instrumentation; to check instrument calibrations; and to locate sources of material loss. On the
other hand, in process design, energy balances are made to determine the energy requirements of
the process: the heating, cooling and power required. In plant operation, an energy balance
(energy audit) on the plant will show the pattern of energy usage, and suggest areas for
conservation and savings. In the case of this study, the need to conduct material and energy
balances on major unit operations was to scale up all the parameters used in the laboratory that
resulted in the annual production of the plant; in order to design the size of the equipment and for
equipment selection that helped in estimating purchased equipment cost. In addition to that they
helped in calculating the material, auxiliary and utility costs. Generally, they are needed to
estimate economic analysis; profitability and financial feasibility of the processing plant.

5.1. Material balance

5.1.1. Material balance on laboratory work
The procedure is forward calculation.
Total material balance Accumulation = output + Consumption – Input + Generation
Since, there is no reaction, generation consumption, and accumulation terms are zero.
Input = Output (steady state condition)

Material balance on Dehuller

Hard cover (Hc)

Mass of seed (Ms) Mass of seed kernel (Msk)

Dehuller

29
 100g 75g

Input = Output Hc = 100g - 75g

Hc = 25g of hard cover in the mango seed

Material balance on Dryer

Mass of water/vapor (Mv)

Mass of seed kernel (Msk) Mass of seed kernel (Msk)

Dryer
75g 69g

Input = output
Mv = Msk - Md
Mv = 75g - 69g
Mv = 6g of water vapor remove during dryer

Material balance on crushing and sieving

Waste (W) and over size (6%)

Mass of dry kernel (Md) Crushing and Sieving and crushed kernel (Msk)
sieving
75g 69g

Input = output
Waste (W) = Mk - Msk
Mv = 69g - 64.86g
W= 4.14g of waste during Crushing and sieving
Material balance on Soxhlet
Total %yield for soxhlet extractor Using Ethanol.

Solvent/ Ethanol 300ml (196.44g)

Dry kernel (Dk) sieving and crushed kernel Extract (E) 162g
Soxhlet
F=64.86g

Raffinate (R) (99.36g)

Solvent is equal to 1:5

30
Dry base seed kernel of mango feed to the extractor. Assumption;

 Neglect solvent loss

 All solvent are recovered
 No residue in the raffinate

In The Extract (E)

Solvent + oil =162g

Mass of oil = 8.2g

After recovery Amount of solvent: 153.8g

153.8
% of solvent in extract = * 100 = 78%
196.44
Raffinate (R) = Solvent Dry kernel - Extract
= 196.44g + 64.86g - 162g
Raffinate(R) = 99.36g of raffinate
In the Raffinate(R)

Mass of residue before drying = 99.36g (some amount of oil +all residue +solvent)

Mass residue after drying with some oil = 89.25g

Then amount solvent in the residue = 99.36g - 89.25g = 10.11g

10.11 g
% of solvent in residue = * 100 = 5.15%
196.44

Amount of oil in the residue (raffinate) = Some amount of oil + All residue + Solvent

99.36g = oil + 10.11g + 87.25g

Amount of oil in raffinate = 2g

Mf −Mi
Oil recovery yield = =
mass of wet basis

Where,

Mf = mass of flask and lipid (oil) extracted

Mi - mass of dried flask

31
Mf = mass of flask + mass of oil = 128.90g

Mass wet basis = 64.86g

(128.90−116.90)
Oil recovery yield (%) =
64.86
Oil recovery yield (%) = 18.5%

Hard cover (Hc) = 25g

Mass of seed (Ms) = 100g Dehuller

Mass of seed kernel (Msk ) =75g

Mass of water/vapor (Mv) = 6g

Dryer

Mass of dry kernel (Md) =69g

Crushing and
sieving Waste (W) and over size = 4.14g

Sieving and crushed kernel (Msk) = 64.86g

Soxhlet

Extract (E) = 162g

Steam distilation

Oil = 8.2g Solvent/Ethanol = 153.8g

32
 5.1.2. Material balance at Industrial Level
From the basis of market study our company will have a plan to produce 72,000kg of essential
oil per year.

72,000 kg/year * 1year/300day * 1day/24hour = 10kg/hr of essential oil

64.86g of mango seed kernel = 8.2g of essential oil

X = 72,000,000g essential oil

X = 569,502,439g of mango seed

Then, to produce 72,000kg of essential oil per year we need 569,502.439 kg of mango seed.

569,502.439kg/year*1year/300days*1day/24hr = 83.3kg/hr

Material balance on De-huller

Hard cover (Hc) (25%)

Mass of mango seed (Mms) = 83.3kg/hr Dehuller Mass of seed kernel (Msk)
(25%)

Hc = 0.25 * 83.3 Kg/hr

Hc =20.825 kg/hr

Mass of seed kernel (Msk) = 0.75 * 83.3kg/hr, OR input = output

= 62.475kg/hr

83.3kg/hr - 20.825kg/hr = 62.475kg/hr

Material balance on Dryer

Mass of water vapor (Mv) 8%

Mass of seed kernel (Msk) = 64.475kg/hr Mass of seed kernel (Msk)

Dryer
92%

Mass of water vapor (Mv) = 0.08 * 62.475g

33
 = 4.998 kg/hr of water vapor

Mass of dry kernel (Md) = 0.92*62.475 kg/hr

= 57.477 kg/hr of dry seed kernel

Material balance on crushing and sieving

Milling Sieving
57.477kg/hr
The roller efficiency is 99%
Feed in milling (F) = 0.99 * 57.477kg/hr
F = 56.999 kg/hr

6% of*F
F=56.999KG/hr Sieving product 94%F
Crushing and sieving

Oversized = 0.06 * 56.999kg/hr

= 3.42 kg/hr
Crushing and sieving product = 0.94 * 56.999kg/hr
= 53.6 kg/hr

Material balance on extractor

Solvent = 3.03% D

Dry seed (D) =53.6kg/hr Miscella (extract) (E) =2.5%D

Extractor

Raffinate (cake) (R) = 1.53%D

Assume: No cake in the miscella
Amount of solvent needed = 3.03 * 53.6 kg/hr = 162.408 kg/hr

Miscella (extract)E = 2.5 * 53.6 kg/hr = 134 kg/hr

Raffinate (cake) (R) = 1.53 * 53.53 kg/hr = 82.008 kg/hr

34
In the Extract:

Amount of oil in the Extract = solvent + oil = 134 kg/hr

Mass of oil = 0.0506 * 134kg/hr =10.184 kg/hr

Amount of recovery solvent = 134 kg/hr - 10.184 kg/hr = 123.816 kg/hr

123.816
% of solvent in extract = * 100 = 76.24%
162.408

In the Raffinate

Mass of residue before drying = 82.008 kg/hr

Mass of residue after drying with some oil = 73.664 kg/hr

Amount of solvent in the residue= 82.008 kg/hr - 73.664kg/hr = 8.344 kg/hr

8.344 kg / hr
% solvent in the residue = * 100 = 5.13%
162.408

Amount of oil in the residue (Raffinate) = some oil + solvent + residue

82.008kg/hr = some oil + 8.344kg/hr + 72.013 Oil in Raffinate = 1.65kg/hr

Material balance on Evaporator

Condensate (D) 100% Ethanol

Extract (oil +solvent) = 134kg/hr

Extractor
Xoil = 0.076, Xsolvent = 0.924

Bottom product 100% essential oil

To determine for the top and bottom product flow rate balance on Ethanol, Ethanol loss in
bottom is neglected.

In top product oil (D) = 0.924 * 134 kg/hr = 123.816 kg/hr

In bottom product oil (B) = 0.076 * 134 kg/hr = 10.184 kg/hr crude essential oil

35
 5.2. Energy Balance
5.2.1. Energy Balance at Industrial Level
Balance on Dryer
Mass of water vapor (M2) = 4.99 kg/hr

Mass of seed kernel (M1) = 64.475kg/hr Dryer Mass of seed kernel (M 3)

=57.477kg/hr

At 25oC

Steady state operation

Qinput = Qoutput

Qin = M1Cp∆T

Where,
Cp = specific heat capacity of mango seed @25oC OR 298k = 1.95kj/kg.k
Cp water = 4.18kj/kg.k
𝜆 = latent heat of dry air @130 oc = 2256 kj/kg
Qin = M1Cp∆T1
Qin = 62.475kg/hr * 1.95 kj/kg.k (130 - 25) oC
Qin = 12791.76kj/hr or 3.55kw
Qout = 4.99 kg/hr * 4.18 kj/kg.k * (130 - 25) oC + 57.477 kg/hr * 2.45 kj/kg.k * (130 - 25)) oC

Qout = 16976.07kj/hr or 4.72kw

Heat supplied to the dryer will be

∆Q = Qout - Qin
∆Q = 16976.07 kj/hr - 12791.76 kj/hr = 4184.3 kj/hr or 1.162 kw
Heat removed on dryer=latent heat lost by vapor (M2𝜆) = 4.99 kg/hr * 2256.5 kj/hr
Heat removed on dryer = 11,259.935 kj/hr or 3.13 k

Energy Balance on Extractor

Solvent (M2) =162.408kg/hr

Dry seed (M1) =53.6 kg/hr @25 Cake (raffinate) (M3) = 82.008kg/hr
Extractor

36
 Extract (miscella) (M4) =13.4kg/hr@69

Steady state
Qin = Qout
Qin = M1Cp1∆T1 + M2Cp2∆T2
DATA

Dry seed powder (M1) = 53.6 kg/hr

Cp1 = specific heat capacity of seed kernel 1.95 kj/kg.k

Cp2 = specific heat capacity of Ethanol @ 25 oc = 2.57 kj/kg.k

Solvent Ethanol (M2) =162.408 kg/hr

Qin = M1Cp1∆T1 + M2Cp2∆T2

= 53.6 kg/hr * 1.95 kj/kg.k * (69 - 25) oC + 162.408 kg/hr* 2.57 kg/kg.k * (69 - 25) oC

Qin = 22,963.97kj/hr or 6.34kw

Find, Qout

Qout = Qcake + Qextract

= M3Cp3∆T + M4Cp4∆T + M1 𝜆

First find Qcake and Qextract

Cake

Solvent (ethanol) = 8.344 kg/hr

Oil = 1.65 kg/hr

Where,

Residue = 72.013 kg/hr Xsolvent = mass fraction of solvent (ethanol)

Cpsolvent = 2.3 kj/kg.k Xoil = mass fraction of oil

Cpoil = 1.658 kj/kg.k Xresidue = mass fraction of residue

Cpresidue = 1.95 kj/kg.k Cpmixture = specific heat capacity of mixture

37
 8.344 kg /hr
Xsolvent = = 0.10174
(8.344 kg/hr +1.65 kg /hr +72.013 kg /hr )

1.65 kg /hr
Xoil = = 0.02012
(8.344 kg/hr +1.65 kg /hr +72.013 kg /hr )

72.013 kg /hr
Xresidue = = 0.87813
(8.344 kg/hr +1.65 kg /hr +72.013 kg /hr )

Cpmixture = Xsolvent * Cpsolvent + Xoil * Cpoil + Xresidue * Cpresidue

Cpmixture (Cp3) = 0.10174 * 2.3 kj/kg.k + 0.02012 * 1.658 kj/kg.k + 0.87813 * 1.95 kj/kg.k

= 1.9797 kj/kg.k

Extract

Mass of Solvent = 123.816 kg/hr

Where,

Mass of Oil = 10.184kg/hr Xsolvent = mass fraction of solvent (ethanol)

Cpsolvent = 2.3 kj/kg.k Xoil = mass fraction of oil

Cpoil = 1.658 kj/kg.k Cpmixture = specific heat capacity of mixture

123.816 kg/hr
Xsolvent = = 0.924
(123.816 kg /hr +10.184 kg /hr)

10.184 kg /hr
Xoil = = 0.076
(123.816 kg /hr +10.184 kg /hr)

Cpmixture (Cp4) = Xsolvent * Cp solvent + Xoil * Cp oil

= 0.924 * 2.3 kj/kg.k + 0.076 * 1.658 kj/kg.k = 0.2677kj/kg.k

Then taking the result above,

Qout = Qcake + Qextra = M3Cp3∆T + M4Cp4∆T + M1 𝜆

= 82.008kg/hr * 1.9797 kj/kg.k * (69-25)oC + 13.4 kg/hr * 0.076 * (69 - 25) oC + 53.6 kg/hr *
879kJ / kg.
Qout = 54,302.66 kj/hr

Heat supply extractor (Q) = Qout - Qin = 54,302.66 kj/hr - 22,963.97 kj/hr

38
 = 31,388.69 kj/hr or 8.71kw

Energy Balance on Evaporator

Ethanol (M3) 100% = 123.816 @69 oC

Extract (M2) = 134kg/hr @40 oC (M4)100% = 10.184kg/hr

Evaporator
Xoil = 0.076, Xsolvent = 0.924

Steady state operation Qin = Qout

Qin = M2Cp mixure∆T

Cpmixture = Xoil * Cpoil + X solvent* Cpsolvent = 0.076 * 2.45 + 0.924 * 3.06

Cpmixture = 2.827 kj/kg.

Qin = M2 Cpmixure∆T

= 134 kg/hr * 2.827 kj/kg.k * (40 - 25) oC

= 5,682.27 kj/hr or 1.578 kw

Qout = M3Cp3∆T3 + M4Cp4T + M2 𝜆

= 123.816 * 3.06 * (69 - 40) oC + 10.184 * 2.3 * (69 - 40) oC + 134 kg/hr * 333.146

= 44,641.564 kj/hr or 12.4kw

∆Q = Qout - Qin

= 12.4 kw - 1.578 kw

= 10.82 kw

Energy Balance on condenser for fire heater

Assume: no loss of Ethanol

Vapor @69 oC Liquid solvent@ 45 oC

Condenser
Hot water@ 35 oC Cooled water@25oc

39
 Amount of heat gain = Amount of heat loss

Qwater = mass of water * Cpwater *∆T

Qethanol = mass of ethanol * Cphexane * ∆T

Q condenser = Qwater

Mass of ethanol * Cpethanol * ∆T = Mass of water * Cpwater * ∆T

162.408 kg/hr * 3.06 kj/kg.k (69 - 45) oC = Mass of water * 4.18kj/kg.k* (35 - 25) oC

162.408 kg/hr∗3.06 kj/kg . k (69−45)o C 11,927.24 kg /hr

Mass of water =
4.18 kj/kg . k∗(35−25)oC
= 41.8

= 285.34 kg/hr or 0.079 kg/second

Heat removed by condenser = M2𝜆 = 53.6kg/hr * 846 kj/hr = 45,345.6 kj/hr or 12.59 kw

Energy Balance on fire heater for cake treatment

Qfh = latent heat (𝜆) + sensible heat (CP * ∆T) Where,

Qfh = heat of fire heater

𝜆 = latent heat of ethanol @69 oc = 846 kj/kg

Cp ethanol = 3.06 kj/kg.k

Mass of ethanol (M) = 8.344 kg/hr, Ti = 35 oC, To = 69 oC

Qfh = M 𝜆 + M*Cp*∆T

= 8.344kg/hr* 846 kj/kg + 8.344kg/hr * 3.06 kj/kg.k * (69 oC - 35 oC)

= 7,927.13 kj/hr or 2.20 kw

Energy Balance on Solvent Recovery

Assume: All the solvent are recovered by using heat.

Input mass flow rate (m) = (amount of oil + amount of solvent) / residence time of extractor
¿
m = 10.184 kg /hr +123.816 kg /hr ¿ 40∗60 = 0.056 kg/sec

40
Residence time = 40min.

Amount of heat required in the boiler = latent heat + sensible heat

Q = λ*m + m*Cp*(To – Ti)

= (365 kJ/kg * 0.056kg/sec) + 0.056kg/sec* 2.3 kJ/kg.k * (60 - 35)

= 3.22 kJ/sec = 3.22 kW

Where,

λ = latent heat of hexane @ 25 - 60°C = 365 kJ/kg

Cpsolvent = 2.3 kg/hr

Cpoil = 1.658 kg/hr

1.658
Xsolvent = = 0.4189
1.65+2.3

2.3
Xoil = = 0.5811
1.658+2.3

Cpmix = Xsolvent * Cpsolvent + Xoil * Cpoil

Cpmix =0.4189 (1.658) + 0.5811 (1.658)

Cpmix = 2.03 KJ/kg.k

Ti = Inlet temperature of miscella = 35°C,

To = Out let temperature = 60°C

m= mass flow rate

The total energy required to the plant

Total energy = Edryer + Eextractor + Eevaporater + Econdenser + Eheater + Esolvent recovery + Eallowance

= 3.55 kw + 6.34 kw + 1.578 kw + 12.59 kw + 2.20 kw + 3.22 kw + 20% allowance Total

energy(Q) = 35.37 kw

41
 CHAPTER SIX

6. ECONMIC ANALYSIS AND ENVIROMENTAL IMPACT

6.1. Economic Analysis
 Construction period 2 year
 Source of finance 25% equity; 75 % loan
 Bank interest 12%.
Table 7.1 purchasing equipment cost

42
 References
Amer, M.H. (2002). Ethiopia, Sudan, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and Somalia: Status of irrigation
and drainage, future developments and capacity building. International Programme for
Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage (IIPTRID): FAO report, Pp. 121-
143.

Arogba, S. S. 1999. The performance of processed mango (Mangifera indica) kernel flour in a
model food system. Bioresource Technology 70: 277-81.

FAOSTAT. (2013). Food and Agriculture Organization of statistics division of the United
Nations, Rome, Italy.

Fowomala, M.A. (2010). Some nutrients and antinutrients content of mango (Magnifera indica)
seed. African journal of food science vol. 4(8) pp. 472 – 476.

James S., Rowlands C., Kamara, J.K. and Haddis B. (2009). Analysis of Mango Value Chain
from Homosha and Assosa to Addis Ababa, September 2008. The Ssemwanga Centre for
Agriculture and Food, World Vision Australia, World Vision Ethiopia

Kittiphoom, S. (2012). Utilization of Mango seed. International Food Research Journal 19(4):
1325-1335.

Pott, I., Marx, M., Neidhart, S., Muhlbauer, W. and Carle, R. (2003). Quantitative determination
of b-carotene stereoisomers in fresh, dried, and solar-dried mangoes (Mangifera indica
L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51,pp. 4527–4531.

Singh, L.B. (1996). The Mango (Botany, Cultivation and Utilization). Leonard Hill, London, UK

43
APPENDICES

Appendix – I - Survey Questionnaire

ADMAS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES

MASTERS OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION PROGRAM

Dear Respondents,

I am a post graduate student of Business Administration at Admas University, School of Post

Graduate and conducting a research on “The Effect of Total Quality Management on
Organizational Performance in Ethio-Telecom”. The research contributes towards the
fulfillment of the Master’s Degree in business Administration (MBA).

The validity of your response has great contribution for the success of my thesis. Thus, I would
like to ask with due respect to give me the right response. All responses that you provide are
strictly confidential and will be used only for academic purpose.

Instruction

 In filling the questionnaire you are not expected to write your name,
 put √ or × marks in the box provided
 Write your brief answers in the space provided.

Thanks for your cooperation.

Sincerely,
Melat Zeray

44
SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

i. Gender: Male Female

ii. Age Group: 20 –27 28-35

36 –45 46-55
56 and above

iii. Experience: 0 –5 6 – 10
11-15 16 and above
iv. Qualification: Certificate Diploma First degree
Masters PHD
v. Which division are you in?
 Technical division
 Commercial division
 Support division
 Others
SECTION B: Respondent’s opinions on Total Quality Management on Organizational
Performance

Please indicate your level of agreement based on the following rating scale:
Where: 1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly Agree

1. Change Management Rating Scale

No. 1 2 3 4 5
Items
1 The change process includes organizational culture, process chains,
people and processes management
2 The change process includes organizational process chains
3 The change process includes people
4 The change process includes organizational process management
5 A special change process can only be implemented by the managers

45
 6 The company consider organizational change processes for more
attention of diagnosing, facilitating, planning and reinforcing then in
the past
7 The company transfer strategic change to the firm’s strategy to
manifest it in the overall process
8 The company change the internal environment or to “influence the
external environment
9 The company change to “influence the external environment

2. Organizational Design Rating Scale

No. 1 2 3 4 5
Items
1 The structure of the company allows the ability to operate effectively
2 The company tries to change its position in the life cycle by
changing its structure.
3 The company decides to be always the first on the market with the
newest and best product
4 The company produces a product already on the market more
efficiently and more cost effectively
5 The company produces a product already on the market more cost
effectively
6 Technology is the way tasks are accomplished using tools in the
company
7 Technology is the way tasks are accomplished using equipment in
the company
8 Technology is the way tasks are accomplished using techniques in
the company
9 Technology is the way tasks are accomplished using human know‐
how in the company

46
 3. Facilitation Rating Scale
No. 1 2 3 4 5
Items
1 The company adopts facilitating practices that make coordination
between the parties possible without direct communications.
2 Existence of actions that can only be reasonably explained by the
existence of an agreement
3 Existence exchange of pricing information followed by parallel price
increases
4 Facilitation and support efforts begin at the very top and begin with
the board of directors
5 Support efforts begin at the very top and begin with the board of
directors

4. Process Improvement Rating Scale

No. 1 2 3 4 5
Items
1 The company scan internal and external business environment and
keep track of changes in the process architect
2 The company scan internal business environment
3 The company scan external business environment
4 The company keep track of changes in the process architect
5 The company compare and evaluate the strategic goals and the real
outcomes
6 The company has relative constant standard process architecture
7 Existence of integrated processes, sub-processes and all the
information escaping redundant information
8 The company operates in stable external environment which

47
 provides a level of efficiency that enhances its long‐term
performance.
9 The company adopted BPMS (Business process Management system

5. Team Alignment Rating Scale

No. 1 2 3 4 5
Items
1 The company establish and articulate its organizational purpose
2 The company establish and articulate its strategy teams
3 The company establish and articulate its strategy individuals
4 Collaborative goal-setting framework used by teams
5 Collaborative goal-setting framework used by individuals
6 The company reward teamwork and encourage trust among
employees
7 The company even involve cross-functional teams by hosting in-
person or virtual social events to celebrate cross-team collaboration
and successes.
8 The company builds the right processes for team alignment to thrive.
9 The company implements the right tools for team alignment to
thrive.

No. 6. Talent Management Rating Scale

1 2 3 4 5

Items

1 The company efficiently handles employees

2 The company recruit skilled and talented worker

48
 3 The company train its workers in order to be more productive
4 The company establishes processes for management of employee
5 HR managers identify the appropriate candidates for a certain
position in the future
6 The company tend to invest on talents increasingly
7 The company adopted BPMS (Business process Management system

Organizational Performance of Ethio-Telecom

Organizational Performance
No. Rating Scale

1 2 3 4 5

Operational Performance

1 Quality of our products/services is high

2 Reliability of our products/services is high

3 We deliver our products/services on time to customers.

Inventory Performance

4 Purchase material turnover is high in our firm

5 Total inventory turnover is high in our firm

Employee Performance

6 Our employees’ organizational commitment is high

7 Our employees’ job performance is high

8 Our employees’ absenteeism is low

9 Our employees’ morale is high

49
10 Our employees’ turnover rate is low

Innovation Performance

11 The number of successful new product/service introductions of our

firm is high
12 The use of latest technological innovations in our new product is
high
13 The speed of new product development of our firm is high
14 The number of our new products that are first-to-market is high
Social Responsibility
15 Protection of environment in our firm has developed
16 Noise levels caused by our firm have decreased
17 Pollution levels caused by our firm have decreased
18 Our firm has a positive impact on society
19 Our firm is actively involved in the community
Customer Results
20 Customer satisfaction has improved
21 Customer retention has improved
22 Customer complaints have decreased
Market and Financial Performance
23 Return on assets of our firm has increased
24 Market share of our firm has improved
25 Profits of our firm have grown
26 Sales of our firm have grown

Thank You!!!

50
 Appendix –II – SPSS Outputs
Descriptive Statistics
Std.
N Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation Skewness Kurtosis
Std. Std.
Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Error Statistic Error
Change_Management 302 2.50 4.00 3.1991 .57218 .272 .140 -1.079 .280
Organizational_Design 302 2.56 4.00 3.0305 .53399 .839 .140 -.931 .280
Facilitation 302 2.60 4.00 3.2311 .57172 .183 .140 -1.073 .280
Process_improvment 302 2.67 4.67 3.6049 .65357 .098 .140 -1.182 .280
Team_Alignment 302 2.78 4.00 3.3514 .45552 .093 .140 -1.094 .280
Talent_Management 302 2.00 4.00 3.3018 .65420 -1.006 .140 -.358 .280
Organizational_Performanc 302 2.15 3.88 3.2736 .54768 -.851 .140 -.134 .280
e
Valid N (listwise) 302

51
52
53